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8271g5
|
atomic superposition.
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm presuming this is to do with the Pauli Exclusion principle but I might be misunderstanding your question.\n\nBasically the Pauli Exclusion principle states that electrons (and all other matter) can't have the same state in a system (like an atom). Electrons also have specific wavelengths where they can exist at, which is what we call shells.\n\nSo electrons have to have specific states in an atom. For example an electron cannot be in shell 1.5, it can either be in shell one or shell two, and it exists as a wavefunction in either shell, this wavefunction is an orbital.\n\nHowever we can't just put one hundred electrons in the same shell (which is what would happen without the Pauli Exclusion principle) each orbital can fit two different states. So thus two electrons can fit in an orbital.\n\nAs the lower orbitals fill up , the electrons go into higher and higher shells which require more energy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In response to OP's clarification:\n\nI'm going to assume you're familiar with the classical model where the atom is modeled as a nucleus with protons and neutrons at the center, and electrons as small particles orbiting the nucleus. \n\nWell, later on, we came up with quantum mechanics, and importantly, the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. This principle stated that it is impossible to know both the position and momentum of an object. I'm not going into the maths because frankly, it is above my head as well. This may not seem intuitive, because the uncertainty levels associated with our macroscopic lives is negligible. However, for extremely tiny objects such as electrons, this uncertainty becomes pronounced.\n\nThis forced scientists to come up with a new model to integrate the Uncertainty Principle, as the electron is no longer a defined particle, for we could not know both its position and momentum with accuracy. To combat this, scientists came up with the Electron Density Function, which meant that electrons are no longer a defined particle. Rather, they are merely a probability cloud around the nucleus, and you have a certain probability of finding the electron at any given point around the nucleus using the density function.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28054293",
"title": "Quantum nanoscience",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental concepts.:Superposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Superposition is the quantum phenomena wherein an entity can simultaneously exist in two states. The classic description is the though experiment of Schroedinger’s Cat. In this gedanken experiment, the cat can be both alive and dead until the state of the cat is actually observed. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4255144",
"title": "Superposition theorem",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Superposition works for voltage and current but not power. In other words, the sum of the powers of each source with the other sources turned off is not the real consumed power. To calculate power we first use superposition to find both current and voltage of each linear element and then calculate the sum of the multiplied voltages and currents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1201321",
"title": "Superposition principle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The superposition principle applies to \"any\" linear system, including algebraic equations, linear differential equations, and systems of equations of those forms. The stimuli and responses could be numbers, functions, vectors, vector fields, time-varying signals, or any other object that satisfies certain axioms. Note that when vectors or vector fields are involved, a superposition is interpreted as a vector sum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52564",
"title": "Partial differential equation",
"section": "Section::::Analytical solutions.:Superposition principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The superposition principle applies to any linear system, including linear systems of PDEs. A common visualization of this concept is the interaction of two waves in phase being combined to result in a greater amplitude, for example . The same principle can be observed in PDEs where the solutions may be real or complex and additive. superposition\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51433179",
"title": "Cosmon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "The idea of a primeval “super-atom” lived on and was developed forward by Maurice Goldhaber in 1956. In his proposal there would have been a point, which had been called a Universon, that would have collapsed into a Cosmon and an Anticosmon pair. Goldhaber was wondering about why is there any matter if equal amount of matter and antimatter was formed in the beginning of the big bang. One explanation for this is the asymmetry of matter meaning that there could have been slightly more matter than antimatter, for instance 1001 matter particles to every 1000 antimatter. In Goldhabers model cosmon and anticosmon would have flown apart and therefore explaining issue without asymmetry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58750172",
"title": "Superposition (song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "\"Superposition\" is a song by American alternative rock band Young the Giant, promoted as the second single off of the band's fourth album, \"Mirror Master\". It was released on August 23, 2018 through Elektra Records.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40766565",
"title": "Point process operation",
"section": "Section::::Examples of operations.:Superposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The superposition operation is used to combine two or more point processes together onto one underlying mathematical space or state space. If there is a countable set or collection of point processes formula_19 with mean measures formula_20, then their superposition\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
v8gtv
|
Where does adaptation end, and evolution begin?
|
[
{
"answer": "Adaptations are driven by evolutionary pressures. Without the genetic possibility of developing calluses, it's not going to happen. No matter how much time I spend in water, I'm not going to develop gills. [Lamarkian inheritance](_URL_1_) is generally disproven. \n\nThere are traits that are passed from generation to generation based on the environment of the parent organism. These typically involve DNA methylation. There seems to be some [evidence](_URL_0_) it happens in humans as well.\n\nRemember, though, even though these changes are passed through generations, the ability to do so is driven by genetics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This actually is not an adaptation, but something called phenotypic plasticity. Adaptation is a process, not a trait. Adaptation is the gradual increase in frequency of a useful trait over many generations in response to environmental changes. In other words over many generations a trait becomes very common in the population because it is advantageous and thus is called an adaptation. In your case, the development of these physical changes in the astronauts happens at the individual level, without any genetic changes occurring. So it is a physical response to a new environment, called phenotypic plasticity. \n\nIndividuals do not pass on traits that they develop over their lifetime. For example, if you lost a limb due to an accident, your offspring would not have the same limb loss at birth. However, in this case, the astronauts already had this genetic ability to change physically to the environment. That would be passed to their offspring, but it wouldn't be an adaptation, because, presumably, everyone has this ability. \n\nAdaptation is absolutely connected with evolution. As an environment changes, those individuals with the most useful characteristics will be selected via the process of natural selection. With new environments, previously neutral traits may become very advantageous, and will quickly increase in frequency in the population. Any change in the genetics in a population over time is evolution. So if certain traits increase in the population, and these traits are genetically encoded, then you have evolution. So adaptation and evolution really occur simultaneously. I hope that helps. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44862806",
"title": "Outline of evolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Evolution – change in heritable traits of biological organisms over generations due to natural selection, mutation, gene flow, and genetic drift. Also known as descent with modification. Over time these evolutionary processes lead to formation of new species (speciation), changes within lineages (anagenesis), and loss of species (extinction). \"Evolution\" is also another name for evolutionary biology, the subfield of biology concerned with studying evolutionary processes that produced the diversity of life on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "957529",
"title": "The Ancestor's Tale",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Evolution has no privilege line of descent and no designated end. Evolution has arrived at many millions of interim ends and organisms are still evolving. Evolution is directional, progressive and even predictable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19852895",
"title": "Introduction to evolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Evolution is the process of change in all forms of life over generations, and evolutionary biology is the study of how evolution occurs. Biological populations evolve through genetic changes that correspond to changes in the organisms' observable traits. Genetic changes include mutations, which are caused by damage or replication errors in organisms' DNA. As the genetic variation of a population drifts randomly over generations, natural selection gradually leads traits to become more or less common based on the relative reproductive success of organisms with those traits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "942048",
"title": "Adaptation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "In biology, adaptation has three related meanings. Firstly, it is the dynamic evolutionary process that fits organisms to their environment, enhancing their evolutionary fitness. Secondly, it is a state reached by the population during that process. Thirdly, it is a phenotypic trait or adaptive trait, with a functional role in each individual organism, that is maintained and has evolved through natural selection. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9236",
"title": "Evolution",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:Natural selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Evolution by means of natural selection is the process by which traits that enhance survival and reproduction become more common in successive generations of a population. It has often been called a \"self-evident\" mechanism because it necessarily follows from three simple facts:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9314943",
"title": "Tinbergen's four questions",
"section": "Section::::Four categories of questions and explanations.:Evolutionary (ultimate) explanations.:2 Phylogeny (evolution).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "\"Evolution\" captures both the history of an organism via its phylogeny, and the history of natural selection working on function to produce adaptations. There are several reasons why natural selection may fail to achieve optimal design (Mayr 2001:140–143; Buss et al. 1998). One entails random processes such as mutation and environmental events acting on small populations. Another entails the constraints resulting from early evolutionary development. Each organism harbors traits, both anatomical and behavioural, of previous phylogenetic stages, since many traits are retained as species evolve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26999670",
"title": "Postbiological evolution",
"section": "Section::::Evolution from biological to mechanical.:Cultural evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "The dictionary definition of Evolution is any process of formation, growth or development. In biological evolution the main principle behind this development is survival, we evolved to become stronger and quicker, we also evolved to become intelligent. But as we became intelligent biological evolution subsided to a new concept, cultural evolution. Cultural evolution moves at a much faster rate than biological evolution and this is one reason why it isn't very well understood. But as survival is still the main driving force behind life and that intelligence and knowledge is currently the most important factor for that survival, we can reasonably assume that cultural evolution will progress in the direction of furthering intelligence and knowledge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1192mq
|
If you become Paraplegic, would it make sense to amputate the limbs you have no feeling?
|
[
{
"answer": "Why would you do that? Besides the risk of surgery, what if a repair treatment or assistive device is developed why would enable use of those limbs?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6981448",
"title": "Extended physiological proprioception",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "People with amputations have reported phantom limbs. This serves as evidence that the brain is hard-wired to perceive body image, making it notable that sensory input and proprioceptive feedback are not essential in its formation. Losing an anatomical part through amputation sets a person up for complex perceptual, emotional, and psychological responses. Such responses include phantom limb pain, which is the painful feeling some amputees incur after amputation in the area lost. Phantom limb pain permits a natural acceptance and use of prosthetic limbs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21290714",
"title": "Proprioception",
"section": "Section::::Clinical relevance.:Impairment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "People who have a limb amputated may still have a confused sense of that limb's existence on their body, known as phantom limb syndrome. Phantom sensations can occur as passive proprioceptive sensations of the limb's presence, or more active sensations such as perceived movement, pressure, pain, itching, or temperature. There are a variety of theories concerning the etiology of phantom limb sensations and experience. One is the concept of \"proprioceptive memory\", which argues that the brain retains a memory of specific limb positions and that after amputation there is a conflict between the visual system, which actually sees that the limb is missing, and the memory system which remembers the limb as a functioning part of the body. Phantom sensations and phantom pain may also occur after the removal of body parts other than the limbs, such as after amputation of the breast, extraction of a tooth (phantom tooth pain), or removal of an eye (phantom eye syndrome).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1948637",
"title": "Neuroplasticity",
"section": "Section::::Applications and example.:Phantom limbs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "In the phenomenon of phantom limb sensation, a person continues to feel pain or sensation within a part of their body that has been amputated. This is strangely common, occurring in 60–80% of amputees. An explanation for this is based on the concept of neuroplasticity, as the cortical maps of the removed limbs are believed to have become engaged with the area around them in the postcentral gyrus. This results in activity within the surrounding area of the cortex being misinterpreted by the area of the cortex formerly responsible for the amputated limb.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "417063",
"title": "V. S. Ramachandran",
"section": "Section::::Research and theory.:Phantom limbs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "When an arm or leg is amputated, patients often continue to feel vividly the presence of the missing limb as a \"phantom limb\" (an average of 80%). Building on earlier work by Ronald Melzack (McGill University) and Timothy Pons (NIMH), Ramachandran theorized that there was a link between the phenomenon of phantom limbs and neural plasticity in the adult human brain. To test this theory, Ramachandran recruited amputees, so that he could learn more about if phantom limbs could \"feel\" a stimulus to other parts of the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2992",
"title": "Amputation",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "A similar phenomenon is unexplained sensation in a body part unrelated to the amputated limb. It has been hypothesized that the portion of the brain responsible for processing stimulation from amputated limbs, being deprived of input, expands into the surrounding brain, (\"Phantoms in the Brain\": V.S. Ramachandran and Sandra Blakeslee) such that an individual who has had an arm amputated will experience unexplained pressure or movement on his face or head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "842532",
"title": "Functional electrical stimulation",
"section": "Section::::Common applications.:Spinal cord injury.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 866,
"text": "Injuries to the spinal cord interfere with electrical signals between the brain and the muscles, resulting in paralysis below the level of injury. Restoration of limb function as well as regulation of organ function are the main application of FES, although FES is also used for treatment of pain, pressure, sore prevention, etc. Some examples of FES applications involve the use of neuroprostheses that allow the people with paraplegia to walk, stand, restore hand grasp function in people with quadriplegia, or restore bowel and bladder function. High intensity FES of the quadriceps muscles allows patients with complete lower motor neuron lesion to increase their muscle mass, muscle fiber diameter, improve ultrastructural organization of contractile material, increase of force output during electrical stimulation and perform FES assisted stand-up exercises.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41119526",
"title": "Tactile hallucination",
"section": "Section::::Tactile hallucination in Phantom Limbs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1563,
"text": "Phantom limb pain is a type of tactile hallucination because it creates a sensation of excruciating pain in a limb that has been amputated. In 1996, VS Ramachandran conducted a research on several amputees to pinpoint the neural reasons behind these illusionary pains. Most of these amputees that had an unbearable phantom limb pain are reported by patients whose limb was paralyzed before amputation. VS Ramachandran proposed the \"learned paralysis\" hypothesis. The hypothesis suggested that every time the patients tried to move their paralyzed limb, they received sensory feedback (through vision and proprioception) that the limb did not move. This feedback hardwired itself into the brain circuitry, so that, even when the limb was no longer present, the brain had learned that the phantom limb was paralyzed. As a treatment for phantom limb pains, VS Ramachandran devised a mirror box that would superimpose the mirror image of the normal arm in place of the missing arm and the patient would immediately be relieved of the pain. This suggested that the brain had a plastic nature in the somatosensory system and the brain had reorganized its somatosensory region to accommodate for this new change. Patients that experience this phantom limb pain are very important in research studies for their role in determining brain plasticity. The vivid tactile sensation of the arm that is no longer present suggest the highly complex nature of the brain to reorganize different functions which were once thought to be hardwired to specific regions (localization).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
] | null |
n3h01
|
What would happen if the Earth's rotation was slowed by 1% due an unknown phenomenon?
|
[
{
"answer": "The day would be 14.4 minutes longer. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So, lets talk about ways that this can happen. In order to change earths rotation speed, you have to do something to the system. \n\nOne possibility is changing the geometry of earth such that the [moment of inertia](_URL_0_) of earth changes in a way that it slows the rotation, but keeping rotational energy constant. In this case, you would have to make the equater stick out a lot more, which would be weird. And its not so stable, because gravity wants to pull it down and closer. There would be earthquakes and such forcing earth back into its near sphere shape. \n\nAn example of this is earthquakes that have happened so far (such as the one that hit Japan) changed earth's rotation by ~ 1.8 microseconds, which is 2*10^-9 %, to give you a sense of the scale of events that would have to happen to make this happen (though this sped up earths rotation, not decreased it)... \n\nThe next option, would be to increase the energy of rotation, but keep the same shape. To do this you would have to hit earth with something... If some meteor or something hit earth that had enough power to cause this, likely it would be catastrophic for life... And in terms of what would happen... more earth quakes, more restructuring, etc. Gravity will want to pull you back to close to a sphere, but it would now have to fight against more rotation, so it'll be a little (just a tad bit) more oblated of an oblate spheroid... \n\nAs a whole, even 1% of a change would likely end all life because all events I can imagine would be catastrophic. I guess if it happened over the course of a couple hundred thousand years, its possible that you could accumulate changes slowly and not really be that catastrophic, but not sure.... \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The day would be 14.4 minutes longer. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So, lets talk about ways that this can happen. In order to change earths rotation speed, you have to do something to the system. \n\nOne possibility is changing the geometry of earth such that the [moment of inertia](_URL_0_) of earth changes in a way that it slows the rotation, but keeping rotational energy constant. In this case, you would have to make the equater stick out a lot more, which would be weird. And its not so stable, because gravity wants to pull it down and closer. There would be earthquakes and such forcing earth back into its near sphere shape. \n\nAn example of this is earthquakes that have happened so far (such as the one that hit Japan) changed earth's rotation by ~ 1.8 microseconds, which is 2*10^-9 %, to give you a sense of the scale of events that would have to happen to make this happen (though this sped up earths rotation, not decreased it)... \n\nThe next option, would be to increase the energy of rotation, but keep the same shape. To do this you would have to hit earth with something... If some meteor or something hit earth that had enough power to cause this, likely it would be catastrophic for life... And in terms of what would happen... more earth quakes, more restructuring, etc. Gravity will want to pull you back to close to a sphere, but it would now have to fight against more rotation, so it'll be a little (just a tad bit) more oblated of an oblate spheroid... \n\nAs a whole, even 1% of a change would likely end all life because all events I can imagine would be catastrophic. I guess if it happened over the course of a couple hundred thousand years, its possible that you could accumulate changes slowly and not really be that catastrophic, but not sure.... \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26944827",
"title": "Aftermath (2010 TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.:When the Earth Stops Spinning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "This scenario is unique because it doesn't happen overnight, but rather over a given period of time: The Earth revolves at 1,000 miles an hour, but is gradually slowing down, yet this slowing is too slow to be noticed on human timescales. But what if it significantly slowed and eventually stopped? (The reason for this is because if the Earth stopped spinning instantly, everything on its surface, including buildings and trees, would blown away eastward across the planet by winds over thousands of miles per hour, which would essentially kill every living thing on the surface in the process)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18472",
"title": "Leap second",
"section": "Section::::Slowing rotation of the Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "The main reason for the slowing down of the Earth's rotation is tidal friction, which alone would lengthen the day by 2.3 ms/century. Other contributing factors are the movement of the Earth's crust relative to its core, changes in mantle convection, and any other events or processes that cause a significant redistribution of mass. These processes change the Earth's moment of inertia, affecting the rate of rotation due to conservation of angular momentum. Some of these redistributions increase Earth's rotational speed, shorten the solar day and oppose tidal friction. For example, glacial rebound shortens the solar day by 0.6 ms/century and the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake is thought to have shortened it by 2.68 microseconds. It is evident from the figure that the Earth's rotation has slowed at a decreasing rate since the initiation of the current system in 1971, and the rate of leap second insertions has therefore been decreasing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26944827",
"title": "Aftermath (2010 TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.:When the Earth Stops Spinning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1023,
"text": "The spin of the Earth starts slowing down dramatically. It is estimated Earth would stop spinning in as little as 5 years. The first effect is the isolation between the Global Positioning System satellites and ground-based atomic clocks. Then stock markets crash because of uncertainty about humanity's future. As times goes on the oceanic bulge of water at the equator moves northward and southward. The water floods Russia, Canada, Antarctica and Northern Europe. The atmosphere, once shaking solar heat out over the world and shifting air, stops and whirls to the poles. The air starts to thin at the equator and people have to migrate to more northerly and southerly cities in order to keep up with denser air. There is a higher risk of solar radiation as the magnetosphere weakens because of the slowing inner core. As the Earth slows, the crust, mantle and the molten core slows down at a different speeds, causing massive friction. This creates tremendous earthquakes where there have never been earthquakes before.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32341639",
"title": "The HAB Theory",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Called \"capsizing\" in the novel the \"rollover\" takes place in a single day. Since the velocity of an object at the equator of the Earth is approximately 1,000 MPH (1,674 km/h), any such rapid change in rotational axis is a massive disturbance to everything from a grain of sand to a mountain or an ocean. Humans and their works in such an event would be as fallen leaves before a windstorm. The exception being two places on earth called \"pivot points\" which the book says can be calculated and further that prior civilizations had calculated them and placed long-term-surviving information at such points. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143023",
"title": "Equatorial bulge",
"section": "Section::::The equilibrium as a balance of energies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The Earth's rotation rate is still slowing down, though gradually, by about two thousandths of a second per rotation every 100 years. Estimates of how fast the Earth was rotating in the past vary, because it is not known exactly how the moon was formed. Estimates of the Earth's rotation 500 million years ago are around 20 modern hours per \"day\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4396171",
"title": "Earth's rotation",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "However, if the giant-impact hypothesis for the origin of the Moon is correct, this primordial rotation rate would have been reset by the Theia impact 4.5 billion years ago. Regardless of the speed and tilt of Earth's rotation before the impact, it would have experienced a day some five hours long after the impact. Tidal effects would then have slowed this rate to its modern value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143023",
"title": "Equatorial bulge",
"section": "Section::::The equilibrium as a balance of energies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "The Earth's rate of rotation is slowing down mainly because of tidal interactions with the Moon and the Sun. Since the solid parts of the Earth are ductile, the Earth's equatorial bulge has been decreasing in step with the decrease in the rate of rotation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
x4wkk
|
Books on Jewish American history
|
[
{
"answer": "One book that helped my immensely during my undergrad and beyond was [The Jew in the Modern World](_URL_0_) by Paul Mendes-Flohr and Jehuda Reinharz. I'm not too sure what type of book you are looking for but this is a fantastic documentary history. It's a collection of primary sources organized by topic. It doesn't focus specifically on American Jews but I'm confident there would be enough material in there to satiate you for a while. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[How The Jews Invented Hollywood](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It should be relatively easy to find information about Jews in New York and the Northeast. For history specifically about Jews in the West/South:\n\n*Jewish Life in the American West*; *Jews of the Pacific Coast*; *Jewish Women Pioneering the Frontier Trail*; *The American Jewish Experience*\n\n\nFor race and the Jewish community, check out *The Price of Whiteness: Jews, Race, and American Identity*; *How Jews Became White Folks*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5761000",
"title": "American Jewish History",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "American Jewish History is an academic journal and the official publication of the American Jewish Historical Society. The journal was established in 1892 and focuses on all aspects of the history of Jews in the United States. The journal was formerly titled \"Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society\" and \"American Jewish Historical Quarterly\". The current editors-in-chief of the journal are Kirsten Fermaglich (Michigan State University), Adam Mendelsohn (University of Cape Town), and Daniel Soyer (Fordham University). Recent former editors include Dianne Ashton (Rowan University), Eric L. Goldstein (Emory University), Eli Faber (John Jay College), Arthur A. Goren (Columbia University), and Marc Lee Raphael (College of William and Mary). The journal is published quarterly by the Johns Hopkins University Press.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19427900",
"title": "The Jacob Rader Marcus Center of the American Jewish Archives",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "The American Jewish Archives (AJA) was founded by Dr. Jacob Rader Marcus (1896-1995), former graduate and professor at the Hebrew Union College, in the aftermath of World War II and The Holocaust. For over a half century, the American Jewish Archives has been preserving American Jewish history and imparting it to the next generation. Dr. Marcus directed the American Jewish Archives for forty-eight years until his death at which time the AJA’s name became The Jacob Rader Marcus Center of the American Jewish Archives. Dr. Gary P. Zola, one of Marcus’s students, became the second Executive Director on 1 July 1998.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8302047",
"title": "Yosef Goldman",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Yosef Goldman (1942 – August 4, 2015) was a scholar of American Jewish history and the co-author of the two-volume reference work, \"Hebrew Printing in America 1735-1926: A History and Annotated Bibliography\" (2006). This work is usually cited by auctioneers and rare-book dealers. His collection of early American Judaica and Hebraica is said to be one of the most comprehensive in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4944379",
"title": "American Jewish Historical Society",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "The American Jewish Historical Society is the oldest national ethnic historical organization in the United States. The Society's library, archives, photograph, and art and artifacts collections document the American Jewish experience. They are housed in the Center for Jewish History in Manhattan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8858573",
"title": "American Jewish Year Book",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "The \"American Jewish Year Book\" is \"The Annual Record of American Jewish Civilization.\" The \"Year Book\" is a major resource for academic researchers, as well as researchers and practitioners at Jewish institutions and organizations, the media (both Jewish and secular), educated leaders and lay persons, and libraries,s. For decades, the \"American Jewish Year Book\" has been an important place for leading academics to publish long review chapters on topics of interest to the North American Jewish community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23348195",
"title": "Hasia Diner",
"section": "Section::::Books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"American Jews \"(New York: Oxford University Press, 1998). (Part of a series for young readers) -Reissued, 2003, as \"A New Promised Land: A History of the Jews in America\". Oxford University Press US, 2003,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4944379",
"title": "American Jewish Historical Society",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "The American Jewish Historical Society (AJHS) was founded in 1892 with the mission to foster awareness and appreciation of American Jewish history and to serve as a national scholarly resource for research through the collection, preservation and dissemination of materials relating to American Jewish history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2mioky
|
would two consenting minors having sex be considered rape?
|
[
{
"answer": "Rules vary by state and country. For example: In 2006, the Canadian government passed a bill to raise the age of consent from 14 to 16, while creating a close-in-age exemption for sex between 14-15 year olds and partners up to 5 years older, and keeping an existing close-in-age clause for sex between 12-13 year olds and partners up to 2 years older. So yes, two minors can have consensual sex without it being statutory rape.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends on the state/country and their ages. Of importance to note, age of consent (when one is considered old enough to legally decide to voluntarily have sex) and age of majority (age when one is no longer considered to be a minor, but instead is an adult, legally responsible for all of their behavior) are often quite different.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Usually no, if they're of similar ages. What you're looking for are called \"Romeo and Juliet laws\", which are exceptions to statutory rape laws.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9064442",
"title": "Adolescent sexuality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Legal issues.:Age of consent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "In statutory rape, overt force or threat need not be present. The laws presume coercion, because a minor or mentally challenged adult is legally incapable of giving consent to the act. Statutory rape laws are based on the premise that until a person reaches a certain age, he or she is legally incapable of consenting to sexual intercourse. Thus, even if a minor engages in sexual intercourse willingly, the intercourse is not consensual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9064442",
"title": "Adolescent sexuality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Legal issues.:Age of consent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Often, teenage couples engage in sexual conduct as part of an intimate relationship. This may occur before either participant has reached the age of consent, or after one has but the other has not. In the latter case, in most jurisdictions, the person who has reached the age of consent is guilty of statutory rape. In some jurisdictions (such as California), if two minors have sex with each other, they are both guilty of engaging in unlawful sex with the other person. The act itself is prima facie evidence of guilt when one participant is incapable of legally consenting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19666880",
"title": "Statutory rape",
"section": "Section::::Romeo and Juliet laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Often, teenage couples engage in sexual conduct as part of an intimate relationship. This may occur before either participant has reached the age of consent, or after one has but the other has not. In the latter case, in most jurisdictions, the person who has reached the age of consent is guilty of statutory rape. In some jurisdictions (such as California and Michigan), if two minors have sex with each other, they are both guilty of engaging in unlawful sex with the other person. The act itself is prima facie evidence of guilt when one participant is incapable of legally consenting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25125938",
"title": "Sexual offences in the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "It is therefore only legally possible for a female to be guilty of rape if they assist a male assailant in an attack on a third party. Otherwise, a female can be charged with assault by penetration, which carries similar sentences to rape. If a man has sex with someone under the age of 16 then he is also guilty of rape as a child cannot lawfully consent to sex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5672680",
"title": "Laws regarding rape",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Definitions of \"rape\" vary, and though rape is usually dependent upon whether or not consent was present during the act, the term \"consent\" varies as well. Minors, for example, are often considered too young to consent to sexual relations with older persons (see statutory rape and age of consent). Consent is also considered invalid if obtained under duress, or from a person who does not have the ability to understand the nature of the act, due to factors such as young age, mental disability, or substance intoxication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50804",
"title": "Consensual crime",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "BULLET::::- Statutory rape where the underage participant(s) give actual consent, but the law-makers of the relevant jurisdiction have determined that people of that age are not legally capable of giving informed consent (not informed adequately about the activity).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5672810",
"title": "Rape statistics",
"section": "Section::::Policy and statistics by country.:Sudan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 178,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 178,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The law on rape states that: \"There shall be deemed to commit the offence of rape, whoever makes sexual intercourse, by way of adultery, or sodomy, with any person without his consent\". In Sudan, if a case of rape cannot be proven, the person filing the complaint of rape risks being prosecuted for other sexual offences, because consensual adultery and consensual sodomy are illegal, and may incur the death penalty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10vowt
|
Does such a thing as a 3-D or Cubic matrix exist?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, they're called Rank-3 tensors. An example is the [Levi-Civita tensor](_URL_0_). The highest-rank tensor I've seen is 6 dimensions, in a lecture about complex fluid dynamics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8094016",
"title": "Hollow matrix",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Diagonal entries all zero.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "A \"hollow matrix\" may be a square matrix whose diagonal elements are all equal to zero. The most obvious example is the real skew-symmetric matrix. Other examples are the adjacency matrix of a finite simple graph; a distance matrix or Euclidean distance matrix.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7632450",
"title": "P-matrix",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "In mathematics, a -matrix is a complex square matrix with every principal minor 0. A closely related class is that of formula_1-matrices, which are the closure of the class of -matrices, with every principal minor formula_2 0.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312877",
"title": "Jordan normal form",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "is an upper triangular matrix of a particular form called a Jordan matrix representing a linear operator on a finite-dimensional vector space with respect to some basis. Such a matrix has each non-zero off-diagonal entry equal to 1, immediately above the main diagonal (on the superdiagonal), and with identical diagonal entries to the left and below them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35770676",
"title": "Quaternary cubic",
"section": "Section::::Sylvester pentahedron.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "A generic quaternary cubic can be written as a sum of 5 cubes of linear forms, unique up to multiplication by cube roots of unity. This was conjectured by Sylvester in 1851, and proven 10 years later by Clebsch. The union of the 5 planes where these 5 linear forms vanish is called the Sylvester pentahedron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33985557",
"title": "Nearly completely decomposable Markov chain",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Ando and Fisher define a completely decomposable matrix as one where \"an identical rearrangement of rows and columns leaves a set of square submatrices on the principal diagonal and zeros everywhere else.\" A nearly completely decomposable matrix is one where an identical rearrangement of rows and columns leaves a set of square submatrices on the principal diagonal and \"small nonzeros\" everywhere else.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "519218",
"title": "Tridiagonal matrix",
"section": "Section::::Computer programming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "A \"tridiagonal matrix\" can also be stored more efficiently than a general matrix by using a special storage scheme. For instance, the LAPACK Fortran package stores an unsymmetric tridiagonal matrix of order \"n\" in three one-dimensional arrays, one of length \"n\" containing the diagonal elements, and two of length \"n\" − 1 containing the subdiagonal and superdiagonal elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "519218",
"title": "Tridiagonal matrix",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "A tridiagonal matrix is a matrix that is both upper and lower Hessenberg matrix. In particular, a tridiagonal matrix is a direct sum of \"p\" 1-by-1 and \"q\" 2-by-2 matrices such that \"p\" + \"q\"/2 = \"n\" — the dimension of the tridiagonal. Although a general tridiagonal matrix is not necessarily symmetric or Hermitian, many of those that arise when solving linear algebra problems have one of these properties. Furthermore, if a real tridiagonal matrix \"A\" satisfies \"a\" \"a\" 0 for all \"k\", so that the signs of its entries are symmetric, then it is similar to a Hermitian matrix, by a diagonal change of basis matrix. Hence, its eigenvalues are real. If we replace the strict inequality by \"a\" \"a\" ≥ 0, then by continuity, the eigenvalues are still guaranteed to be real, but the matrix need no longer be similar to a Hermitian matrix.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
625aca
|
How did San Francisco get the reputation as America's "gayest" city?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some helpful geographical context for your question.\n\nWhile the SF Bay Area is a massive metropolis, San Francisco never absorbed the surrounding areas in the way that New York City and Los Angeles did. (Metropolitan consolidation failed in 1912 after Oakland's voters, across the Bay, axed an annexation referendum.) This means that SF proper is a small portion of the urban core, and has no large, traditional suburban neighborhoods within its 7x7 which would tend to dilute the percentage of gays and lesbians living within the \"city,\" who tend to congregate in urban cores. \n\nAs of 2015 (I don't have the old Census data in front of me), the City and County of San Francisco had about 850,000 people out of a metropolitan population of 8.7 million. That's under 10% of the metropolis. And this is quite different from other major cities. (LA is 4 million out of a metropolis of 18 million; NYC is 8.5 million out of 23m.) But LA has the postwar suburbia of the San Fernando Valley; same for NYC, which has eastern Queens, the streetcar suburbs of outer Brooklyn, and most of Staten Island. This means that the LGBT percentages in other major cities are relatively diluted compared to San Francisco, which has kept its boundaries since the county lines were last changed in 1856. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "SF has a history of being very progressive on many fronts. As for the LGBT part I believe the most important factor that solidified SF as a community of LGBT acceptance was the election of Harvey Milk. Milk came to SF from NY during a time when many gay people were moving to the Castro district to set up a sanctuary community for gay people. (This is also why The Castro is seen as the epicenter of gay culture in SF). He wasn't the first gay man to be elected, but he was the first non-incumbent openly gay man to be elected in the US. This basically means he was the first person that Americans elected for office with the prior knowledge of him being gay. During his tenure as a board member of SF city supervisors, Milk passed some progressive gay rights legislation, leading to SF being a city known for their acceptance of gay people. Milk only served for 11 months before being assassinated along with Mayor Moscone of San Francisco. This tragedy solidified Milk as a martyr of gay rights not only for San Francisco, but for America as a whole.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In [How to Kill a City: Gentrification, Inequality, and the Fight for the Neighborhood](\n_URL_0_), Moskowitz talks about how SF got their LGBT community because the military would discharge gay servicemen at pacific coast bases. He doesn't get into specifics about the base or whatnot, but cites that as the beginning of the gay culture in SF that allowed for a concentration and shift in culture that eventually allowed for the election of politicians like Harvey Milk and the rise to national prominence as a gay friendly city. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49728",
"title": "San Francisco",
"section": "Section::::Culture and contemporary life.:LGBT.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "San Francisco has long had an LGBT-friendly history. It was home to the first lesbian-rights organization in the United States, Daughters of Bilitis; the first openly gay person to run for public office in the United States, José Sarria; the first openly gay man to be elected to public office in California, Harvey Milk; the first openly lesbian judge appointed in the U.S., Mary C. Morgan; and the first transgender police commissioner, Theresa Sparks. The city's large gay population has created and sustained a politically and culturally active community over many decades, developing a powerful presence in San Francisco's civic life. Survey data released in 2015 by Gallup place the proportion of the San Francisco metro area at 6.2%, which is the highest such proportion observed of the 50 most populous metropolitan areas as measured by the polling organization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43722800",
"title": "LGBT culture in San Francisco",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "San Francisco's LGBT culture has its roots in the city's own origin as a frontier-town, what SF State University professor Alamilla Boyd characterizes as “San Francisco’s history of sexual permissiveness and its function as a wide-open town - a town where anything goes\". The discovery of gold saw a boom in population from 800 to 35,000 residents between 1848 and 1850. These immigrants were composed of miners and fortune seekers from a variety of nationalities and cultures, over 95% of whom were young men.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39675777",
"title": "San Francisco in the 1970s",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "San Francisco was the cradle of the pornography industry in the United States in the 1970s, and led to a dramatic growth of strip clubs, adult movie theaters, \"peep show\" booths, and sex shops downtown, as well as to the creation of the first feminist advocacy groups for sex workers. Many skyscrapers were built in the city during this period. The city is also associated with West Coast jazz and was one of the major centers of jazz fusion which took off in the 1970s. Many American detective/crime television series were shot in San Francisco in the 1970s and the city became well known as a backdrop to police films such as \"Dirty Harry\" (1971).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48802116",
"title": "Demographics of San Francisco",
"section": "Section::::Education, households, and income.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "According to the 2005 American Community Survey, San Francisco has the highest percentage of gay and lesbian individuals of any of the 50 largest U.S. cities, at 15.4%. San Francisco also has the highest percentage of same-sex households of any American county, with the Bay Area having a higher concentration than any other metropolitan area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43722800",
"title": "LGBT culture in San Francisco",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "The lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) community in San Francisco is one of the largest and most prominent LGBT communities in the world, and is one of the most important in the history of LGBT rights and activism alongside New York City. The city itself has, among its many nicknames, the nicknames \"gay capital of the world\" and \"the gay Mecca\", and has been described as \"the original 'gay-friendly city'\". LGBT culture is also active within companies that are based in Silicon Valley, which is located within the southern San Francisco Bay Area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1487671",
"title": "Culture of San Francisco",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "The culture of San Francisco is major and diverse in terms of arts, music, cuisine, festivals, museums, and architecture but also is influenced heavily by Mexican culture due to its large Hispanic population, and its history as part of Spanish America and Mexico. San Francisco's diversity of cultures along with its eccentricities are so great that they have greatly influenced the country and the world at large over the years. In 2012, \"Bloomberg Businessweek\" voted San Francisco as America's Best City.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44524651",
"title": "Castro District, San Francisco",
"section": "Section::::LGBT tourism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "San Francisco has a large and thriving tourist economy due to ethnic and cultural communities such as Chinatown, North Beach, Haight-Ashbury and the Castro. The Castro is a site of economic success that brings in capital all year round with many events catered to the gay community along with everyday business.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9ujalh
|
why do musicians make those awkward facial expressions when they really get into the music?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can't give much of a technical answer, but as an amateur musician I can say that certain passages/verses have a feel to it. Kind of like how scary movies elicit a frightened expression out of a person, or how those oddly satisfying videos draw out a blissful expression, the same goes for music. There are certain notes in a song that just makes you feel something, and your face reacts accordingly. Take [Steve Vai](_URL_0_) for example. There are times where he's wording out with his mouth the sounds that his guitar makes. It starts off all serene and calming, and when it suddenly dives into the distorted part of the song his actions and facial expressions suddenly become more aggressive.\n\ntl;dr - Music evokes emotion, and one way that emotion is displayed is through facial expressions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33107185",
"title": "Music and emotion",
"section": "Section::::Comparison of conveyed and elicited emotions.:Evidence for emotion in music.:\"Expressive behavior\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "People are also known to show outward manifestations of their emotional states while listening to music. Studies using facial electromyography (EMG) have found that people react with subliminal facial expressions when listening to expressive music. In addition, music provides a stimulus for expressive behavior in many social contexts, such as concerts, dances, and ceremonies. Although these expressive behaviors can be measured experimentally, there have been very few controlled studies observing this behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64966",
"title": "Maria Callas",
"section": "Section::::Artistry.:The actress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "When one wants to find a gesture, when you want to find how to act onstage, all you have to do is to the music. The composer has already seen to that. If you take the trouble to really listen with your Soul and with your Ears—and I say 'Soul' and 'Ears' because the Mind must work, but not much also—you will find every gesture there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "390184",
"title": "Roger Reynolds",
"section": "Section::::Life and work.:Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "A lot of our experience with music is empathic – that is, we, our bodies, our sensibilities, identify with and respond to, even literally move with the physicality of the sounds that are generating the musical experience. ... [The immersion of the performers in a work] allows our empathy as listeners to flow out and extend and commit. We see that the performers are really engaged and we get engaged; we trust them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47489210",
"title": "Cold Spring Fault Less Youth",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Campos says in an interview with Pitchfork Media \"With Mount Kimbie, we started off trying to imitate other stuff-- and we failed. But in failing to do that, we stumbled across a sound that's inherently our own. Failing to imitate others only happens because of the mindset that you come from. It's part of finding your own voice. When musicians go through that, the results are, by definition, original. Most of the music that sounds like it's been influenced by [\"Crooks & Lovers\"] that has come out since sounds fairly dull, and it's not something we want to carry on doing. We want to get away from it.\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5680676",
"title": "Wild Wild Life",
"section": "Section::::Music video.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "The song itself becomes a vehicle that can say anything they want it to. Some gestures and movements are obviously derived from well-known sources: television shows ... movies ... and, most recently, rock videos. Odd to think that some lip-synchers are imitating characters in videos, who are really musicians imitating other characters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1605494",
"title": "Auditory imagery",
"section": "Section::::Implications and research directions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Moreover, musicians and music educators may be able to lessen the amount of practice they have to physically do by honing their auditory imagery due to the refinement of auditory discrimination and organization. By improving a person's ability to manipulate their 'inner ear' and concept of auditory images they can learn and play music better on a shorter time scale with less effort.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3239744",
"title": "Green Ways (John Ireland)",
"section": "Section::::\"The Cherry Tree\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "This is a popular piece among pianists due to the opportunities to show a personal response to the music. Good legato fingering and confident flutter pedalling is required to bring out the tones, and a good balance between the voices must be adhered to.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32zmww
|
how does a major motion picture (such as batman vs. superman) have enough footage for an "epic" trailer, but have nearly a year left before release?
|
[
{
"answer": "Depends on how the were shot and what the editing process is\nIn modern films it takes almost as long to edit and add the CGI as it does to shoot the film so somebody would storyboard the trailer and they would finish the footage needed for this first\n",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Not all of that year is spent shooting footage, there is a lot that goes into making movies and shooting the footage is only part of it. Some of the time is working on the special effects and CGI, other parts are stock footage, and editing the footage together. The scenes they use typically in trailers consists of stock footage, scenes they have already shot for the purpose of the trailer, and CGI that was done first in order to be put into trailer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10783",
"title": "History of film",
"section": "Section::::2000s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 191,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 191,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "More films were also being released simultaneously to [[IMAX]] cinema, the first was in 2002's Disney animation \"[[Treasure Planet]]\"; and the first live action was in 2003's \"[[The Matrix Revolutions]]\" and a re-release of \"[[The Matrix Reloaded]]\". Later in the decade, \"[[The Dark Knight (film)|The Dark Knight]]\" was the first major feature film to have been at least partially shot in IMAX technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "853744",
"title": "Trailer (promotion)",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "Some trailers use \"special shoot\" footage, which is material that has been created specifically for advertising purposes and does not appear in the actual film. The most notable film to use this technique was \"\", whose trailer featured an elaborate special effect scene of a T-800 Terminator being assembled in a factory that was never intended to be in the film itself. Dimension Films also shot extra scenes for their 2006 horror remake, \"Black Christmas\" - these scenes were used in promotional footage for the film, but are similarly absent from the theatrical release. A trailer for the 2002 blockbuster \"Spider-Man\" had an entire action sequence especially constructed that involved escaping bank robbers in a helicopter getting caught in a giant web between the World Trade Center's two towers. However, after the September 11 attacks the studio pulled it from theaters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "367590",
"title": "Teaser campaign",
"section": "Section::::For films.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Later examples of major motion picture events that used teaser trailers to gain hype are \"The Lord of the Rings\" trilogy, the \"Star Wars\" prequels, and the \"Spider-Man\" films. \"The Da Vinci Code\" teaser trailer was released even before a single frame of the movie had been shot. \"Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince\"'s teaser trailer was released surprisingly late, but when it was pushed back from November 21, 2008 to July 17, 2009, the trailer was surprisingly early.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15658254",
"title": "The Fast and the Furious",
"section": "Section::::Short films.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "The short films were either released direct-to-video or saw limited theatrical distribution by Universal. They were mostly included as special features for \"The Fast and the Furious\" (2001), \"2 Fast 2 Furious\" (2003), and \"Fast & Furious\" (2009), as part of the DVD releases. The films, which range from 10 to 20 minutes, are designed to be self-contained stories that provide backstory for characters or events introduced in the films. It is also designed to bridge the chronological gap that was created as the initial leads departed the series.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "367590",
"title": "Teaser campaign",
"section": "Section::::For films.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "DVD and Blu-ray releases of movies will usually contain both their teaser and theatrical trailers as special features. One of the most notable exceptions to this rule is \"Spider-Man\", whose teaser trailer featured an unrelated plot of bank robbers escaping in a helicopter, getting caught from behind and propelled backward into what at first appears to be a net, then is shown to be a gigantic spider web spun between the two towers at the World Trade Center. This teaser was pulled from theaters following the September 11 attacks, but it can be viewed on YouTube.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16046327",
"title": "DC Universe Animated Original Movies",
"section": "Section::::Premise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "In the beginning, most of the films were voice directed by Andrea Romano, the last one being \"\", while the later films starting with \"\" were voice directed by Wes Gleason. The films are generally released direct-to-video, but \"Batman: The Killing Joke\", \"Batman and Harley Quinn\", \"The Death of Superman\" and \"Reign of the Supermen\" were given a limited release in theaters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2090314",
"title": "Digital cinematography",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "In 2009, \"Slumdog Millionaire\" became the first movie shot mainly in digital to be awarded the Academy Award for Best Cinematography and the highest-grossing movie in the history of cinema, \"Avatar\", not only was shot on digital cameras as well, but also made the main revenues at the box office no longer by film, but digital projection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d32svb
|
how do companies like apple and qualcomm continue to produce faster and more powerful chips year after year? are engineers still making new discoveries in the industry or have we had this technology all along and are controlling the rate at which our technology improves?
|
[
{
"answer": "The engineers aren't making breakthroughs, we do have the technology. However, they aren't exactly controlling the rate which our technology improves.\n\nUltimately it comes down to costs. Apple could build a beast of a phone right now but it would cost 10,000 so no one would want to buy it. So, they build a mediocre performance phone and make it cost $1000. Then next year, slightly improve the performance and make it cost $1000.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We're making new advancements. Stuff might slow down a bit (there's some theoretical caps that we're trying to working around) but engineers are still developing new technologies and getting better at doing the ones we have.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Does apple make its own chips? I think they design some of them for their phones but outsource production to real semiconductor manufacturers. I know for certain Apple uses Intel semiconductors in their Mac products.\n\nThere are always improvements in semiconductor design and engineering. There are plenty of companies that, that is their whole purpose. A notable one would be something like Intel.\n\nMost companies do incrementally release tech to keep it replaceable and not \"future proof\" on purpose so you keep buying more, but since the discovery of parallel processing CPUs kind of took a huge leap in processing power. There is not much need currently to build faster chips, because CPUs are not the bottleneck right now in terms of getting better performance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I work at a company that produces components that go into the machines that produce chips. Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD) is one of the processes for chip manufacturing and LAM Research has a nifty video on YouTube about it. It's crazy how much goes into it the technology. Surface finish, cleanliness, and cycle time are among the most important that come to mind. There's a lot that can ruin the process so these factors are continuously monitored by our quality control group.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Apple and Qualcomm depend on the chip foundries like Intel and TSMC. They have engineers and physicists trying their best to fit more and faster transistors on to chips ASAP, while keeping power usage manageable. Then you have CPU designers like Intel and AMD trying to make the best use of those transistors to achieve the best CPU performance per watt.\n\nIt takes time for advancements in etching transistors on silicon to make their way through to consumer products. At times, if one manufacturer has had a lead over its rivals, there have been suspicions that they were sitting on advances until the others caught up but this doesn't seem to have caused drastic slowing of progress. One problem is that it's now so expensive to be in the market that there are fewer and fewer competitors.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The short answer is that engineers are still making new discoveries in the industry! Roughly speaking, you can sort of think of the processing power of a computer chip being proportional to how many individual elements (transistors) you are able to fit on one chip. The smaller you make each individual element, the more you can fit on a chip and the more powerful that chip will be. This transistor density has been roughly scaling with Moore's Law for the past \\~50 years and while Intel has at some points purposely slowed down their development to better align with Moore's Law, in general Intel, Samsung, and TSMC (the 3 large chip makers) are all releasing the most powerful chips as soon as they can reliably manufacture them.\n\nOne of the main improvements that drives the increase in processing power is again related to how many transistors we can fit on the chip. The ELI5 is that we need to draw these transistors into the chip with light. The longer the wavelength of the light we use, the larger the features will end up. Originally, they used mercury lamps (wavelength \\~400 nm ) which limited the feature size to a couple hundred nanometers (still really small!) but they are now using what we call extreme ultraviolet (wavelength \\~10 nm) which enables us to shrink everything down to about 10 nm.\n\nEDIT: A lot of people have been mentioning limits to scaling (ie: the death of Moore's Law) and while there definitely are fundamental laws in physics that limit scaling, there are a lot of neat tricks engineers have come up with that will probably continue to drive improvements for years to come (both in terms of materials and architectures). One of the top examples that come to mind off the top of my head is introducing what we call \"high-k atomic layer deposition\" in the mid 2000's. \n\nELI10 of high-k ALD: A lot of people in the thread have mentioned \"quantum tunneling\" which basically occurs when something becomes so thin, an electron can just appear on the other side (wave-particle duality sucks). If you break a transistor down to its most simple parts, it is just a capacitor and engineers want to make the dielectric as thin as possible (think of your basic parallel plate capacitor formula). At some point, all of your electrons just \"tunnel\" across which leads to a bunch of leakage/power loss. Instead of scaling the thickness, engineers switched the dielectric material to one with higher dielectric constant (\"k\") which allows you to get the same device performance with less leakage.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Advancements is a big part of it but it's a bit more complicated as you'd expect. Let's say you own a bakery shop. You come up with a cute design for cupcakes using frosting. A customer sees what you made and really likes the idea so you decide to make more. The problem is doing this design takes your employees 3x as long to frost this special design so you end charging more because you produce fewer cupcakes. You spend a few weeks figuring just how many you should make so you dont have any left over and it's worth the extra time. You experiment and find you can make the design using fondant instead of frosting. It now takes only slightly longer than a normal cupcake and they still sell really well. So you up the amount that you're making and drop the price a little. Etc.\nComputer chips do the same thing. We are actually studying different ways to make chips all the time. People are making chips using proteins, graphene, and crystals. We're finding different ways to 'structure' the different components on chips to work better with our software. And all these wonderful ideas have the potential to be 'better' than the chips we have but they're also EXPENSIVE. So research shifts to how to produce these cheaper (often these really fast, new chips are initially produced for military or government projects with huge budgets and the tech trickles down). When it becomes cheap enough for consumer goods, they end up in your phone.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "From the perspective of a software engineer, one of the things that makes chips better and \"faster\" is new features, like better support for matrix operations (important for ai) or new security features (for example, to better prevent one program from seeing what another is doing). However, the software needs to be written to use these features after it's released in a chip. \n\nSo we'll often see (for example) Intel release a simple version of a feature, see how it gets used, and then improve it in the next processor version, etc. \n\nThis is necessarily slow, because programmers can't use a feature until it's available in a chip they can buy, and Intel can't improve a feature until they see how it's used.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "there's a lot of speculation here, but the boring real answer is that the semiconductor industry requires a lot of moving parts so to speak, from many companies doing different things, from fab equipment manufacturers, the foundries themselves, EDA tool companies, and many others. you can't just go from one generation of chip to the next without everybody moving in lockstep. so there are global semiconductor industry groups that will dictate this, and one of the most important documents is the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS), now called the Intl Roadmap for Devices and Systems (IRDS). this document lays out what each generation should strive for and what each gen can likely support. this means that all these moving parts know what they'll want to support for the next few years. chip makers will have an idea of what every generation can likely support, what their costs will be, and target a certain tech for a certain chip years in advance. \n\nbasically, all these companies have to advance together to make better chips. it's not that they are still making new discoveries per se (they are but it's not like every day ooh new discovery!), nor that they have all this tech already, but more that they know what they have to hit every generation, will work on that, and then refine it for the next generation. a lot of things that apple and qualcomm do is simply refine their chip designs for the next gen, and move down to a tighter process when foundaries figure out how to improve their yields. \n\nso thats how it works for the industry as a whole. for a chip designer though, a lot of improvements just come from being able to refine their existing stuff and make gradual improvements. remember, a company like apple or qualcomm has a major time deadline for their stuff, so they will decide for this year, they will make a chip that hits these features. then for next year, since we will have more time and a working chip, we can add these new features. and so on. so it's not like they didn't know at the time, just that they don't have the time to implement everything. most chip companies will have roadmaps several years in the future on what they plan to produce and what features those chips will have.\n\nnew discoveries are still being made, but these aren't what is driving most year to year improvements. when new discoveries are made (usually at the research level), they get invariably placed on the roadmap so that all the companies can start working on hitting it years in the future.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Before you make a 1mm drill bit, you probably have to make a 2mm drill bit, to build the tools you need to make a 1mm drill bit. You don't start with rocks and sticks and make a 1mm drill bit. It's an iterative process, where precision at one scale leads to precision at the next smaller scale.\n\nChip technology has progressed in that fashion. It's very similar to how t-shirts are printed, via lithography. You make images of the circuits, and project them onto a silicon crystal. There are a few dozen other steps. At each generation, the scale gets smaller, making them faster, and more powerful (larger circuits). This is Moore's law.\n\nEventually, there are hard physical limitations to how small you can scale this process. We're more or less hitting these limitations, now. So, we're turning to other strategies, like putting more chips in one package. It's unclear at the moment what direction the technology will go.\n\ntldr; for many years, the path forward has been obvious, and iterative: make it smaller. Now, the path forward is less obvious, and may require fundamentally new technologies.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "This is mostly based on cpu processors but the same concepts should apply to phone processors. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nThere is something called a node, that's the current miniaturisation size of the transistors. Ie 24nm, 14nm, 10nm, 7nm, 5nm. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nWhen moving to a smaller node you can cram more transistors on there or make it more energy efficient. Usually they balance these for overall improvements. But You also come up with new designs. So you dedicate portions of the chip to specific tasks for improved efficiency. So that's something that can change.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nAnother thing is that as the manufacturing process matures the yield of the silicon increases. There will invariably be defects in the silicon. Some renders parts of the disk useless, others may be worked around in certain ways. But one way they bring these constant iterative changes is that while they could have crammed out that shiny new processor earlier the amount of defective chips from the silicon wafer would be too high so that they would be too expensive or they wouldn't be able to meet demand.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSo that's one way in how all of this works.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I was told by my Computer Science professors who worked in this type of field that all these big tech companies are a couple years ahead of the current new product so if apple just released the A13 chip, they most likely have the A14/15 chip already made.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "A little of both, but not quite like you might be thinking.\n\nThe discoveries are happening all the time. Someone, somewhere has a bright idea, tries it out, and it works. This is just the start of the journey (and we are ignoring all the times it does not even work at this early point).\n\nNow that the general idea is proven, you need to find a way to produce it in an affordable way. This can be pretty tricky. You might end up needing to develop a string of yet more technologies just to produce that first one that was your goal. You might need to adapt production techniques. You might need more basic science. \n\nOnce your lab rats have figured out how to produce the original idea in an affordable way, the whole thing goes into a pilot phase where everything is scaled up. Many times, the ideas that worked well in small-scale production don't work well when you try to do it in any big numbers. This can be very dangerous. My father did this pilot-phase stuff for a living and has many near-miss stories where things turned exciting for a few moments.\n\nSo now you've got the pilot-scale production down and it's time to go to full-scale production. This is where the final big investment is made. This is the point when not only the manufacturing costs skyrocket, but you start needing sales and marketing investment that can easily rival those manufacturing costs.\n\nNow, during all this time, your guys at all levels have been coming up with even better ideas and optimizations. If we move this bit here, we can save 5% on material. If we move that bit there, we can be 3% faster. And so on. \n\nThis is where the \"control the rate\" comes into play. You have to make a decision: go with the design you have and commit, or wait a few months until the improvements can worm their way through all the development phases. When do you pull the trigger and go to market? Go too early, and someone else might bring out a product a month later that the market prefers. Go too late, and someone else might eat up all the market before you can even deliver the first product. This can be a billion dollar decision. If you time it right, congrats: you are in the next issue of Forbes. If you time it wrong: oops, you are also in the next issue of Forbes. \n\nSo this is why things keep improving; the entire process has a momentum that is continually bringing out new things. This particular industry has a direct self-referential loop as well. Every time something new does make it to market, all those guys at the beginning of the process have even better tools to come up with even better ideas. By the time those new ideas work their way through the whole process, yet another generation of better tools has found their way into the researchers' hands, keeping the whole thing in motion.\n\nThe main bottleneck is simply the length of time that it takes to move an idea all the way up to a mass-production concept. So far, only humans could really guide and control the process. The on-going AI revolution threatens/promises to change everything and compress time. If this does, in fact, happen, then we will see a new phase of automation kick in where the whole \"new idea-- > pilot-- > production-- > new tools-- > new idea\" circle starts looking more and more like a point. What happens after that is anyone's guess.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Engineers are still making discoveries every year. Designing chips gets more and more complex every year, and everytime you add something, making the overall chip more complex, odds are you can then make that \"something\" better, faster, use less power or etc.\n\nMost chip companies, the big ones are ARM, Apple, Nvidia, AMD, and Intel, (shout out to HiSilicon though), most chip companies publish some of what their advancements are each year. In tech there's a big culture of sharing advancement and explaining how you did things to one degree or another. And beyond that the nerds in Computer Engineering, the specific field, will sit there and parse things out more for themselves either for their job or just a hobby. Taking die shots (a die is the main, logic part of any chip) with magnifying equipment, combing through git logs (a task/bug etc. tracking service many use) and in any other way just figuring out how chips work.\n\nBeyond that the other big way chips have gotten faster was called Moore's Law. It stated that the number of transistors, the little building blocks of a chip, would double in a given area every 18-24 months. So the same chip gets smaller every year, or rather you can make bigger more complex chips every year. This held out for decades, and came along with other benefits of the physics and economics of making transistors smaller. Specifically they became cheaper for each one, and used less power. To get a sense of where this advancement has gotten us you can look at the old [5mb hard drive](_URL_1_) in comparison to a modern [512gb SD card](_URL_0_), the latter hold more than five hundred thousand times the former. Unfortunately Moore's Law is dead, has been for years now (don't believe the Cringe PR otherwise). Ultimately squeezing more transistors into a given area is slowly become nigh impossible, you can easily count the atoms across in today's smallest transistors.\n\nWhich is to say chip advancement has been slowing down for the past several years, and will continue until Moore's Law is abandoned for chasing different advancement. With the utterly cringeworthy PR most \"foundries\" put out insisting Moore's Law is still alive if you lawyer speak it right and look at it on a full moon but only if it's on Saturday, well it doesn't appear that they're the companies that are going to be up to such a task.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "its moores law and has been going on in pc chips long before smart phones were een a thing. it postulates that transistor density (i.e. processing power) will double every 2 years and the price will half. the mechanism for producing chips is light and chemical etching of silicon and layers of insulating and conducting materials. the ability to reduce the size of the transistors and pack more of them closer together imprioves performance and increases efficiency",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the reasons why microchips keep getting stronger is because of this thing called Moore's law. it says that the amount of transistors on a microchip doubles every two years though the cost of computers is halved. **Moore's Law** states that we can expect the speed and capability of our computers to increase every couple of years, and we will pay less for them. that is why a few years ago 14 nano-meters was normal in pc computers but now brands like AMD are down to 7 which is exactly what Moore's law predicted. it is technically just the science of making stuff smaller and faster. there is also the demand-supply thing that u/beyonddisbelief mentioned. in 2005 we had 90 NM processor chips but now 14 years later we have 14 nano-meter processors . also these 2005 cpus only had one core. while the entry level ones can have 6 cores and built in graphics. the cores is the part that executes programs so we can multitask better now. Apple mostly uses Intel cpus but does make home-brew for WiFi and phones.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "its a mix of things... ill list them off and give a short explanation, if you want more detail ask and you shall receive!\n\n* better fabrication process - when you design a chip, its going to not be stable at high clock speeds. even with the same cpu die design, over time you improve the fabrication which allows higher clock speeds and more performance\n\n* die shrinkage - you often here about a processor being a certain nm (ie, intel uses a 14nm chip. amd just released a 7nm chip). this denotes the smallest size of a feature on the actual silicon. smaller chips means they are more power efficient and you can fit more stuff in the same footprint on the chip. to go to a smaller fabrication process you generally need a redesign since the design you used to have will probably not be as stable on the newer fabrication. this then leads to a few cycles of fabrication improvement. \n\n* increased on chip memory. - phones and computers have ram, but the cpu also needs a bit of memory to store things its working on. the more on chip memory the less you have to move in and out of ram. this makes the chip faster\n\n* beter scheduling predictors - often times your workflow will have some condition where if x is equal to something you do one thing, but if its not then you do something else. cpu's are advanced to the point where there are algorithms on the chip that keep track of how often certain things happen, and can start loading parts of the code before the program gets to it. this makes it faster. if you get to the if / else part of the code and you loaded the wrong stuff, you just throw it away and fetch the right stuff. \n\n* IPC uplift - cpu's do one thing per tick of its internal clock (a chips speed, like 2ghz, is the rate that clock clicks). a cpu might not be able to add 2+2 and 3+5 on the same clock cycle, but through good design you might have a cpu that can add 2+2, and start loading the next numbers on the same tick. in reality its a lot more complicated, but making your cpu do more per tick will have the same effect as making the cpu run faster (say 2.2 ghz vs 2.0 ghz) in most applications.\n\n* more cores - smaller fabrication help with this since you can pack more stuff into a chip, and it will generate less heat. phones are octacore and shit now. its crazy. a lot of phones have fast cores and slow cores, so that when you open an app that is heavy, it can use those fast cores, and background things can be on the slow ones.\n\n* dedicated hardware - phones have had gpu's on board for a while which really speeds them up, but now phones are starting to include dedicated chips to handle things like camera post processing and stabilization. this means the cpu has to do less work and the phone seems faster since the dedicated hardware can be optimized for that one specific task where as the cpu is a general purpose chip, which means speed trade offs compared to a application specific chip.\n\n--------\n\nalmost all phones run on ARM based processors, and since there are multiple manufacturers making ARM cpu's, if you try to artificially slow down your releases another company will start gaining market share when they come out with something better, so really its a mix of improvements over time. you can look at AMD / Intel with this... Intel kind of stagnated since they were the market leader for so long. AMD came out with a new chip design that used a smaller fabrication process and had higher IPC than their previous ones, and now they are outperforming and gaining a lot of market share.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think there is not enough differentiation between die shrinks and architectural difference. Imagine you need to clean your room.\n\nHow do you clean your room faster? Simple, have a smaller room! This is essentially what die shrink is. Make the physical chip smaller so it consumes less power and emits less heat. This is what the 14nm, 12nm, 7nm you often see in CPU marketing material is.\n\nWhat? You still want a big room, but still wanna clean less? You greedy OP. Gotta take the hard route then. Probably you need to rearrange some stuff... perhaps keep thr books lower in the shelf and toys above. Maybe shift the bed further back and move the dresser up. This is essentially what architectural change is. It shifts the components around, connects them differently, to make improvements in performance.\n\nThe reason there’s continual improvent is, well, human creativity knows no bounds. Just like you can arrange your room in an unlimited number of ways, so can a CPU. So, it’s really a matter of time. \n\nHowever, with die shrinks, there’s a limit. As chips becomes smaller, it will hit a physical limit where it cannot be made smaller, just like you cannot shrink your room such that you won’t fit in it. To explain this, I’ll need to go into quantum physics and how it affects the transistor which is kind of a looong explanation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While advancements are added gradually, companies also have the next better thing ready before the launch the one. Product life management is a huge subject learnt in engineering. \nJust because you have the next best thing, the company won't launch it immediately co they need to make money on the thing they invested in for variants before that. \nSo they may be having something 10X and 5X better at the same time. They will sell 5X first make some money and then release 10X instead of releasing the best option directly",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25692499",
"title": "Chip famine",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "From 1993 to 1994, there was a glut of chips and companies lost incentive to build new leading-edge factories. When the new generations came out, there were not enough factories to produce the new chips.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26690448",
"title": "Semiconductor consolidation",
"section": "Section::::Convergence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Although many companies grew and profited well from a fabless business model, new hurdles still had to be dealt with. The modern day microprocessor now has billions of dollars of research put behind it, with months and even years of research in creating the micro circuitry and teams of hundreds of engineers testing and developing a chip. Now even keeping fabrication and development apart is not enough.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14617",
"title": "Intel",
"section": "Section::::Corporate history.:Acquisitions and investments (2010–present).:Opening up the foundries to other manufacturers (2013).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "Finding itself with excess fab capacity after the failure of the Ultrabook to gain market traction and with PC sales declining, in 2013 Intel reached a foundry agreement to produce chips for Altera using 14-nm process. General Manager of Intel's custom foundry division Sunit Rikhi indicated that Intel would pursue further such deals in the future. This was after poor sales of Windows 8 hardware caused a major retrenchment for most of the major semiconductor manufacturers, except for Qualcomm, which continued to see healthy purchases from its largest customer, Apple.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26690448",
"title": "Semiconductor consolidation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Advances in the semiconductor industry made the market extremely competitive and companies began to use a technology roadmap that helped set goals for the industry. This roadmap became to be known as Moore's Law, a statistical trend seen by Intel's co-founder Gordon Moore in which the number of transistors on an integrated circuit is doubled approximately every 2 years. This increase in transistor numbers meant that chips were getting smaller and faster as time progressed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58397336",
"title": "Polanyi’s paradox",
"section": "Section::::Related theories.:Moore's Law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Although Moore’s prediction had been realized until around 2012, Intel announced in 2015 that the pace was slowing to a halt. Thomas Wenisch, an assistant professor at the University of Michigan, thinks the stagnant development of chips with denser transistors would create a problem for areas like mobile devices, data centers, and self-driving cars on different timescales. Without Moore's Law as the feedstock of innovation in computing, technology companies have to work harder to achieve new development levels (e.g. to get a new breakthrough on Polanyi's paradox).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27424702",
"title": "Race (2007 film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "As a result, a production that was intended to last a couple of years stretched out to more than six. With limited funding and an expanding schedule, the ability to incorporate new technology as it became available proved impossible. \"The length of time to update the assets would have taken 2 years to complete,\" said Brousseau. \"We couldn’t chase technology we had to push what we had. That was our goal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2986949",
"title": "Ross Freeman",
"section": "Section::::Founding of Xilinx.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Ross postulated that because of Moore's Law, transistors would be getting less expensive each year, making customizable programmable chips affordable. The idea was \"far out\" at the time, but the company and technology grew quickly, eventually catching the attention of new-found competitors in what is now a mature industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
s246p
|
My parents have always put batteries in the fridge, is there any scientific data that says they'll stay longer while in the fridge?
|
[
{
"answer": "The reaction rate that causes the loss of charge will be slowed at lower temperature, but not by very much.\n\n\\(_URL_0_]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Zn-C batts keep better at lower temps, but: \"Alkaline cells have long shelf storage life. After one year of storage at room temperature, cells will provide 93 to 96 percent of initial capacity. When stored for four years at 70°F (21°C), service of about 85 percent is still attainable. Storage at high temperatures and high humidity will accelerate degradation of chemical cells. At low temperature storage, the chemical activity is retarded and capacity is not greatly affected. Recommended storage conditions are 50°F (10°C) to 77°F (25°C) with no more than 65 percent relative humidity.\" Typical household refrigerator temps are 1.5°C - 3.5°C, significantly below recommended storage temp.\n\nQuote is from a [Duracell Technical Bulletin](_URL_0_).\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why is there an opposite effect on my car battery? If I park it overnight and it's really cold, occasionally it will not start because the battery has died.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Would putting batteries in liquid nitrogen make any difference?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I feel it is important to note (assuming someone didn't already say it and I just missed it) that putting batteries in a fridge can be quite dangerous. Most refrigerators will cause condensation to form on the contents and thus will coat your batteries in water. If the layout of the cell allows for a short to form, especially bypassing any protection circuits (in the case of a battery pack), you could start a lithium/other fire in your fridge. Not worth it IMO. If you absolutely MUST do this, make damn sure you put them in a vacuum sealed bag or equivalent that will keep moisture away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The question is, *what kind* of batteries are you referring to? The super cool and modern Li-Ion batteries are actually benefitted long term by being stored in cooler temperatures.\n\n\n[How To Prolong Lithium-based Batteries](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Batteries are always draining power, always. The cold just slows the reaction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " < - Science teacher\n\nI believe the governing equation you want to think about is the Nernst Equation. _URL_0_\n\nThe two main variables of interest are the reaction quotient and the temperature. The reaction quotient compares the concentrations of the reactants and products. In the equation you take the natural log of the quotient and subtract that from the standard voltage level. If the battery is \"young\" and the reaction quotient is small, the natural log will yield a negative value increasing the total cell voltage. \n\nBut as the battery gets \"older\" the quotient increases and the log will be positive meaning the cell voltage will decrease to zero as the concentrations get closer to 'completion'. By lowering the temperature you reduce the amount of voltage loss, so you can get a little more life out of old batteries by cooling them down, but the effect is temporary. \n\nA secondary concern is the energy storage capacity. A lower temperature should slow down any chemical reactions, increasing shelf life. A similar effect holds for photographic film. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19174720",
"title": "Electric battery",
"section": "Section::::Lifetime.:Storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Battery life can be extended by storing the batteries at a low temperature, as in a refrigerator or freezer, which slows the side reactions. Such storage can extend the life of alkaline batteries by about 5%; rechargeable batteries can hold their charge much longer, depending upon type. To reach their maximum voltage, batteries must be returned to room temperature; discharging an alkaline battery at 250 mA at 0 °C is only half as efficient as at 20 °C. Alkaline battery manufacturers such as Duracell do not recommend refrigerating batteries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4316371",
"title": "Rechargeable alkaline battery",
"section": "Section::::Construction of rechargeable cells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "Although these batteries can be used in any device that supports a standard size (AA, AAA, C, D, etc.), they are formulated to last longest in periodical use items. This type of battery is better suited for use in low-drain devices such as remote controls or for devices that are used periodically such as flashlights (torches), television remote control handsets, portable radios, etc. If they are discharged by less than 25%, they can be recharged for hundreds of cycles to about 1.42 V. If they are discharged by less than 50%, they can be almost fully recharged for a few dozen cycles, to about 1.32 V. After a deep discharge, they can be brought to their original high-capacity charge only after a few charge-discharge cycles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21426970",
"title": "Solar-powered refrigerator",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "Solar powered refrigerators are characterized by thick insulation and the use of a DC (not AC) compressor. Traditionally solar-powered refrigerators and vaccine coolers use a combination of solar panels and lead batteries to store energy for cloudy days and at night in the absence of sunlight to keep their contents cool. These fridges are expensive and require heavy lead-acid batteries which tend to deteriorate, especially in hot climates, or are misused for other purposes. In addition, the batteries require maintenance, must be replaced approximately every three years, and must be disposed of as hazardous wastes possibly resulting in lead pollution. These problems and the resulting higher costs have been an obstacle for the use of solar powered refrigerators in developing areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "726915",
"title": "Alkaline battery",
"section": "Section::::Leaks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "All batteries gradually self-discharge (whether installed in a device or not) and dead batteries will eventually leak. Extremely high temperatures can also cause batteries to rupture and leak (such as in a car during summer) as well as decrease the shelf life of the battery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2205325",
"title": "Zinc–carbon battery",
"section": "Section::::Storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Manufacturers recommend storage of zinc–carbon batteries at room temperature; storage at higher temperatures reduces the expected service life. Zinc-carbon batteries may be frozen without damage; manufacturers recommend that they be returned to normal room temperature before use, and that condensation on the battery jacket must be avoided. By the end of the 20th century, the storage life of zinc–carbon cells had improved fourfold over expected life in 1910.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186614",
"title": "Nickel–cadmium battery",
"section": "Section::::Memory effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "The battery survives thousands of charges/discharges cycles. Also it is possible to lower the memory effect by discharging the battery completely about once a month. This way apparently the battery does not \"remember\" the point in its charge cycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39122096",
"title": "Bettery Inc.",
"section": "Section::::Environmental Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Each BETTERY reusable battery can be swapped and reused up to a thousand times before it is recycled back into the manufacturing stream. Consumers can use the BETTERY kiosk to drop off traditional single-use batteries, where they will be recycled. The contents of recycled batteries can be salvaged to make metal and other raw materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9gff9b
|
why aren’t languages becoming more like each other?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. In fact TV is doing away with various local dialects, especially in England. \n\nAlso England used to say “zed” for z but the prevalence of American kid tv shows has them simply saying “z” more often. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That is not how languages work on a global scale. When many nations need to interact they do not have their languages drift toward each other, they choose the language of the most dominant culture of the region and use that as the trade language or \"Lingua Franca\" in Latin. This happened with the Roman Empire, Ottoman Empire, Mongol Empire, Chinese Empire, and British Empire. When the US took over as dominant Superpower from Britain English Remained the Lingua Franca as it is our dominant language too. Eventually a non-English speaking country is likely to become dominant and then their language will be the next Lingua Franca. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17524",
"title": "Language",
"section": "Section::::Social contexts of use and transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "However, languages differ from biological organisms in that they readily incorporate elements from other languages through the process of diffusion, as speakers of different languages come into contact. Humans also frequently speak more than one language, acquiring their first language or languages as children, or learning new languages as they grow up. Because of the increased language contact in the globalizing world, many small languages are becoming endangered as their speakers shift to other languages that afford the possibility to participate in larger and more influential speech communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17524",
"title": "Language",
"section": "Section::::Social contexts of use and transmission.:Contact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "When speakers of different languages interact closely, it is typical for their languages to influence each other. Through sustained language contact over long periods, linguistic traits diffuse between languages, and languages belonging to different families may converge to become more similar. In areas where many languages are in close contact, this may lead to the formation of language areas in which unrelated languages share a number of linguistic features. A number of such language areas have been documented, among them, the Balkan language area, the Mesoamerican language area, and the Ethiopian language area. Also, larger areas such as South Asia, Europe, and Southeast Asia have sometimes been considered language areas, because of widespread diffusion of specific areal features.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9534983",
"title": "Biocultural diversity",
"section": "Section::::Linguistic Diversity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "Because languages develop in a given community of speakers as that society adapts to its environment, languages reflect and express the biodiversity of that area. In areas of high biodiversity, language diversity is also higher, suggesting that a greater diversity in culture can be found in these areas. In fact, many of the areas of the world inhabited by smaller, isolated communities are also home to large numbers of endemic plant and animal species. As these people are often considered to be \"stewards\" of their environments, loss of language diversity means a disappearance of traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), an important factor in the conservation of biodiversity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2510506",
"title": "Indo-Aryan migration",
"section": "Section::::Linguistics: relationships between languages.:Comparative method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Connections between languages can be traced because the processes that change languages are not random, but follow strict patterns. Especially sound shifts, the changing of vowels and consonants, are important, although grammar (especially morphology) and the lexicon (vocabulary) may also be significant. Historical-comparative linguistics thus makes it possible to see great similarities between languages which at first sight might seem very different.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39104546",
"title": "Evolutionary psychology of language",
"section": "Section::::Variation in human language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "There are nearly 7000 languages worldwide, with a great amount of variation thought to have evolved through cultural differentiation. There are four factors that are thought to be the reason as to why there is language variation between cultures: founder effects, drift, hybridization and adaptation. With the vast amounts of lands available different tribes began to form and to claim their territory, in order to differentiate themselves many of these groups made changes to their language and this how the evolution of languages began. There also tended to be drifts in the population a certain group would get lost and be isolated from the rest of the group, this group would lose touch with the other groups and before they knew there had been mutations in their language and a whole new language had been formed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33416906",
"title": "Piapoco language",
"section": "Section::::Bilingualism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "When a large portion of people come in contact with another language and are competent in it, their language gradually becomes more like the other. This allows for a gradual convergence, where grammar and semantics of one language begin to replicate the other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20000187",
"title": "Inflection",
"section": "Section::::In various languages.:Indo-European languages (fusional).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 1116,
"text": "Because the Proto-Indo-European language was highly inflected, all of its descendant Indo-European languages, such as Albanian, English, German, Ukrainian, Russian, Persian, Kurdish, Italian, Irish, Spanish, French, Hindi, Marathi, Urdu, Bengali, and Nepali, are inflected to a greater or lesser extent. In general, older Indo-European languages such as Latin, Ancient Greek, Old English, Old Norse, Old Church Slavonic and Sanskrit are extensively inflected because of their temporal proximity to Proto-Indo-European. Deflexion has caused modern versions of some Indo-European languages that were previously highly inflected to be much less so; an example is Modern English, as compared to Old English. In general, languages where deflexion occurs replace inflectional complexity with more rigorous word order, which provides the lost inflectional details. Most Slavic languages and some Indo-Aryan languages are an exception to the general Indo-European deflexion trend, continuing to be highly inflected (in some cases acquiring additional inflectional complexity and grammatical genders, as in Czech & Marathi).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mr15n
|
how is nasa 100% sure microbes aren't attached to the rovers and similar probes? when 99.99% sure means we're possibly spreading our alien microbes to other worlds.
|
[
{
"answer": "They aren't, and in fact, they're quite sure there _are_ microbes. They just get all of them they can.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They aren't 100% sure, and in fact we've found microbes that have survived into space. Simply put, it's hard to be 100% sure of anything. Sometimes you've got to risk it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One feature of biology atleast here on earth, is evolutionary lineage, so part of the assumption made with sending scrubbed machines to other planets, is that if any of our bacteria are along for the ride, we will be able to ID them later. Deinococcus is one type of bacteria we're pretty sure is on the rover, but we know it's DNA sequence, and if we find life in the future that mirrors that genome, we can be pretty sure it wasn't there originally.\n\nBy the sheer astronomical odds, and probabilities of the universe, if we find life somewhere else, it WILL NOT, have the same genome as us, the same protein composition as us, and the same biological processes. \n\nIt might be similar, but physics pretty much make it impossible that life *exactly* like us is anywhere else in the universe. So long as it's not exactly the same, we're good. \n\nOne other thing, is that natural selection is still going on for the bacteria, and archea on the rovers. It is highly unlikely that they are better adapted to living on Mars, than the organisms already living there, so they won't take over the planet anytime soon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9619",
"title": "Extremophile",
"section": "Section::::In astrobiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "On 19 May 2014, scientists announced that numerous microbes, like \"Tersicoccus phoenicis\", may be resistant to methods usually used in spacecraft assembly clean rooms. It's not currently known if such resistant microbes could have withstood space travel and are present on the \"Curiosity\" rover now on the planet Mars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36665815",
"title": "Timeline of Mars Science Laboratory",
"section": "Section::::2014 events.:Other 2014 events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "On May 19, 2014, scientists announced that numerous microbes, like \"Tersicoccus phoenicis\", may be resistant to methods usually used in spacecraft assembly clean rooms. It's not currently known if such resistant microbes could have withstood space travel and are present on the \"Curiosity\" rover now on Mars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38767094",
"title": "2014 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:May.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 192,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 192,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "BULLET::::- Scientists announce that numerous microbes, like \"Tersicoccus phoenicis\", may be resistant to methods usually used in spacecraft assembly clean rooms, and as a consequence, may have unintentionally contaminated spacecraft. However, it's not currently known if such resistant microbes could have withstood space travel and are present on the \"Curiosity\" rover now on the planet Mars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39162966",
"title": "Virus (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "A US space mission in 1964 gathers a group of microbes in Earth orbit and are later recovered by American biowarfare researchers. Two microbes are found to be coccus-shaped supergerms capable of surviving in absolute zero and have the potential to grow exponentially in terrestrial conditions. One of the researchers, Dr Meyer, discovers the germ's regenerative ability and tries to stop work on the project. However, a sample of the germs is stolen and sent to Britain's Germ Warfare Research Laboratory in Porton Down for further development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50518346",
"title": "Astro microbiology",
"section": "Section::::Discoveries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "So far, the search for microbial life in extraterrestrial locations have been less than successful. The first of such attempts, occurred through NASA's Viking program in the 1970s, in which two Mars landers were used to conduct experiments that searched for biosignatures of life on Mars. The landers utilized robotic arms to collect soil samples into sealed containers that were brought back to Earth. The results were largely inconclusive, although some scientists still dispute them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37615833",
"title": "2013 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:April.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 277,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 277,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "BULLET::::- NASA-funded scientists in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute claim that, during experiments on the International Space Station, microbes seem to adapt to the space environment in ways \"not observed on Earth\" and in ways that \"can lead to increases in growth and virulence\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9619",
"title": "Extremophile",
"section": "Section::::In astrobiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "On 29 April 2013, scientists at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by NASA, reported that, during spaceflight on the International Space Station, microbes seem to adapt to the space environment in ways \"not observed on Earth\" and in ways that \"can lead to increases in growth and virulence\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7ee999
|
if i boil a kettle does everything inside become sterile? if so how long does it stay sterile?
|
[
{
"answer": "Actually sterilized? No. Boiling water and steam are damned effective at killing germs, but you generally need much higher temperatures than you'll achieve in a kettle to reach an effectiveness where you can call it sterile (99.9999999% of microbes killed). In particular, bacterial and fungal spores are generally tenacious little bastards and will survive. For medical sterilization, when steam is used, it's heated under pressure to a much higher temperature than is normally attainable, and objects are kept in for as long as 30 minutes.\n\nAs for how long it stays sterile? Until it isn't. Once your sterile tool touches something nonsterile, it's contaminated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you boil water in a pot, or canned food inside that boiling water, and you keep the temperature at boiling for several minutes, then yes it is sterilized. However in order for something to stay sterile it must be sealed to prevent re-innoculation by fungi, bacteria, or virus. It's actually more common to use steam to do this than boiling water, as boiling water stays at 212F and no hotter (at sea level in pure water) where as steam can get as hot as you can make it. \n\nHow long it will stay sterile is a matter of how long it can be hermetically sealed without exposure. If it's kept sealed, it's indefinite, since in order to be non sterile, it has to have living organisms in it, and if they have no way to get in, and the ones that were already there are all dead, then it stays sterile .\n\nThe act of boiling a food product to prevent spoilage is called pasteurization named after the famous French microbiologist Louis Pasteur whos groundbreaking research on the subject is one of the greatest achievements for human kind right along side the development of vaccines, and the discovery of antibiotics. \n\nThere are other ways to sterilize something than just boiling. Anything which kills living cells can do so. You've probably heard of irradiating objects to sterilize them. This replaces boiling water with hard ionizing radiation which serves a similar purpose, but without altering the texture or flavor of the food. It's also used for sterilizing medical supplies like scalpels, bandages, dressings, etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "953864",
"title": "Kettle",
"section": "Section::::Electric kettles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "In modern designs, once the water has reached boiling point, the kettle automatically deactivates, preventing the water from boiling away and damaging the heating element. A more upright design, the \"jug\"-style electrical kettle, can be more economical to use, since even one cup of water will keep the element covered. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174009",
"title": "Hall–Héroult process",
"section": "Section::::Process.:Electrodes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The inside of the cell's bath is lined with cathode made from coke and pitch. Cathodes also degrade during electrolysis, but much more slowly than anodes do, and thus they need neither be as high in purity nor be maintained as often. Cathodes are typically replaced every 2–6 years. This requires the whole cell to be shut down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5355",
"title": "Cooking",
"section": "Section::::Health and safety.:Food safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The sterilizing effect of cooking depends on temperature, cooking time, and technique used. Some food spoilage bacteria such as \"Clostridium botulinum\" or \"Bacillus cereus\" can form spores that survive boiling, which then germinate and regrow after the food has cooled. This makes it unsafe to reheat cooked food more than once.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1113417",
"title": "David Vetter",
"section": "Section::::Life in the bubble.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Water, air, food, diapers and clothes were sterilized before entering the sterile chamber. Items were placed in a chamber filled with ethylene oxide gas for four hours at 140 degrees Fahrenheit (60˚C), and then aerated for a period of one to seven days before being placed in the sterile chamber.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "471687",
"title": "Whipped-cream charger",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Culinary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "When the cream dispenser's valve is opened, the cream solution is expelled by the high pressure inside. The change in pressure causes some of the dissolved gas to return to bubbles, effectively fluffing up the cream. Nitrous oxide is bacteriostatic (it inhibits bacteria growth), so a charged cream dispenser can be kept in the refrigerator for up to two weeks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31613602",
"title": "Bed bug control techniques",
"section": "Section::::Heat treatment.:Steam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "For volumetric objects (e.g. pillow, blanket, sleeping bag, rug), boiling in a large saucepan for more than 10 minutes represents a reliable method. In this manner, the lethal temperatures propagate with certainty deep inside the object, which is not necessarily the case of a washing machine cleaning cycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1359034",
"title": "Robert Huebner",
"section": "Section::::Q Fever.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Huebner found that the \"C. burnetii\" bacteria could survive temperatures of up to in sealed containers for as long as 30 minutes, just below the levels used for vat pasteurization. This could mean that there was no way to verify that every particle within a vat was raised to the peak temperature and that pasteurization might not eliminate all of the bacteria in the milk being treated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
uno95
|
If happiness and sadness are reactionary and fleeting emotions, since we generally return back to neutral baselines- depression is the pathological deviation towards staying sadness. Is there a pathological condition where a person will consistently stay happy?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is some speculation that such a condition exists.\n\nBi-polar - I disorder is characterized by alternating between episodes of major depression (extreme sadness) and episodes of mania (extreme elation). Bi-polar - II is characterized the same way, but they experience smaller \"hypomanic\" rather than full blown manic episodes. The problem is that if you come into the hospital with mania, even without history of prior depression, people will get diagnosed with bi-polar disorder (I or II) and the assumption is made that a major depressive episode either has previously occurred but was undocumented, or that it will occur in future.\n\nThere is also chronic unhappiness (dysthymia). In this condition, people are sad enough to have their day feel more lethargic and a little lifeless, but they are still able to function day to day. This condition can lasts for years and years (2 years is the criteria for diagnosis).\n\nOn the contrary side, there is a condition called \"hypomania\". This is a less severe form of mania, and it doesn't require hospitalization. It is simply a mild \"elation\". However, it is very possible that a form of this condition exists in a chronic form. The speculation on whether this condition exists stems from this question:\n\nIf someone was chronically elated, but not enough so that they did brash things (e.g., spend all their money, have tonnes of sex with strangers, and have delusions of grandeur), but rather so that they were always pretty happy and pretty productive, how would this ever be picked up by medical health professionals? Their lives would not be impaired, but rather, enhanced.\n\n**TL;DR** It is probable that there is a chronic condition characterized by persistent \"hypomania\", which is smaller in magnitude than full blown manic episodes. However, they would never come in for treatment, and they would not be picked up by mental health professionals.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Someone else already talked about bipolarism so I'll talk about some genetic problems:\n\n[Williams syndrome](_URL_0_) is a genetic condition caused by microdeletion of the long arm of chromosome 7. It creates a classic pathology where the patient is unusually friendly/good natured, particularly with strangers.\n\n[Angelman's syndrome](_URL_1_) is a genetic disorder caused by improper imprinting. It results in a classically happy demeanor, as well as inappropriate laughter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2828828",
"title": "Hedonic treadmill",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Happiness set point.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 971,
"text": "The concept of the happiness set point (proposed by Sonja Lyubomirsky) can be applied in clinical psychology to help patients return to their hedonic set point when negative events happen. Determining when someone is mentally distant from their happiness set point and what events trigger those changes can be extremely helpful in treating conditions such as depression. When a change occurs, clinical psychologists work with patients to recover from the depressive spell and return to their hedonic set point more quickly. Because acts of kindness often promote long-term well-being, one treatment method is to provide patients with different altruistic activities that can help a person raise his or her hedonic set point. This can in turn be helpful in reducing reckless habits in the pursuit of well-being. Further, helping patients understand that long-term happiness is relatively stable throughout one's life can help to ease anxiety surrounding impactful events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54301172",
"title": "Well-being contributing factors",
"section": "Section::::Personal factors.:Happiness.:Changes in happiness levels.:Happiness set point.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "The happiness set point idea is that most people return to an average level of happiness – or a set point – after temporary highs and lows in emotionality. People whose set points lean toward positive emotionality tend to be cheerful most of the time and those whose set points tend to be more negative emotionality tend to gravitate toward pessimism and anxiety. Lykken found that we can influence our level of well-being by creating environments more conductive to feelings of happiness and by working with our genetic makeup. One reason that subjective well-being is for the most part stable is because of the great influence genetics have. Although the events of life have some effect on subjective well-being, the general population returns to their set point.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7257476",
"title": "Happiness economics",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Even when happiness can be affected by external sources, it has high hedonic adaptation, some specific events such as an increase in income, disability, unemployment, and loss (bereavement) only have short-term (about a year) effects on a person's overall happiness and after a while happiness may return to levels similar to unaffected peers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29605965",
"title": "Life satisfaction",
"section": "Section::::Factors affecting life satisfaction.:Seasonal effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "A recent study analyzes time-dependent rhythms in happiness comparing life satisfaction by weekdays (weekend neurosis), days of the month (negative effects towards the end of the month) and year with gender and education and outlining the differences observed. Primarily within the winter months of the year, an onset of depression can affect us, which is called seasonal affective disorder (SAD). It is recurrent, beginning in the fall or winter months, and remitting in the spring or summer. It is said that those who experience this disorder usually have a history of major depressive or bipolar disorder, which may be hereditary, having a family member affected as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56519274",
"title": "Social predictors of depression",
"section": "Section::::Depression's role in negative life events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "In addition to negative life events leading to depression, researchers have suggested that depression may also worsen one's social environment, which can further elevate the symptoms of major depression and one's risk of experiencing negative events. This connection between depression and social stressors is best seen through depressed individuals being more likely to experience more negative social events during their depression than non-depressed individuals or those with other conditions. In particular, depressed individuals are more likely to experience social rejection. However, it is unclear what effect increased rejection has on one's experience with depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23476797",
"title": "Social anxiety disorder",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Comorbidity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "SAD shows a high degree of co-occurrence with other psychiatric disorders. In fact, a population-based study found that 66% of those with SAD had one or more additional mental health disorders. SAD often occurs alongside low self-esteem and most commonly clinical depression, perhaps due to a lack of personal relationships and long periods of isolation related to social avoidance. Clinical depression is 1.49 to 3.5 times more likely to occur in those with SAD. Anxiety disorders other than SAD are also very common in patients with SAD, in particular generalized anxiety disorder. Avoidant personality disorder is likewise highly correlated with SAD, with comorbidity rates ranging from 25% to 89%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56519274",
"title": "Social predictors of depression",
"section": "Section::::Heritability of social predictors of depression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Many examples for of the negative life events often associated with depression being heritable come from within the family and romantic relationships. Within the family, cohesion, organization, expressiveness, activity, control, and conflict are all heritable, with estimates ranging from 18-30% depending on the variable. Divorce, which may be particularly likely to result in depression, is moderately heritable with about 35% of differences in one's susceptibility to divorce stemming from genetic differences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2kfags
|
why do hunters tend to kill game by aiming for the lungs or heart? wouldn't a head shot be quicker and more humane?
|
[
{
"answer": "They aim for center mass because it's less likely to miss.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An animal's head is really hard to hit, both because it's smaller and it tends to move around a lot. Aiming for a headshot means you're more likely to miss.\n\nA gunshot to the heart or lung isn't actually as painful as you might think. Most of the time, that kind of shot will result in instant death anyway, so it really isn't any less humane than a headshot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Their brains are smaller than their heart, and their head also moves more and is harder to hit. Their chest also has more vital organs and has a higher chance of an instant kill shot than just a grazing shot to the head, which would be less humane. Sometimes the meat does gets shot but it's such a small amount compared to the rest of the animal that there's really not a loss.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The worst thing you can possibly do is wound the animal because then you have to go after it and deal with all that crap. You aim for the biggest target. Bullets are small and won't ruin much of the animal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Head shots are harder because not only is the head (specifically the brain) smaller, but they are often moving their head to see and hear.\n\nBecause of this, the likelihood of hitting is far less, the likelihood of an immediate death is slim to none, you could easily hit their jaw, or their neck. If you hit their jaw, you have an animal fully capable of running that, if it gets away, has a slow death of bleeding and starving. If you hit their neck, they might be paralyzed, which is just mean.\n\nIf you hit the heart or lungs, then the animal is dead fast, it's unconscious almost instantly, leading to a more humane death.\n\nNot to mention you might want to mount the head.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6065207",
"title": "Big-game hunting",
"section": "Section::::Weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "Large-caliber ammunition is considered to be most effective in taking down large game effectively and humanely. Big-game hunting ethics require a clean, humane kill, and most hunters work diligently toward this end. Advances in ammunition and the guns to match have made longer-range kills of big game possible with margins of error considered tolerable. Some common calibers and types of ammunition for big-game hunting include .30-30 Winchester, .30-06 Springfield, .300 Winchester Magnum, and .358 Winchester. The calibers and types of ammunition, and the firearms to shoot them, are numerous, and the science of ballistics is continuously improving to allow hunting in a tremendous variety of situations. Bullet weight and shape, cartridge size, powder load and type, and virtually every other variable of firearms ammunition is continuously changing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9194192",
"title": "Handgun hunting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The .44 Magnum, developed in 1955, was the beginning of handgun hunting for mainstream hunters. Handgun hunters consider their activity more 'sporting' than using rifles. The comparatively short sight radius of a handgun and typically less powerful ammunition than used with rifles, means that any handgun hunter must stalk closer to the prey in order to kill the animal humanely, giving said animal more chance of detecting and avoiding the hunter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9194192",
"title": "Handgun hunting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Handgun hunting differs from rifle or shotgun hunting because a significant amount of shooting practice must be undertaken in order to become and remain proficient. It is not uncommon for a skilled handgun hunter to be able to cleanly take game at ranges exceeding 100 yards, even 200+ is possible with a single-shot, scoped hunting pistol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2007",
"title": "Archery",
"section": "Section::::Hunting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 953,
"text": "Using archery to take game animals is known as \"bow hunting\". Bow hunting differs markedly from hunting with firearms, as distance between hunter and prey must be much shorter to ensure a humane kill. The skills and practices of bow hunting therefore emphasize very close approach to the prey, whether by still hunting, stalking, or waiting in a blind or tree stand. In many countries, including much of the United States, bow hunting for large and small game is legal. Bow hunters generally enjoy longer seasons than are allowed with other forms of hunting such as black powder, shotgun, or rifle. Usually, compound bows are used for large game hunting due to the relatively short time it takes to master them as opposed to the longbow or recurve bow. These compound bows may feature fiber optic sights, stabilizers, and other accessories designed to increase accuracy at longer distances. Using a bow and arrow to take fish is known as \"bow fishing\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60621630",
"title": "Overabundant species",
"section": "Section::::Methods for controlling overabundant species.:Culling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Target animals can be hunted on the ground or culled by aerial pursuit, with the aim to eliminate the animal in one accurate hit to reduce or limit suffering before death. This method allows a large number of animals to be eliminated within a relatively short amount of time, however shots are not always accurate which can lead to the escape and suffering of individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4100225",
"title": "Waterfowl hunting",
"section": "Section::::Regulations, sportsmanship, and safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "It is also considered good sportsmanship to make every possible attempt to retrieve dead or injured waterfowl the hunter has shot(In the Australian state of Victoria it is required by law). Birds are shot within range to prevent cripples. Shooting before birds are within range is also considered poor sportsmanship, as this often merely injures the birds and may drive them away before other hunters can fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6851341",
"title": "Bat hawk",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour.:Hunting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Bats are the usual prey of the bat hawk, although they may eat small birds, such as swallows, swifts, and nightjars, or even insects. They hunt by chasing their prey at high speeds in flight. 49.3% of their hunts are successful. Once caught the bat is processed very rapidly and the mechanism with which bat hawks kill their prey is still unknown. Bat hawks also show very rapid ingestion rates, taking on average 6 seconds for the prey to reach the stomach after capture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
auvd8o
|
is it possible to have a minor stroke and not know it and not have any lasting health effects?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yep. It's called a transient ischemic attack (TIA) and they often wont cause residual deficits, though the initial (transient) symptoms can mirror those of an actual stroke and can be quite concerning at first, or may be subclinical (i.e. undetectable). Having experienced a TIA does indicate increased risk of suffering a more significant stroke in the future, and appropriate precautions should be taken to make this less likely.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "625404",
"title": "Stroke",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "The main risk factor for stroke is high blood pressure. Other risk factors include tobacco smoking, obesity, high blood cholesterol, diabetes mellitus, a previous TIA, and atrial fibrillation. An ischemic stroke is typically caused by blockage of a blood vessel, though there are also less common causes. A hemorrhagic stroke is caused by either bleeding directly into the brain or into the space between the brain's membranes. Bleeding may occur due to a ruptured brain aneurysm. Diagnosis is typically based on a physical exam and supported by medical imaging such as a CT scan or MRI scan. A CT scan can rule out bleeding, but may not necessarily rule out ischemia, which early on typically does not show up on a CT scan. Other tests such as an electrocardiogram (ECG) and blood tests are done to determine risk factors and rule out other possible causes. Low blood sugar may cause similar symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "625404",
"title": "Stroke",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Misdiagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "People not having a stroke may also be misdiagnosed as a stroke. Giving thrombolytics (clot-busting) in such cases causes intracerebral bleeding 1 to 2% of the time, which is less than that of people with strokes. This unnecessary treatment adds to health care costs. Even so, the AHA/ASA guidelines state that starting intravenous tPA in possible mimics is preferred to delaying treatment for additional testing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1048537",
"title": "Thrombectomy",
"section": "Section::::Applications in brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Ischemic stroke represents the fifth most common cause of death in western world and the number one cause of long-term disability. Until recent times, systemic intravenous fibrinolysis was the only evidence-based therapy for patient with acute onset of stroke due to large vessel occlusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10843628",
"title": "Glutamate carboxypeptidase II",
"section": "Section::::Potential therapeutic applications.:Other potential therapeutic applications.:Stroke.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "According to the National Stroke Association, stroke is the third-leading cause of death and the leading cause of adult disability. It is thought that glutamate levels cause underlying ischemic damage during a stroke, and, thus, NAAG inhibition might be able to diminish this damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25470676",
"title": "Management of atrial fibrillation",
"section": "Section::::Anticoagulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1954,
"text": "Most patients with AF are at increased risk of stroke. The possible exceptions are those with lone AF (LAF), characterized by absence of clinical or echocardiographic findings of other cardiovascular disease (including hypertension), related pulmonary disease, or cardiac abnormalities such as enlargement of the left atrium, and age under 60 years . The incidence of stroke associated with AF is 3 to 5 percent per year in the absence of anticoagulation, which is significantly higher compared to the general population without AF (relative risk 2.4 in men and 3.0 in women). A systematic review of risk factors for stroke in patients with nonvalvular AF concluded that a prior history of stroke or TIA is the most powerful risk factor for future stroke, followed by advancing age, hypertension, and diabetes. For patients with LAF, the risk of stroke is very low and is independent of whether the LAF was an isolated episode, paroxysmal, persistent, or permanent. The risk of systemic embolization (atrial clots migrating to other organs) depends strongly on whether there is an underlying structural problem with the heart (e.g. mitral stenosis) and on the presence of other risk factors, such as diabetes and high blood pressure. Finally, patients under 65 are much less likely to develop embolization compared with patients over 75. In young patients with few risk factors and no structural heart defect, the benefits of anticoagulation may be outweighed by the risks of hemorrhage (bleeding). Those at a low risk may benefit from mild (and low-risk) anticoagulation with aspirin (or clopidogrel in those who are allergic to aspirin). In contrast, those with a high risk of stroke derive most benefit from anticoagulant treatment with warfarin or similar drugs. A new class of anticoagulant drugs, the direct thrombin inhibitors (Dabigatran), has recently arrived on the scene and shown efficacy in treating complications of nonvalvular chronic AF.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "625404",
"title": "Stroke",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 179,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 179,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Some of the physical disabilities that can result from stroke include muscle weakness, numbness, pressure sores, pneumonia, incontinence, apraxia (inability to perform learned movements), difficulties carrying out daily activities, appetite loss, speech loss, vision loss and pain. If the stroke is severe enough, or in a certain location such as parts of the brainstem, coma or death can result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42239023",
"title": "Sex differences in stroke care",
"section": "Section::::Disparity in symptom recognition/diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Women who suffer an acute stroke are more likely to present with non-traditional and non-neurological stroke symptoms, for example chest pain and/or shortness of breath. More atypical symptoms in women may result in a delayed diagnosis, longer in-hospital delays, and less aggressive rt-PA treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fv7gw
|
How exactly do appetite-suppressants work?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is little evidence that caffeine is an effective appetite suppressant on its own. At least two recent studies have found no effect in a human sample. It is, nevertheless, possible some of the effects of caffeine (e.g. stimulation, anxiety) could indirectly lead to a decrease or increase in appetite.\n\nCaffeine is theoretically useful for weight loss because it promotes [thermogenesis](_URL_3_). However, long term studies have found the use of caffeine alone to be an ineffective weight loss aid, possibly because of the development of tolerance. \n\nSources:\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_2_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "235548",
"title": "Appetite",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Suppression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Mechanisms controlling appetite are a potential target for weight loss drugs. Appetite control mechanisms seem to strongly counteract undereating, whereas they appear weak to control overeating. Early anorectics (appetite suppressants) were fenfluramine and phentermine. A more recent addition is sibutramine which increases serotonin and noradrenaline levels in the central nervous system, but had to be withdrawn from the market when it was shown to have an adverse cardiovascular risk profile. Similarly, the appetite suppressant rimonabant (a cannabinoid receptor antagonist) had to be withdrawn when it was linked with worsening depression and increased risk of suicide. Recent reports on recombinant PYY 3-36 suggest that this agent may contribute to weight loss by suppressing appetite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11684015",
"title": "Overeaters Anonymous",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Abstinence in OA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 900,
"text": "OA literature specifically defines \"compulsion\" as follows: \"By definition, 'compulsion' means 'an impulse or feeling of being irresistibly driven toward the performance of some irrational action.'\" Therefore, \"compulsive eating\" and \"compulsive food behaviors\" (as those terms are used in OA's definition of abstinence) means irrational eating, or irrational food behaviors, taken as a result of an impulse or feeling that feels irresistible. So, according to Overeaters Anonymous, \"abstinence\" is the act of refraining from \"compulsive eating\" and \"compulsive food behaviors,\" while working towards or maintaining a healthy body weight. While this definition can fairly be described as nuanced and subject to personal interpretation (e.g., the definition of a \"healthy body weight\"), or requiring self-searching analysis (e.g., to determine the drivers of certain behaviors), it is not unspecific.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1615081",
"title": "Amylin",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Rodent amylin knockouts do not have a normal reduction of appetite following food consumption. Because it is an amidated peptide, like many neuropeptides, it is believed to be responsible for the effect on appetite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "613933",
"title": "Anorectic",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Used on a short-term basis clinically to treat obesity, some appetite suppressants are also available over-the-counter. Most common natural appetite suppressants are based on \"Hoodia\", a genus of 13 species in the flowering plant family Apocynaceae, under the subfamily Asclepiadoideae. Several appetite suppressants are based on a mix of natural ingredients, mostly using green tea as its basis, in combination with other plant extracts such as fucoxanthin, found naturally in seaweed. Drugs of this class are frequently stimulants of the phenethylamine family, related to amphetamine (informally known as \"speed\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212818",
"title": "Eating",
"section": "Section::::Development in humans.:Hunger and satiety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "There are many physiological mechanisms that control starting and stopping a meal. The control of food intake is a physiologically complex, motivated behavioral system. Hormones such as cholecystokinin, bombesin, neurotensin, anorectin, calcitonin, enterostatin, leptin and corticotropin-releasing hormone have all been shown to suppress food intake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26650471",
"title": "Hemopressin",
"section": "Section::::Role in diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Scientists at the University of Manchester have discovered that hemopressin could be used as an appetite suppressant without having the side effects of many other drugs that are used for this purpose. In laboratory tests hemopressin was administrated to mice and rats, which significantly reduced food intake. Hemopressin works by affecting the reward centres of the brain which make us feel happy when we eat too much. A further research should be carried out in order to confirm these effects and the safety on people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23832994",
"title": "Orexigenic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 918,
"text": "An orexigenic, or appetite stimulant, is a drug, hormone, or compound that increases appetite and may induce hyperphagia. This can be a naturally occurring neuropeptide hormone such as ghrelin, orexin or neuropeptide Y, or a medication which increases hunger and therefore enhances food consumption. Usually appetite enhancement is considered an undesirable side effect of certain drugs as it leads to unwanted weight gain, but sometimes it can be beneficial and a drug may be prescribed solely for this purpose, especially when the patient is suffering from severe appetite loss or muscle wasting due to cystic fibrosis, anorexia, old age, cancer or AIDS. There are several widely used drugs which can cause a boost in appetite, including tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), tetracyclic antidepressants, natural or synthetic cannabinoids, first-generation antihistamines, most antipsychotics and many steroid hormones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
61tpf6
|
Victor Davis Hanson and the question of the middle-class infantrymen
|
[
{
"answer": "Thanks for the follow-up! I'm glad to see people are still reading my older posts :)\n\nBefore I get down to answering your question, there's one thing I'd like to clear up:\n\n > I noticed that VDH says that this shift in warfare happened during or after Salamis (480BC) which would put it a few centuries after when you said the middle class was even a thing.\n\nI just had a look at *Carnage and Culture* to make sure I got this right. What VDH actually argues in the book is that, after Salamis, the poor who manned the ships began agitating for greater influence in politics, starting Athens on the road to radical democracy. This entailed a shift *away from* the kind of warfare that VDH idealises. He repeatedly praises the notion of a state ruled by landowners, who had a personal stake in the defence of the territory. In his view, the inclusion of the landless poor in the democratic franchise meant that the interests of the \"middling farmer\" were no longer the exclusive focus of Athenian policy. They became more imperialist, more expansionist, and more naval. The \"hoplite\" outlook that had previously defined them was lost.\n\nGenerally, this analysis fits with his usual argument (expressed in numerous earlier publications) that the Greeks adopted \"hoplite warfare\" around 700 BC, when their city-states came to be dominated by a new class of small farmers who fought as hoplites. The methods of these \"middling\" hoplites remained unchanged until the Persian Wars introduced the Greeks to warfare on a larger scale. VDH usually holds that warfare nevertheless remained dominated by the \"middling hoplite farmer\" through most of the Classical period, at least outside the major imperialist city-states.\n\nFor this theory to work, there must be evidence of the rise of a new socio-economic \"middle class\" in the late 8th century BC. There must also be evidence of a dramatic shift in civic ideology around the same time, from the strict hierarchy and individual glory-seeking found in Homer to the egalitarianism and shared interests of citizen farmer-hoplites. When he is not busy describing the grim realities of hoplite combat, VDH mostly seeks to establish that such evidence indeed exists.^1 This brings me to your question.\n\n & nbsp;\n\nThe main argument against the notion of an Archaic \"middle class\" was given by Hans van Wees.^2 He specifically attacked a lot of the evidence cited in support of the notion of an idealised \"middle\". Archaic poets' comments about wanting to belong to a \"middle\" are often about avoiding the violence between two sides in a civil war, if not simply versions of a general philosophical ideal that favoured moderation over extremes of any kind. The notion of a \"middle\" doesn't overlap in any way with a defined socio-economic group; at one point, Aristotle describes a leading Spartan general as a member of the \"middle\" on the grounds that he wasn't a king. For reasons like these, mentions of \"the middle\" in Greek sources can't simply be taken at face value. They don't mean what we might instinctively assume they mean.\n\nSo what evidence remains? The argument in favour of an Archaic middle class often hinges on the Solonic property classes. In the early 6th century, Solon introduced a system of property classes at Athens, which counted 4 tiers: those who owned land sufficient to produce 500 measures of barley a year, those who owned 300, those who owned 200, and those with even less (called *thetes*, labourers). The top 2 tiers were clearly the rich, but it's often argued that the 3rd level, the *zeugitai* or yoke-men, formed a middle class, and that this level should be identified with the hoplite class. However, both Hans van Wees and Lin Foxhall^3 have separately argued that a yield of 200 bushels of barley required so much land that every single man who fit into the 3rd level of Solon's property classes was, in effect, rich. Indeed, using an estimate of the crop yield per acre, Hans van Wees has also pointed out that it is impossible for the territory of Athens to accomodate anywhere near as many hoplites as it had in the 5th century if all of them are supposed to have met the property requirements for the *zeugitai*. In other words, Solon's reforms only subdivided the leisure class; many hoplites will not have owned enough land to count among the *zeugitai*; and the Solonic system actually *breaks up* rather than unites the broad \"middle\", by assigning some of them to the *zeugitai* (with significant political rights) while dismissing others as *thetes*.\n\nRecently, Lin Foxhall has added another significant point to the discussion by looking at the archaeological evidence.^4 VDH claims that there was a notable shift in the early Archaic period from land being dominated by large landowners to an intensification of agriculture led by small independent farmers. This ought to be visible on the ground, either through major traces of occupation (farmsteads) or through the sort of traces found in surface survey archaeology (land use revealed by pot shards etc). However, it turns out that nowhere in Greece is this supposed shift to small farms and \"middling\" farmers visible before the end of the 6th century BC (that is, a few decades before the Persian invasion). Throughout the Archaic period, the land of most Greek states is largely unused, and activity is focused on small settlements and major farmsteads, suggesting a society dominated by a wealthy elite. Only from the 6th century onwards is there a growth of smaller farms and an expansion into marginal ground.\n\nThere are other arguments to be made, but I think the overall point should be clear: it cannot be shown that a Greek middle class existed in any form before the late 500s BC. Ideologically, this group, when it finally did emerge, was not united; it had no shared political motives and never acted as a political body or pressure group. Greek society remained fundamentally divided between the rich (who could afford a life of leisure) and the poor (who had to work to survive). Militarily, the \"middling\" group did not dominate a particular form of fighting, either; it shared its hoplite equipment with the very wealthy and with many of the less well-off too. Even in the shifting ideological context of egalitarian democracies of the Classical period, Greek societies remained dominated by the wealthy few, who tended to control access to political and military office, and whose means allowed them to stand out as horsemen in war and as benefactors to their city in peacetime.\n\n & nbsp;\n\nVDH's point about free men being superior to unfree men in war is extremely weak for other reasons, and it may be unwise to treat it casually. Suffice to say that we may question both the \"freedom\" of the Greeks and the \"subjugation\" of the Persians; that a society as utterly dependent on slave labour as Ancient Greece could scarcely claim to be a bastion of freedom; that the unusual freedom of Athenian adult male citizens seems to have come at the price of a particularly oppressive unfreedom for the city's slaves and women; that the very notion of \"freedom\" may not have developed as strongly as it did in Classical Greece if it hadn't become part of how the Greeks began to distinguish themselves from the Persians *after* the invasion of Xerxes; and so on and so forth. Generally, I believe *Carnage and Culture* was the point where VDH lost what standing he had in serious academic circles outside of Classics; his standing within Classics had by that point already suffered significantly from his consistent output of ideologically motivated distortions of the past.\n\n\n---\n\n1) See his 'Hoplite ideology in phalanx warfare, ancient and modern', in VDH (ed.) *Hoplites* (1991); *The Other Greeks* (1995); 'Hoplite battle as ancient Greek warfare: when, where, and why?', in H. van Wees (ed.) *War and Violence in Ancient Greece* (2000); 'The hoplite narrative', in D. Kagan/G.F. Viggiano, *Men of Bronze* (2013).\n\n2) in 'The myth of the middle-class army', in T. Bekker-Nielsen/L. Hannestad (eds.), *War as a Cultural and Social Force: Essays on Warfare in Antiquity* (2001), and more recently in 'Farmers and hoplites: models of historical development', in Kagan/Viggiano, *Men of Bronze*\n\n3) in 'A view from the top: evaluating the Solonian property classes', in L.G. Mitchell/P.J. Rhodes (eds.), *The Development of the Polis in Archaic Greece* (1997)\n\n4) in 'Can we see the “hoplite revolution” on the ground? Archaeological landscapes, material culture, and social status in Early Greece', in Kagan/Viggiano (eds.), *Men of Bronze*",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18946660",
"title": "Stan Hanson",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Hanson was of Norwegian descent and had a brother, Alf, who also played for Liverpool as well as Chelsea. He served in the 53rd (Bolton) Field Regiment of the Royal Artillery during the Second World War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3664204",
"title": "Walter Keeton",
"section": "Section::::Postwar cricket.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 999,
"text": "Keeton played several good-standard matches during the Second World War, including appearing for a team representing the National Police in 1943. He was available for Nottinghamshire from the resumption of English first-class cricket in 1946 and his form seemed merely to carry on from its pre-war excellence. In 1946, he was one of only seven English batsmen to pass 2000 runs in the season, with 2021 at an average of 43.93, including five centuries. The aggregate was lower in the run-glut sun-filled summer of 1947, but he maintained his average, and though both aggregate and average were down in 1948, he still scored more runs than any other Nottinghamshire batsman. Against the 1948 Australians, Keeton was hit over the heart by a ball from fast bowler Ray Lindwall and had to be helped from the pitch; a precautionary X-ray revealed that the ribs damaged in the 1935 lorry accident had not been broken again, though Keeton did not resume his innings and missed the next two county matches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30858010",
"title": "John Wilson Ruckman",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Ruckman's life was not without controversy. Although he ranked high in his graduating class, he was held back one year at West Point for laughing during artillery drills and \"in other inappropriate places.\" In 1896, he suggested that a regiment of soldiers in Cleveland, Ohio, be abolished because of its relationship to prostitutes. In his 1915 Naval War College thesis, Ruckman called for universal military service and the education of \"all boys and young men\" in the use of firearms. He also recommended strict guidelines for the content of history texts in schools and colleges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3444355",
"title": "Johan Laidoner",
"section": "Section::::Estonian War of Independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "Laidoner had a crucial role in organizing and training the army in a very short time as well as establishing an effective command structure within the armed forces. Learning from his experience with trench warfare in World War I and due to the limited size of the forces available to him, Laidoner chose to achieve crucial victories – capturing strategically important roads and railway stations – with smaller and more mobile battalion- and company-sized units, supported by armoured trains and armoured cars. After the end of the war, Laidoner was promoted to lieutenant general on 21 March 1920, before resigning as commander‑in‑chief and retiring from active service on 26 March 1920.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18666105",
"title": "Sir George Warrender, 7th Baronet",
"section": "Section::::First World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Warrender was considered a good admiral during peacetime, but his reputation suffered as the war proceeded. His squadron was regarded as one of the best trained in gunnery in the fleet. He was described by Commodore William Goodenough as having \"an imperturbability that no circumstances could ruffle\", although others ascribed this stolidity to simply a lack of initiative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1404026",
"title": "Norwood Russell Hanson",
"section": "Section::::Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Hanson was born in 1924 in Cortland County, New York. He studied trumpet with the legendary William Vacchiano and played at Carnegie Hall, but his musical career was interrupted by World War II. He enlisted in the United States Coast Guard, later transferring to the United States Marine Corps, where he trained as a fighter pilot, developing a reputation as a 'hot pilot' (famously looping the Golden Gate Bridge). He served on the ill-fated USS \"Franklin\" in the VMF-452 \"Skyraiders\" Squadron, for which he designed the unit's logo. When the \"Franklin\" was bombed and nearly destroyed on 19 March 1945, his Corsair was described as 'the last plane off Big Ben.'\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57872170",
"title": "Edwin St. John Greble",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Greble was promoted to the rank of brigadier general on October 13, 1916, and to major general on August 5, 1917. From August 25 to September 18, 1917, and again from December 6, 1017, to July 8, 1918, he commanded the 36th Infantry Division. Because of disabilities he developed on the line of duty, Greble retired in October 1918.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3o717l
|
time variations in different parts of the universe
|
[
{
"answer": "Mainly parts of the universe that are close to really strong gravity sources -- near neutron stars, pulsars, or black holes.\n\nAs Einstein demonstrated, gravity bends space but also slows time. The closer you are to a source of gravity, the slower time passes -- in your frame of reference.\n\nThe reality of this theory was demonstrated when we put GPS satellites into space, then found out that, for them, time passed slower by milliseconds because they were a bit farther from a gravity source: Earth.\n\nNormally, the effect is trivial -- you'll age billionths of a second more slowly per year in Death Valley than you will on the top of Mt. Everest. But sometimes it's not... get close to a neutron star and, if the gravity doesn't kill you (hint: it will) you'll find yourself aging much more slowly than you would on Earth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5321399",
"title": "Julius Thomas Fraser",
"section": "Section::::Central themes in his writings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "These nested levels (umwelts) represent qualitatively different temporalities, for both time and the perception of time have evolved. In one sense, time is physically different from what it was when the universe first came into being. As the universe continues to change, so too does time change. In the humanistic sense, it is the perception of time that has changed, as humans have biologically evolved with different concepts of the world to those of our ancestral species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41731521",
"title": "Lakshana",
"section": "Section::::Religious and ethical implication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1618,
"text": "\"Vyasa-bhashya\" (VIII.13) explains that in the smallest particle of time or \"kshana\" the whole universe undergoes a change. Each moment or particle of time is only the manifestation of that change, and time does not have a separate existence. Appearance is called Dharma, and the arrangement of objects or qualities is called \"Dharmin\"; the change of appearance is called \"Dharma-parinama\" which has two aspects – \"Lakshana-parinama\" and \"Avastha-parinama\", which are not intrinsically different. \"Lakshana-parinama\" considers three stages of an appearance viz. a) the unmanifested when it exists in the future, b) the manifested moment of the present and c) the past when it has been manifested, lost to view but preserved and retained in all the onwards stages of evolution. \"Avastha-parinama\" is change of condition which is not materially different from \"Lakshana-parinama\" and hence its mode; it is on account of this that an object is called new or old, grown or decayed. It is the nature of the Guṇas that there cannot remain even a moment without the evolutionary changes of \"dharma\", \"lakshana\" and \"avastha\", for movement is the characteristic of the \"gunas\" whose nature is the cause of constant movement, which changes the mind also experiences in accordance with its two qualities visible and invisible; the visible qualities are those whose changes can be noticed as conscious states or thought-products or precepts, whereas the invisible qualities are those whose changes can only be established by inference. There is an order in all successive changes (Vacaspati in his \"Tattva–vaivasaradi\" (III.15).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12527335",
"title": "Cosmic time",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Cosmic time is the time coordinate commonly used in the Big Bang models of physical cosmology. Such time coordinate may be defined for a homogeneous, expanding universe so that the universe has the same density everywhere at each moment in time (the fact that this is possible means that the universe is, by definition, homogeneous). The clocks measuring cosmic time should move along the Hubble flow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5321399",
"title": "Julius Thomas Fraser",
"section": "Section::::Central themes in his writings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "These nested levels represent qualitatively different temporalities, for both time and the perception of time have evolved. In one sense, time is physically different from what it was when the universe first came into being.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12527335",
"title": "Cosmic time",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Cosmic time formula_1 is a measure of time by a physical clock with zero peculiar velocity in the absence of matter over-/under-densities (to prevent time dilation due to relativistic effects or confusions caused by expansion of the universe). Unlike other measures of time such as temperature, redshift, particle horizon, or Hubble horizon, the cosmic time (similar and complementary to the comoving coordinates) is blind to the expansion of the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42975",
"title": "Hubble's law",
"section": "Section::::Units derived from the Hubble constant.:Hubble time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "This is slightly different from the age of the universe which is approximately 13.8 billion years. The Hubble time is the age it would have had if the expansion had been linear, and it is different from the real age of the universe because the expansion is not linear; they are related by a dimensionless factor which depends on the mass-energy content of the universe, which is around 0.96 in the standard Lambda-CDM model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21666983",
"title": "Synchronous frame",
"section": "Section::::Synchronization over a curved space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "In the special relativity theory, too, proper time elapses differently for clocks moving relatively to each other. In general relativity, proper time is different even in the same reference frame at different points of space. This means that the interval of proper time between two events occurring at some space point and the time interval between the events simultaneous with those at another space point are, in general, different from one another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4xkw6s
|
Is it a coincidence that the first four planets nearest to the sun are all much smaller then the four other planets?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, it definitely isn't. The conventional explanation is as follows:\n\nThere are three main types of neutral materials in the universe, which (listed in decreasing order of abundance) are:\n\n1. Gases (Hydrogen and Helium)\n2. Ices (Water, Ammonia, Methane, Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Monoxide)\n3. Rocks and metals\n\n\n\nMaterials in category 1 are always gases, while materials in category 3 are always solids. But materials in category 2 are gases close to the Sun and solids farther away (note that we're referring to conditions of low pressure like those in space, where no materials are liquid).\n\nFar from the Sun, solid cores of planets can get much larger because they can contain abundant ices rather than rare rocks and metals. They can even get large enough to capture Category 1 materials (gases) and get really big, like in the case of Jupiter and Saturn. So outer planets should be much larger than inner planets.\n\nThat's the conventional story, but things are more complicated due to the possibility of orbital migration. That's why we've seen hot Jupiters close to their stars. But if violent migration of this type doesn't happen, we expect that things will be like our Solar System, with big planets far out and small planets close in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, it's not a coincidence, and you can see the reasons for it whenever there's a comet.\n\nClose to the Sun the heat will vaporize volatile molecules such as ices, almost all of which are Hydrogen bearing compounds (Helium goes without saying) such as water and ammonia. When a comet enters the inner solar system those ices are vaporized, they drift off from their parent body (which is too light to hold onto an atmosphere) and then are pushed by solar pressure into the outer solar system. This is where the \"tail\" of a comet comes from. The same process would have driven off much of the volatiles present in the inner solar system while the planets were forming. This creates a \"frost line\" (or \"ice line\") in the solar system, beyond which ices can exist, within which ices will be baked off. This line falls in between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter in our system. It's why the inner planets and their moons are rocky, along with the inner main belt asteroids, while most bodies farther out are gaseous or icy.\n\nBecause the proto-solar nebula that formed our system was, like most interstellar gas, predominantly Hydrogen and Helium (99%), that means that the amount of rocky materials was only a tiny fraction of the total. This is why the inner rocky planets are also smaller than the gas giants.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30462972",
"title": "HD 200964",
"section": "Section::::Planetary system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The two planets are in a 4:3 resonance, meaning that every time the outer planet orbits the star three times, the inner planet orbits the star four times. The two planets are separated by only 0.35 AU (52 Gm). Because of the small separation between the two massive planets, the gravitational tugs between the two planets is nearly 3 million times greater than the gravitational force between Earth and Mars, 700 times larger than that between Earth and the Moon, and 4 times larger than the pull of the Sun on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50402274",
"title": "TRAPPIST-1",
"section": "Section::::Planetary system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "The orbits of the TRAPPIST-1 planetary system are very flat and compact. All seven of TRAPPIST-1's planets orbit much closer than Mercury orbits the Sun. Except for \"b\", they orbit farther than the Galilean satellites do around Jupiter, but closer than most of the other moons of Jupiter. The distance between the orbits of \"b\" and \"c\" is only 1.6 times the distance between the Earth and the Moon. The planets should appear prominently in each other's skies, in some cases appearing several times larger than the Moon appears from Earth. A year on the closest planet passes in only 1.5 Earth days, while the seventh planet's year passes in only 18.8 days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "899973",
"title": "Definition of planet",
"section": "Section::::History.:Minor planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Then in 1802, Heinrich Olbers discovered Pallas, a second \"planet\" at roughly the same distance from the Sun as Ceres. That two planets could occupy the same orbit was an affront to centuries of thinking; even Shakespeare had ridiculed the idea (\"Two stars keep not their motion in one sphere\"). Even so, in 1804, another world, Juno, was discovered in a similar orbit. In 1807, Olbers discovered a fourth object, Vesta, at a similar orbital distance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36216051",
"title": "Kepler-36",
"section": "Section::::Planetary system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "On June 21, 2012, the discovery of two planets orbiting the star was announced. The planets, a super-Earth and a \"mini-Neptune\" are unusual in that they have very close orbits; their semi-major axes differ by only 0.013 AU. The outer planet orbits only 11% further than the inner one. Coupled with masses significantly higher than Earth, their gravitational influence to each other is significant, meaning that their interaction causes extreme transit timing variations for both. Kepler-36b and c have estimated densities of 6.8 and 0.86 g/cm, respectively. The two planets are close to a 7:6 orbital resonance. The large difference in densities, despite the close proximity of the planets' orbits, is likely due to the large difference in mass. The innermost and less massive planet likely lost most, or all, of the hydrogen/helium envelope acquired during formation. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3615656",
"title": "Iota Horologii b",
"section": "Section::::Detection and discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "It revolves around the host star in a somewhat elongated orbit. If it were located in the Solar System, this orbit would stretch from just outside the orbit of Venus (at 117 million km or 0.78 astronomical unit [AU] from the Sun) to just outside the orbit of the Earth (at 162 million km or 1.08 AU). Because the planet is at least 720 times more massive than the Earth, it is predicted that Iota Horologii b is more similar to planet Jupiter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47266911",
"title": "HIP 11915 b",
"section": "Section::::Significance in astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "While several Jovian-sized planets have been discovered, most have been found orbiting close to their stars. It is now hypothesized that Jupiter's movement in the Solar System may have cleared the way for the rocky inner planets, including Earth, to form. The similarity extends to the star that centers the system; like the Sun, HIP 11915 is a G-class star.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37397040",
"title": "Kepler-80",
"section": "Section::::Planetary system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "All six known planets in the Kepler-80 system orbit very close to the star, and their distances to the star (the semi major axes) are all smaller than 0.2 AU. For comparison the planet in the Solar System closest to the star, Mercury, has a semi major axis of 0.389 AU, and so the entire known system of Kepler-80 can lie within the orbit of Mercury. This makes Kepler-80 a very compact system and it is one of many STIP's (Systems with Tightly-packed Inner Planets) that have been discovered by the Kepler telescope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2lgskp
|
How popular was Uncle Tom's Cabin in the south?
|
[
{
"answer": "Another question: Were there any contemporary reviews of the book published in Southern Newspapers that criticized it as a lie/slander?\n\nI'm imagining something along the lines of how Pravda's review of Solzhenitsyn's \"The Gulag Archipelago\" had the title \"A vile slanderer seeking to earn filthy capitalist lucre by besmirching the homeland that nurtured him\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "71989",
"title": "Uncle Tom's Cabin",
"section": "Section::::Dramatic adaptations.:Plays and Tom shows.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Even though \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" was the best-selling novel of the 19th century, far more Americans of that time saw the story as a stage play or musical than read the book. Eric Lott, in his book \"Uncle Tomitudes: Racial Melodrama and Modes of Production\", estimates that at least three million people saw these plays, ten times the book's first-year sales.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3007230",
"title": "Onkel Toms Hütte (Berlin U-Bahn)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "The area was named after \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\", the 1852 anti-slavery novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe. In 1885 a local landlord named \"Thomas\" opened a public house at the southern rim of the forest and installed several small huts in his beer garden to shelter his guests from the rain. These huts were referred to as \"Tom's Cabins\", which reminded many of the famous book. Over the years the estate, the station, even the cinema and the \"\" took on the name as well. The pub was demolished in 1979.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11660900",
"title": "The Wide, Wide World",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "\"Published at the end of 1850, \"The Wide, Wide World\" by Susan Warner went through fourteen editions in two years, and may ultimately have been as popular as \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" with 19th century American readers\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40636895",
"title": "Uncle Tom's Cabin (1914 film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Uncle Tom's Cabin is a 1914 American silent historical drama film directed by William Robert Daly and starring Sam Lucas, Walter Hitchcock and Hattie Delaro. It was based upon playwright George L. Aiken's theatrical adaptation of Harriet Beecher Stowe's 1852 novel, \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\". It was produced at Fort Lee, New Jersey by the newly-founded World Film studio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71989",
"title": "Uncle Tom's Cabin",
"section": "Section::::Dramatic adaptations.:Films.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "\"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" has influenced numerous movies, including \"The Birth of a Nation\". This controversial 1915 film set the dramatic climax in a slave cabin similar to that of Uncle Tom, where several white Southerners unite with their former enemy (Yankee soldiers) to defend, according to the film's caption, their \"Aryan birthright.\" According to scholars, this reuse of such a familiar image of a slave cabin would have resonated with, and been understood by, audiences of the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71989",
"title": "Uncle Tom's Cabin",
"section": "Section::::Dramatic adaptations.:Films.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Other movies influenced by or making use of \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" include \"Dimples\", a 1936 Shirley Temple film; \"Uncle Tom's Uncle\", a 1926 \"Our Gang\" film; its 1932 remake \"Spanky\"; the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical \"The King and I\", in which a ballet called \"Small House of Uncle Thomas\" is performed in traditional Siamese style; and \"Gangs of New York\", in which Leonardo DiCaprio and Daniel Day-Lewis's characters attend an imagined wartime adaptation of \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10787339",
"title": "Tom show",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Even though \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" was the best-selling novel of the 19th century, far more Americans of that time saw the story in a stage play or musical than read the book. Some of these shows were essentially minstrel shows that utilized caricatures and stereotypes of black people, and thus inverting the intent of the novel. \"Tom shows\" were popular in the United States from the 1850s through the early 1900s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3f598l
|
why is there such a demand in asia for rhino and elephant tusks? how did it start?
|
[
{
"answer": "Traditional Chinese Medicine uses herbs and powders and other natural ingredients to cure various ailments. They believe it will cure things such as impotence or even cancer. So, there's high demand for these items.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is a \"traditional medicine\" for things like impotence (because the horn is big and strong, you get it?). And as thats always the number-one selling argument for miracle cures you see where this is heading.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10935907",
"title": "Wildlife of China",
"section": "Section::::Mammals.:Elephant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Asian elephants once roamed a large swath of China, but are now confined to the Xishuangbanna and Pu'er Prefectures of southern Yunnan. Xishuangbana means 12 elephants in the local Thai language. In recent years, Chinese demand for ivory has led to a sharp increase in elephant poaching around the world. Thanks to strict enforcement of elephant protection laws with capital punishment for poachers and government financed feeding programs, the population of elephants within China from 1994 to 2014 roughly doubled to nearly 300.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "379035",
"title": "Asian elephant",
"section": "Section::::Threats.:Poaching.:For ivory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "The demand for ivory as a result of rapid economic development during the 1970s and 1980s, particularly in East Asia, led to rampant poaching and the serious decline of elephants in many Asian and African range countries. In Thailand, the illegal trade in live elephants and ivory still flourishes. Although the quantity of worked ivory seen openly for sale has decreased substantially since 2001, Thailand still has one of the largest and most active ivory industries seen anywhere in the world. Tusks from Thai poached elephants also enter the market; between 1992 and 1997 at least 24 male elephants were killed for their tusks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43185049",
"title": "World Elephant Day",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Poaching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "The demand for ivory, which is highest in China, leads to the illegal poaching of both African and Asian elephants. For example, one of the world's largest elephants, Satao, was recently killed for his iconic tusks. Another iconic Kenyan elephant, Mountain Bull, was also killed by poachers, and with the street value for ivory now exceeding that of gold, African elephants face a poaching epidemic. Elephants are also poached for meat, leather, and body parts, with the illegal wildlife trade putting elephants increasingly in danger, because it is perceived to be a low risk and high profit endeavor. Poachers are often considered trained for this activity due to the amount of tools needed to be transported as well as the large size of these animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3465520",
"title": "Ivory carving",
"section": "Section::::The material.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1313,
"text": "Eurasian elephant ivory was usually obtained from the tusks of elephants in India, and in Roman times, from North Africa; from the 18th century sub-Saharan Africa became the main source. Ivory harvesting led to the extinction, or near-extinction of elephants in much of their former range. In early medieval Northern Europe, walrus ivory was traded south from as far away as Norse Greenland to Scandinavia, southern England and northern France and Germany. In Siberia and Arctic North America, mammoth tusks could be recovered from permafrost and used; this became a large business in the 19th century, with convicts used for much of the labour. The 25,000-year-old Venus of Brassempouy, arguably the earliest real likeness of a human face, was carved from mammoth ivory no doubt freshly killed. In northern Europe during the Early Middle Ages walrus ivory was more easily obtained from Viking traders, and later Norse settlements in Greenland than elephant ivory from the south; at this time walrus were probably found much further south than they are today. Sperm whale teeth are another source, and bone carving has been used in many cultures without access to ivory, and as a far cheaper alternative; in the Middle Ages whalebone was often used, either from the Basque whaling industry or natural strandings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5323507",
"title": "Indian elephant",
"section": "Section::::Threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Poaching of elephants for ivory is a serious threat in some parts of Asia. Poaching of tuskers impacts on sex ratios that become highly female biased; genetic variation is reduced, and fecundity and recruitment may decline. Poaching has dramatically skewed adult sex ratios in the Periyar Tiger Reserve, where between 1969 and 1989 the adult male:female sex ratio changed from 1:6 to 1:122.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9279",
"title": "Elephant",
"section": "Section::::Conservation.:Threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 1154,
"text": "The poaching of elephants for their ivory, meat and hides has been one of the major threats to their existence. Historically, numerous cultures made ornaments and other works of art from elephant ivory, and its use rivalled that of gold. The ivory trade contributed to the African elephant population decline in the late 20th century. This prompted international bans on ivory imports, starting with the United States in June 1989, and followed by bans in other North American countries, western European countries, and Japan. Around the same time, Kenya destroyed all its ivory stocks. CITES approved an international ban on ivory that went into effect in January 1990. Following the bans, unemployment rose in India and China, where the ivory industry was important economically. By contrast, Japan and Hong Kong, which were also part of the industry, were able to adapt and were not badly affected. Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia, and Malawi wanted to continue the ivory trade and were allowed to, since their local elephant populations were healthy, but only if their supplies were from elephants that had been culled or died of natural causes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59878717",
"title": "Wildlife smuggling in southern Africa",
"section": "Section::::Wildlife commodities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 922,
"text": "Elephants and rhinoceros are poached for ivory and rhinoceros horn. The trends of rhinoceros and elephant poaching are largely dependent on global demand. Rhinoceros horns are used for decorative purposes and some Asian medicines. In South Africa, rhino poaching commonly happens on privately owned land, which is difficult for officials to prevent. Another common place to poach is Kruger National Park. The African elephant (\"Loxodonta africana\") is the elephant species that inhabits southern Africa. While elephant populations in Eastern and Central Africa are steadily decreasing, elephant population sizes in southern Africa are stable. The current elephant population in southern Africa is 293, 447. However, poaching continues to threaten the status of elephant populations, specifically in Kruger National Park, where the PIKE (Proportion of Illegally Killed Elephants) value has increased 23% from 2014 to 2015.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4objz8
|
When designing Second World War era tanks how much consideration went into crew survival once the tank was hit?
|
[
{
"answer": "Several pivotal design changes on the M4 Sherman tank were sparked by complaints about crew survivability, as well as general comfort for the crew. \n\n[Wet ammunition stowage](_URL_4_) reduced the risk of flash ammunition fires after a Sherman was hit from around 80 percent to 5-10 percent and in theory gave crews a couple more seconds to abandon the tank.\n\nEarly 75 mm turrets lacked an escape hatch for the loader. This crew member had to exit through the commander's hatch after he and the gunner had disembarked. If the commander's hatch was blocked for some reason, he had to worm his way out of the turret and make his way out of the tank through the driver or assistant driver's hatches. In the case of a flash ammunition fire where the crew had only seconds to escape, this could be fatal. In October 1943, a new turret entered production that incorporated a loader's hatch. The [76 mm turret](_URL_2_) incorporated a loader's hatch from the beginning, however.\n\nInitially, the driver's and assistant driver's hatches of the Sherman were particularly small, and men had to turn almost sideways and move awkwardly in order to get in or out of the tank. This also made the evacuation of wounded or unconscious men more complicated. The small hatches also did not initially have a lock, and many crew members suffered injuries from falling hatches. A combination hatch lock and equilibrator spring were devised and installed at the various factories throughout the spring of 1943, with an Ordnance Department document stating that \"no tank without this item to be accepted after 4/15/43\".\n\nMeanwhile, a more fundamental redesign of the Sherman was taking place that incorporated larger hatches. In February 1943, dimensions for the new hatches were submitted, but they could not be incorporated into the current [56-degree angled \"small hatch\" glacis](_URL_3_) of the Sherman. \n\nChrysler had developed a [cast front upper hull section](_URL_1_) for the Sherman that sped up production, and this design was tested as a possible solution. Another design, submitted by Fisher, consisting of a [47-degree angled flat plate](_URL_3_), was found to be ballistically superior, and was selected for production starting in November 1943. After November 1943, all Sherman types incorporated this new large-hatch hull design. The new large hatches incorporated internal springs and locking mechanisms.\n\nInitially, the turret basket of the 75 mm turret was surrounded by a perforated steel mesh that made escape and retrieval of ammunition from the sponsons difficult as it only had a single exit hole. If the turret was turned just right and the commander's hatch blocked, the loader and gunner could be trapped in the turret. In order to retrieve ammunition from the sponson racks, the turret often needed to be turned to allow the loader access to the ammunition, wasting vital seconds in combat. One good example is the story of tank commander Lieutenant Raymond E. Fleig. Faced with a Panther tank rumbling toward him in the Hürtgen Forest, he ordered his gunner to fire the round already in the chamber, not realizing it was high explosive. The round did no damage, but the frightened Panther crew abandoned their tank. The enemy crew soon re-entered their tank, and fired a round at Fleig's tank, which missed. Fleig ordered his gunner to traverse the turret so his loader could reach the armor-piercing ammunition stored in the sponsons. The first round miraculously sliced off part of the Panther's gun tube; three more rounds destroyed the enemy tank.\n\nThe mesh was mostly removed from tanks that had it as part of the preparation for the D-Day invasion, and new \"large hatch\" 75 mm and 76 mm Shermans \"skeletonized\" the turret basket and did not have the mesh to begin with.\n\nSources:\n\n[Sherman Minutia Website](_URL_0_)\n\n*A Dark and Bloody Ground: The Hürtgen Forest and the Roer River Dams 1944-45*, by Edward G. Miller\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2994067",
"title": "Tanks in World War I",
"section": "Section::::First Deployments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "Tank crews who had read press reports depicting the new weapon driving through buildings and trees, and crossing wide rivers, were disappointed. Most World War I tanks could travel only at about a walking pace at best. Their steel armour could stop small arms fire and fragments from high-explosive artillery shells. However they were vulnerable to a direct hit from artillery and mortar shells. The environment inside was extremely unpleasant; as ventilation was inadequate the atmosphere was heavy with poisonous carbon monoxide from the engine and firing the weapons, fuel and oil vapours from the engine and cordite fumes from the weapons. Temperatures inside could reach 50°C (122°F). Entire crews lost consciousness inside the tanks, or collapsed when again exposed to fresh air. Crews learned how to create and leave behind supply dumps of fuel, motor oil, and tread grease, and converted obsolete models into supply vehicles for newer ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91515",
"title": "Military strategy",
"section": "Section::::Development.:World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 1353,
"text": "The role of the tank in World War I strategy is often poorly understood. Its supporters saw it as the weapon of victory, and many observers since have accused the high commands (especially the British) of shortsightedness in this matter, particularly in view of what tanks have achieved since. Nevertheless, the World War I tank's limitations, imposed by the limits of contemporary engineering technology, have to be borne in mind. They were slow (men could run, and frequently walk, faster); vulnerable (to artillery) due to their size, clumsiness and inability to carry armour against anything but rifle and machine gun ammunition; extremely uncomfortable (conditions inside them often incapacitating crews with engine fumes and heat, and driving some mad with noise); and often despicably unreliable (frequently failing to make it to their targets due to engine or track failures). This was the factor behind the seemingly mindless retention of large bodies of cavalry, which even in 1918, with armies incompletely mechanised, were still the only armed force capable of moving significantly faster than an infantryman on foot. It was not until the relevant technology (in engineering and communications) matured between the wars that the tank and the airplane could be forged into the co-ordinated force needed to truly restore manoeuvre to warfare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "212341",
"title": "History of the tank",
"section": "Section::::World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Tank designs of World War II were based upon many complex considerations, but the principal factors were those thought to be best supported by combat experience. Among these, early combat proved that a bigger tank was not necessarily a better tank. The development goal came to be a tank combining all the proven characteristics in proper balance, to which weight and size were only incidentally related. The key characteristics were mechanical reliability, firepower, mobility and protection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3781969",
"title": "Tanks in World War II",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Tank design gradually improved in the inter-war period also. Reflecting the growth of the automotive industry, tank engines, transmissions, and track systems were improved. By the beginning of the war in September 1939, tanks were available that could travel hundreds of miles on their tracks with a limited number of breakdowns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2956889",
"title": "Fiat M13/40",
"section": "Section::::Strengths and weaknesses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "Italian historians Filippo Cappellano and Pier Paolo Battistelli have pointed out that the disappointing performance of the tank early in the war, where its armament was by no means inadequate, can be ascribed to its crews' almost complete lack of training (the first tank training centre was created only in 1941) and experience, coupled with poor tactical doctrine, the lack of radios, and the fact that many units were hastily created and sent to the battlefield, and also to the lack of armoured recovery vehicles; they state that, while the training and experience of the Italian crews improved during the conflict, their tanks' technical disadvantage worsened. In such a condition, they marvel that the Italian tanks were able to fight for as long as they did.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8434248",
"title": "Ricardo plc",
"section": "Section::::Technologies that shaped the company's first 100 years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "The early tanks suffered from many problems, from uncertainty about battlefield tactics and communication, to unreliability, tricky manoeuvring and the tendency to emit thick smoke under acceleration. The element of surprise had been sacrificed, and the tanks needed significant improvement if they were to influence the course of the war. Through his contacts in government circles, Harry Ricardo was entrusted with the design of a wholly new engine for the 28-tonne machines and the creation of a network of factories to build the units in large numbers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29970",
"title": "Tank",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War I.:Other nations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Although tank tactics developed rapidly during the war, piecemeal deployments, mechanical problems, and poor mobility limited the military significance of the tank in World War I, and the tank did not fulfil its promise of rendering trench warfare obsolete. Nonetheless, it was clear to military thinkers on both sides that tanks in some way could have a significant role in future conflicts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3j33s8
|
Has a US President ever not been to one of the States at the time of his Presidency?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can add Eisenhower to /u/boneisspirit 's list of 5 non-visitors. (Don't even have to rely upon the dodge that he may just have missed AK or HI because they weren't states during most of his presidency. Eisenhower visited both in the Summer of 1960--while they were states and he president. So he missed some of the other 48). Also G.W. Bush.\n\n[President Hayes visited Oregon in 1880](_URL_0_) during the trip when he was the 1st sitting President to visit the West Coast. California being a state for 30 years by then, there are *a minimum* 6 Presidents--Fillmore thru Grant--who never went to CA. A few of them also not doing extensive Southern tours--for obvious reasons.\n\n[This unfortunately murky NatGeo map](_URL_2_) indicates Geo. Washington never in his life entered KY or TN (which both became states while he was in office).\n\n[Jefferson never traveled South or West of Virginia.](_URL_1_)\n\nIt would have been physically impossible for *any person* to travel to all 26 states during W.H. Harrison's month in office. And practically so to get to 38 during Garfield's 6 months.\n\nThat's 17 \"no\" from a (admittedly selective) sample of 21. Quite adequate to conclude that most did not.\n\nIndeed the more germane question would be if anyone achieved this prior to Nixon. I'd bet not.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When Barack Obama recently visited South Dakota, it was widely reported that he is only fourth President to visit all 50 states. The other three [were](_URL_0_) Richard Nixon, George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton. That means that Kennedy, Johnson, Ford, Carter and Reagan have not been to some states. But I don't remember if any of the articles said something about Presidents before there were 50 states.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "70352",
"title": "List of governors of New York",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "Four men have become President of the United States after serving as Governor of New York: Martin Van Buren, Grover Cleveland, Theodore Roosevelt, and Franklin D. Roosevelt, and six were Vice President of the United States. Van Buren and Theodore Roosevelt held both offices. Two governors have been Chief Justice of the United States: John Jay held that position when he was elected governor in 1795, and Charles Evans Hughes became chief justice in 1930, two decades after leaving the governorship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "49596701",
"title": "United States presidential visits to South America",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 345,
"text": "The first official visits by a sitting president were those of Franklin D. Roosevelt, and were an offshoot of Allied diplomatic interactions during World War II. Of the 12 independent countries on the continent, all but Bolivia, Guyana and Paraguay have been visited by an American president. Ecuador has only been visited by a president elect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "58779415",
"title": "Bibliography of Kalākaua",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "During his 1874–75 state visit to the United States, he made history as the first reigning monarch to visit the United States. His trip to Washington, D.C. established two diplomatic benchmarks. One was the United States Congress holding their first joint meeting in the body's history, less formal than a joint session, specifically for an audience with him. The second was President Ulysses S. Grant hosting him as honoree of the first state dinner at the White House. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "20518076",
"title": "United States Navy",
"section": "Section::::Notable sailors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The first American president who served in the navy was John F. Kennedy (who commanded the famous \"PT-109\"). Others included Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, and George H. W. Bush. Both Theodore Roosevelt and Franklin D. Roosevelt were the Assistant Secretary of the Navy prior to their presidencies. Many members of Congress served in the navy, notably U.S. Senators Bob Kerrey, John McCain, and John Kerry. Other notable former members of the U.S. Navy include astronauts, entertainers, authors and professional athletes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "974923",
"title": "British Americans",
"section": "Section::::History.:Colonial period.:Immigration after 1776.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "For over two centuries (1789-1989) of early U.S. history, all Presidents with the exception of two (Van Buren and Kennedy) were descended from the varied colonial British stock, from the Pilgrims and Puritans to the Scotch-Irish and English who settled the Appalachia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "259433",
"title": "Wilbraham, Massachusetts",
"section": "Section::::History.:17th and 18th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "The first President of the United States, General George Washington, traveled through the town twice and on one occasion slept at a home along the Bay Path in 1790 while on his way to and from Boston.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "31627026",
"title": "List of Presidents of the United States by previous experience",
"section": "Section::::By the numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "BULLET::::- 18 presidents previously served as U.S. representatives; 6 of 18 held this office prior to the four 'previous positions' shown in this table. Only one – James A. Garfield – was a Representative immediately before election as president. Only John Quincy Adams served as a U.S. representative after being president. Additionally, after being president, John Tyler served in the Provisional Confederate Congress and was later elected to the Confederate House of Representatives, but he died before taking his seat.\n",
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4ohkdv
|
Why is the king James version of the Bible considered by a lot of churches to be the best version?
|
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"answer": "We tend to call this \"King James Version Only\"-ism. The [wikipedia](_URL_0_) page is reasonably well-written, if you want an overview.\n\nAt its heart it's a view of both the textual tradition of Greek and Hebrew texts that undergird the KJV, usually coupled with a view of the process of translation that led to the KJV's translation in the first place.\n\nOn the textual side, KJVO advocates usually view the 'Received Text' (Textus Receptus) which underlines the KJV as superior, faithful, and sometimes divinely protected from corruption. They view with disdain and rejection the discipline of modern textual criticism, and tend to favour simple majority of manuscripts, vs. genealogising and 'weighing' manuscripts.\n\nOn the process side, some believe that the KJV is an divinely authoritative translation for English and remains so for all time. \n\nThe best introduction to this issue is, in my view, the extensive work of Christian Apologist, James White. I suppose you might go around trying to find a secular take on this issue, but quite frankly secular scholars have rarely found the issue interesting enough to do some of the work White has. \n\nThere certainly are other translations, a great deal of them. As far as I know, while some argue that particular translations are 'best' on the market, there are not churches functioning in English that have similar views to KJVO in regards to another version.",
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"answer": "The KJV of the Bible was the first authorized English translation of the Bible; earlier translators, such as William Tyndale, were hunted down and executed. The translation also has something to do with the idea of allowing more people to more easily read the Bible and come to their own interpretation, rather than relying on the clergy to interpret it for them (though there was backlash against this-primarily from the clergy and others higher up on the social ladder).\n\nFor comparison, Gutenberg printed a Latin version of the Bible and the first German version of the Bible came out in 1466. King James, by comparison, didn't ascend to the throne until 1603, so you're talking nearly ~150 years in between. By 1483, for further comparison, there were 9 different German translations of the Bible.\n\nIn 1407, Thomas Arundel, the Archbishop of Canterbury, banned English translations of the Bible; six years later in 1413, under the reign of Henry V, English (which had previously been the language used to address social inferiors; French was the language of nobility) became more respectable, particularly after the Battle at Agincourt. \n\nFast forwarding, the 16th Century's Reformation helped with the push for an English Bible. In Germany, the Reformation under Martin Luther was propelled by religious belief from within (see the 95 theses); in England, by contrast, the Reformation is caused by Henry VIII (notorious for his wives) and is as a result of political and pragmatic reasons, rather than theological ones.\n\nTo provide some back information about the English Reformation: around this time period, a strategic alliance between England and Spain is considered very important. In 1525, however, Charles V, the King of Spain, refuses to marry Mary Tudor (Bloody Mary), the daughter of Henry VIII; he has also surrounded Rome, where the Pope, Clementine VII, resides. So, when Henry VIII tries to get divorced from his wife, Catherine of Spain, who is the aunt of Charles V, the Pope refuses.\n\nMakes sense: no reason to let Charles' uncle-by-marriage divorce his aunt and alienate Charles V, who is sieging the city he lives in. So, in retaliation, Henry VIII breaks off and forms the Church of England, but even he is not a fan of an English translation. Thomas More (author of *Utopia*), for example, is executed for refusing to acknowledge Henry VIII's religious supremacy to the Pope. \n\nFollowing this, there are a series of translations: Tyndale's, and 1526 edition from Worms that is smuggled into England. Tyndale goes into hiding, then is strangled and burned in 1535. Anne Boleyn, one of Henry VIII's wives who favors an English translation, is executed in 1536, which is a setback. In 1537, Richard Grafton publishes his Matthew Bible: this combines Tyndale's translations with those of Myles Coverdale to complete what Tyndale couldn't. Interestingly, this also includes the Apocryphal books, which are typically *not* included in most modern day Bibles, so far as I'm aware. (*Bel and the Dragon* isn't in most editions, for example).\n\nTo avoid wading too deep into too much detail, it was proliferation of these frowned-upon Bibles that led to the decision by King James to create an authorized translation to counter these smuggled-in English Bibles, particularly the Geneva Bible, which James was not a fan of.\n\nThere are several other versions, however: the Geneva Bible and the Douay-Rheims version are just two translations. Among Protestants, the King James Bible is more popular. The Latin Vulgate Bible is more favored by Catholics, as I understand it.\n\nBacktracking to the beginning for an attempt at a summary that more directly addresses your question: the popularity of the KJV among Protestants has to do with the fact that they made the first publicly, easily available Bible for English-speakers (meant to supplant previous ones, particularly the Geneva Bible, which had begun to get more popular in England prior to the KJV translation), whereas among the more traditional Catholics, the Latin Vulgate Bible is the preferable edition, as I understand it. In addition, the reason it's considered the 'best' version has to do with the attempt at a beautiful, poetic writing style for the writing by the translators.\n\nSource:\n\nAlister McGrath, *In The Beginning*",
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"wikipedia_id": "3450622",
"title": "Bible version debate",
"section": "Section::::King James Version defenders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
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"text": "Some Christian fundamentalists believe that the King James Version is the only version of the Bible English speakers should use due to the conclusion that corruptions are present in the other translations. Some who follow this belief have formed a King James Only movement. Similarly some non-English speakers prefer translations based upon Textus Receptus, or \"Received Text\", instead of the Alexandrian text edited by Wescott and Hort in 1881. Proponents of this belief system point to verses such as Ps. 12:6-7, Matt. 24:35, and others, claiming that \"perfect preservation\" was promised, often basing this reasoning on the fact that these verses utilize the plural form \"words\", supposedly indicating that it is more than merely \"the word\" that will be preserved. The issue also extends to which edition is being used, particularly, the Pure Cambridge Edition.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "25273814",
"title": "LDS edition of the Bible",
"section": "Section::::English-language King James Version edition.\n",
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"text": "In 1992, the church's First Presidency announced the King James Version was the church's official English Bible, stating \"[w]hile other Bible versions may be easier to read than the King James Version, in doctrinal matters latter-day revelation supports the King James Version in preference to other English translations.\" In 2010, this statement was written into the church's \"Handbook\", which directs official church policy and programs.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "47705461",
"title": "Verbal plenary preservation",
"section": "Section::::Which Bible? Which texts?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
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"text": "On the question of why the Textus Receptus underlying the King James Version and not Luther's German Bible, or the Spanish Reina Valera, or the Polish Biblia Gdanska, or the French Martin Bible, or some other language Bible is chosen (while VPP proponents do not deny such Bibles to be faithful and reliable versions that are accurately translated and based on the Textus Receptus), God's stamp of approval is clear from the fruits (Matthew 7:17-20). Helped along by the course of history (under the control of God) which has made English a worldwide language used by at least 300 million people who have English as their native tongue and by many more millions whose second language is English, the King James Version is known the world over and more widely read than any other translation of the holy scriptures and it has been used by many missionaries as a basis and guide for their own translation work into other foreign languages to reach converts who know no English.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "47705461",
"title": "Verbal plenary preservation",
"section": "Section::::Which Bible? Which texts?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
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"text": "The King James Version (or Authorized Version) of the English Bible – which has no equal amongst all of the other English translations – is a true, faithful, and accurate translation of the two providentially preserved Texts so that one can – with rejecting the \"inspired version,\" \"advanced revelation,\" and \"super superiority\" position of Peter Ruckman and Gail Riplinger – confidently hold up the Authorized Version of 1611 and say \"This is the WORD OF GOD!\" while realizing that one must in some verses go back to the underlying original language Texts (i.e., the Traditional Masoretic Hebrew Text and the Traditional Received Greek Text) for complete clarity, and also compare Scripture with Scripture.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "763919",
"title": "Early Modern English Bible translations",
"section": "Section::::Versions.:King James Version.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
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"text": "The King James Version was first published in 1611 as a complete Bible (Herbert #309) and a New Testament (Herbert #310). Translated by 47 translators using the widest range of source texts, it became known as the \"Authorized Version\" in England and is the most widely used of the Early Modern English Bible translations. Its use has continued in some traditions up to the present. Even though modern scholarship continues to claim problems with some of the translation, it is widely admired for its style and use of language.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "382168",
"title": "King James Only movement",
"section": "",
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"text": "The King James Only movement asserts that the King James Version of the Bible is superior to all other English translations. Adherents, largely from evangelical, conservative holiness movement and Baptist churches, believe that the KJV is the greatest English translation ever produced, needing no further improvements, and that all other English translations produced after the KJV are corrupt.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "16767",
"title": "King James Version",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The King James Version (KJV), also known as the King James Bible (KJB) or simply the Version (AV), is an English translation of the Christian Bible for the Church of England, begun in 1604 and completed as well as published in 1611 under the sponsorship of James VI and I. The books of the King James Version include the 39 books of the Old Testament, an intertestamental section containing 14 books of the Apocrypha, and the 27 books of the New Testament. The translation is noted for its \"majesty of style\", and has been described as one of the most important books in English culture and a driving force in the shaping of the English-speaking world.\n",
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v1aof
|
Does a brain have a gender?
|
[
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"answer": "Yes, brain cells have chromosomes in them, including gender chromosomes (X, Y). Meaning difference in genes and expression of those genes. Not to mention gender affects the development of the brain.",
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"answer": "There is a sexually dimorphic area in the brain known as the medial preoptic area (MPOA). Studies show that this region is significantly different between masculine and feminine subjects. I say masculine and feminine instead of male and female because many brains of homosexual men have been studied and display a more feminine preoptic area (some people say this isn't proof of anything since many of those individuals were AIDS victims and their brains could have been affected, however it has been repeated multiple times on patients who died of other causes). In masculine subjects, there is a greater sized nucleus in this region, meaning there is a more dense and large grouping of cell somas in comparison to the female brain. This leads us to the wonderful controversy of whether or not people can be born gay. The problem with researching types of MPOAs is that the patient has to be dead, which makes it hard to tell if that individual's preoptic area was masculine or feminine to begin with, or it had differentiated over time. Long story short to answer your question, small slices of the brain in the medial preoptic area, when viewed under a microscope, would look significantly different. [Here is picture.] (_URL_0_) Male is on left, female on right.",
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"answer": "There certainly are differences between males and female brain on a number of levels. You could roughly list them under:\n\n* Chemical (e.g. different concentrations of neurotransmitters) \n* Physiological (e.g. differences in activity in circuit X under identical conditions)\n* Morphological (differences in brain shape and organisation)\n* Developmental (e.g. male and female brains grow and wire themselves slightly differently through childhood)\n\nPerhaps someone will like to add specific examples?",
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"answer": "\"Sex\" refers to the biological categories of male or female - this category relates to chromosomes and genitalia.\n\n\"Gender\" refers to the social construct - the behaviors, traits, and characteristics assigned to the biological sexes.\n\nWhat it means to be a man or a woman varies from culture to culture and from time period to time period. What it meant to be a man in 16th century Russia is dramatically different from what it means to be a 21st century U.S. American man.\n\nI think the root of your question is whether or not men and women are \"hardwired\" differently.\n\nNo, not really.\n\nHormones may bias a person slightly toward one direction, but that bias is very small. A baby boy, experiencing a surge of testosterone (that tampers off during childhood, where boys and girls have nearly identical amounts of testosterone) might move around in his crib more and be somewhat more fussier, but those differences are not great, and a fussy baby boy does not mean a varsity football player in the future. To give you an idea of the degree of difference between men and women - there is far more variation between people of one gender than there is difference between the two groups. The differences between women are greater than the differences between men and women (and the differences between men are greater than the differences between men and women).\n\nThe differences between men and women are not as great as people think they are. Even staples of our cultural beliefs - that men are more aggressive and women are more emotional, can disappear, vary by culture, or ultimately don't exist. \n\nFrodi, Macaulay, and Thome (1977) and Bettencourt and Miller (1996) did studies and found that, under laboratory conditions, gender differences in aggression shrank or disappeared completely under certain conditions. If women felt their aggression was justified, they became as aggressive as men. If they were provoked in various ways, they became as aggressive as men.\n\nDepending on how aggression is defined, women are sometimes more aggressive than men (Archer, 2004; Richardson, 2005). People tend to think of aggression as physical violence, but psychologists have various definition. Relational aggression (social aggression) is applied to instances such as group exclusion, sulking, or giving someone the \"silent treatment.\" Indirect aggression, is as it sounds - indirect attacks, such as mockery or putting the blame for something on someone else. One only needs to think about the \"popular girls\" back in grade school to see how young girls can be just as aggressive as boys when aggression is defined in these ways. \n\nThe second concept I want to touch on its emotionality. People think that women are more emotional - or even \"overemotional\" compared to boys. Research doesn't really support that, though. It is certainly true that women display their emotions more than men do, but those are social behaviors that follow cultural display rules, which dictate what emotions can and cannot be shown.\n\nOne study (McFarlane et al, 1977) measured the moods of men, women who were ovulating, and women who were not ovulating (taking oral contraceptives). They measured the moods of the participants by giving them electronic gadgets that would ping them throughout the day to rate their mood for 70 days.\n\nA quote directly from a textbook of mine on this study:\n\n > All participants experienced similar mood changes within a day as well as from day to day. Also, the men and women reported similar variability in mood during the 70 days of the study.\n\nThe above studies are just a few examples of ways in which gender differences we think are really, definitely real, no fooling, can shrink, disappear, or don't really exist.\n\nIt's also important to consider the culture that one is discussing. I think people have a tendency to think that what is true in their culture in this particular time is a universal truth. In reality, traits and values that we assign to and expect of men and women vary between culture and time period.\n\nIn the U.S., traits like pride and independence are associated with masculinity. We value \"picking yourself up by your bootstraps. In collectivistic cultures (China and Taiwan), neither of these traits are valued in men or women. Utku Eskimos do not value or accept anger - it's an emotion that's considered shameful. Some research on tribes in New Guinea reveals that women in some tribes, such as the Vanatinai and the Tchambuli, are more aggressive than men (Lepowsky, 1994).\n\nNow, there are *two* cognitive abilities that differ between men and women - mental rotation and verbal abilities. But even these differences aren't great. Gender accounts for less than 10% of the variance between men and women on mental rotation abilities, meaning that more than 90% of the difference between men and women is due to other factors- and this difference can shrink or disappear under various conditions, such as allowing participants to practice/experiment with the instruments of measure before the actual study. One study found that . . . \"women's performance on a mental rotation task increased when they were reminded of their status at the selective, private school they attended (McGlone & Aronson, 2006). Women with a feminine role orientation do better on a spatial task when it's described as an empathy task instead of a spatial task (Massa et . al, 2005).\n\nWhen it comes to verbal abilities, gender accounts for about 1% of the variance between men and women - meaning that 99% of the variance between a man's scores and a woman's scores is the result of other things. This difference also shrinks depending on certain factors, such as if the verbal task uses words or vocabulary that are male stereotypical (such as a list of hardware supplies).\n\nIt's also important to note the difference between statistical significance and clinical/practical significance. Men and women might differ statistically on, say, a verbal abilities test, but that doesn't mean that that difference has any practical, real-world implications. Nor does it mean that one can make any judgements about a person's abilities just by knowing their gender. There are many women who are far better at men on spatial performance - and there are many men who are far better than women on verbal tasks. \n\nSo what causes men and women to be different? If nature isn't the main player, than what is?\n\nFrom the time a baby is born, people treat it differently depending on its gender. People apply pink to girls, blue to boys. People smile more at girls, make more eye contact with girls. A study by Condry and Condry (1976) had participants watch a video of a baby playing with a Jack in the Box, and the baby reacted. When participants were told the baby was a boy, they deduced that it was crying out of anger. When told it was a girl, they judged that it was crying out of sadness. Same video, same baby - the only thing different was whether parents thought the baby was a boy or a girl.\n\nAnother study, mentioned in the book \"Pink Brain, Blue Brain\" by Lise Eliot, talked about mothers' expectations about their children's abilities. The study had mothers try to calculate how steep of a ramp their baby was willing to crawl down, and then the baby attempted to crawl down it. Mothers were within one degree of accuracy when guessing how steep a boy would crawl down, but they underestimated daughters' abilities by a whopping 9 degrees.\n\nEverything in our society is gendered, from the images on bathroom signs (stick figure in skirt = woman, stick figure without skirt = man), to our language (he/she/him/her). Even god, a sexless figure, is engendered as male. Even boys and girls in *coloring books* are engendered. \n\nSomeone, somewhere, did an analysis of coloring books and found that male characters were more common than female characters - and they were more likely to be in active or central roles. The female characters were in the background and relegated to \"helping\" roles. Television shows operate in the same way and characters are relegated to stereotypical tasks.\n\nThese are just the unconscious and environmental ways in which our society is gendered. This doesn't speak to the ways in which boys and girls are directly conditioned by family and community. When a boy is rough-housing and playing in the mud, people shrug and smile and go \"Well, boys will be boys!\" Girls that are quiet and shy are praised for being so. A little girl that plays with trucks may be affectionately called a \"tomboy,\" but a boy who plays with dolls is scolded.\n\nAnd when young male children need to be told that \"boys don't cry,\" enough that it's a common phrase in our language . . . that's a clue that suppression of emotion in boys is not a product of nature.\n\nParts of the above post is a conglomeration of two older posts I wrote. They start [here](_URL_0_). ",
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"answer": "Yes, the brain has a gender, as others have already explained. When the gender of the brain differs from the gender of the body (ie, the physical appearance of a man our woman), the individual is transsexual.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "55028839",
"title": "Daphna Joel",
"section": "Section::::Academic career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
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"text": "According to Joel, the brain has no sex, and the differences between \"female\" and \"male\" brains, though they exist, are minor and unrelated to each other. She was the first to talk about correlation in the context of the brain: a particular area of the brain, such as a large amygdala, does not predict anything about a different part of the brain, say, a small hippocampus. Although there are differences in the brain between males and females, they are not organized. Thus, if a \"male\" characteristic is found in a particular area, it does not actually mean anything about the masculinity or femininity of the other brain characteristics, which are determined by the complex interactions between sex, genetics and the environment.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "51614",
"title": "Biology and sexual orientation",
"section": "Section::::Empirical studies.:Studies of brain structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
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"text": "Research on the physiologic differences between male and female brains are based on the idea that people have male or a female brain, and this mirrors the behavioral differences between the two sexes. Some researchers state that solid scientific support for this is lacking. Although consistent differences have been identified, including the size of the brain and of specific brain regions, male and female brains are very similar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "37689148",
"title": "Neuroscience of sex differences",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "Some evidence from brain morphology and function studies indicates that male and female brains cannot always be assumed to be identical from either a structural or functional perspective, and some brain structures are sexually dimorphic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "35334391",
"title": "Sexual arousal",
"section": "Section::::Category-specificity.:Overlapping brain variables and sexual arousal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
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"text": "While there is disagreement among neurologists on whether or not it is possible to categorically distinguish male brains and female brains by measuring many variables in the brain, neurologists agree that all single variables in the brain display more individual variation and overlap between the sexes than differences between the sexes. For instance, men and women alike are capable of classifying sex acts as sexual no matter if they find them appealing or not, making a genital response to unappealing erotic stimuli a single mechanism step. It is therefore argued by neurologists that category specificity of genital response to erotical imagery, being determined by one or a small number of closely linked brain mechanisms and therefore not subject to significant multivariate effects, cannot be subject to such a large sex difference as that apparent in pletysmographic studies. These neurologists cite the existence of significant volunteering bias among men but not women in erotica research, in particular that the overrepresentation of erectile dysfunction yet underrepresentation of sexuality-related shame in volunteers is consistent with the hypothesis that genital response to both sexual relevance and appeal allows for a stronger erectile function than response only to appeal and that a majority of the male population are ashamed of their responses to unappealing stimuli, accounting for the discrepancy between the report from most heterosexual couples that male erection is faster than female lubrication and the appearance on pletysmography volunteers that female lubrication is at least as fast as male erection. They also argue that the appearance of a greater individual variability in female genital response than in male genital response is consistent with a representative female sample and a male sample subject to bias that leaves much of the individual variability unstudied, with a reference to the neurological observation that all brain structures display significant individual variability in both sexes and that no[ brain structure is variable only in females and not in males.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "25935238",
"title": "Educational neuroscience",
"section": "Section::::Neuromyths.:Male versus female brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "The idea that a person can have a \"male\" brain or \"female\" brain is a misinterpretation of terms used to describe cognitive styles by when attempting to conceptualise the nature of cognitive patterns in people with autism spectrum disorder. Baron-Cohen suggested that while men were better \"systemisers\" (good at understanding mechanical systems), women were better \"empathisers\" (good at communicating and understanding others), therefore he suggested that autism could be thought of as an extreme form of the \"male brain\". There was no suggestion that males and females had radically different brains or that females with autism had a male brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7417699",
"title": "The Female Brain (book)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "The Female Brain is a book written by the American neuropsychiatrist Louann Brizendine in 2006. The main thesis of the book is that women's behavior is different from that of men due, in large measure, to hormonal differences. Brizendine says that the human female brain is affected by the following hormones: estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, (oxytocin), neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin), and that there are differences in the architecture of the brain (prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus, amygdala) that regulates such hormones and neurotransmitters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12248225",
"title": "Brain Gender",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "\"Brain Gender\" is a book exploring the biological differences between sex and gender. Hines questions whether or not different biological differences, such as hormones, affect the way people develop and act. Hines demonstrates the possibilities that genetic, biological, neuroendocrine, behavioral, social, and statistical aspects of born sex affect the differences between males or females in gender roles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2l2i91
|
Did Joseph Kennedy lobotomize his daughter, Rosemary Kennedy, to preserve the reputation of his family?
|
[
{
"answer": "Found a [source](_URL_0_) describing the lobotomy on p. 179 of Personality Theories: Critical Perspectives.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I guess I'm just ignorant on the subject, but is lobotomizing someone else (like getting your daughter lobotomized because you fearcher acting out) even legal?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Short answer is yes. In his book, *An unfinished life*, Robert Dallek gives this explanation for the lobotomy.\n\n''After years of effort that had produced small gains in her ability to deal with adult matters, Rosemary turned violent at the age of twenty-one, throwing tantrums and raging at caretakers who tried to control her. In response, Joe, without Rose's knowledge, arranged for Rosemary to have a prefrontal lobotomy, which contemporary medical understanding recommended as the best means for alleviating her agitation and promising a more placid life. The surgery, however proved to be a disaster, and Joe felt compelled to institutionalize Rosemary in a Wisconsin nunnery, where she would spend the rest of her life.\n\nPart of the family's impulse in dealing with Rosemary as they did was to hide the truth about her condition. In the twenties and thirties, mental disabilities were seen as a mark of inferiority and an embarrassment best left undisclosed. Rosemary's difficulties were especially hard to bear for a family as preoccupied with its glowing image as the Kennedys. It was one thing for them to acknowledge limitations among themselves, but to give outsiders access to such information or put personal weaknesses on display was to open the family to possible ridicule or attack from people all too eager to knock down Kennedy claims of superiority. Hiding family problems, particularly medical concerns, later became a defense against jeopardizing election to public office.'' \n\n**SOURCE** : Robert Dallek, *An unfinished life : John F. Kennedy*, Back bay book, New York, 2003. p.72-73\n\nI'd like to add that Dallek's book is a thoroughly written one and I trust his explanation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Lobotomist by Jack El-hai tells the story of the Walter Freeman, the guy who invented prefrontal lobotomies and performed thousands of them (usually with ice picks). The operation on Rose doesn't sound that far from the usual range of lobotomies performed during the operation's popular period either in terms of the patient or the actual procedure (according to the extensive sources, including Freeman's journals and notes, cited in the book). I highly recommend it the book.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > I think she was awake. She had a mild tranquilizer. \n > \n > Dr. Freeman put questions to Rosemary. For example, he asked her to recite the Lord's Prayer \n \nHow does this fit together?\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am by no means an expert on history, but I can provide a little bit of context on the psychological side of things here. Rosemary had her lobotomy performed in 1941. The procedure was still relatively new then, but was quickly becoming a mainstream treatment for mental disorders. In fact, in 1949 the pioneer behind lobotomies was given a Nobel prize in medicine for the procedure. I can't speak as to Joseph's motives one way or the other, but I can say that getting a lobotomy performed in Rosemary's situation made sense in the context of mental health knowledge and procedures of the early 1940's. It was not, at the time, considered a radical or dangerous procedure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have never commented in this sub before, but I feel compelled as a medical historian to point out the fact that during this pre-psychopharmacology era, lobotomy (and other somatic therapies like insulin coma and electroshock) was a widely accepted clinical practice and was considered state of the art care for severe cases. It only declined in favor quite a while after Kennedy had the procedure done, after significant changes in the field of psychiatry itself. And, of course, after a number of negative portrayals in the media in the 60s and 70s. \n\nThe standard book on this topic, if you're interested, is Jack Pressman, *Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine*.\n\nAs for the idea of lobotomies being performed for things like female promiscuity, some historians would agree -- but being historians, they would also point out that it was very complicated and was not just about that one thing, but a whole constellation of issues relating to the cultural/temporal context in which those practices were occurring. See Elizabeth Lunbeck, *The Psychiatric Persuasion: Knowledge, Gender, and Power in Modern America*.\n\nIn my personal opinion, I don't think the Kennedy family did anything intentionally malevolent. As I said, Rosemary was receiving pretty top-notch care for the time. And if they were so concerned with legacy, then the family's later involvement with things like the Special Olympics and championing public and mental health policy issues doesn't make a lot of sense. Just my two cents.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "291120",
"title": "P. J. Kennedy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Kennedy was the only surviving male in the family after two outbreaks of cholera killed his father and brother. He started work at fourteen as a stevedore in the docks. Kennedy owned three saloons and a whisky import house, and eventually had major interests in coal and banking. He moved successfully into politics, as a sociable man able to mix comfortably with both the Catholic and the Protestant elite, and he sat in the Massachusetts House of Representatives and in the Massachusetts Senate. His involvement with the behind-the-scenes machinations made Boston politics notorious.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21131695",
"title": "Robert F. Kennedy",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.:Attitudes and approach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "In his earlier life, Kennedy had developed a reputation as the family's attack dog. He was a hostile cross-examiner on Joseph McCarthy's Senate committee; a fixer and leg-breaker as JFK's campaign manager; an unforgiving and merciless cutthroat—his father's son right down to Joseph Kennedy's purported observation that \"he hates like me.\" Yet Bobby Kennedy somehow became a liberal icon, an antiwar visionary who tried to outflank Lyndon Johnson's Great Society from the left.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21131695",
"title": "Robert F. Kennedy",
"section": "Section::::Early life.:Relationship with parents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Joe Sr. was satisfied with Kennedy as an adult, believing him to have become \"hard as nails\", more like him than any of the other children, while his mother believed he exemplified all she had wanted in a child. Mills wrote, \"His parents' conflicting views would be echoed in the opinions of millions of people throughout Bobby's life. Robert Kennedy was a ruthless opportunist who would stop at nothing to attain his ambitions. Robert Kennedy was America's most compassionate public figure, the only person who could save a divided country.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30874848",
"title": "Kerry Kennedy",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Kennedy was born in Washington, D.C.. Three days after her birth, her father resigned as chief counsel of the Senate Rackets Committee. She appeared, age 3, in the 1963 Robert Drew documentary \",\" saying hello to U.S. Justice Department official Nicholas Katzenbach by phone from the office of her father, Robert F. Kennedy, Attorney General at the time. Her father was assassinated in 1968. She is a graduate of The Putney School and Brown University and received her Juris Doctor from Boston College Law School.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25497710",
"title": "Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Kennedy's widow Ethel Kennedy did not attend the press conference, but was nearby, in a second-floor bedroom of Hickory Hill on doctor's orders, awaiting the birth of her eleventh child. She issued a statement saying it was the hope of her husband's family and friends that the Robert F. Kennedy Memorial would carry forward the ideals he worked for during his lifetime: \"He wanted to encourage the young people and to help the disadvantaged and discriminated against both here and abroad, and he wanted to promote peace in the world. These will be the goals of the memorial.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5779016",
"title": "Florynce Kennedy",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Kennedy was born in Kansas City, Missouri, to an African-American family. Her father Wiley Kennedy was a Pullman porter, and later had a taxi business. The second of her parents' five daughters, she had a happy childhood, full of support from her parents, despite experiencing poverty in the Great Depression and racism in her mostly white neighborhood. Kennedy remembered a time when her father had to be armed with a shotgun in order to ward off the strong neighborhood Ku Klux Klan presence that was trying to drive her family out. She later commented: \"My parents gave us a fantastic sense of security and worth. By the time the bigots got around to telling us that we were nobody, we already knew we were somebody.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24193888",
"title": "Kara Kennedy",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "In April 2011, Kennedy wrote an article for \"The Boston Globe Magazine\" about her family life growing up and her father's influence on her. Kennedy revealed her close relationship with her father, and the role he played in helping her to wage her battle against lung cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lykrr
|
How does the Brain know which nerve receptor is sending a message ?
|
[
{
"answer": "The brain knows because the signal is conducted from the spot of sensation through a chain of neurons up to the brain, like dominoes. The more interesting part is something called \"lateral inhibition\", which causes a decrease in firing frequency for the neurons flanking a stimulated neuron. This helps us to localize the spot of stimulation, and assign magnitude to the level of stimulation. Ultimately, it's not a one-neuron-code that gets sent, then, the brain is also detecting changes in firing in other, local neurons. \n\nAdditionally, it's a little cruder of a sensing tool than I may have just made it sound. If you take two pencils, and press the tips equally onto your skin with decreasing distances between the tips, there will be a point where you can no longer say that you feel two tips touching you, your brain will tell you it's only one. This is a type of resolution called \"two-point discrimination\". \n\nLastly, there's a bizarre phenomenon called \"referred pain\", where you experience injury in one spot, but feel it in a totally different location on your body. A common example is left arm pain without heart pain during a heart attack, less common is shoulder pain during miscarriage/rupturing ovarian cysts. Although this hasn't been entirely explained, the probable explanation involves what spinal level the input synapses on, and what else normally signals there. The brain doesn't seem to distinguish well between very rare inputs, like strong heart pain, and a much more common input, like pain in your left arm, and assigns the pain sensation to the more common area of pain. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26383679",
"title": "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism of action.:Serotonin reuptake inhibition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "In the brain, messages are passed from a nerve cell to another via a chemical synapse, a small gap between the cells. The presynaptic cell that sends the information releases neurotransmitters including serotonin into that gap. The neurotransmitters are then recognized by receptors on the surface of the recipient postsynaptic cell, which upon this stimulation, in turn, relays the signal. About 10% of the neurotransmitters are lost in this process; the other 90% are released from the receptors and taken up again by monoamine transporters into the sending presynaptic cell, a process called \"reuptake\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21944",
"title": "Nervous system",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "At the most basic level, the function of the nervous system is to send signals from one cell to others, or from one part of the body to others. There are multiple ways that a cell can send signals to other cells. One is by releasing chemicals called hormones into the internal circulation, so that they can diffuse to distant sites. In contrast to this \"broadcast\" mode of signaling, the nervous system provides \"point-to-point\" signals—neurons project their axons to specific target areas and make synaptic connections with specific target cells. Thus, neural signaling is capable of a much higher level of specificity than hormonal signaling. It is also much faster: the fastest nerve signals travel at speeds that exceed 100 meters per second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162435",
"title": "Mind uploading",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The human brain contains, on average, about 86 billion nerve cells called neurons, each individually linked to other neurons by way of connectors called axons and dendrites. Signals at the junctures (synapses) of these connections are transmitted by the release and detection of chemicals known as neurotransmitters. The established neuroscientific consensus is that the human mind is largely an emergent property of the information processing of this neural network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14405160",
"title": "Synaptic weight",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "In the mammalian central nervous system, signal transmission is carried out by interconnected networks of nerve cells, or neurons. For the basic pyramidal neuron, the input signal is carried by the axon, which releases neurotransmitter chemicals into the synapse which is picked up by the dendrites of the next neuron, which can then generate an action potential which is analogous to the output signal in the computational case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21120",
"title": "Neuron",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Most neurons receive signals via the dendrites and soma and send out signals down the axon. At the majority of synapses, signals cross from the axon of one neuron to a dendrite of another. However, synapses can connect an axon to another axon or a dendrite to another dendrite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21942008",
"title": "Cell polarity",
"section": "Section::::Examples of polarized cells.:Neurons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "A neuron receives signals from neighboring cells through branched, cellular extensions called dendrites. The neuron then propagates an electrical signal down a specialized axon extension to the synapse, where neurotransmitters are released to propagate the signal to another neuron or effector cell (e.g., muscle or gland). The polarity of the neuron thus facilitates the directional flow of information, which is required for communication between neurons and effector cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21435",
"title": "Nerve",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "A nerve conveys information in the form of electrochemical impulses (as nerve impulses known as action potentials) carried by the individual neurons that make up the nerve. These impulses are extremely fast, with some myelinated neurons conducting at speeds up to 120 m/s. The impulses travel from one neuron to another by crossing a synapse, the message is converted from electrical to chemical and then back to electrical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4nl418
|
why are transgender issues suddenly all over the place?
|
[
{
"answer": "Causes are fashion for many people. And transgender issues are currently the most fashionable. I say this as someone who fully believes that trans people deserve equality and freedom from persecution, but also as someone who recognises that people clearly bandwagon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41131721",
"title": "Transgender inequality",
"section": "Section::::Transgender Inequality in Society.:Timeline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Transgender people who are going through divorce, inheritance battles or custody disputes are vulnerable to legal challenges. This is because the validity of their marriages is often called into question due to inconsistent laws regulating transgender equality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43797",
"title": "Violence against LGBT people",
"section": "Section::::Criminal assault.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "People's ignorance of and prejudice against LGBT people can contribute to the spreading of misinformation about them and subsequently to violence. In 2018, a transgender woman was killed by a mob in Hyderabad, India, following false rumors that transgender women were sex trafficking children. Three other transgender women were injured in the attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39425949",
"title": "Gender inequality in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "In addition to the inequality faced by transgender women, inequality, prejudice, and violence against transgender men and women, as well as gender nonconforming individuals and non-binary individuals, are also prevalent in the United States. Transgender individuals suffer from prejudices in the workforce and employment, higher levels of domestic violence, higher rates of hate crimes, especially murder, and higher levels of police brutality when compared to the cisgender population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19904525",
"title": "Transgender",
"section": "Section::::Coming out.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "Transgender people vary greatly in choosing when, whether, and how to disclose their transgender status to family, close friends, and others. The prevalence of discrimination and violence (transgender people are 28% more likely to be victims of violence) against transgender persons can make coming out a risky decision. Fear of retaliatory behavior, such as being removed from the parental home while underage, is a cause for transgender people to not come out to their families until they have reached adulthood. Parental confusion and lack of acceptance of a transgender child may result in parents treating a newly revealed gender identity as a \"phase\" or making efforts to change their children back to \"normal\" by utilizing mental health services to alter the child's gender identity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39425949",
"title": "Gender inequality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Current issues for transgender people.:Health and violence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 1124,
"text": "Transgender individuals, especially transgender women, are at a high risk of suffering from domestic abuse due to invisibility, lack of access to support facilities such as shelters, and a lack of legal and social protection. Transgender individuals are also more likely to be sexually and physically assaulted, both by strangers and acquaintances, than cisgender individuals are. In addition, there are several factors that limit transgender people's access to health care facilities and proper medical care, including transphobia and the tendency of gender-segregated homeless and domestic violence shelters to refuse service to transgender and gender nonconforming individuals. One study reported that 19% of transgender individuals interviewed reported being refused medical care due to their gender identity, while 28% reported being harassed in a medical setting and 2% reported violence toward them in a medical setting due to their gender identity. In the same study, 50% percent of transgender respondents reported the need to educate their medical providers about the health care needs of transgender individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22041110",
"title": "Transgender rights movement",
"section": "Section::::Issues of concern.:People of color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1101,
"text": "The pure social stigma of being transgender is a root cause for poor health care, which manifests into other areas of transgender people. Social determinants of health, including violence and discrimination, may result in negative personal psychological and physiological effects. The access to proper health care is essential in both the transitioning and resilience. In a study of resilience of transgender people of color, Jay, a 41-year-old FTM POC, stated he “had no place to turn to get help in transition—and worked five jobs trying to save money for surgery that [he] never knew if [he] would be able to afford.” Another key factor to the resilience to opposition of transgender POC involved having a strong sense of pride in both ethnic and gender identities. Developing this sense of pride can be a process, which involves overcoming barriers such as transphobia and racism. However, once these barriers are in fact crossed, transgender POC can start to see themselves in a better light and use their inner strength and confidence to be more persistent, optimistic, and positivity-oriented.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39425949",
"title": "Gender inequality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Current issues for transgender people.:Visibility, awareness, and public attitudes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 1080,
"text": "One of the largest factors that causes and perpetuates transgender inequality is a lack of understanding and awareness among cisgender people. A 2002 survey found that, of the American respondents polled, only 70% had heard of the term transgender, while 67% agreed that it is possible for a person to be born as one gender, but inside feel like another gender. In addition, the survey found that 61% of Americans believe that the country needs anti-discrimination laws to protect transgender individuals, 57% incorrectly believed that it was not legal to fire someone on the basis of their gender identity if they are trans, 53% believed being transgender was acceptable while 37% did not, 77% believed that transgender students should be allowed to attend public school, and 8% said they would refuse to work with a transgender co worker. A 2012 study found that the heterosexual cisgender individuals who believe there are natural binary genders and there are natural differences between men and women are more likely to have negative attitudes toward transgender individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2sbkm2
|
Why is it that we can recognize sarcasm in speech, but not through text?
|
[
{
"answer": "According to older communication theory ([Ruesch & Bateson 1951](_URL_0_)), we recognize sarcasm through \"metacommunicative\" messages in other \"channels\". These include tone of voice, facial expressions, hand gestures, body postures, or an amalgamation of these. They function as \"instructions\" on how the message is to be interpreted. For example, if someone says \"You're *sooo* smart.\" while rolling their eyes, we immediately understand that \"so\" shouldn't be drawled out and the speaker should be looking at you if it were an earnest expression. \n\nWhile this kind of sarcasm involves the addition of some nonverbal component that cues sarcasm, there is also the opposite: [Deadpan](_URL_1_) is a type of delivery that works it's humor by not displaying the appropriate signals. This is what Aubrey Plaza does in Parks and Recreation - she uses expressions that *should* come with a distinct tone of voice or facial expression, but instead she's as inexpressive as possible, creating a kind of dissonance between how something is normally said and how she delivers it. \n\nThere are also textual attempts at metacommunication, such as the reversed question mark \"⸮\" and the sarcasm switch \"/s\" added at the end of a sarcastic statement to indicate that the statement is to be taken sarcastically. But since these aren't as pronounced as the tone of voice or facial expression, they can be ignored by inattentive readers and lead to confusion. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19593964",
"title": "Sarcasm",
"section": "Section::::Vocal indication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "In English, sarcasm is often telegraphed with kinesic/prosodic cues by speaking more slowly and with a lower pitch. Similarly, Dutch uses a lowered pitch; sometimes to such an extent that the expression is reduced to a mere mumble. But other research shows that there are many ways that real speakers signal sarcastic intentions. One study found that in Cantonese, sarcasm is indicated by raising the fundamental frequency of one's voice. In Amharic, rising intonation is used to show sarcasm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19593964",
"title": "Sarcasm",
"section": "Section::::Understanding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "Understanding the subtlety of this usage requires second-order interpretation of the speaker's or writer's intentions; different parts of the brain must work together to understand sarcasm. This sophisticated understanding can be lacking in some people with certain forms of brain damage, dementia and sometimes autism, and this perception has been located by MRI in the right parahippocampal gyrus. Research has shown that people with damage in the prefrontal cortex have difficulty understanding non-verbal aspects of language like tone, Richard Delmonico, a neuropsychologist at the University of California, Davis, told an interviewer. Such research could help doctors distinguish between different types of neurodegenerative diseases, such as frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer's disease, according to David Salmon, a neuroscientist at the University of California, San Diego.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1411106",
"title": "Prosody (linguistics)",
"section": "Section::::Cognitive aspects.:Emotion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Prosody is also important in signalling emotions and attitudes. When this is involuntary (as when the voice is affected by anxiety or fear), the prosodic information is not linguistically significant. However, when the speaker varies her speech intentionally, for example to indicate sarcasm, this usually involves the use of prosodic features. The most useful prosodic feature in detecting sarcasm is a reduction in the mean fundamental frequency relative to other speech for humor, neutrality, or sincerity. While prosodic cues are important in indicating sarcasm, context clues and shared knowledge are also important.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19593964",
"title": "Sarcasm",
"section": "Section::::In psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Professionals in psychology and related fields have long looked upon sarcasm negatively, particularly noting that sarcasm tends to be a maladaptive coping mechanism for those with unresolved anger or frustrations. Psychologist Clifford N. Lazarus describes sarcasm as \"hostility disguised as humor\". While an occasional sarcastic comment may enliven a conversation, Lazarus suggests that too frequent use of sarcasm tends to \"overwhelm the emotional flavor of any conversation\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19593964",
"title": "Sarcasm",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Sarcasm does not necessarily involve irony. But irony, or the use of expressions conveying different things according as they are interpreted, is so often made the vehicle of sarcasm ... The essence of sarcasm is the intention of giving pain by (ironical or other) bitter words.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19593964",
"title": "Sarcasm",
"section": "Section::::Understanding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "Cultural perspectives on sarcasm vary widely with more than a few cultures and linguistic groups finding it offensive to varying degrees. Thomas Carlyle despised it: \"Sarcasm I now see to be, in general, the language of the devil; for which reason I have long since as good as renounced it\". Fyodor Dostoyevsky, on the other hand, recognized in it a cry of pain: Sarcasm, he said, was \"usually the last refuge of modest and chaste-souled people when the privacy of their soul is coarsely and intrusively invaded.\" RFC 1855, a collection of guidelines for Internet communications, includes a warning to be especially careful with it as it \"may not travel well.\" Another study of sarcasm over email verifies these claims. A professional translator has advised that international business executives \"should generally avoid sarcasm in intercultural business conversations and written communications\" because of the difficulties in translating sarcasm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1188334",
"title": "Viennese German",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Pragmatics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "BULLET::::- Frequent ironic speech that is marked neither through intonation nor through gestures. In most cases, sarcasm must be identified through its context. Especially for foreigners, it is a source of misunderstandings. Such ironic speech is common in the Viennese sense of humour, which is better known as \"Wiener Schmäh\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4hwo1f
|
what is the painful tingly feeling in your feet when you jump down from something?
|
[
{
"answer": "Typically when you jump, you adjust your feet unconsciously so that the force of landing is not applied only to your foot/ankle, but also parts of your legs. Sometimes when you take a wrong step or jump/fall in an unexpected way, you can land such that the force cannot be redistributed from your foot. This causes a larger force to be applied to your ankle and the resultant pain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18499038",
"title": "Falling (sensation)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1041,
"text": "A sensation of falling occurs when the labyrinth or \"vestibular apparatus\", a system of fluid-filled passages in the inner ear, detects changes in acceleration. This sensation can occur when a person begins to fall, which in terms of mechanics amounts to a sudden acceleration increase from zero to roughly 9.8 m/s. If the body is in free fall (for example, during skydiving) with no other momenta (rotation, etc.) there is no falling sensation. This almost never occurs in real-life falling situations because when the faller leaves their support there are usually very significant quantities of residual momenta such as rotation and these momenta continue as the person falls, causing a sensation of dysphoria. The faller doesn't fall straight down but spins, flips, etc. due to these residual momenta and also due to the asymmetric forces of air resistance on their asymmetric body. While velocity continues to increase, the downward acceleration due to gravity remains constant. Increasing drag force may even cause a feeling of ascent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2188764",
"title": "MTT Turbine Superbike",
"section": "Section::::Reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "\"It's bloody mad and extremely scary... it feels like bungee-jumping, except with the bungee pulling you forwards and not upwards. The sheer sense of uncontrollable acceleration building and the wind noise rushing up to meet you\", said John Cantlie of \"Motor Cycle News\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2382995",
"title": "Bodacious (bull)",
"section": "Section::::Professional bucking career.:1995 season.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "Hedeman lasted four seconds. Looking back at the ride, Hedeman feels he was \"overconfident and underprepared\". \"When I nodded for him, the first jump felt fine,\" he said. \"Then, all of a sudden, whack! When I hit the ground, I felt numb.\" What Hedeman could not see was how his face really looked; how much blood was on it. \"When I was walking out of the arena I bit down and my teeth didn't come together, so I figured my jaw was broken,\" Hedeman recalled. \"I didn't realize my whole face was smashed. But when I looked at people looking at me, they looked like they'd seen the devil.\" At the hospital, doctors diagnosed Hedeman and said every major bone in his face was broken. Hedeman went through two surgeries which installed six titanium plates and totaled 13 hours. On discharge, the swelling of his face was so extreme that his own young son could not recognize him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1028119",
"title": "Banana Fish",
"section": "Section::::Media.:Side stories.:\"Fly Boy in the Sky\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "During the interview, Eiji opens up about how he has fallen into a professional slump. When Ibe asks Eiji about why he looks sad when he competes, he responds that it is because he feels nothing when he jumps. Upon viewing the photos Ibe has taken of Eiji's jump, both men observe that what Eiji is really feeling is a sense of weightlessness; Ibe remarks that the bliss on Eiji's face looks like a \"home run ball up in the sky.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3732070",
"title": "Ski flying",
"section": "Section::::History.:1990s.:Breaking the 200 metre barrier.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "It was the kind of jump in which, even when arriving [at the bottom of the hill] in the landing position and not knowing at all what lies ahead, I remember that my legs were trembling. That's how terrified I was. ... Overcoming your own fears is the best feeling. The nature of the sport is that one has to challenge themselves. That's why this jump has remained a highlight of my career.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "428629",
"title": "2C-B",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "BULLET::::- Some users report experiencing frightening or fearful effects during the experience. Users describe feeling frigid or cold on reaching a plateau, while others feel wrapped in comfortable blankets/ultimate pleasure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3087406",
"title": "Morton's neuroma",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Symptoms include pain on weight bearing, frequently after only a short time. The nature of the pain varies widely among individuals. Some people experience shooting pain affecting the contiguous halves of two toes. Others describe a feeling akin to having a pebble in the shoe or walking on razor blades. Burning, numbness and paresthesia may also be experienced. The symptoms progress over time, often beginning as a tingling sensation in the ball of the foot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1usyi4
|
What's making these ice pieces slowly move onto land like this? So bizarre I can't explain it...VIDEO inside.
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a lake shore property. The ice is coming off the lake, moved by the wind. Imagine a *huge* sheet of ice, several square kilometers, and blow a strong, steady wind across it. The force from all the wind adds up and can be enough to push the entire ice sheet slowly, but steadily onto land. This results in what you see in the video here.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7832240",
"title": "Shelf ice",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "Shelf ice is a floating mat of ice, but unlike a pond or a small lake that freezes over, the shelf is not a uniform sheet of ice. Created by the wind and waves, the shelf ice is a jumble of ice chunks, pushed onto each other. It is as if you took a pile of rubble and pushed up against a wall. The more you push, the narrow the pile becomes, and it rises in a ridge. But there is nothing stable in the pile. The individual pieces (ice in the case of shelf ice) are not initially connected; they only float upon the water surface and rest upon each other. Many become jammed together but throughout the structure, there are pockets of air. Since each piece of ice developed independently, each is of a different thickness, creating variations in strength, density, and depth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21078746",
"title": "Ice circle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Ice discs, ice circles, ice pans, or ice crepes are a natural phenomenon that occur in slow moving water in cold climates. They are thin circular slabs of ice that rotate slowly on a body of water's surface. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23893858",
"title": "List of Theodore Tugboat episodes",
"section": "Section::::Season 3 (1997).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 171,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 171,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Theodore and the Ice Ship\": Theodore, George, and Hank find an enormous ice sculpture floating in the water, but can't identify the ship inside of it. When the ice melts, it turns out to be Shamus, a fishing trawler, and the tugs soon discover how wonderful the ice ship was on the inside, when he was good for nothing on the outside.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2281741",
"title": "Wegener–Bergeron–Findeisen process",
"section": "Section::::Aggregation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The process of ice crystals sticking together is called aggregation. This happens when ice crystals are slick or sticky at temperatures of and above, because of a coating of water surrounding the crystal. The different sizes and shapes of ice crystals fall at different terminal velocities and commonly collide and stick.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21078746",
"title": "Ice circle",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Ice discs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Ice discs form on the outer bends in a river where the accelerating water creates a force called 'rotational shear', which breaks off a chunk of ice and twists it around. As the disc rotates, it grinds against surrounding ice — smoothing into a circle. A relatively uncommon phenomenon, one of the earliest recordings is of a slowly revolving disc spotted on the Mianus River and reported in an 1895 edition of \"Scientific American\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39179845",
"title": "The Icebergs",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 992,
"text": "The shapes in the ice sometimes form profiles of human-like faces, most pronounced in the \"repoussoir\" of ice on the left. As described by Carr, there are also intentional \"vague humanoid profiles\" on the right, \"skull-like\" ice blocks in the foreground, and a \"floating ice-'siren'\" near the grotto. In the foreground, melted water is a light blue, and at upper left a small waterfall deposits water into a patch of emerald beneath. Church observed that freshly frozen water within the cracks of icebergs produced a striking blue color; these veins of sapphire are illustrated at left. In the distance, the largest iceberg shows old waterlines, indicating its continuing ascent, and the foreground appears wetter, having risen from the ocean more recently. Church's signature is on the block of ice to the left of the mast, which was painted in later, and may be seen to form a crucifix. Carr notes that the water level in the grotto is not consistent with that of the rest of the painting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25449493",
"title": "Flake ice",
"section": "Section::::Scale ice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Made on a large vertical or horizontal drums, scale ice is formed on either the inner or outer surface of the drum by pouring a film of water over it, then contact freezing it into a thin sheet of ice. This ice is sub-cooled down to -7°C in order to make it brittle, then cracked off by a harvesting blade. The ice then falls by gravity into the ice store. These large, flat pieces are good for layering, and are available with a single evaporator up to 50 tonnes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ij9w8
|
If alien beings have a sense of sight, is it unlikely that they can see the same wavelengths as us?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are a couple of reasons why the spectrum we see in is convenient. One, is that the atmosphere is [fairly transparent at those frequencies](_URL_0_) meaning that much of the light of the sun makes it to the surface. This is called the [optical window](_URL_2_). Second, visible light frequencies are high enough that you can get great resolution with a reasonably small aperture. Third, they are [non-ionizing](_URL_1_) so we don't have to hide from them too much.\n\nInfrared shares many of these properties, but would incur significant loss by a water-filled eye or lens.\n\nThis all doesn't mean that some other part of the spectrum could be used, only that our part represents a significant local optimum.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, we mostly evolved to see 'visible' light because that's the peak wavelength emission of the sun. If their star had a different peak emission, they would probably view different wavelengths. However, there are complications for seeing smaller wavelengths, but assuming those can be surmounted, it certainly would be possible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We have rare examples like the [mantis shrimp](_URL_0_) that have evolved crazy vision outside of the normal range. That little guy can see 11 or 12 primary colors from UV through infrared, plus he can sense the six components of polarization so that he can completely detect the linear and circular components. But that didn't just happen for no reason -- it apparently helps him find food which has nearly transparent bodies.\n\nSo anyway, if this alien species lives at the surface of a water planet then yeah, it's probably going to be most sensitive to visible light because that's just a consequence of having an atmosphere filled with water vapor. But it's always possible that if they evolved to survive far below the surface such as on an ice-covered planet they might have much less available light in the visible range and would have benefited from sensitivity to infrared or some other spectrum. It really depends on the details.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6404997",
"title": "List of Star Wars species (K–O)",
"section": "Section::::Miraluka.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "An alien race almost exactly the same in appearance as humans, Miraluka differ in that they have no eyes or blank white sockets and cannot see through the focusing of light. Miraluka typically hide their lack of eyes by wearing a headband, a mask, or similar concealing headwear, because they are much less common than humans, and it is easier to travel if they are seen as being of the dominant species; thus the common confusion as to who is or isn't a Miraluka. Miralukas see through the Force , as they are a Force-sensitive race; they are often quite shocked if shown life not connected to the Force, like the Jedi Exile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15077441",
"title": "First Contact (novelette)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The aliens are humanoid bipeds, but see in the infrared portion of the spectrum. Also, instead of using sound to communicate among themselves they use microwaves emitted from an organ in their heads. As one human points out, \"From our point of view, they have telepathy. Of course from their point of view, so do we.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "367639",
"title": "Intra-species recognition",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Among human beings, the sense of sight is usually in charge of recognizing other members of the same species, with maybe the subconscious help of smell. In particular, the human brain has a disproportionate amount of processing power dedicated to finely analyze the features of a human face. This is why we are able to distinguish basically all six billions of human beings from each other (barring look-alikes), and a human being from a similar species like some anthropomorphic ape, with only a quick glance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2158298",
"title": "Visual impairment",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Communication.:Surroundings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 173,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 173,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Individuals with a visual disability not only have to find ways to communicate effectively with the people around them, but their environment as well. The blind or visually impaired rely largely on their other senses such as hearing, touch, and smell in order to understand their surroundings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38181580",
"title": "List of fictional colors",
"section": "Section::::Unnamed fictional colors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the 1942 novel \"Perelandra\", C. S. Lewis describes the colors of angelic beings when they manifest themselves: \"We think that when creatures of the hypersomatic kind choose to 'appear' to us, they are not in fact affecting our retina at all, but directly manipulating the relevant parts of our brain. If so, it is quite possible that they can produce there the sensations we should have if our eyes were capable of receiving those colours in the spectrum which are actually beyond their range.\" (Chapter 16)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "768776",
"title": "Flying polyp",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Their senses did not include sight, but what senses they had could penetrate all material obstructions. They were only partially matter, but still solid enough to affect, and be stopped by, normal materials. This trait also gave them a high resistance to most forms of physical damage, but they could be destroyed by certain types of electrical energy. Their minds were so strange that the Great Race of Yith could not perform psychic transfers with them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "439457",
"title": "Dragon (Dungeons & Dragons)",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "As far as senses, which vary slightly depending on species, they are superior in most ways to other creatures; like any predator, they have exceptionally acute senses, which only increase with age. Like avian creatures, they have excellent depth perception and comparingly good peripheral vision, able to see twice as well as a human in daylight; unlike avians, they have great night vision, and are able to see even when conditions have no light to offer, although in such conditions they cannot discern between colors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6dufjm
|
What is the insignia on this cannon??
|
[
{
"answer": "a Cannon bearing a Crown symbol and the initials GR for Georgios Rex reference to the reigning monarch King George.\n\nIt's a British cannon, i think the actual fabric was in scotland.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51395552",
"title": "Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps",
"section": "Section::::Customs and traditions.:RNZAOC uniforms and dress.:Badge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "BULLET::::- Shield: The shield depicts three field cannons facing left and three cannonballs and forms part of the Coat of Arms granted to the Board of Ordnance in 1823. On all cap badges the cannon face to the left, with the exception of the first pattern NZAOC badge where the cannons face to the right.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22373724",
"title": "Derby-Hall Bandstand",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "The cannon itself is a Civil War era Dahlgren gun, named for its inventor Rear Admiral John A. Dahlgren. This gun, with its unique \"soda bottle\" shaped barrel, was manufactured in many sizes and became the standard weapon on Union Naval vessels after 1856.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45423278",
"title": "The Cannon (Tufts University)",
"section": "Section::::Appearance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The cannon is a replica of a 24-pounder long gun, an approximately 8 foot long barrel mounted on wooden wheels. It is frequently covered in many layers of paint, so none of the original colors of the cannon are discernible. Due to the amount of paint, it is no longer mobile and requires machinery to be moved. It can often be found with varying graffiti, including words and designs, advertisements, messages and other announcements. On occasion, when offensive paintings or obscenities are added, the cannon has been painted by Tufts administration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12500392",
"title": "Queen Elizabeth's Pocket Pistol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "The cannon measures 24 ft in length and fired 4.75 inch (121 mm) calibre cannonballs. The cannon is decorated with engravings of fruit, flowers, grotesques, and figures symbolizing Liberty, Victory and Fame. There is also a Tudor coat of arms which includes a verse in Dutch, which translates in English as \"Break, tear every wall and rampart, Am I called, Across mountain and valley, pierces my ball, By me stricken\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45423278",
"title": "The Cannon (Tufts University)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "The Cannon is a replica of a cannon from the USS \"Constitution\" on the campus of Tufts University in Medford, Massachusetts, located in between Goddard Chapel and Ballou Hall. It serves as a billboard for campus activities and groups, and has been utilized as the basis for social and political campus movements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47756799",
"title": "Chobham Rugby Football Club",
"section": "Section::::Club badge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "BULLET::::- The cannon represents the gun on the Green in Chobham High Street. The original cannon was presented to the village by Queen Victoria following a review of her troops on Chobham Common to celebrate her Jubilee. The original cannon was requisitioned during WW2 and melted down. After the war the village of Chobham replaced it with the present day replica.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44578123",
"title": "Gobindgarh Fort",
"section": "Section::::Zamzama.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The cannon bears two Persian inscriptions. The front one reads: \"By the order of the Emperor [Ahmad Shah], DuriDurran, Shah Wali Khan wazir made the gun named Zamzama or the Taker of Strongholds.\" And the longer versified inscription reads: \"A destroyer even of the strongholds of the heaven.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
wekoa
|
"pot odds," "pot equity," and the "independent chip model" in texas hold'em
|
[
{
"answer": "Pot odds - the amount of a call divided by the amount of a pot before the call. \n\nIf there's $100 in the pot and you have to put in $20 to call a bet, you're getting 5:1 pot odds. Meaning if it's the final action and you win one time for every five you lose, it's worth the call.\n\nClosely associated is the concept of *implied odds*. This is the ratio of the cost of a call to the amount of money you would win if you got what you wanted. \n\nLet's say it costs you $10 to make a call, and you have a 1/10 chance of making a winning hand. There's $50 in the pot, but you calculate that if you make your hand, you can get at least another $100. The implied odds are 15:1, making the call worthwhile. However, this involves a lot of guessing, so it's best to be conservative with your estimates until you get better.\n\nThe other two I don't know.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* **Pot Odds** - How much you can win compared to how much it will cost you to win it.\n\n* **Pot Equity** - The percentage of the pot you \"own.\" You own an amount of the pot equal to your chance of winning it. (Disregarding Fold Equity).\n\n* **ICM** - A far more advanced concept in tournament play. It's SUPPOSED to be the equivilent of Pot Equity except for a full tournament. Usually, however, people use the term to describe the idea that what might be best for acquiring CHIPS may not be the best for acquiring MONEY.\n\nPot Odds - Say I have AsTs and my opponent has JJ (assume you're psychic for the moment). Flop comes 9s 5h 2s. Your opponent shoves his last 900 into a pot of 2400 chips. You only have only a 46% chance to win this hand. Should you call? Even though your opponent has you beat, the answer is '**Yes!**' Even though you are going to lose more chips over half the time (54%), you're going to win 3300 chips when you do win. Lose 900 54% of the time versus winning 3300 46% of the time. That's profitable!\n\nPot Equity - In the above example my opponent's hand was the best hand. It was better than mine. I was beat. However it's ridiculous to say my hand was a loser. I had a very strong hand actually. I had a hand with high \"Pot Equity.\" AsKs has the ability to win that hand a strong portion of the time. You could say that 1518 of that pot was \"yours.\" This was the size of the pot times your odds of winning it.\n\nICM - The above are pretty beginner concepts. ICM is relatively advanced. Say the above happened at a poker tournament and the chip counts for remaining players are as follows:\n\n* You: 3100\n* Opponent: 2100\n* Guy #1: 200\n* Guy #2: 75\n* Guy #3: 400\n* Guy #4: 125\n\nNOW, should you call? Well we've already established that Pot Odds say you should. You would win more chips in the long run. But poker isn't about winning chips, it's about winning MONEY! ICM might say **'No!'**\n\nPayouts of a tournament are graduated with 1st paying the most on down to some arbitrary number. However you are currently in GREAT shape with over half the chips in play! Guys 1, 2, and 4 are likely going to go out *very* soon and take the lower payouts. Why risk 29% of your chips here? If you just wait around Guys 1-4 are likely going to go out and you will finish 1st or 2nd. Why take the risk of losing such a large amount of chips? Just fold.\n\n**Edit:** Someone will probably inevitably come in and complain about my scenerio. Bite me, it's a lot harder to think up than it seems. :D",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "75695",
"title": "Seven-card stud",
"section": "Section::::Variants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "A common variant called \"Mississippi Stud\" removes the betting round between fourth and fifth streets, making only four betting rounds. This game also deals the final card face up. This makes the game more closely resemble Texas Hold'em by having the same betting structure and same number of down and up cards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26118954",
"title": "Independent Chip Model",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "In poker, the Independent Chip Model (ICM) is a mathematical model used to calculate a player's overall equity in a tournament. The model uses stack sizes alone to determine how often a player will finish in each position (1st, 2nd, etc.). A player's probability of finishing in each position is then multiplied by the prize amount for that position and those numbers are added together to determine the player's overall equity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26487",
"title": "Roulette",
"section": "Section::::Called (or call) bets or announced bets.:Jeu zéro (\"zero game\").\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "This type of bet is popular in Germany and many European casinos. It is also offered as a 5-chip bet in many Eastern European casinos. As a 5-chip bet, it is known as \"zero spiel naca\" and includes, in addition to the chips placed as noted above, a straight-up on number 19.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75695",
"title": "Seven-card stud",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Seven-card stud, also known as Seven-Toed Pete or Down-The-River is a variant of stud poker. Until the recent increase in popularity of Texas hold 'em, seven-card stud was the most widely played poker variant in home games across the United States, and in casinos in the eastern part of the country. Two to eight players is common, though eight may require special rules for the last cards dealt if no players fold. With experienced players who fold often, even playing with nine players is possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3861147",
"title": "Texas Hold'em Bonus Poker",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Texas Hold'em Bonus Poker is a casino table game, owned and licensed by Mikohn Gaming/Progressive Gaming International Corporation. The game is based on traditional multi-player Texas Hold'em poker, but differs in that there is no bet after the river card.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75698",
"title": "Texas hold 'em",
"section": "Section::::Objective.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "In Texas hold 'em, as in all variants of poker, individuals compete for an amount of money or chips contributed by the players themselves (called the pot). Because the cards are dealt randomly and outside the control of the players, each player attempts to control the amount of money in the pot based either on the hand they are holding,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1983850",
"title": "Big bet",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Casino-style seven-card stud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Big bets are used in seven-card stud, generally after the last upcard, to motivate tentative players who already have a lot of money in the pot to fold anyway. By the last upcard, seven-card stud players have wagered an ante and three rounds of betting. With that much money already in the pot, there is little motivation to drop out during the final two rounds of betting, especially when there is a possibility that another player may be bluffing. The effect of adding the requirement of a big bet to the final two rounds of seven-card stud betting is that the game becomes one more of skill than of luck.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2s86nu
|
what are the actual statistics on what muslims believe?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_ This should do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Globally, 28% of muslims do not have an issue with suicide bombings, while in the USA, 19% of muslims do not have an issue with suicide bombings. \n\nSo if you take the population of muslims (1.7 billion), and multiply that by .28 (the percent of muslims who do not see suicide bombings as bad), you get 476,000,000 (476 million). That is the number of muslims on earth who do not see an issue with suicide bombings. \n\n\n_URL_0_\n\n*Edit: Spacing issues.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "404829",
"title": "Islam in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 970,
"text": "The U.S. Census Bureau does not collect data on religious identification. Various institutions and organizations have given widely varying estimates about how many Muslims live in the U.S. Tom W. Smith, author of \"Estimating the Muslim Population in the United States\", said that of twenty estimates he reviewed during a five-year period until 2001, none was \"based on a scientifically-sound or explicit methodology. All can probably be characterized as guesses or assertions. Nine came from Muslim organizations such as the Islamic Society of North America, the Muslim Student Association, the Council on American-Islamic Relations, the American Muslim Council, and the Harvard Islamic Society or unspecified 'Muslim sources'. None of these sources gave any basis for their figures.\" In 2005, according to \"The New York Times\", more people from Muslim countries became legal permanent United States residents—nearly 96,000—than in any year in the previous two decades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "342410",
"title": "Christianity and other religions",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with Islam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Adherents of Islam have historically referred to themselves, Jews, and Christians (among others) as People of the Book since they all base their religion on books that are considered to have a divine origin. Christians however neither recognize the Qur'an as a genuine book of divine revelation, nor agree with its assessment of Jesus as a mere prophet, on par with Muhammad, nor for that matter accept that Muhammad was a genuine prophet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16817355",
"title": "Religion in East Timor",
"section": "Section::::Minority religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "In 2010, the Association of Religion Data Archives reported that according to the World Christian Database, Muslims made up 3.6 percent of the population. It also reported that 0.4% of the population identified as agnostic, and that Buddhism and Chinese folk religion each made up 0.2% of the population. It also reported that non-negligible populations followed the Bahá'í Faith, Hinduism, and Neoreligions, with each group comprising under 0.1% of the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13025734",
"title": "Religion in Bangladesh",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "As per 2011 census Muslims constitute over 90% of the population, while Hindus constitute 8.5% and remaining rest constitute 1%. A survey in late 2003 confirmed that religion is the first choice by a citizen for self-identification. The Constitution denominates Islam, Hinduism, Christianity, and Buddhism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19541",
"title": "Muslims",
"section": "Section::::Meaning.:Other prophets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "The Qur'an describes many prophets and messengers within Judaism and Christianity, and their respective followers, as Muslim: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, Jacob, Moses, and Jesus and his apostles are all considered to be Muslims in the Qur'an. The Qur'an states that these men were Muslims because they submitted to God, preached His message and upheld His values, which included praying, charity, fasting and pilgrimage. Thus, in Surah 3:52 of the Qur'an, Jesus' disciples tell him, \"We believe in God; and you be our witness that we are Muslims (\"wa-shahad be anna muslimūn\").\" In Muslim belief, before the Qur'an, God had given the Tawrat (Torah) to Moses, the Zabur (Psalms) to David and the Injil (Gospel) to Jesus, who are all considered important Muslim prophets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40257985",
"title": "Irreligion in Azerbaijan",
"section": "Section::::Research and statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "According to the Pew Research Center, according to the results of the study, 99.4% of the population are Muslims. The same research center reported in 2010 that 96.9% of the population is Muslim, and less than 1% of people do not consider themselves as affiliated to any of the religions. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15388",
"title": "Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia",
"section": "Section::::Other religions.:Abrahamic religions.:Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "BULLET::::- William Montgomery Watt points out that we do not know how far Muhammad was acquainted with Christian beliefs prior to the conquest of Mecca and that dating of some of the passages criticizing Christianity is uncertain. His view is that Muhammad and the early Muslims may have been unaware of some orthodox Christian doctrines, including the nature of the trinity, because Muhammad's Christian informants had a limited grasp of doctrinal issues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mpxcz
|
what was europe trying to do by instigating the euro?
|
[
{
"answer": "it was to facilitate the development of the european union into a fully economically integrated block. \n\nby having the same money, people could travel easily from nation to nation in the euro zone without exchanging currency. \n\nthe most important reason was to remove currency risk from inter-european trade. one nation would not have to worry about accepting foreign currency as payment, then having it lose value later. \n\n(maybe i explained it like youre 7)",
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"answer": "The answer is that Germany, which didn't really exist as a country until the 19th Century, is too big to fit within the confines of the European power structure. So in the 20th Century, there were two world wars about containing Germany and lots of folks died. \n\nIn order to bring Europe closer together and solve \"the German problem\" France and Germany began a long process of integration in the 1950's starting with Coal and Steel agreements and working from there.\n\nHere are some links for further reading.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_2_",
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},
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"answer": "I assume you live in the US. Imagine having to change money when you go from New York to Philadelphia or from Washington to Boston. I live in Vienna and before the Euro, we couldn't drive 200mi (maybe south-west, but you would have to try) without having to change money. This restricts trade and travel. It also restricts intermixing of cultures.\n\nThe Euro was meant to make trading and traveling within Europe easier. By making it easyier to travel/trade, also promoting cultural exchange. Since Europe was at War with it self almost constantly since the dark ages, it was a try to get rid of this.\n\nAnd yeah, it promote Europe as consistent economical bloc with more bargaining power.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "it was to facilitate the development of the european union into a fully economically integrated block. \n\nby having the same money, people could travel easily from nation to nation in the euro zone without exchanging currency. \n\nthe most important reason was to remove currency risk from inter-european trade. one nation would not have to worry about accepting foreign currency as payment, then having it lose value later. \n\n(maybe i explained it like youre 7)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The answer is that Germany, which didn't really exist as a country until the 19th Century, is too big to fit within the confines of the European power structure. So in the 20th Century, there were two world wars about containing Germany and lots of folks died. \n\nIn order to bring Europe closer together and solve \"the German problem\" France and Germany began a long process of integration in the 1950's starting with Coal and Steel agreements and working from there.\n\nHere are some links for further reading.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_2_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I assume you live in the US. Imagine having to change money when you go from New York to Philadelphia or from Washington to Boston. I live in Vienna and before the Euro, we couldn't drive 200mi (maybe south-west, but you would have to try) without having to change money. This restricts trade and travel. It also restricts intermixing of cultures.\n\nThe Euro was meant to make trading and traveling within Europe easier. By making it easyier to travel/trade, also promoting cultural exchange. Since Europe was at War with it self almost constantly since the dark ages, it was a try to get rid of this.\n\nAnd yeah, it promote Europe as consistent economical bloc with more bargaining power.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53642969",
"title": "Policy learning",
"section": "Section::::Challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "European countries created the Euro to simplify trading between European Union countries. Adopting the Euro would remove currency risk and the cost of currency conversion, and provide a common monetary policy among members. Policy learning took places as more European countries learned that joining the Eurozone would give them access to other markets. Citizens of EU member countries could travel to other EU countries within the Schengen area without transiting a border checkpoint. The learning did not reach all policy sectors. Some EU countries kept their budgets in near balance amid strong growth and employment, while others' budgets were so far out of balance that their overall debt created fears about their ability to make their payments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9746077",
"title": "Premiership of Tony Blair",
"section": "Section::::First term (1997–2001).:Euro.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "The Blair ministry decided against joining the Eurozone, and adopting the euro as the currency to replace the pound sterling. This decision was generally supported by the British public, and by all political parties in the UK, as well as the media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21553182",
"title": "International status and usage of the euro",
"section": "Section::::International adoption.:Unilateral adopters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "The use of the euro in Montenegro and Kosovo has helped stabilise their economies, and for this reason the adoption of the euro by small states has been encouraged by former Finance Commissioner Joaquín Almunia. Former European Central Bank president Jean-Claude Trichet has stated the ECB – which does not grant representation to those who unilaterally adopt the euro – neither supports nor deters those wishing to use the currency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146405",
"title": "Icelandic króna",
"section": "Section::::Issues affecting the Icelandic krona.:Iceland and the euro.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Theoretically the adoption of the euro could have several advantages. Adopting what is perceived by some as a historically stronger currency might help Iceland to \"avoid the turbulence surrounding speculations in international financial markets\". In addition, Icelandic economists listed several arguments in favour of the Euro before the crisis. \"In terms of growth potentials and welfare, the euro could be expected to bring lower long-term interest rates [...]. This would of course increase capital investment and labour productivity. The euro might lower consumer prices by facilitating a comparison with other euro countries.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9472",
"title": "Euro",
"section": "Section::::Economics.:Macroeconomic stability.:Financial integration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "The introduction of the euro seems to have had a strong effect on European financial integration. According to a study on this question, it has \"significantly reshaped the European financial system, especially with respect to the securities markets [...] However, the real and policy barriers to integration in the retail and corporate banking sectors remain significant, even if the wholesale end of banking has been largely integrated.\" Specifically, the euro has significantly decreased the cost of trade in bonds, equity, and banking assets within the eurozone. On a global level, there is evidence that the introduction of the euro has led to an integration in terms of investment in bond portfolios, with eurozone countries lending and borrowing more between each other than with other countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10087",
"title": "European Currency Unit",
"section": "Section::::Euro replaces ECU.:Legal implications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "Due to the ECU being used in some international financial transactions, there was a concern that foreign courts might not recognize the euro as the legal successor to the ECU. This was unlikely to be a problem, since it is a generally accepted principle of private international law that states determine their currencies, and that therefore states would accept the European Union legislation to that effect. However, for abundant caution, several foreign jurisdictions adopted legislation to ensure a smooth transition. Of particular importance, the U.S. states of Illinois and New York adopted legislation to ensure a large proportion of international financial contracts recognized the euro as the successor of the ECU.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32637293",
"title": "Currency War of 2009–11",
"section": "Section::::Global perspectives.:Developed economies.:Eurozone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 1278,
"text": "The Eurozone is a special case where some members, principally Germany, enjoy a large current account surplus and so could accept or even benefit from currency appreciation. Other countries though such as Greece, Spain, Portugal and Ireland have twin deficits and so to a large extent would benefit from a depreciation. While the European Central Bank (ECB) did practice some QE in 2009, this was to a much lower extent than the US or UK, and they did not deploy a second round. The value of the Euro has been effectively left to float, and in fact early in 2010 central authorities intervened to defend the Euro’s value against the market. Following the generally positive results from bank stress testing that were released in summer, market participants stopped speculating against the Euro, and the currency has tended to rise as a result of other countries practicing competitive devaluation. A major driver for the rise in the Euro in the latter half of 2010 was China's purchase of Euro-denominated bonds. While China's intervention was in some ways helpful for the Eurozone, it also generated concern with several European officials speaking out against the action. These officials included: ECB governor Jean-Claude Trichet and Eurogroup president Jean-Claude Juncker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3dpg74
|
what's the difference between emergency care and urgent care, and why is ec so much more expensive?
|
[
{
"answer": "Emergency Care is part of a hospital and has the full resources of the hospital available to it. Urgent care is basically a doctor's office that is open around the clock. An emergency room will likely have surgeons that wait around just in case someone needs to go to surgery. They will have other specialists too. These specialists are really expensive and having them work odd hours requires you to pay them more.\n\nUrgent care facilities are usually staffed by general practice doctors. Since they aren't specialists they don't generally command extraordinarily high wages.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Emergency care is for when you are seriously injured (concussion, broken bones, serious car accident, dismemberment, ect.) or dying (can't breath, heart attack, stroke, ect.).\n\nUrgent care is for everything else (colds, splinters, sniffles) when you can't or don't want to make a regular Dr. Apt. \n\nSome UC's are connected to ER's, others are stand alone. Some are 24/7/365, while others close at night and/or for the week end.\n\nER's should always be open and are normally connected to a full hospital.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Emergency rooms have lots of equipment and can do way more stuff. Urgent care centers have more standard stuff like in a regular doctor's office. \n\nAll that extra equipment in the ER is expensive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38853402",
"title": "Health care finance in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Payment systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "The Emergency Medical Treatment and Active Labor Act requires virtually all hospitals to accept all patients, regardless of the ability to pay, for emergency room care. The act does not provide access to non-emergency room care for patients who cannot afford to pay for health care, nor does it provide the benefit of preventive care and the continuity of a primary care physician. Emergency health care is generally more expensive than an urgent care clinic or a doctor's office visit, especially if a condition has worsened due to putting off needed care. Emergency rooms are typically at, near, or over capacity. Long wait times have become a problem nationally, and in urban areas some ERs are put on \"diversion\" on a regular basis, meaning that ambulances are directed to bring patients elsewhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9581377",
"title": "Emergency medical services in the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Emergency medical services in the United Kingdom provide emergency care to people with acute illness or injury and are predominantly provided free at the point of use by the four National Health Services of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Emergency care including ambulance and emergency department treatment is free to everyone, regardless of immigration or visitor status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18994221",
"title": "Hospital",
"section": "Section::::Funding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "In the United Kingdom for example, a relatively comprehensive, \"free at the point of delivery\" health care system exists, funded by the state. Hospital care is thus relatively easily available to all legal residents, although free emergency care is available to anyone, regardless of nationality or status. As hospitals prioritise their limited resources, there is a tendency for 'waiting lists' for non-crucial treatment in countries with such systems, as opposed to letting higher-payers get treated first, so sometimes those who can afford it take out private health care to get treatment more quickly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52974",
"title": "Emergency medicine",
"section": "Section::::Scope.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Emergency medicine can be distinguished from urgent care, which refers to immediate healthcare for less emergent medical issues, but there is obvious overlap and many emergency physicians work in urgent care settings. Emergency medicine also includes many aspects of acute primary care, and shares with family medicine the uniqueness of seeing all patients regardless of age, gender or organ system . The emergency physician workforce also includes many competent physicians who trained in other specialties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44118825",
"title": "Emergency Medical Care",
"section": "Section::::Activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The Extended Care Program: The main goal of an ECP is to respond to non-emergency calls in nursing homes where they will assess and potentially treat patients on site. This will reduce the need for some patients to go to hospital via ambulance and wait in the emergency department for several hours, thus creating a more personal approach to health care by allowing patients and their families to remain in a comfortable environment for as long as possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177163",
"title": "Emergency department",
"section": "Section::::Non-emergency use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "In the United States, high costs are incurred by non-emergency use of the emergency room. The National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey looked ath the ten most common symptoms for which giving rise to emergency room visits (cough, sore throat, back pain, fever, headache, abdominal pain, chest pain, other pain, shortness of breath, vomiting) and made suggestions as to which would be the most cost-effective choice among virtual care, retail clinic, urgent care or emergency room. Notably, certain complaints may also be addressed by a telephone call to a person's primary care provider.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52974",
"title": "Emergency medicine",
"section": "Section::::Financing and practice organization.:Care Delivery in Different ED Settings.:Rural.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1549,
"text": "Despite the practice emerging over the past few decades, the delivery of emergency medicine has significantly increased and evolved across diverse settings as it relates to cost, provider availability and overall usage. Prior to the Affordable Care Act (ACA), emergency medicine was leveraged primarily by \"uninsured or underinsured patients, women, children, and minorities, all of whom frequently face barriers to accessing primary care\". While this still exists today to an extent as mentioned above, it is critical to consider the location in which care is delivered to understand the population and system challenges related to overutilization and high cost. In rural communities where provider and ambulatory facility shortages exist, a primary care physician (PCP) in the ED with general knowledge is likely to be the only source of health care for a population, as specialists and other health resources are generally unavailable due to lack of funding and desire to serve in these areas. As a result, the incidence of complex co-morbidities not managed by the appropriate provider results in worse health outcomes and eventually costlier care that extends beyond rural communities. Though typically quite separated, it is crucial that PCPs in rural areas partner with larger health systems to comprehensively address the complex needs of their community, improve population health, and implement strategies such as telemedicine to positively impact health outcomes and reduce ED utilization for preventative illnesses. (See: Rural health.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
36m9ml
|
how are the transistors in a cpu/micro-controller controlled?
|
[
{
"answer": "Transistors just work because physics. A waterwheel does the same thing; it's not configured, it's simply made such that physics will force it to do what we want. \n\nAs /u/LondonPilot said you make the logic gates or other useful circuits by combining it all together into interesting setups. You can then in turn chain those together and make more and more complex circuits.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are literally set in stone and not controlled at all. They all receive input and produce output whether they are actually a part of the current computing, or not.\n\nSo I'd say it is closer to the first hypothesis: they are \"configured\" (more like carved) as hardware to do certain logical sequences.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11711952",
"title": "Sensor node",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Controller.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1184,
"text": "The controller performs tasks, processes data and controls the functionality of other components in the sensor node. While the most common controller is a microcontroller, other alternatives that can be used as a controller are: a general purpose desktop microprocessor, digital signal processors, FPGAs and ASICs. A microcontroller is often used in many embedded systems such as sensor nodes because of its low cost, flexibility to connect to other devices, ease of programming, and low power consumption. A general purpose microprocessor generally has a higher power consumption than a microcontroller, therefore it is often not considered a suitable choice for a sensor node. Digital Signal Processors may be chosen for broadband wireless communication applications, but in Wireless Sensor Networks the wireless communication is often modest: i.e., simpler, easier to process modulation and the signal processing tasks of actual sensing of data is less complicated. Therefore, the advantages of DSPs are not usually of much importance to wireless sensor nodes. FPGAs can be reprogrammed and reconfigured according to requirements, but this takes more time and energy than desired.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19879858",
"title": "Switched reluctance motor",
"section": "Section::::Control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Many controllers incorporate programmable logic controllers (PLCs) rather than electromechanical components. A microcontroller is ideal, since it enables precise timing of phase activations. It also enables a soft start function in software form, in order to reduce the amount of hardware required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60558",
"title": "ARM architecture",
"section": "Section::::32-bit architecture.:Instruction set.:Coprocessors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "In ARM-based machines, peripheral devices are usually attached to the processor by mapping their physical registers into ARM memory space, into the coprocessor space, or by connecting to another device (a bus) that in turn attaches to the processor. Coprocessor accesses have lower latency, so some peripherals—for example, an XScale interrupt controller—are accessible in both ways: through memory and through coprocessors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4047822",
"title": "R10000",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Avalanche system bus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "The system interface controller supports glue-less symmetrical multiprocessing (SMP) of up to four microprocessors. Systems using the R10000 with external logic can scale to hundreds of processors. An example of such a system is the Origin 2000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1682901",
"title": "XR-2",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "A controller, based on the 6502 CPU also found in the robot's contemporary, the Apple II, can control up to eight motors - the robot and two other items, such as a turntable or the aforementioned sliding base.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10710026",
"title": "Astrionics",
"section": "Section::::Command and telemetry.:Command systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 891,
"text": "The microprocessor receives inputs from the command decoder, operates on these inputs in accordance with a program that is stored in ROM or RAM, and then outputs the results to the interface circuitry. Because there is such a wide variety of command types and messages, most command systems are implemented using programmable micro-processors. The type of interface circuitry needed is based on the command sent by the processor. These commands include relay, pulse, level, and data commands. Relay commands activate the coils of electromagnetic relays in the central power switching unit. Pulse commands are short pulses of voltage or current that is sent by the command logic to the appropriate subsystem. A level command is exactly like a logic pulse command except that a logic level is delivered instead of a logic pulse. Data commands transfer data words to the destination subsystem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2174083",
"title": "Power-system automation",
"section": "Section::::Hardware structure of the power-system automation.:Main processing instrumentation and control (I&C) device.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The I&C devices built using microprocessors are commonly referred to as intelligent electronic devices (IEDs). Microprocessors are single chip computers that allow the devices into which they are built to process data, accept commands, and communicate information like a computer. Automatic processes can be run in the IEDs. Some IEDs used in power-system automation are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6qketo
|
If you move a wild bug far from its home but the same environment will it go back home or make a new life there?
|
[
{
"answer": "It really depends on the insect.\n\nMany insects, I believe including grasshoppers, typically do not have one nest or other type of \"home\" they can return to. Most insects also do not rely on being part of one society or group. They live where they happen to be at the moment, and if they can't find what they need in an area, they keep moving until they find it.\n\nOther insects, notably the ants, wasps, and bees, are \"central place foragers.\" They have a nest or hive or other \"home\" where they hang out, and if you displaced them they would fly up to [miles away](_URL_0_) to get home as long as they have memorized enough landmarks and directional cues (and they are very good at that.) Some of these insects are social, and have a strong drive to return to their own social group, which they are typically related to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "522227",
"title": "California chaparral and woodlands",
"section": "Section::::Fauna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Another notable insect resident of this ecoregion is the rain beetle (\"Pleocoma\" sp.) It spends up to several years living underground in a larval stage and emerges only during wet-season rains to mate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7012",
"title": "Chagas disease",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Although Triatominae bugs feed on them, birds appear to be immune to infection and therefore are not considered to be a \"T. cruzi\" reservoir. Even when colonies of insects are eradicated from a house and surrounding domestic animal shelters, they can re-emerge from plants or animals that are part of the ancient, sylvatic (referring to wild animals) infection cycle. This is especially likely in zones with mixed open savannah, with clumps of trees interspersed by human habitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11451063",
"title": "Wildlife corridor",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "A habitat corridor could be considered as a possible solution in an area where the destruction of a natural area has greatly affected its native species. Development such as roads, buildings, and farms can interrupt plants and animals in the region being destroyed. Furthermore, natural disasters such as wildfires and floods can leave animals with no choice but to evacuate. If the habitat is not connected to a safer one, it will ultimately lead to death. A remaining portion of natural habitat is called a remnant, and such portions need to be connected because when migration decreases, extinction increases (Fleury 1997).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22159133",
"title": "Trite planiceps",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "They are often found roaming in a home and can cover great distances in a house. They are quite a safe spider to be in a home and can deal with other insect problems because of the amount they travel in a short period of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "214053",
"title": "Host (biology)",
"section": "Section::::Hosts to parasites.:Plant hosts of micropredators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Some insect micropredators migrate regularly from one host to another. The hawthorn-carrot aphid overwinters on its primary host, a hawthorn tree, and migrates during the summer to its secondary host, a plant in the carrot family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11451063",
"title": "Wildlife corridor",
"section": "Section::::Users.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Corridor dwellers can occupy the passage anywhere from several days to several years. Species such as plants, reptiles, amphibians, birds, insects, and small mammals can spend their entire lives in linear habitats. In this case, the corridor must include everything that a species needs to live and breed, such as soil for germination, burrowing areas, and multiple other breeding adults (Beier & Loe 1992).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "304917",
"title": "Feral",
"section": "Section::::Variables.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Certain familiar animals go feral easily and successfully, while others are much less inclined to wander and usually fail promptly outside domestication. Some species will detach readily from humans and pursue their own devices, but do not stray far or spread readily. Others depart and are gone, seeking out new territory or range to exploit and displaying active invasiveness. Whether they leave readily and venture far, the ultimate criterion for success is longevity. Persistence depends on their ability to establish themselves and reproduce reliably in the new environment. Neither the duration nor the intensity with which a species has been domesticated offers a useful correlation with its feral potential. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6ycb8b
|
There have been a dozen or so species in genus Homo; why did all but one sub-species disappear?
|
[
{
"answer": "You've asked a good question, and the only real answer is that archaeologists and paleoanthropologists simply do not have enough data to fully support any hypotheses on the extinctions of pre-modern *Homo* species. Among the hypotheses that have been promoted are, of course, intraspecies violence, miscegenation, being out-competed by modern humans, and simply dying off due to failure to adapt to changing environmental conditions.\n\nTo my knowledge, no evidence exists of any intraspecies *Homo* violence, though this does not mean it did not occur.\n\nMiscegenation, or interbreeding between different species and groups, certainly did happen between modern humans, Neanderthals, and Denisovans. We don't know exactly to what extent, but likely not on the level of integrated cultures on a large scale. Enough, though, that most modern humans contain detectable quantities of Neanderthal and Denisovan genetic material. I believe Papua New Guineans have the most \"non-modern\" DNA at something like 7% Denisovan.\n\nCompetition between prehistoric humans and modern humans would need evidence of coexistence, which is rare. The times at which various ancient populations existed can be hard to define, and being out-competed would require coexistence for some length of time. As dates of late Neanderthal remains are refined, and new sites are discovered, more evidence should come to light.\n\nIt is, in my opinion, most likely that changing environmental conditions put pressure on prehistoric human species, and gradually reduced their genetic integrity and geographic diversity. It seems likely to me, though this is conjecture, that the arrival of modern humans did play a role in preventing a recovery of Neanderthal populations in Europe, though this assumes a lot in terms of time and relative population size.\n\nAll in all, we can't answer that question. We can come closest by looking at potential interactions between modern humans and prehistoric humans like Neanderthals, which included interbreeding, tool technology sharing, and possible cultural behavior transmission. As for more ancient interactions, say between *H. ergaster* and *H. habilis*, there's practically no data available.\n\nAs a last note, I don't know of any evidence suggesting *H. erectus* was alive in historic times. The remnant species *H. floresiensis*, the Indonesian \"hobbit\", was at one point thought to have survived to the end of the Pleistocene, or even later, but last I heard that date had been pushed back to something like 50 kya.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60888586",
"title": "Homo (subgenus)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The genus Homo, which contains many extinct species, are grouped into sub-genera. The sub genus Homo contains species which are derived from each other within one million to 800 thousand years. Both Homo sapiens and Neanderthals are grouped within the Sub genus Homo, because of their ability to interbreed without having sterile offspring. Other sub genus names are either unknown or undecided.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "488341",
"title": "Homo",
"section": "Section::::Names and taxonomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Even today, the genus \"Homo\" has not been properly defined. Since the early human fossil record began to slowly emerge from the earth, the boundaries and definitions of the genus \"Homo\" have been poorly defined and constantly in flux. Because there was no reason to think it would ever have any additional members, Carl Linnaeus did not even bother to define \"Homo\" when he first created it for humans in the 18th century. The discovery of Neanderthal brought the first addition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3393478",
"title": "Lomatium",
"section": "Section::::Conservation concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Because the genus is so difficult to identify, but has great genetic diversity, new species are still being found today such as \"L. tarantuloides\", many species often have a very limited range, they exist nowhere else, and are few to begin with.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8682463",
"title": "Bettong",
"section": "Section::::Conservation status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "All species of the genus have been severely affected by ecological changes since the British settlement of Australia, those that have not become extinct became largely confined to islands and protected reserves and are dependent on re-population programs. The diversity of the genus was poorly understood before their extirpation from the mainland, and new taxa has been identified in specimens newly discovered and already held in museum collections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18577810",
"title": "Cerradomys",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "In addition to its external classification, the internal classification of the group is also subject to change. Until 2002, all members of the group were placed in a single species, then called \"Oryzomys subflavus\", but since then, seven new species have been described, often on the basis of karyotypic differences, but two of these later turned out to represent the same species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47774240",
"title": "Homo naledi",
"section": "Section::::Fossils.:Morphology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "The overall anatomical structure of the species has prompted the investigating scientists to classify the species within the genus \"Homo\", rather than within the genus \"Australopithecus\". The \"H. naledi\" skeletons indicate that the origins of the genus \"Homo\" were complex and may be polyphyletic (hybrid), and that the species may have evolved separately in different parts of Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "86387",
"title": "Vespertilionidae",
"section": "Section::::Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Four subfamilies are recognized by \"Mammal Species of the World\" (2005), the highly diverse Vespertilioninae are also separated as tribes. Newer or resurrected genera are noted. The genus \"Cistugo\" is no longer included following its move to the separate family Cistugidae. Miniopterinae is additionally no longer recognized as a subfamily, as it was elevated to family status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9z1uqd
|
alcohol and painkillers
|
[
{
"answer": "The metabolism of acetaminophen produces a toxic intermediate (NAPQI) that is usually rapidly eliminated.\n\nHowever, if the breakdown pathway is overwhelmed, such as in an acetaminophen overdose or by ethanol, that intermediate may not be rapidly eliminated, possibly causing liver damage.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12012122",
"title": "Painkiller (cocktail)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "A Painkiller is a rum cocktail trademarked by Pusser's Rum Ltd, their signature drink. It is often associated with Tiki establishments. The Painkiller is a blend of Pusser's rum with 4 parts pineapple juice, 1 part cream of coconut and 1 part orange juice, well shaken and served over the rocks with a generous amount of fresh nutmeg on top. It may be made with either two, three or four ounces of Pusser's dark rum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "299971",
"title": "Sedative",
"section": "Section::::Risks.:Disinhibition and crime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Sedatives — most commonly alcohol but also GHB, Flunitrazepam (Rohypnol), and to a lesser extent, temazepam (Restoril), and midazolam (Versed) — have been reported for their use as date rape drugs (also called a Mickey) and being administered to unsuspecting patrons in bars or guests at parties to reduce the intended victims' defenses. These drugs are also used for robbing people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22951352",
"title": "Benzodiazepine use disorder",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Drug-related crime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Benzodiazepines are also sometimes used for drug facilitated sexual assaults and robbery, however, alcohol remains the most common drug involved in drug facilitated assaults. The muscle relaxant, disinhibiting and amnesia producing effects of benzodiazepines are the pharmacological properties which make these drugs effective in drug-facilitated crimes. Serial killer Jeffrey Dahmer admitted to using triazolam (Halcion), and occasionally temazepam (Restoril), in order to sedate his victims prior to murdering them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2246",
"title": "Analgesic",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Describing the effects of using alcohol to treat pain is difficult. Alcohol has biological, mental, and social effects which influence the consequences of using alcohol for pain. Moderate use of alcohol can lessen certain types of pain in certain circumstances. Attempting to use alcohol to treat pain has also been observed to lead to negative outcomes including excessive drinking and alcohol use disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2246",
"title": "Analgesic",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Other drugs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "High-alcohol liquor, two forms of which were found in the US Pharmacopoeia up until 1916 and in common use by physicians well into the 1930s, has been used in the past as an agent for dulling pain, due to the CNS depressant effects of ethyl alcohol, a notable example being the American Civil War. However, the ability of alcohol to relieve severe pain is likely inferior to many analgesics used today (e.g., morphine, codeine). As such, in general, the idea of alcohol for analgesia is considered a primitive practice in virtually all industrialized countries today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25970819",
"title": "Drug therapy problems",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "BULLET::::- Patients suffering from chronic pain that are prescribed opioid painkillers (such as morphine) may build up a tolerance to the effect of the painkillers, requiring higher doses to achieve the same pain reducing effect. This risky practice of dose escalation can lead to drug overdoses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33632441",
"title": "Psychoactive drug",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Pain management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Psychoactive drugs are often prescribed to manage pain. The subjective experience of pain is primarily regulated by endogenous opioid peptides. Thus, pain can often be managed using psychoactives that operate on this neurotransmitter system, also known as opioid receptor agonists. This class of drugs can be highly addictive, and includes opiate narcotics, like morphine and codeine. NSAIDs, such as aspirin and ibuprofen, are also analgesics. These agents also reduce eicosanoid-mediated inflammation by inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f2heiw
|
how do they make intricate objects with glass (and other things)?
|
[
{
"answer": "They take glass components that are melted to something called working and softening temperatures. These allow the melt to be soft enough to mold with a rod and yet viscous enough to resist flowing much like honey just a lot slower moving. Things like a rose can be made by using pliars to physically pull pedals from a glass blob on the end of a rod. It is then dipped back into the melted batch to gain an extra layer to pull more petals. Once the rose pedals are made a stem is pulled from the melt extended and then the cooling pedals are attached to the stem. It then sits in something called a lehr to cool slowly.\n\nBasically, most shapes are uniquely crafted layer by layer and is usually reheated multiple times over several hours to shape it appropriately. Glass blowing only adds to the complexity of it and doesnt allow for much time to reheat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15841945",
"title": "Roman glass",
"section": "Section::::Vessel production techniques.:Cold-cut vessels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "This technique is related to the origin of glass as a substitute for gemstones. By borrowing techniques for stone and carved gems, artisans were able to produce a variety of small containers from blocks of raw glass or thick moulded blanks, including cameo glass in two or more colours, and cage cups (still thought by most scholars to have been decorated by cutting, despite some debate).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3402",
"title": "Bead",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing.:Glassworking.:Specialized glass techniques and types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "If the glass batch is used to create a large massive block instead of pre-shaping it as it cools, the result may then be carved into smaller items in the same manner as stone. Conversely, glass artisans may make beads by lampworking the glass on an individual basis; once formed, the beads undergo little or no further shaping after the layers have been properly annealed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41257932",
"title": "Jehoshua Rozenman",
"section": "Section::::Description of his sculptures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1064,
"text": "Working with glass as a material fascinates Rozenman. Glass is fragile and vulnerable, but at the same time it is everlasting. Glass can be clear or non-translucent like ceramic, and fragile, or to the contrary, hard and unbreakable. Rozenman's method of working with glass resembles that of a smith, the way he melts a lump of glass in his oven, and then works the glass into abstract shapes. Rozenman's sculptures remind patrons of small architectonic structures, residues of an industrial building in decay; motors and machines rusted through the passing of endless time, or prehistoric creatures fossilized in a piece of amber; the remains of a world that ceased to exist thousands of years ago. The sculptures make a robust impression, threatening, but at the same time they are ambivalent, because decay, and the object's transitory nature are themes that are recurring in his work. Rozenman's sculptures are objects whose essences existed in the past, but seem that they have no present function. What remains is purity and beauty in an unconventional way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3854094",
"title": "Countertop",
"section": "Section::::Materials.:Crafted glass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 869,
"text": "Custom architectural crafted glass, tempered glass, textured glass pieces, and the ancient art of verre églomisé, or reverse gilded glass, are applied to contemporary uses including countertops, backsplashes, and tabletops. Glass work may be customized to suit by craftsmen in the studio, then installed on site either in small components (such as a kitchen countertop composed of three rectangles of verre églomisé) or as immense, single units (for example, a glass countertop and sink basin formed of one continuous piece of textured glass). Surface texture comes in several variations, such as sanded, melted, pixels, and linear. Glass countertops also often have customized edges, including: bushed polished, textured, and fire polished edges. The glass is non-porous, relatively stain-proof, extremely hygienic, and \"extremely heat resistant (up to 700 degrees).\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26714",
"title": "Sculpture",
"section": "Section::::Materials and techniques.:Glass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Glass may be used for sculpture through a wide range of working techniques, though the use of it for large works is a recent development. It can be carved, with considerable difficulty; the Roman Lycurgus Cup is all but unique. Hot casting can be done by ladling molten glass into molds that have been created by pressing shapes into sand, carved graphite or detailed plaster/silica molds. Kiln casting glass involves heating chunks of glass in a kiln until they are liquid and flow into a waiting mold below it in the kiln. Glass can also be blown and/or hot sculpted with hand tools either as a solid mass or as part of a blown object. More recent techniques involve chiseling and bonding plate glass with polymer silicates and UV light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "302771",
"title": "Art glass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "Art glass is an item that is made, generally as an artwork for decoration but often also for utility, from glass, sometimes combined with other materials. Techniques include stained glass windows, leaded lights (also called leadlights), glass that has been placed into a kiln so that it will mould into a shape, glassblowing, sandblasted glass, and copper-foil glasswork. In general the term is restricted to relatively modern pieces made by people who see themselves as artists who have chosen to work in the medium of glass and both design and make their own pieces as fine art, rather than traditional glassworker craftsmen, who often produce pieces designed by others, though their pieces certainly may form part of art. Studio glass is another term often used for modern glass made for artistic purposes. Art glass has grown in popularity in recent years with many artists becoming famous for their work; and, as a result, more colleges are offering courses in glass work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337420",
"title": "Studio glass",
"section": "Section::::History.:Techniques used in modern studios.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Modern glass studios use a great variety of techniques in creating their pieces. The ancient technique of blown glass, where a glassblower works at a furnace full of molten glass using metal rods and hand tools to blow and shape almost any form of glass, is one of the more popular ways to work. Most large hollow pieces are made this way, and it allows the artist to be improvisational as they create their work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3jagen
|
what happened that resulted in canada going into a recession.
|
[
{
"answer": "The main reason for the recession is the current crash in oil prices. For Canada to get out of the recession oil prices need to hit $70 a barrel, that is the sweet spot for companies to start spending money on drilling again. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "598743",
"title": "Economic history of Canada",
"section": "Section::::Recent years.:Recession.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The recession brought on in the United States by the collapse of the dot-com bubble beginning in 2000, hurt the Toronto Stock Exchange but has affected Canada only mildly. It is one of the few times Canada has avoided following the United States into a recession.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "522241",
"title": "Timeline of Ontario history",
"section": "Section::::Since 1985.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1990–1992 – A major recession hits Ontario. Many companies began to massively downsize and threaten to leave Canada all together. New advancements in manufacturing such as automation and globalization further destabalize the Province, and lead to a decade of instability\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "598743",
"title": "Economic history of Canada",
"section": "Section::::Recent years.:Recession.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Canada experienced economic recession in the early 1980s and again in the early 1990s. This led to massive government deficits, high unemployment, and general disaffection. The poor economy helped lead to the overwhelming rejection of the\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21422837",
"title": "Great Recession in the Americas",
"section": "Section::::North America.:Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1173,
"text": "Canada was one of the last industrialized nations to enter into a downturn. GDP growth was negative in Q1, but positive in Q2 and Q3 of 2008. The recession officially started in Q4. The almost 1-year delay of the start of the recession in Canada relative to the U.S. is largely explained by two factors. First, Canada has a strong banking sector not weighed-down by the same degree of consumer-related debt issues that existed in the United States. The United States economy collapsed from within, while the Canadian economy was being hurt by its trade relationship with the United States. Second, commodity prices continued to rise through to June 2008, supporting a key component of the Canadian economy and delaying the start of recession. In early December 2008, the Bank of Canada, in announcing that it was lowering its central bank interest rate to the lowest level since 1958, also declared that Canada's economy was entering in recession. The Bank of Canada has since announced that it has two consecutive months of GDP decline (Oct -0.1% & Nov -0.7%). The country's unemployment rate could rise to 7.5% in the next two years, according to the latest OECD report.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "598743",
"title": "Economic history of Canada",
"section": "Section::::The Great Depression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Canada was hard hit by the Great Depression. When the American economy began to collapse in the late 1920s the close economic links and the central banking system meant that the malaise quickly spread across the border. The world demand fell for wheat, lumber and mining products; prices fell, profits plunged, and unemployment soared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1962025",
"title": "Early 2000s recession",
"section": "Section::::Canada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1171,
"text": "However, in the wider economy, Canada was surprisingly unhurt by these events. While growth slowed, the economy never actually entered a recession. This was the first time that Canada had avoided following the United States into an economic downturn. The rate of job creation in Canada continued at the rapid pace of the 1990s. A number of explanations have been advanced to explain this. Canada was not as directly affected by 9/11 and the subsequent wars, and the downward pressure of these events was more muted. Canada's fiscal management during the period has been praised as the federal government continued to bring in large surpluses throughout this period, in sharp contrast to the United States. Unlike the United States no major tax cuts or major new expenditures were introduced. However, during this time, Canada did pursue an expansionary monetary policy in an effort to reduce the effects of a possible recession. Many provincial governments suffered greater problems with a number of them returning to deficits, which was blamed on the fiscal imbalance. 2003 saw elections in six Canadian provinces and in only one did the governing party not lose seats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "381465",
"title": "National Energy Program",
"section": "Section::::Global economic recession in the 1980s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "In the early 1980s, the global economy deepened into the worst economic downturn since the Great Depression. Canada, along with all of the economies of Europe (except for Norway due to their petroleum industry) and the economy of the United States, fell into a worldwide recession.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5twjek
|
how is wifi not damaging me but other kinds of radiation are?
|
[
{
"answer": "Plenty of kinds of radiation isn't damaging. For example, there's the megahertz-range radiation being blasted at high levels by giant towers all over the place- they send out a signal referred to as an \"FM radio station\". \n\nThere's also tons of smaller devices peppering you with high levels of terahertz-range radiation every day. In fact, you're so used to them that you might have trouble if we got rid of them all. We call them \"lights\". \n\nWi-Fi is right in between these two harmless types of radiation (with frequencies in the gigahertz range). It's just that for some reason people refer to Wi-Fi as \"radiation\" while referring to the other forms of radiated electromagnetic waves as \"radio waves\" or \"light\". Radiation is only a problem when the frequency is very high (higher than visible light), or when it's really intense (in which case it makes things hot).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37245",
"title": "Radionuclide",
"section": "Section::::Impacts on organisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Radionuclides that find their way into the environment may cause harmful effects as radioactive contamination. They can also cause damage if they are excessively used during treatment or in other ways exposed to living beings, by radiation poisoning. Potential health damage from exposure to radionuclides depends on a number of factors, and \"can damage the functions of healthy tissue/organs. Radiation exposure can produce effects ranging from skin redness and hair loss, to radiation burns and acute radiation syndrome. Prolonged exposure can lead to cells being damaged and in turn lead to cancer. Signs of cancerous cells might not show up until years, or even decades, after exposure.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9735",
"title": "Electromagnetic field",
"section": "Section::::Health and safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "On the other hand, radiation from other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, such as ultraviolet light and gamma rays, are known to cause significant harm in some circumstances. For more information on the health effects due to specific electromagnetic phenomena and parts of the electromagnetic spectrum, see the following articles:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3192041",
"title": "Radiophobia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Radiophobia is a fear of ionizing radiation. Given that significant doses of radiation are harmful, even deadly (i.e. radiation-induced cancer, and acute radiation syndrome), every threat of the radiation exposure may cause significant fear. The term is also used to describe the opposition to the use of nuclear technology (i.e. nuclear power) arising from concerns disproportionately greater than actual risks would merit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9934503",
"title": "Radiation damage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "This article deals with radiation damage due to the effects of ionizing radiation on physical objects. Radiobiology is the study of the action of ionizing radiation on living things, including health effects of radiation in humans. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25856",
"title": "Radiation",
"section": "Section::::Possible damage to Health and Environment from certain types of radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Non-ionizing radiation in certain conditions also can cause damage to living organisms, such as burns. In 2011, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization (WHO) released a statement adding radio frequency electromagnetic fields (including microwave and millimeter waves) to their list of things which are possibly carcinogenic to humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333692",
"title": "Radiation protection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Radiation protection, also known as radiological protection, is defined by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) as \"The protection of people from harmful effects of exposure to ionizing radiation, and the means for achieving this\". Exposure can be from a source of radiation external to the human body or due to internal irradiation caused by the ingestion of radioactive contamination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5156843",
"title": "Ionising Radiations Regulations",
"section": "Section::::The 1999 regulations.:Ionising and non-ionising radiation and associated health risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Non-ionising radiation is the terms used to describe the part of the electromagnetic spectrum covering 'Optical radiation', such as ultraviolet light and 'electromagnetic fields' such as microwaves and radio frequencies. Health risks caused by exposure to this type of radiation will often be as a result of too much exposure to ultraviolet light either from the sun or from sunbeds which could lead to skin cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6kgbn6
|
How did apple pie become an icon of American culture, even inspiring the phrase 'as American as apple pie', when it's a popular pastry in several European countries. Especially when it's also an icon of Dutch culture, even appearing in a Dutch cookbook in 1514.
|
[
{
"answer": "/r/AskFoodHistorians might be a good place to cross-post this",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can you give a source on the dutch cookbook?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sorry to see no answer incoming, but there is [this old thread](_URL_0_) I found. Unfortunately a bit earlier in the sub's history so not quite as tight a standard as we now have.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "974923",
"title": "British Americans",
"section": "Section::::Cultural roots.:Historical influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Apple pie – New England was the first region to experience large-scale English colonization in the early 17th century, beginning in 1620, and it was dominated by East Anglian Calvinists, better known as the Puritans. Baking was a particular favorite of the New Englanders and was the origin of dishes seen today as quintessentially \"American\", such as apple pie and the oven-roasted Thanksgiving turkey. \"As American as apple pie\" is a well-known phrase used to suggest that something is all-American.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159187",
"title": "Apple pie",
"section": "Section::::In American culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Although eaten in Europe since long before the European colonization of the Americas, apple pie as used in the phrase \"as American as apple pie\" describes something as being \"typically American.\" \" In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, apple pie became a symbol of American prosperity and national pride. A newspaper article published in 1902 declared that \"No pie-eating people can be permanently vanquished.\" The dish was also commemorated in the phrase \"for Mom and apple pie\" - supposedly the stock answer of American soldiers in World War II, whenever journalists asked why they were going to war. Jack Holden and Frances Kay sang in their patriotic 1950 song “The Fiery Bear”, creating contrast between this symbol of U.S. culture and the Russian bear of the Soviet Union:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "605581",
"title": "European Americans",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Cuisine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "BULLET::::- Apple pie – New England was the first region to experience large-scale English colonization in the early 17th century, beginning in 1620, and it was dominated by East Anglian Calvinists, better known as the Puritans. Baking was a particular favorite of the New Englanders and was the origin of dishes seen today as quintessentially \"American\", such as apple pie and the oven-roasted Thanksgiving turkey. \"As American as apple pie\" is a well-known phrase used to suggest that something is all-American.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20557093",
"title": "English Americans",
"section": "Section::::Cultural influences.:Cuisine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "BULLET::::- Apple pie - New England was the first region to experience large-scale English colonization in the early 17th century, beginning in 1620, and it was dominated by East Anglian Calvinists, better known as the Puritans. Baking was a particular favorite of the New Englanders and was the origin of dishes seen today as quintessentially \"American\", such as apple pie and the oven-roasted Thanksgiving turkey. \"As American as apple pie\" is a well-known phrase used to suggest that something is all-American.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159187",
"title": "Apple pie",
"section": "Section::::In American culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 943,
"text": "Apple pie was brought to the colonies by the English, the Dutch, and the Swedes during the 17th and 18th centuries. The apple pie had to wait for the planting of European varieties, brought across the Atlantic, to become fruit-bearing apple trees, to be selected for their cooking qualities as there were no native apples except crabapples, which yield very small and sour fruit. In the meantime, the colonists were more likely to make their pies, or \"pasties\", from meat, calling them coffins (meaning basket) rather than fruit; and the main use for apples, once they were available, was in cider. However, there are American apple pie recipes, both manuscript and printed, from the 18th century, and it has since become a very popular dessert. Apple varieties are usually propagated by grafting, as clones, but in the New World, planting from seeds was more popular, which quickly led to the development of hundreds of new native varieties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41792251",
"title": "The History of Apple Pie",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "The History of Apple Pie were an English rock band from London. They released their debut album \"Out of View\" on 28 January 2013, which went in at number 8 in the UK Indie Breakers Chart, and number 2 in the UK Record Store Chart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20111193",
"title": "Pumpkin pie",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "The pumpkin is native to the continent of North America. The pumpkin was an early export to France; from there it was introduced to Tudor England, and the flesh of the \"pompion\" was quickly accepted as pie filler. During the seventeenth century, pumpkin pie recipes could be found in English cookbooks, such as Hannah Woolley's \"The Gentlewoman's Companion\" (1675). Pumpkin \"pies\" made by early American colonists were more likely to be a savory soup made and served in a pumpkin than a sweet custard in a crust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b65xd4
|
What was life like in areas of France occupied by Germany in the First World War?
|
[
{
"answer": "There wasn't actually that much of France under German occupation during the war. After the breakdown of the Schlieffen plan and the race to the sea, the front line more or less stabilised, although there would be shifts as various offensives took place. You can see on [this map](_URL_0_) that most of the occupied territory is on the Belgian border. This territory was mainly two thirds of the Department (a French administrative area) of Nord, which was home to roughly 1.176 million French citizens. Altogether, parts of ten Departments were occupied, with a total population of about 2 million. As many men had fled before the German advance or been mobilised into the army, a majority of the population was female.\n\nUnfortunately for the French, this strip of land was one of the most heavily industrialised in the country, producing 60% of its iron, a quarter of its steel and up to 40% of its coal. This was very useful to the Germans, who had found themselves deprived of seaborne imports by the British blockade. Increasingly, raw materials and industrial machinery were taken to Germany to assist with the war effort. The entire area of occupied France was also close enough to the front lines that they fell under military, rather than civil, administration. There was widespread requistion of food, and civilians were increasingly forced to work for the occupiers, building fortifications and carrying out duties usually reserved for pioneer units. Those who refused to work voluntarily were forced to work in Civil-Worker Battalions, which were generally brutal, with poor rations. There were high mortality rates and the workers were interned in special camps. In summer 1916, 20,000 workers were deported to the Ardennes to work on the harvest, although this practice was stopped after widespread international protest.\n\nIn terms of administration, French authorities were mostly sidelined. Instead, the occupied zone was divided into various divisions called *Etappen*, under the control of an Inspector, with subdivisions under the control of the area Commandant. The army in the area at the time was responsible for providing administrators to oversee each Etappe, and when the armies were redeployed, so were their administrators. The subdivisions could vary in size, with the largest, such as the city of Lille, being administered by a high ranking officer and dozens of soldiers, whereas small villages could only have an NCO assigned to them. Each citizen was issued an identity card, and if they were found outside their Etappe then they could be faced with a fine or imprisonment. It was possible to obtain a pass from the area Commandant, but this was a difficult and complicated process, and the passes generally only lasted a few days. While a military necessity from the perspective of the Germans, this system led to increased frustration among the French population. The French police were left to deal with crimes against other French people, but the Germans had their own military and police force.\n\nCorrespondence with anyone outside the occupied zone was initially punishable by death, but the punishment soon decreased and there was in any case a thriving underground post network, often via neutral countries or the Red Cross. The German Army also produced a newspaper, called the Gazette des Ardennes, which provided reports on news from the front and extracts from British and French newspapers. As the French also had access to German language newspapers, it was important that the Gazette didn't appear as overt propaganda. As such, it was more or less factually trustworthy, but had a heavy pro-German perspective. It's difficult to tell exactly how popular it was. Whilst circulation reached 180,000 by January 1918, accounts by French citizens mention that much of the time it wasn't actually read. In an effort to counter this, the British and French airdropped newspapers and pamphlets over the occupied territories. There were also a few underground newspapers, and while owning a radio was illegal, those who had one hidden were able to listen to radio stations on the other side of the front line. The French also conversed openly with soldiers billeted in the area, allowing them to gain information in that way.\n\nIn terms of resistance, there was very little that the French could do to actively resist the occupiers. Those who refused to carry out work or were found guilty of carrying out resistance were conscripted into labour battalions. Underground newspapers and networks to help escaped prisoners were made very difficult by the tight grip of the German army, although they did exist. For example, in June 1915 a German sentry was shot by a Frenchman near Roubiax. However, several spies and saboteurs were shot by the German army in response. Many ordinary French people limited themselves to symbolic acts of resistance, such as refusing to shake hands with Germans, wearing the national colours and writing letters of protest. There is some evidence to show that letters of protest actually had a negative effect on the war effort, as area Commandants had to spend a lot of their time responding to the letters, and became increasingly irritated as a result of them. The French also refused to give the Germans lists of military age men and the civil authorities were generally obstructive towards the Germans, relying on legalistic interpretations of international law on what occupying armies were allowed to requisition. In response, the Germans would threaten the authorities with various fines or harsh punishments. \n\nHowever, the close proximity in which the Germans and French lived and worked meant that contact and co-operation, if not collaboration, was commonplace. A number of French women had relationships and even children with German soldiers, and accounts of the occupation accuse a large number of both working and middle-class women of having sexual relationships with the occupiers. A report for British intelligence in 1918 listed 362 women who had relationships with Germans, ranging from prostitution to having children with them, and the number of women treated for sexually transmitted diseases rose sharply with the arrival of the Germans. Women who did not have relationships with Germans, but interacted with them socially, were often the subject of disapproval, and gossip could easily overstate the nature of their relationships. This disapproval was also extended to some men who were socially friendly with the Germans. A number of high ranking civil servants were accused of being too friendly with the Germans, although evidence that this was true is lacking. Angry mobs would occasionally form, such as in Lille where a woman was pelted with stones and called a whore by a crowd of almost 500 people. It took the German police firing above the crowd to disperse them. After the war there was little done to 'punish' those who had been seen to collaborate with the Germans, although some trials took place. \n\nSources:\n\nBernard Wilkin, 'Isolation, communication and propaganda inthe occupied territories of France, 1914–1918', *First World War Studies*, 7:3 (2016).\n\nJames E. Connolly, 'Mauvaise-conduite: complicity and respectability in the occupied Nord, 1914–1918', *First World War Studies*, 4:1 (2013)\n\nJames E. Connolly, 'Notable protests: respectable resistance in occupied northern France, 1914–18', *Historical Research* 88 (Nov 2015)\n\nJens Thiel, 'Between recruitment and forced labour: the radicalization of German labour policy in occupied Belgium and northern France', *First World War Studies*, 4:1 (2013)\n\nIf you're looking for a book about the occupation, then take a look at:\n\nHelen McPhail, *The Long Silence: The Tragedy of Occupied France in World War I* (2014)\n\nLet me know if you have any more questions!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47012170",
"title": "Art and World War II",
"section": "Section::::Art in Nazi Germany.:Degenerate art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "France was occupied by Nazi Germany from 22 June 1940 until early May 1945. An occupying power endeavours to normalise life as far as is possible since this optimises the maintenance of order and minimises the costs of occupation. The Germans decreed that life, including artistic life should resume as before (the war). There were exceptions. Jews were targeted, and their art collections confiscated. Some of this consisted of modern, degenerate art which was partly destroyed, although some was sold on the international art market. Masterpieces of European art were taken from these collectors and French museums and were sent to Germany. Known political opponents were also excluded and overtly political art was forbidden.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18564127",
"title": "Collective punishment",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.:World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "During the First World War, the German invasion of Belgium was marked by numerous acts of collective punishment, in response to real or perceived acts of resistance. Some 6,000 civilians were killed, and 25,000 homes burned during this period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5843419",
"title": "France",
"section": "Section::::History.:Contemporary period (1914–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 1198,
"text": "In 1940, France was invaded and occupied by Nazi Germany and Italy. Metropolitan France was divided into a German occupation zone in the north, an Italian occupation zone in the south-east and Vichy France, a newly established authoritarian regime collaborating with Germany, in the south, while Free France, the government-in-exile led by Charles de Gaulle, was set up in London. From 1942 to 1944, about 160,000 French citizens, including around 75,000 Jews, were deported to death camps and concentration camps in Germany and occupied Poland. In September 1943, Corsica was the first French metropolitan territory to liberate itself from the Axis. On 6 June 1944, the Allies invaded Normandy and in August they invaded Provence. Over the following year the Allies and the French Resistance emerged victorious over the Axis powers and French sovereignty was restored with the establishment of the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF). This interim government, established by de Gaulle, aimed to continue to wage war against Germany and to purge collaborators from office. It also made several important reforms (suffrage extended to women, creation of a social security system). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13289",
"title": "History of the Netherlands",
"section": "Section::::The Second World War (1939–1945).:False hopes, the Hunger Winter and Liberation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 322,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 322,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "The rest of the country remained occupied until the spring of 1945. In the face of Dutch defiance, the Nazis deliberately cut off food supplies resulting in near-starvation in the cities during the \"Hongerwinter\" (Hunger winter) of 1944–45. Soup kitchens were set up but many vulnerable people died. A few days before the Allied victory, the Germans allowed emergency shipments of food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1643390",
"title": "Economic history of France",
"section": "Section::::1914–1944.:Vichy France, 1940–1944.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Conditions in Vichy France under German occupation were very harsh, because the Germans stripped France of millions of workers (as prisoners of war and \"voluntary\" workers), and as well stripped much of the food supply, while demanding heavy cash payments. It was a period of severe economic hardship under a totalitarian government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51255",
"title": "Charles de Gaulle",
"section": "Section::::1944–1946: Provisional Government of Liberated France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 152,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 152,
"end_character": 933,
"text": "Living conditions immediately after the liberation were even worse than under German rule. About 25% of the city was in ruins and public services and fuel were almost nonexistent. Large-scale public demonstrations erupted all over France, protesting the apparent lack of action at improving the supply of food, while in Normandy, bakeries were pillaged. The problem was not French agriculture, which had largely continued operating without problems, but the near-total breakdown of the country's infrastructure. Large areas of track had been destroyed by bombing, most modern equipment, rolling stock, lorries and farm animals had been taken to Germany and all the bridges over the Seine, the Loire and the Rhone between Paris and the sea had been destroyed. The black market pushed real prices to four times the level of 1939, causing the government to print money to try to improve the money supply, which only added to inflation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51621350",
"title": "Foyer (housing model)",
"section": "Section::::History and evolution.:Post-war reconstruction in France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1649,
"text": "Following World War II, France was left in a thoroughly damaged state. Germany took an estimated 2.4 million French workers captive and destroyed over a million buildings, leaving over a million people homeless. With prisoners of war returning from Germany and a surge of young people migrating from rural to urban areas all seeking work there was a serious lack of sufficient housing. It was increasingly clear that government intervention was necessary to provide aid to these it's citizens. The French government responded by creating a HLM (rent-controlled housing) system. Participating HML organizations were authorized to build and rent out foyers. Typically, foyers were associated with a specific group, for example the (FJT), (Foyers for Young Workers) emerged to provide affordable housing for young workers leaving home for work in urban areas. Initially, construction of foyers was focused on the highest density area of young people, near Paris. Continuing through the 1960s and early 1970s, foyers continued to provide affordable housing for young people and other groups, such as migrants workers, however they began to offer less comprehensive services such as social and educational opportunities. By the 1980s, foyers focusing on specific groups of people with specific needs began to develop, such as those focused on supporting migrant workers and troubled youth. While the housing was widely appreciated by supported groups, there was large criticism of foyer's as limiting independence, with R. Lovett et al. reporting that many residing with FJT lamented that \"[t]hey want us to be responsible, but they give us few rights\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3eru4u
|
what is another solution to shootings, outside of gun control?
|
[
{
"answer": "it does appear that higher levels of education decrease violent behaviour. gun awareness decreases violent gun crimes. and also a huge one with kids is co-curriculars. when kids are on sports teams or in clubs they have no time to shoot up schools.\n\nall in all i realize the states are never giving up guns, but i believe if schools push co-curriculrs a little more (some kind of incentive) that violent crime will go down. (there currently exists an inverse correlation between the two)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1) Obviously, we need to take a closer look at mental health issues (this also pertains to suicides, which make up 2/3rds of all gun deaths in the US). A big part of this would be lowering the stigmas associated with depression and related problems, and encouraging people to get help, in addition to getting actual funding.\n\n2) Since no one else is saying it, I will; African American males between the ages of 16 and 35, representing about 3% of the overall population of the United States, are responsible for about *half* of its gun violence. We need to take a look in the mirror and realize that an enormous amount of crime is coming out of the \"black community\" in the United States. The fix to that ultimately is better jobs and education for inner-city communities. To fix the school issue, in particular, we have to start taking a closer look at how we actually fund schools, and take steps to equalize funding (currently the Feds actually try to do this, but those programs don't have nearly enough money to cover the difference). In addition, allegations of \"systemic racism\" by the police are likely true more often than not, but honestly I feel that this is a *symptom* that will clear itself up if a meaningful way to reduce violence is achieved. Less crime directly translates into a lower police presence.\n\nThis also applies (although to a lesser extent) to Hispanics within the US, who are murdered at twice the rate that Whites are (and is three times *lower* than the rate African Americans are).\n\n3) In addition, I'd promote gun literacy; make it such that everyone knows how to handle and use a gun responsibly. Honestly, I'd include it as an extension of civics classes in high school.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7800201",
"title": "Gun violence in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Intervention programs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Sociologist James D. Wright suggests that to convince inner-city youths not to carry guns \"requires convincing them that they can survive in their neighborhood without being armed, that they can come and go in peace, that being unarmed will not cause them to be victimized, intimidated, or slain.\" Intervention programs, such as CeaseFire Chicago, Operation Ceasefire in Boston and Project Exile in Richmond, Virginia during the 1990s, have been shown to be effective. Other intervention strategies, such as gun \"buy-back\" programs have been demonstrated to be ineffective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1382388",
"title": "Point shooting",
"section": "Section::::Basis for the use of aimed point shooting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "The one thing that point shooting methods have in common is that they do not rely on the sights, and they strive to increase the shooter's ability to hit targets at short range under the less-than-ideal conditions expected in close quarters, life-threatening situations, self-defense, and combat situations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28495",
"title": "Shooting",
"section": "Section::::Weapons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Shooting is also used in warfare, self-defence, crime and law enforcement. Duels were sometimes held using guns. Shooting without a target has applications such as celebratory gunfire, 21-gun salute, or firing starting pistols, incapable of releasing bullets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "568092",
"title": "Overtime (ice hockey)",
"section": "Section::::Shootout.:Tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1158,
"text": "Most shooters attempt to out-deke the goalie in order to create a better scoring chance. Former Detroit Red Wings forward Pavel Datsyuk and New York Rangers forward Martin St. Louis are examples of players who commonly use this tactic. However, it is not uncommon for a shooter to simply shoot for an opening without deking. This is commonly referred to as sniping. This is most commonly performed when a goalie challenges a shooter by giving them an open hole (by keeping a glove, pad or stick out of position or being out of sound goaltending position altogether to tempt the shooter to aim for the given opening). Former NHL forwards Markus Näslund and Brett Hull are two players commonly referred to as snipers. Very rarely a shooter may take a slapshot or wrist shot from the point or top of the slot. This is almost exclusively performed when a shooter either has a high level of confidence in their shot or they attempt to catch the goalie by surprise. Retired player Brian Rolston, Detroit Red Wings winger Todd Bertuzzi, Philadelphia Flyers defenseman Chris Pronger, and Vancouver Canucks winger Daniel Sedin have all used this tactic with success.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "568016",
"title": "Penalty shot (ice hockey)",
"section": "Section::::Strategy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "Most shooters attempt to out-deke the goaltender in order to create a better scoring chance. Minnesota Wild forward Mikko Koivu, Detroit Red Wings forward Pavel Datsyuk, Washington Capitals forward TJ Oshie and New York Rangers forward Martin St. Louis are examples of players who commonly use this strategy. However, it is not uncommon for a shooter to simply shoot for an opening without deking. This is commonly referred to as sniping. This is most commonly performed when a goaltender challenges a shooter by giving them an open hole (by keeping a glove, pad or stick out of position or being out of sound goaltending position altogether to tempt the shooter to aim for the given opening).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59090241",
"title": "Matthew Morgan (politician)",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Following a March 2018 school shooting in Southern Maryland, Morgan responded with pessimism that proposed gun control legislation would be effective in preventing future shootings, saying \"I don’t know if there is a policy fix.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16746358",
"title": "Triple Nickel Course of Fire",
"section": "Section::::Course rules.:Application.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "The shooters will stand at the 5 yard line facing the adversarial targets, with a cover garment as to not alert threats of the intentions of the shooter. At the tone or when targets face the shooter will draw and engage the first target with 2 rounds, then transition to each target engaging with 2 rounds. Shooter must conduct a reload after the 1st target and anytime before the 5th target.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5deyeu
|
how can games companies sell unfinished games and in some cases games that are unplayable (activision)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Simply answer, because consumers keep buying them.\n\nLonger answer, due to the new and easier channels of distribution, mainly pre-order, digital downloads, etc. games can be bought way before any serious reviews by game critics or consumers alike have been established.\n\nSo by the time the problems of a game are known, the majority of sales have already been made. Coupled with promises of updates and fixes, many consumers stick around or even buy the game later when it's fixed.\n\nThis way game companies get both, the money from early buyers who purchase the game without knowing it's quality as well as patient gamers who wait until the game is fixed.\n\nSince this behavior doesn't seem to damage the long-term reputation of the company it remains a viable business model.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2145946",
"title": "GameTap",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "On November 29, 2007, GameTap announced that as of December 11, over 70 games would be removed from their catalog, many of them Electronic Arts or Interplay titles, likely due to expiration of the two-year licensing agreement with those companies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31625900",
"title": "Nintendo eShop",
"section": "Section::::Download Software.:Download-only titles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Any video game company, notably independent video game developers, may publish their own games via the Nintendo eShop as download-only software for the Nintendo 3DS, Wii U, and Nintendo Switch. Various titles, which may be sold as retail games in some regions, might be released as download-only software in others for various reasons, such as cost-effective localisation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44764608",
"title": "Minecraft: Story Mode",
"section": "Section::::Development and releases.:Closure of Telltale Games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "In November 2018, Telltale Games began the process of closing down the studio due to financial issues. Most of its games started to become delisted from digital storefronts, including \"Minecraft: Story Mode\". According to GOG.com, they had to pull the title due to \"expiring licensing rights\". The \"Minecraft\" team stated that even for those that had purchased the titles before their delisting, the episodes would no longer be downloadable after June 2019. Because the Xbox Live Marketplace does not allow for removing games from sale while at the same time allowing existing owners to download the game, each episode of the game's Xbox 360 version was repriced to in the few weeks ahead of the delisting to deter users from purchasing them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2620115",
"title": "EGames (video game developer)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Entertainment Games, Inc. ceased trading as an entertainment company in April, 2012 due to financial difficulties. The company name, ticker symbol EGAM, and public company structure were acquired by a mining company, Tamino Minerals, in a reverse merger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2620115",
"title": "EGames (video game developer)",
"section": "Section::::Notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Entertainment Games, Inc. ceased trading as an entertainment company in April, 2012 due to financial difficulties. The company name, ticker symbol EGAM, and public company structure were acquired by a mining company, Tamino Minerals, in a reverse merger.[2][3]\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1271468",
"title": "Game (retailer)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "In March 2012, several suppliers, including Nintendo, Electronic Arts and Capcom refused to supply their latest products due to concerns over Game's creditworthiness. Game subsequently entered administration on 26 March 2012, and was purchased by OpCapita the following week. Baker Acquisitions was subsequently renamed Game Retail Ltd.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7122190",
"title": "Thatgamecompany",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Thatgamecompany's employees are not opposed to making action titles, and, as a break from their regular projects, have internally created \"exciting\" games that were well received by Sony. However, Chen believes that there is no reason for the company to commercially produce such games, as they would not be creating new ideas that justified the cost of remaining an independent studio, as opposed to working for existing game developers. Similarly, Chen does not intend for Thatgamecompany to make \"big budget blockbuster games\", as he believes that the financial pressure would stifle innovation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6apjl9
|
why do so many websites (mainly news sites) now have a "continue reading" button a few lines down the page? why not just show the whole article to begin with?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ad revenue. They can deliver you twice as much advertising by having you click to the next page. It also helps because their analytics will get a boost because you're viewing multiple pages on the website.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've wondered this - have to assume there's a useful metric to be collected and an extra dollar to be made. Maybe to measure engagement, based on headlines/opening paragraphs/etc..?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always assumed it was so they could cram more ads in without taking forever to load up initially ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most people don't read the whole article, they can show a lot of ads on the landing screen then you open the hidden article if you really wanted to read. \n\nMoney",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I doubt this has all that much to do with ad-revenue but with server load and quicker loadtimes - if the content is interesting for the readers, let them load the rest. Others who misclicked or dont enjoy it can just return and not request that many infos from the server. If a server experiences heavy load and more requests than it can handle you change your website in a way that decreases it. \n\n\nPS: This is just a guess. But ads don't usually pay more per page interaction, the advertiser still pays for the same amount of appearance. Unless the page completely refreshes or renews after pressing the button the pageowners don't get a benefit so in this case it would be smarter for them to show all the ads in the beginning to not risk potential readers to not click the \"continue reading\" button in order for the ad to show - they would straight up show the ad to make more net-profit. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is usually an advertisement right under the continue reading button, this helps website to show up ads higher on the main content instead of dividing the content with and ad. \nSource: user-experience designer",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's just so more ads can be shown or seen first, users haven't adapted fully to look for the continue reading button so this trend will persist for some time. \n\nAs a web dev, I find this practice of intentionally making websites harder for users infuriating. Continue reading or short articles across many pages are part of this scam and I wish it to die unceremoniously. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One large benefit to this is to measure if someone is actually engaging with your content on a page. When a person lands on your page, then leaves without interacting with anything, many analytics libraries will consider that a bounce, even if the user reads some or all of the content. However, if they click something, that's considered an action, and that graduates you to a non bounce visitor - you didn't just land on the page and navigate away, you expressed interest in the content. This lets you do content optimization - if you are getting a lot of non bounce visitors on certain pieces of content, you can promote that content more heavily, which in turn leads to more visitors to your site, as opposed to content that causes people to bounce which should be promoted less.\n\nOther answers mention bandwidth conservation which may be a factor as well.\n\nEDIT: Since a lot of comments are talking about ads I will amend my answer to address that as well. My answer alludes to the fact that with content optimization, if you can drive more people to your site, more ads are served which can increase ad revenue. There are a lot of payment models for ads, but generally, you might get paid a very small amount for an impression (which is just loading and showing an ad on your site), but you will get paid a lot more if someone actually clicks the ad and follows through to the content behind it (as such, the companies that are paying for the ads also pay per impression and per click, and clicks are much more expensive - there's a common metric called \"cost per click\" which measures how much you are paying for each click, so you can assess your return on investment). \n\nWith the 'continue reading' button, you could slap more ads below, but (and I'm speculating here) I'd expect if that 'continue reading' button was not there the ad would be there regardless. As such, I'm not certain it'd be a factor in generating more ad revenue, if you didn't have the 'continue reading', you'd get the impression and possible click as soon as the user viewed the ad (which would require one less click). The only counter argument to this I can think of is if ad serving companies require user interaction before you display more ads - but I don't know if that's true. \n\nI also found this asked on stackexchange that had a few other good reasons as well: _URL_0_\n\nEDIT 2: A number of people are citing a lot of extra reasons below that can all be valid as well. This is not the end-all-be-all answer, which is why I said \"one large benefit\" to talk about how this is one of many. There are a ton of different reasons to design your content to have this - my example is just the most common one I've seen, but world of web advertising is very complex, with ad providers imposing rules and rapid policy changes as sites try to optimize their ad revenue within those rules! This is a simple question with a myriad of complex possible answers - I just gave one :).\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A way to track popularity of the article.\n\nIf they just count the number of people that access an article then they would count people who clicked wrong and didn't read the article.\n\nAlso, they want to filter out people who don't read past the first paragraph or two.\n\nThis metric is much more accurate about how popular the article is.\n\nAnd can give information, when compared to total accesses, about how poorly their site is designed by identifying number of miss-clicks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It forces you to interact with the page itself, which shows that the content pulled you in. Helps them differentiate between you and users who might just keep going without using the site. That interaction can also harvest more data on you, such as the browser and platform you are using, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " Because you get ads on the fist part, then more ads on the second part. In fact, the more pages there are the more space for unique ads there are. It's all about money. And, it also helps test retention so they know we're to put the more profitable ads.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "News articles are typically written with the most critical info in the first paragraph, then info of decreasing importance with each following paragraph.\n\nThis way, when a story is sent out, the editors can cut the story off at any paragraph, depending on how much space they need to fill, and it won't feel like an abrupt ending to the readers.\n\nSo you only really have to read the first few paragraphs of a story to get all the important details. \n\nReading more than that is just filler for people who are *really* interested in the story.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What I really want to know is why the fuck a website would create a new page every time you scroll past an article. I don't want to have to hit the back button 18 times because I scrolled too long on a shitty site. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "With less text they can cram the rest of the space with more advertisements... More advertisements equals more advertisement revenue. Generally speaking, it is all about money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In hope that you'll click on the wrong arrow (notice how many ads have them) and be taken to an advertiser's page instead of the article.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They can fit more ads in and spread the traffic Over multiple pages, fit more variety of content, too",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Advertising. More page loads = more advertisements displayed = more money. And as others have said, breaking up one article into multiple pieces lets you know if people are reading the whole thing or not. And apparently AutoModerator does not want me giving simple replies in a subreddit called \"explain like I'm five\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's actually a very specific reason for the \"read more\" being added to content sites - it happened around 3 years ago.\n\nIn 2014, one of the single largest global buyers of digital advertising, GroupM, made the decision to stop buying non-viewable ad inventory, because they felt it was a waste. [Here's an interview discussing what drove that change](_URL_0_).\n\nBy adding \"read more\", inventory that was previously below the fold (so non viewable) became viewable, and therefore could be sold to major brand advertisers that were purchasing it on the exchanges, via companies like GroupM.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Realistically, I believe this is more of a cash grab than some tracking functionality. There are a handful of easier ways to track user data that provide a better experience than making the users click 10 times. One goal of ux design is to make it as easy as possible for users to see your content\n\n The key term here is advertising impressions, a site owner earns revenue through ads primarily with advert clicks. Sometimes getting users to click on an ad can yield on the upward of 15 bucks, but most get a few bucks. Advertisement impressions is the second earner, just having a user load the ad can earn you a fraction of a cent each.\n\nYou frequently will see low quality bullshit type news sites, or fake content \"top ten lists\" setup in such a manor to make users load more pages and get more add impressions. \n\nEg a top ten celebrity weight loss before and after list, that makes you click 20 times and loads a new set of four ads each time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To increase page views? Maybe it increases a click counter ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3975200",
"title": "Gatekeeping (communication)",
"section": "Section::::In the 21st century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "Singer found that the content which appears in online editions of newspapers mostly comes from content that appears in the print versions. However, editors were also very proud of the interactive tools on their websites that could not be in the paper. The goal of most editors was after all to inform the public. Further, journalists were beginning to take a step back from their traditional gatekeeping role such that many websites had sections in which journalists provided baseline information and users could manipulate according to their needs and interests like interactive maps, Electoral College scenarios, and ballot building tools based on zip codes. In 2000, editors were likely to boast about how quickly they could publish returns on election night. In 2004, this was no longer the case, as it was standard practice by then. Further, their stated goal for the 2008 election cycle was to let the audience guide the coverage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30186204",
"title": "Golden Triangle (Internet Marketing)",
"section": "Section::::Implications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "The reason for the increase in click through rates on the first three search results is due to the way users view the result page. Google’s study showed that users usually read the entire title and description of the first three listings, then the title and only part of the description of the next few results. As users scroll down the page, they tend to read only titles and then, towards the end of the page, not even that. This implies that a website may not be getting any traffic due to its positioning on the search results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25835",
"title": "Rn (newsreader)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1083,
"text": "As news volumes continued to increase, it became apparent that even KILL files could not possibly keep up with the sheer number of users and articles. A new concept, the \"threaded\" newsreader, was needed as users gradually switched from a \"read most, kill few\" model to \"ignore most, read few\". By organizing the articles in a newsgroup according to threads of discussion, using headers that had long been present in Usenet articles but practically unused, a threaded newsreader would allow users to keep up with topics and discussions they were interested without having to explicitly deselect uninteresting threads. Kim F. Storm's \"nn\" newsreader was the first to implement this new model, and it looked for a while as if \"nn\" would do to \"rn\" what \"rn\" did to \"readnews\". This fate was averted when Wayne Davison developed trn, a set of patches to \"rn\" which gave it both threading at the article level and a new user interface that would allow users to select only the threads they desired, while remaining true to the original \"rn\" interface philosophy of \"do the right thing\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1516469",
"title": "Web usability",
"section": "Section::::Understanding Usability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "We have become so used to using the internet and different websites that we do not read them any more but rather scan through them because we are usually in a hurry to find something and have become so used to web pages that there is no need for us to read through them completely as we can successfully filter through and find only the information we need and read more about it should the information found not suffice our needs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21684686",
"title": "Qzone",
"section": "Section::::Censorship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "In less strict cases, posts may be \"held for moderation\". Upon clicking “publish,” the user is presented with a message indicating that the content is being held for approval, apparently the result of an automated process triggered by the use of keywords. This often happened on the same services that have also prevented publication of other posts, indicating that some services categorize different types of content at different sensitivity levels, to be handled differently. In some cases the content held for moderation was eventually published, indicating that a human being reviewed it and determined that the content was acceptable. In other cases the content was “held for moderation” indefinitely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20781999",
"title": "News",
"section": "Section::::News media today.:Internet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Because internet does not have the \"column inches\" limitation of print media, online news stories can, but don't always, come bundled with supplementary material. The medium of the world wide web also enables hyperlinking, which allows readers to navigate to other pages related to the one they're reading.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41271012",
"title": "Clickbait",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Facebook, while trying to reduce the amount of clickbait shown to users, defined the term as a headline that encourages users to click, but doesn't tell them what they will see. However, this definition excludes a lot of content that is generally regarded as clickbait.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22u6ae
|
what is happening in bunkerville between the rancher cliven bundy and the feds?
|
[
{
"answer": "Mexico lost territory in Western North America to the US during the Mexican American War, and so the land was transferred to the Federal Government. In effect, 80(ish)% of Nevada land is owned by the Feds. Ranchers can use this land to graze their cattle, but must pay a grazing fee in order to make use of it.\n\nBundy stopped paying his fees about 20 years ago, and has been in a long legal battle with the BLM (the Federal agency that manages all federally owned land in the US), all centered on his family's claim to the land. However, he has no claim that the courts will recognize. He continued grazing on BLM land, and so the BLM got fed up and are confiscating his cattle.\n\nIt is also important that the Feds recognize his ownership of his own ranch, but *not* the surrounding land that the BLM oversees. They're not forcing him off of his own land, but off of Federally owned land that he's been grazing his cattle on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "124359",
"title": "Bunkerville, Nevada",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "In the spring of 2014, Bunkerville was the scene of the Bundy standoff, an armed confrontation between protesters and law enforcement over the non-payment of the grazing fees by Cliven Bundy, a local rancher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3760670",
"title": "Children of the Dust (Lawrence novel)",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.:Ophelia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Some time later, a large herd of cattle is found in one of the outside communities. MacAllister orders Dwight's father, Colonel Jeff Allison, to bring the cattle to the bunker for \"government protection\". Dwight believes it would be wrong to take the cattle when the outsiders depend on them for survival and hurries to tell Bill. Bill and Dwight decide that the best course of action would be to leave the bunker and warn the community which owns the cattle; Ophelia accompanies them, but she does so because they are the people she is closest to, not because she feels they are doing the right thing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49143398",
"title": "Charles Hurwitz",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Charles Hurwitz (born 1940) is a financier known for his role in the Savings and loan crisis and his takeover of Pacific Lumber Company, a logging company active in Humboldt County, California. His holdings have included Kaiser Aluminum Corporation, pari-mutual racing facilities in Texas, real estate developments throughout the Southwest and the Ozark Mountains in Arkansas; retail store complexes in western New York; a golf resort in Florida and a hotel-condominium resort and 1,300 acres developed in Puerto Rico. His company built a $75-million resort hotel in Rancho Mirage, Calif., overcoming opposition from residents, including Frank Sinatra.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42470955",
"title": "Bundy standoff",
"section": "Section::::Court judgments against Bundy's claims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "The Cliven Bundy family owns a 160-acre farm southwest of Bunkerville, which serves as headquarters and base property for the family's ranching operation on nearby public lands. The farm property was purchased by the Bundy family in 1948, after they moved from Bundyville, Arizona, and Bundy has claimed that he inherited \"pre-emptive grazing rights\" on public domain land because some of his maternal grandmother's ancestors had kept cattle in the Virgin Valley beginning in 1877. Bundy alternatively argued in legal cases that federal grazing rules infringe on Nevada's rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49004498",
"title": "Ammon Bundy",
"section": "Section::::2014 Bundy standoff in Bunkerville.:Standoff.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Bundy participated in the 2014 Bundy standoff in Bunkerville, Nevada, in which his father, Cliven Bundy, was the central figure. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) attempted to confiscate Cliven's cattle for grazing on public land for years without a permit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19928375",
"title": "TA Ranch Historic District",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "The ranch is located near the North Branch of Crazy Woman Creek south of Buffalo, Wyoming, with the Big Horn Mountains to the west. The property is significant for its role as the scene of a three-day siege in the Johnson County Range War, and as an example of an intact ranching operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36097269",
"title": "Mountain Rhythm",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Aunt Mathilde \"Ma\" Hutchins (Maude Eburne) and the other ranchers of the valley are in danger of losing her ranches. Mr. Cavanaugh (Walter Fenner), an Eastern promoter, wants to develop a dude ranch on their land. In order to get their land, Cavanaugh arranges for the government to put up nearby public lands for auction—lands the ranchers use to graze their cattle. The auction would drive the ranchers out of business and allow Cavanaugh to acquire the land at a cheap price.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5oj2i6
|
During the late Medieval and Renaisance period, when Kings derived their right to rule from divine mandates, how did people view republics & elective monarchies? Were they seen as less legitimate than herditary monarchies?
|
[
{
"answer": "For most of the medieval period, in Italy at least, republican governments could only guarantee an uneasy peace between dynasties, and at best institutionalized warfare. I have a very specific example of fighting consequential to Republican government [here](_URL_0_). However, other republics were seen as just as legitimate than monarchies; and at times even more so, as I described [here](_URL_1_). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "209443",
"title": "Civil society",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early modern history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "The Thirty Years' War and the subsequent Treaty of Westphalia heralded the birth of the sovereign states system. The Treaty endorsed states as territorially-based political units having sovereignty. As a result, the monarchs were able to exert domestic control by emasculating the feudal lords and to stop relying on the latter for armed troops. Henceforth, monarchs could form national armies and deploy a professional bureaucracy and fiscal departments, which enabled them to maintain direct control and supreme authority over their subjects. In order to meet administrative expenditures, monarchs controlled the economy. This gave birth to absolutism. Until the mid-eighteenth century, absolutism was the hallmark of Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "306250",
"title": "Relations between the Catholic Church and the state",
"section": "Section::::The papacy and the Divine Right of Kings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "This belief in the god-given authority of monarchs was central to the Roman Catholic vision of governance in the Middle Ages, Renaissance and \"Ancien Régime\". Although this was most true of what would later be termed the ultramontaine party and the Catholic Church has recognized, on an exceptional basis, Republics as early as 1291 in the case of San Marino.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168714",
"title": "Separation of church and state",
"section": "Section::::History of the concept and term.:Medieval Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "For centuries, monarchs ruled by the idea of divine right. Sometimes this began to be used by a monarch to support the notion that the king ruled both his own kingdom and Church within its boundaries, a theory known as caesaropapism. On the other side was the Catholic doctrine that the Pope, as the Vicar of Christ on earth, should have the ultimate authority over the Church, and indirectly over the state. Moreover, throughout the Middle Ages the Pope claimed the right to depose the Catholic kings of Western Europe and tried to exercise it, sometimes successfully (see the investiture controversy, below), sometimes not, such as was the case with Henry VIII of England and Henry III of Navarre.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378033",
"title": "Parliament of England",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "Under a monarchical system of government, monarchs usually must consult and seek a measure of acceptance for their policies if they are to enjoy the broad cooperation of their subjects. Early kings of England had no standing army or police, and so depended on the support of powerful subjects. The monarchy had agents in every part of the country. However, under the feudal system that evolved in England after the Norman Conquest of 1066, the laws of the Crown could not have been upheld without the support of the nobility and the clergy. The former had economic and military power bases of their own through major ownership of land and the feudal obligations of their tenants (some of whom held lands on condition of military service). The Church was virtually a law unto itself in this period as it had its own system of religious law courts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "258983",
"title": "Elective monarchy",
"section": "Section::::Historical examples.:Europe.:Other examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "A system of elective monarchy existed in Anglo-Saxon England (see Witenagemot), Visigothic Hispania, and medieval Scandinavia and in the Principality of Transylvania. Medieval France was an elective monarchy at the time of the first Capetian kings; the kings however took the habit of, during their reign, having their son elected as successor. The election soon became a mere formality and vanished after the reign of Philip II of France. In a much later period of its history, France briefly had again a kind of elective monarchy when Napoleon III was first elected President of France and then transformed himself into an Emperor – which, him being the nephew and heir of the Emperor Napoleon I, was not entirely a surprise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30252",
"title": "Justification for the state",
"section": "Section::::Transcendent sovereignty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "In feudal Europe the most widespread justification of the state was the emerging idea of the divine right of kings, which stated that monarchs draw their power from God, and that the state should only be an apparatus that puts the monarch's will into practice. The legitimacy of the state's lands derived from the lands being the personal possession of the monarch. The divine-right theory, combined with primogeniture, became a theory of hereditary monarchy in the nation states of the early modern period. The Holy Roman Empire was not a state in that sense, and was not a true theocracy, but rather a federal entity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35698149",
"title": "Renaissance in Scotland",
"section": "Section::::Court and kingship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1574,
"text": "New ideas also affected views of government, described as new or Renaissance monarchy, which emphasised the status and significance of the monarch. The Roman Law principle that \"a king is emperor in his own kingdom\", can be seen in Scotland from the mid-fifteenth century. In 1469 Parliament passed an act declaring that James III possessed \"full jurisdiction and empire within his realm\". From the 1480s, the king's image on his silver groats showed him wearing a closed, arched, imperial crown, in place of the open circlet of medieval kings, probably the first coin image of its kind outside Italy. It soon began to appear in heraldry, on royal seals, manuscripts, sculptures and as crown steeples on churches with royal connections, as at St. Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh. The first Scottish monarch to wear such a crown was James V, whose diadem was reworked to include arches in 1532. They were included when it was reconstructed in 1540, subsisting in the Crown of Scotland. The idea of imperial monarchy emphasised the dignity of the crown and included its role as a unifying national force, defending national borders and interests, royal supremacy over the law and a distinctive national church within the Catholic communion. New Monarchy can also be seen in the reliance of the crown on \"new men\" rather than the great magnates, the use of the clergy as a form of civil service, the development of standing armed forces and a navy. The aggrandisement of the monarchy reached its apogee in James VI's development of the concept of imperial rule into a divine right.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
36ff5j
|
Is there dark antimatter?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of the things we learn from the merger of special relativity and quantum mechanics is that each particle has a corresponding antiparticle.\n\nHowever, for some particles (e.g., the Z^(0) and the photon), the antiparticle and the particle are the same, while for others (e.g., the electron or a quark), the particle and antiparticle are distinct from each other.\n\nAs of now, we don't know which of these two categories dark matter falls into.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Possibly yes. In fact they are looking for signs (and may have seen some) of dark matter annihilation events.\n\n_URL_2_\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14548330",
"title": "Dark star (dark matter)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "In the unlikely event that dark stars have endured to the modern era, they could be detectable by their emissions of gamma rays, neutrinos, and antimatter and would be associated with clouds of cold molecular hydrogen gas that normally would not harbor such energetic particles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2602459",
"title": "Spark (Transformers)",
"section": "Section::::Animated series.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "A darker version of Energon called Dark Energon (also known as the Blood of Unicron) is also known to exist. Megatron is the only major user of Dark Energon, though Starscream once embedded a shard in his own Spark and used it to reanimate Skyquake. The power can bring dead Cybertronians back to life as zombie-like Terrorcons. It is revealed at the end of season one that Earth's core is really made of Dark Energon because Unicron was at the center of the Earth. Dark Energon is the lifeforce of Unicron and produced by his Anti-Spark, the dark counterpart to the AllSpark (possibly based on \"Beast Wars Neo's\" Angolmois energy).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2153281",
"title": "Dark star (Newtonian mechanics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "A dark star is a theoretical object compatible with Newtonian mechanics that, due to its large mass, has a surface escape velocity that equals or exceeds the speed of light. Whether light is affected by gravity under Newtonian mechanics is unclear but if it were accelerated the same way as projectiles, any light emitted at the surface of a dark star would be trapped by the star's gravity, rendering it dark, hence the name. Dark stars are analogous to black holes in general relativity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11719713",
"title": "List of Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce Go! characters",
"section": "Section::::Villains.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Dark Ones: A species of evil entities with the power to destroy creation that were created by an unknown cosmic force when the universe was young. While many were confined in the Netherworld, some of them are dormant in their planets' cores. They have so much evil that any organic life is painfully weakened in the Netherworld.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "577390",
"title": "Angels & Demons",
"section": "Section::::Inaccuracies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Aside from the explicit introduction, the book depicts various fictional experts explaining matters in science, technology, and history in which critics have pointed out inaccuracies. An example of this is the antimatter discussions, wherein the book suggests that antimatter can be produced in useful and practical quantities and will be a limitless source of power. CERN published an FAQ page about \"Angels & Demons\" on their website stating that antimatter cannot be used as an energy source because creating it takes more energy than it produces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16080049",
"title": "List of recurring Futurama characters",
"section": "Section::::Films' characters.:The Dark One.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 179,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 179,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The Dark One (voiced by Phil LaMarr) is the main antagonist of \"\". Is a creature with the intention of ending the universe, and the last of his species. Towards the end of the film it is discovered that he is really the desert muck leech that lived on Mars, and that Leela welcomed as a pet to prevent his death. He is ultimately defeated and eaten by Zoidberg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2153281",
"title": "Dark star (Newtonian mechanics)",
"section": "Section::::Dark star theory history.:Indirect radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "However, the dark star is capable of emitting indirect radiation – outward-aimed light and matter can leave the \"r\" = 2\"M\" surface briefly before being recaptured, and while outside the critical surface, can interact with other matter, or be accelerated free from the star through such interactions. A dark star, therefore, has a rarefied atmosphere of \"visiting particles\", and this ghostly halo of matter and light can radiate, albeit weakly. Also as Faster than light speeds are possible in Newtonian mechanics, it is possible for particles to escape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
arz0mw
|
why is e120 carmine (red dye made out of bugs) still being used instead of an artificial dye?
|
[
{
"answer": "A dye is just a chemical that happens to be a certain color. In this case it is bright red. The chemical can often be produced in different ways but with different costs. It might be possible to make Carmine with organic chemistry but it would require a lot of expensive processes. Both in terms of time, resources and pollution. You might also be able to genetically engineer some bacteria or algae to make Carmine but that would cost a lot to develop and still not be as cheap as the bugs. And the bugs are not used directly either, they are chemically processed to clean them up before they are used. So in a sense it is already artificially produced.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "people like hearing ‘no artificial colours and flavours’ (fun fact: froot loops in australia dont contain blue ones so they can claim no artificial colours .. the red ones contain carmine too) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25825",
"title": "Red",
"section": "Section::::In science and nature.:Food coloring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Because of public concerns about possible health risks associated with synthetic dyes, many companies have switched to using natural pigments such as carmine, made from crushing the tiny female cochineal insect. This insect, originating in Mexico and Central America, was used to make the brilliant scarlet dyes of the European Renaissance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "238911",
"title": "Crimson",
"section": "Section::::Dyes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Nowadays carmine dyes are used for coloring foodstuffs, medicines and cosmetics. As a food additive in the European Union, carmine dyes are designated E120, and are also called cochineal and Natural Red 4. Carmine dyes are also used in some oil paints and watercolors used by artists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25174978",
"title": "Insect farming",
"section": "Section::::Farming of popular insects.:Cochineal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Made into a red dye known as carmine, cochineal are incorporated into lots of products, ranging cosmetics, food, paint, fabric, etc. About 100,000 insects are needed to make a single kilogram of dye. The shade of red the dye yields depends on how the insect is processed. France is the world’s largest importer of carmine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9089493",
"title": "Ingredients of cosmetics",
"section": "Section::::Common ingredients.:Visual effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Strong red colors for eye products have been produced using the dye carmine, made from carminic acid extracted from the crushed bodies of the cochineal insect. Carmine was once the only bright red color permitted by the FDA for use around the eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3394380",
"title": "Oriental rug",
"section": "Section::::Manufacture.:Dyeing.:Insect reds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Carmine dyes are obtained from resinous secretions of scale insects such as the Cochineal scale Coccus cacti, and certain Porphyrophora species (Armenian and Polish cochineal). Cochineal dye, the so-called \"laq\" was formerly exported from India, and later on from Mexico and the Canary Islands. Insect dyes were more frequently used in areas where Madder (Rubia tinctorum) was not grown, like west and north-west Persia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "881388",
"title": "Persian carpet",
"section": "Section::::Materials.:Dyeing.:Insect reds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Carmine dyes are obtained from resinous secretions of scale insects such as the Cochineal scale Coccus cacti, and certain Porphyrophora species (Armenian and Polish cochineal). Cochineal dye, the so-called \"laq\" was formerly exported from India, and later on from Mexico and the Canary Islands. Insect dyes were more frequently used in areas where Madder (Rubia tinctorum) was not grown, like west and north-west Persia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18952719",
"title": "Cochineal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "The carmine dye was used in North America in the 15th century for coloring fabrics and became an important export good during the colonial period. After synthetic pigments and dyes such as alizarin were invented in the late 19th century, natural-dye production gradually diminished. Health fears over artificial food additives, however, have renewed the popularity of cochineal dyes, and the increased demand has made cultivation of the insect profitable again, with Peru being the largest exporter. Some towns in the Mexican state of Oaxaca are still working in handmade textiles using this cochineal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1d8hio
|
why is chocolate milk cheaper than regular milk?
|
[
{
"answer": "Milk is graded by quality at the dairy, similar to, for example, steaks' prime or triple A. High grade is used for direct consumption, other grades go through various processing according to the grade. A lower quality grade is less expensive as there is less market for it. Milk just below top grade is flavored with chocolate as it is very effective at masking other flavors. This is not to suggest that chocolate milk is unfit for consumption, just that there is something in it that either might induce an off flavor or would greatly reduce it's shelf life. Even lower grade milk is often used in production baked goods. About the lowest grade milk often goes to chemical processors for casein extraction used in plastics.\n\nTL,DR: chocolate milk is cheaper because a cheaper lower grade of milk is used that is still OK to drink but the chocolate hides any off flavor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In northeast Ohio, chocolate milk is always more expensive than regular milk... odd.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "167891",
"title": "Chocolate milk",
"section": "Section::::Scientific studies and research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Some nutritionists have criticized chocolate milk for its high sugar content and its relationship to childhood obesity. In New York City, school food officials report that nearly 60 percent of the 100 million cartons served each year contain fat-free chocolate milk. Because chocolate milk can contain twice as much sugar as plain low-fat milk from added sugars, some school districts have stopped serving the product altogether, including some areas in California and Washington, D.C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167891",
"title": "Chocolate milk",
"section": "Section::::Nutritional studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "In a study conducted in 2006, researchers stated that the benefits of drinking chocolate milk were likely due to its ratio of carbohydrates to protein, among other nutritional properties. However, this study was small in scale as it was conducted on only nine athletes and was partially funded by the dairy industry. Furthermore, the study compared chocolate milk to two energy drinks and unflavored milk was not used as a comparison, so it is unknown if chocolate milk is superior to unflavored milk as a recovery drink.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Varieties and brands.:Additives and flavoring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 168,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 168,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Milk often has flavoring added to it for better taste or as a means of improving sales. Chocolate milk has been sold for many years and has been followed more recently by strawberry milk and others. Some nutritionists have criticized flavored milk for adding sugar, usually in the form of high-fructose corn syrup, to the diets of children who are already commonly obese in the U.S.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45296201",
"title": "Fairlife",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Hayley Peterson of \"Business Insider\" wrote, \"The chocolate milk was the crowd favorite. It's very sweet, but not overpowering, and the consistency is creamier and thicker than regular milk.\" Peterson adds that, \"most people agreed that the 2% milk tasted similar to whole milk. Many reviewers loved the milky taste, while others thought it was too overpowering.\" Sam Rega, a \"Business Insider\" video producer commented, \"Both skim and 2% had an after-taste, but otherwise I couldn't tell much of a difference from this and regular milk.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7089",
"title": "Chocolate",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Milk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate that also contains milk powder or condensed milk. In the UK and Ireland, milk chocolate must contain a minimum of 20% total dry cocoa solids; in the rest of the European Union, the minimum is 25%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167891",
"title": "Chocolate milk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Chocolate milk is sweetened chocolate-flavored milk. It can be made by mixing chocolate syrup (or chocolate powder) with milk (from cows, goats, soy, rice, etc.). It can be purchased pre-mixed with milk or made at home by blending milk with cocoa powder and a sweetener (such as sugar or a sugar substitute), melted chocolate, chocolate syrup, or a pre-made powdered chocolate milk mix. Other ingredients, such as starch, salt, carrageenan, vanilla, or artificial flavoring are sometimes added. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54229",
"title": "Cocoa bean",
"section": "Section::::Cocoa trading.:Fair trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Cadbury, one of the world's largest chocolate companies, has begun certifying its Dairy Milk bars as fair trade; according to Cadbury, , one quarter of global sales of chocolate bars will be fair trade. In 2007, the United States imported approximately 1.95 million pounds of fairly traded cocoa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2j05pi
|
why have basements come to be considered "scary" places, such as in horror movies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Basements are underground, poorly lit (in general), cold (in general), damp places that you do not generally go into all the time. Each of those things adds to it being uncomfortable and disconcerting, which in turn makes it \"scary\". ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36747113",
"title": "The ScareHouse",
"section": "Section::::Current Haunted Attractions.:The Basement 2013-Present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1006,
"text": "The Basement is not a traditional linear walk through haunted attraction, rather it is an interactive and immersive experience that involves the actors speaking to and touching guests. The Basement is designed to provide boundary pushing, intense, thrilling, and emotional experiences in a safe environment. Scenes are developed based on psychological research and in a socially conscious/sensitive manner, with attention to avoiding themes which exploit vulnerable populations. The event is restricted to only one or two guests entering at a time. It is a more intense and thrilling experience with adult content and explicit language. The Basement has held off season events, during Christmas, Valentine's Day, and the summer. The Basement is marketed and geared towards those who seek a more extreme experience. Everyone must be 18 years old and sign a waiver before entry. Elijah Wood attended the attraction in 2014 and \"raved\" about ScareHouse and the Basement on the Seth Meyers show on November 5.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57204535",
"title": "The Basement (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "The Basement is a 2017 American horror film directed by Brian M. Conley and Nathan Ives. The film stars Mischa Barton, Jackson Davis, Cayleb Long and Tracie Thoms. The film premiered at Shriekfest in Los Angeles on October 7, 2017. It received a 10 market theatrical and digital release in the United States on 15 September 2018.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41817959",
"title": "Basement (2014 film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Basement is a 2014 horror film directed by Topel Lee. The film is a joint project by Coffee House Productions and Springboard Film Productions and will be distributed by GMA Films. The film was released on February 12, 2014, serving it as the Valentine offering movie of GMA Films.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38939139",
"title": "Reckless Tortuga",
"section": "Section::::Series.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "\"The Basement\" is a completed series that featured teenagers tampering with supernatural forces. A group of teenagers in a basement jokes around with an ouija board and gets trapped by an evil spirit. They are then faced with the challenge of escaping their predicament alive. The series started in August 11, 2009 and ended in April 29, 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17986139",
"title": "The Basement Sublet of Horror",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "The Basement Sublet of Horror is a self-produced Public-access television cable TV show by Joel Sanderson. The show uses a tongue-in-cheek approach to screen altered feature films intercut with cartoons, educational and instructional videos in such a way to create a new condensed feature that collages visual puns and humorous subplots. The host of the show is the fictional Gunther Dedmund, played by Joel Sanderson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1828138",
"title": "The People Under the Stairs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The People Under the Stairs is a 1991 American horror comedy film written and directed by Wes Craven and starring Brandon Adams, Everett McGill, Wendy Robie, A. J. Langer, Ving Rhames, and Sean Whalen. The plot follows a young boy and two adult robbers who become trapped in a house belonging to a strange couple after breaking in to steal their collection of rare coins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17986139",
"title": "The Basement Sublet of Horror",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "\"The Basement Sublet of Horror\" follows a long history of horror hosts that play horror films on television that have had a nationwide cult following for decades. Several generations of fans have grown up watching late-night Horror Host programs, at once becoming erstwhile film students and cinema aficionados, and also networking with other fans around the country. With the development of the Internet and cable television, horror host shows have seen a revival likened to the drive-in resurgence of indoor theaters that present exploitation and novelty films such as \"The Rocky Horror Picture Show\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ks8uq
|
how to read this chart on google finance
|
[
{
"answer": "[Here](_URL_0_) I provided a decently long explanation including how to read a similar chart. Read through my second comment and see if it makes sense. \n\nNote: given that the market has been active for a week, the numbers and prices may be slightly off for the IBM options. \n\nLet me know if that answers your questions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Here](_URL_0_) I provided a decently long explanation including how to read a similar chart. Read through my second comment and see if it makes sense. \n\nNote: given that the market has been active for a week, the numbers and prices may be slightly off for the IBM options. \n\nLet me know if that answers your questions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4465875",
"title": "Google Finance",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "Google launched a revamped version of their finance site on December 12, 2006, featuring a new homepage design which lets users see currency information, sector performance for the United States market and a listing of top market movers along with the relevant and important news of the day. A top movers section was also added, based on popularity determined by Google Trends. The upgrade also featured charts containing up to 40 years of data for U.S. stocks, and richer portfolio options. Another update brought real-time ticker updates for stocks to the site, as both NASDAQ and the New York Stock Exchange partnered with Google in June 2008. Google added advertising to its finance page on November 18, 2008. However, since 2008, it has not undergone any major upgrades and the Google Finance Blog was closed in August 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4465875",
"title": "Google Finance",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Google Finance was first launched by Google on March 21, 2006. The service featured business and enterprise headlines for many corporations including their financial decisions and major news events. Stock information was available, as were Adobe Flash-based stock price charts which contained marks for major news events and corporate actions. The site also aggregated Google News and Google Blog Search articles about each corporation, though links were not screened and often deemed untrustworthy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12665211",
"title": "Numbers (spreadsheet)",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Formulas and functions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "Consider a simple spreadsheet being used to calculate the average value of all car sales in a month for a given year. The sheet might contain the month number or name in column A, the number of cars sold in column B, and the total income in column C. The user wishes to complete the task of \"calculate the average income per car sold by dividing the total income by the number of cars sold, and put the resulting average in column D\". From the user's perspective, the values in the cells have semantic content, they are \"cars sold\" and \"total income\", and they want to manipulate this to produce an output value, \"average price\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46498890",
"title": "The Journal of Computational Finance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "The Journal of Computational Finance is a peer-reviewed academic journal, published five times per year, covering advances in numerical and computational techniques in pricing, hedging, and risk management of financial instruments. It was established in 1997 and is published by as part of their Risk Journals portfolio. The editor-in-chief is Christoph Reisinger (Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford). According to the \"Journal Citation Reports\", the journal has a 2015 impact factor of 0.758.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1520204",
"title": "Google Scholar",
"section": "Section::::Ranking algorithm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "While most academic databases and search engines allow users to select one factor (e.g. relevance, citation counts, or publication date) to rank results, Google Scholar ranks results with a combined ranking algorithm in a \"way researchers do, weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the piece has been cited in other scholarly literature\". Research has shown that Google Scholar puts high weight especially on citation counts and words included in a document's title. As a consequence, the first search results are often highly cited articles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "879962",
"title": "Google Ads",
"section": "Section::::Account management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The Google AdWords Keyword Planner, formerly the Keyword Tool, is a free AdWords tool which gives estimated traffic-per-month for the mentioned keywords. It provides a list of related keywords expected to be equally successful for a specific website or keyword.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5191572",
"title": "Credit rationing",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The graph to the right shows this simplified case for the credit market. The interest rate is denoted by \"r\", and \"S\" and \"I\" denote saving and investment respectively. This is a highly stylised example, where one abstracts from changes in output, and where the economy is in financial autarky (and, consequently, savings and investment express the supply and demand of loanable funds, respectively).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
atnlu0
|
how does a breathalyzer detect blood alcohol content by blowing into them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Every time you breathe, you'll have a small amount of alcohol molecules being turned to gas and transferred to your lungs, and it's those molecules that a breathalyser checks.\n\nThe more alcohol in your blood, the more alcohol molecules get turned to gas and breathed out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you have alcohol in your blood there will be some in your exhaled breath as well. The breathalyzer converts the ethanol in your breath into acetic acid and water. The byproduct of this reaction is a small amount of electricity. The breathalyzer measures how much electricity is produced and uses that to calculate how much alcohol was present in your breath.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your blood leaks alcohol into your lungs, which evaporates as you breathe. The rate at which it does this depends on how drunk you are. The breathalyzer can measure the alcohol vapor concentration in air and determine a rough estimate for your BAC.\n\nInterestingly, you can also get drunk by inhaling ethanol vapors while sober. It's exactly the reverse process. That said, don't ever do this; you can get so drunk so fast that it can seriously hurt or kill you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1591064",
"title": "Breathalyzer",
"section": "Section::::Common sources of error.:Non-specific analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "The oldest breath analyzer models pass breath through a solution of potassium dichromate, which oxidizes ethanol into acetic acid, changing color in the process. A monochromatic light beam is passed through this sample, and a detector records the change in intensity and, hence, the change in color, which is used to calculate the percent alcohol in the breath. However, since potassium dichromate is a strong oxidizer, numerous alcohol groups can be oxidized by it, producing false positives. This source of false positives is unlikely as very few other substances found in exhaled air are oxidizable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1591064",
"title": "Breathalyzer",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "In 1954 Robert Frank Borkenstein (1912–2002) was a captain with the Indiana State Police and later a professor at Indiana University Bloomington. His Breathalyzer used chemical oxidation and photometry to determine alcohol concentrations. Subsequent breath analyzers have converted primarily to infrared spectroscopy, though this method is subject to invalid results depending on ambient air temperature, the temperature of the device, and the body temperature of the subject, depending on specificity of the readings and how they correlate with one's BAC measured via a voluntary blood draw. The invention of the Breathalyzer provided law enforcement with an orally-invasive test providing immediate results to determine an individual's breath alcohol concentration at the time of testing, based on, according to this article, consistently faulty samples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48516621",
"title": "EN 50436",
"section": "Section::::EN 50436-5.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "With such an instrument the driver has to blow against a sampling area at the surface of the alcohol interlock. However, in doing so the (eventually alcohol containing) breath air is diluted by mixing with ambient air. To determine the actual breath alcohol concentration, techniques are necessary for compensation of the dilution. The dilution may be determined for example by simultaneous measurement of the carbon dioxide concentration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1591064",
"title": "Breathalyzer",
"section": "Section::::Law enforcement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Breath analyzers do not directly measure blood alcohol content or concentration, which requires the analysis of a blood sample. Instead, they estimate BAC indirectly by measuring the amount of alcohol in one's breath. In general, two types of breathalyzer are used. Small hand-held breathalyzers are not reliable enough to provide evidence in court but reliable enough to justify an arrest. Larger breathalyzer devices found in police stations can then be used to produce court evidence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "986871",
"title": "Drug test",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Breath test.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Breath test is a widespread method for quickly determining alcohol intoxication. A breath test measures the alcohol concentration in the body by a deep-lung breath. There are different instruments used for measuring the alcohol content of an individual though their breath. Breathalyzer is a widely known instrument which was developed in 1954 and contained chemicals unlike other breath-testing instruments. More modernly used instruments are the infrared light-absorption devices and fuel cell detectors, these two testers are microprocessor controlled meaning the operator only has to press the start button.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1591064",
"title": "Breathalyzer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "A breathalyzer or breathalyser (a portmanteau of \"breath\" and \"analyzer/analyser\") is a device for estimating blood alcohol content (BAC) from a breath sample. Breathalyzer is the brand name (a genericized trademark) for the instrument that tests the alcohol level developed by inventor Robert Frank Borkenstein. It was registered as a trademark on May 13, 1954, but many people use the term to refer to any generic device for estimating blood alcohol content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1591064",
"title": "Breathalyzer",
"section": "Section::::Breathalyzer sensors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 1265,
"text": "BULLET::::- Photovoltaic assay : The photovoltaic assay, used only in the dated Photo Electric Intoximeter (PEI), is a form of breath testing rarely encountered today. The process works by using photocells to analyze the color change of a redox (oxidation-reduction) reaction. A breath sample is bubbled through an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid, potassium dichromate, and silver nitrate. The silver nitrate acts as a catalyst, allowing the alcohol to be oxidized at an appreciable rate. The requisite acidic condition needed for the reaction might also be provided by the sulfuric acid. In solution, ethanol reacts with the potassium dichromate, reducing the dichromate ion to the chromium (III) ion. This reduction results in a change of the solution's color from red-orange to green. The reacted solution is compared to a vial of non-reacted solution by a photocell, which creates an electric current proportional to the degree of the color change; this current moves the needle that indicates BAC. Like other methods, breath testing devices using chemical analysis are prone to false readings. Compounds that have compositions similar to ethanol, for example, could also act as reducing agents, creating the necessary color change to indicate increased BAC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4j2wyb
|
Was it ever a common military tactic to aim for the horses instead of the riders in medieval combat?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. Many people aimed for the horses instead of the riders. \n\nRoman writer Vegetius wrote this in his text on Roman warfare:\n\n > The armed chariots used in war by Antiochus and Mithridates at first terrified the Romans, but they afterwards made a jest of them. As a chariot of this sort does not always meet with plain and level ground, the least obstruction stops it. And if one of the horses be either killed or wounded, it falls into the enemy's hands. The Roman soldiers rendered them useless chiefly by the following contrivance: at the instant the engagement began, they strewed the field of battle with caltrops, and the horses that drew the chariots, running full speed on them, were infallibly destroyed. A caltrop is a device composed of four spikes or points arranged so that in whatever manner it is thrown on the ground, it rests on three and presents the fourth upright\n\nBasically, the Romans would little the field with small spikes that would break the hooves of the horses. The horses would fall down when they stepped on them, the charioteers would fall out, and the Romans would kill them and take their chariots.\n\n[Here](_URL_0_) we see a spike horse bit (the thing that goes in their mouth). These bits were fairly common, and they existed primarily to keep the enemy from grabbing the horse by the bit and pulling it down or out, thereby removing the rider's ability to control the horse. Here is a picture of just the [bit](_URL_1_).\n\nSpear equipped infantry would almost always aim for the horse- it just makes more sense to do so. This is why horse armor existed- if it wasn't common or likely, people would not have spent marge sums of money to armor a horse.\n\nEven in Xenophon's text, *On Horsemanship* (the first book on riding that we have, from about 400BC), talks about way to protect the horse from enemy attacks.\n\nAnyway. Your question was more directly focused on the Middle Ages... yes. Medieval armies still used and carried caltrops. They also used spears, and would use spears against horses at pretty much any given opportunity.\n\nSometimes, like in the battle of Chaumont in 1098, apparently William II lost some 700 horses to archers who were told specifically to shoot for the horses.\n\nSo, yes, in Medieval combat, losing your horse to warfare was very common.\n\nNow, sometimes it did make sense to only kill the rider to seize the horse, but taking horses as prizes usually was only a concern after the battle. During a battle, where your life was at risk, your priority would be to kill your attack and not to take a prize.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7783929",
"title": "Horses in warfare",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Middle Ages.:Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "The war horse was also seen in hastiludes – martial war games such as the joust, which began in the 11th century both as sport and to provide training for battle. Specialised destriers were bred for the purpose, although the expense of keeping, training, and outfitting them kept the majority of the population from owning one. While some historians suggest that the tournament had become a theatrical event by the 15th and 16th centuries, others argue that jousting continued to help cavalry train for battle until the Thirty Years' War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7783929",
"title": "Horses in warfare",
"section": "Section::::Training and deployment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Whether horses were trained to pull chariots, to be ridden as light or heavy cavalry, or to carry the armoured knight, much training was required to overcome the horse's natural instinct to flee from noise, the smell of blood, and the confusion of combat. They also learned to accept any sudden or unusual movements of humans while using a weapon or avoiding one. Horses used in close combat may have been taught, or at least permitted, to kick, strike, and even bite, thus becoming weapons themselves for the warriors they carried.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21227309",
"title": "Horses in East Asian warfare",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "When people with horses clashed with those without, horses provided a huge advantage. When both sides had horses, battles turned on the strength and strategy of their mounted horsemen, or cavalry. Military tactics were refined in terms of the use of horses (cavalry tactics).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11380610",
"title": "Hastilude",
"section": "Section::::Types of hastiludes.:Joust.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "In contrast to the tournament, which comprised teams of large numbers ranging over large tracts of land, the joust was fought between two individuals on horseback, in a small, defined ground often known as the \"lists\". The two would ride at each other from opposite ends, charging with a couched lance. In the early fifteenth century, a barrier was introduced to keep the horses apart, to avoid collisions. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7783929",
"title": "Horses in warfare",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Middle Ages.:Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "The heavy cavalry charge, while it could be effective, was not a common occurrence. Battles were rarely fought on land suitable for heavy cavalry. While mounted riders remained effective for initial attacks, by the end of the 14th century, it was common for knights to dismount to fight, while their horses were sent to the rear, kept ready for pursuit. Pitched battles were avoided if possible, with most offensive warfare in the early Middle Ages taking the form of sieges, and in the later Middle Ages as mounted raids called \"chevauchées\", with lightly armed warriors on swift horses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34407743",
"title": "Bajutsu",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 831,
"text": "As well as requiring proficiency in riding and mounted sword-fighting, the art also included teachings on the care and upkeep of horses. Horses were trained to ignore sudden shocks, and to press forward in the charge, veering off at the last second to allow the rider to kick with his battering-ram-like stirrups. These stirrups (\"shitanaga abumi\") were designed to enable the rider to stand and shoot easily from the saddle. Cavalry charges were made possible by the development of spear techniques from horseback in the late 14th century, supplanting the mounted archery styles that had previously dominated. Such charges were used to great effect by the Takeda clan, who introduced the tactic during the mid- to late- sixteenth century, but after the Battle of Nagashino, were used only in conjunction with infantry manouevres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5427676",
"title": "Cavalry tactics",
"section": "Section::::Riding and fighting on horseback.:Tactics of heavy cavalry using lances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "Many knights during Medieval battles fought on foot. Attacks would be carried out on horseback only under favorable conditions. If the enemy infantry was equipped with polearms and fought in tight formations it was not possible to charge without heavy losses. A fairly common solution to this was for the men-at-arms to dismount and assault the enemy on foot, such as the way Scottish knights dismounted to stiffen the infantry \"schiltron\" or the English combination of longbowmen with dismounted men-at-arms in the Hundred Years' War. Another possibility was to bluff an attack, but turn around before impact. This tempted many infantrymen to go on the chase, leaving their formation. The heavy cavalry then turned around again in this new situation and rode down the scattered infantry. Such a tactic was deployed in the Battle of Hastings (1066).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2uwr8b
|
Along with rationing what strategies were used to address shortages of materials during wwI and wwII?
|
[
{
"answer": "Germany heavily tried to synthesize rare materials with varying success. Stuff like rubber for example.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43364352",
"title": "Rationing in the United States",
"section": "Section::::World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "In the summer of 1941, the British appealed to Americans to conserve food to provide more to go to Britain's fighting men in World War II. The Office of Price Administration warned Americans of potential gasoline, steel, aluminum, and electricity shortages. It believed that with factories converting to military production and consuming many critical supplies, rationing would become necessary if the country entered the war. It established a rationing system after the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "250130",
"title": "Rationing",
"section": "Section::::Civilian rationing.:Second World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "In summer 1941 the British appealed to Americans to conserve food to provide more to go to Britons fighting in the Second World War. The Office of Price Administration warned Americans of potential gasoline, steel, aluminum and electricity shortages. It believed that with factories converting to military production and consuming many critical supplies, rationing would become necessary if the country entered the war. It established a rationing system after the attack on Pearl Harbor. In June 1942 the Combined Food Board was set up to coordinate the worldwide supply of food to the Allies, with special attention to flows from the U.S. and Canada to Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7896915",
"title": "British cuisine",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "During the World Wars of the 20th century difficulties of food supply were countered by official measures, which included rationing. The problem was worse in WWII, and the Ministry of Food was established to address the problems (see Rationing in the United Kingdom). Due to the economic problems following the war, rationing continued for some years, and in some aspects was more strict than during wartime. Rationing was not fully lifted until almost a decade after war ended in Europe, so that a whole generation was raised without access to many previously common ingredients. These policies, put in place by the British government during wartime periods of the 20th century, are often blamed for the decline of British cuisine in the 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21382451",
"title": "Food waste in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "During World War II, rationing was imposed almost immediately. Restrictions were immediately more stringent than in the Great War as with effect from 8 January 1940, ration books were issued and most foods were subject to ration. By August 1940, legislation was passed that made the wasting of food a prisonable offence. Posters encouraged kitchen waste to be used for feeding animals, primarily swine but also poultry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34241186",
"title": "CC41",
"section": "Section::::Second World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "By 1941, Britain was two years into another global conflict. With the need to produce clothing and other war essentials for the expanding armed services during the Second World War, many items were once again rationed. Certain raw materials could no longer be imported, and those that could were directed towards the war effort. Food rationing had already been reintroduced in January 1940. Non-rationed items saw their price surge, and clothing saw large mark-ups in price, well above the cost of living.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6087470",
"title": "Ireland–United Kingdom relations",
"section": "Section::::Post-independence conflicts.:Anglo-Irish Trade War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Many infant industries were established during this \"economic war\". Almost complete import substitution was achieved in many sectors behind a protective tariff barrier. These industries proved valuable during the war years as they reduced the need for imports.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21525",
"title": "Nutrition",
"section": "Section::::History of human nutrition.:From 1900 to the present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "In 1940, rationing in the United Kingdom during and after World War II took place according to nutritional principles drawn up by Elsie Widdowson and others. In 1941, the first Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) were established by the National Research Council.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2aut5f
|
why are intelligence agencies allowed to break the law in foreign countries by spying on their citizens?
|
[
{
"answer": "Black ops are, by definition, illegal. If they weren't, there'd be no need for them to be a secret.\n\nBeing a spook is basically being a criminal for the government.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10501",
"title": "Espionage",
"section": "Section::::Law.:Use against non-spies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "Espionage laws are also used to prosecute non-spies. In the United States, the Espionage Act of 1917 was used against socialist politician Eugene V. Debs (at that time the Act had much stricter guidelines and amongst other things banned speech against military recruiting). The law was later used to suppress publication of periodicals, for example of Father Coughlin in World War II. In the early 21st century, the act was used to prosecute whistleblowers such as Thomas Andrews Drake, John Kiriakou, and Edward Snowden, as well as officials who communicated with journalists for innocuous reasons, such as Stephen Jin-Woo Kim.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10501",
"title": "Espionage",
"section": "Section::::Law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 1257,
"text": "Espionage is a crime under the legal code of many nations. In the United States, it is covered by the Espionage Act of 1917. The risks of espionage vary. A spy breaking the host country's laws may be deported, imprisoned, or even executed. A spy breaking their own country's laws can be imprisoned for espionage or/and treason (which in the US and some other jurisdictions can only occur if they take up arms or aids the enemy against their own country during wartime), or even executed, as the Rosenbergs were. For example, when Aldrich Ames handed a stack of dossiers of U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) agents in the Eastern Bloc to his KGB-officer \"handler\", the KGB \"rolled up\" several networks, and at least ten people were secretly shot. When Ames was arrested by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), he faced life in prison; his contact, who had diplomatic immunity, was declared \"persona non grata\" and taken to the airport. Ames' wife was threatened with life imprisonment if her husband did not cooperate; he did, and she was given a five-year sentence. Hugh Francis Redmond, a CIA officer in China, spent nineteen years in a Chinese prison for espionage—and died there—as he was operating without diplomatic cover and immunity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3951130",
"title": "Spying on the United Nations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "The UN claims that acts of espionage on it are illegal under a number of international treaties, including the 1946 Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, the 1947 agreement between the United Nations and the United States, and the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2439456",
"title": "Lawrence Franklin espionage scandal",
"section": "Section::::Context for the investigation.:Media reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "The \"Los Angeles Times\" felt \"the government was right to drop its espionage case ... not because we think spying for Israel should be subjected to a different standard than spying for other countries, and not because the political ramifications of a conviction were potentially unpleasant. But this was the first prosecution under the Espionage Act of suspects who weren't government employees. ... The fact that Rosen and Weissman are private citizens makes an important distinction. When the judge ruled that the government can punish those outside of the government for the unauthorized receipt and deliberate retransmission of information relating to the national defense,' we couldn't help but take notice.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3619682",
"title": "Resident spy",
"section": "Section::::Types of resident spies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "An illegal resident spy operates under non-official cover. They cannot claim immunity from prosecution when arrested. They may operate under a false name and have documents purportedly establishing them as a national of the country, or from a different country than the one for which they are spying. Examples of such illegals include Rudolf Abel, who operated in the United States; and Gordon Lonsdale, who was born in Russia, claimed to be Canadian, and operated in Britain. Famous Soviet and Russian \"illegals\" include Richard Sorge, Walter Krivitsky, Alexander Ulanovsky, and Anna Chapman, who was also known as a sleeper agent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37695138",
"title": "List of imprisoned spies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Spying for other countries or groups is in many cases illegal and punishable by law. The following is a list of individuals that have either been imprisoned for spying, or individuals that have been arrested in connection to their spying activities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40691435",
"title": "Mass surveillance in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Legal framework for lawful interception.:Compatibility with human rights law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "A third independent report into surveillance in the UK published in July 2015 found the intelligence agencies are not knowingly carrying out illegal mass surveillance of British citizens. However, it did say the laws governing the agencies' powers to intercept private communications need a significant overhaul. This view is consistent with separate reports by the Interception of Communications Commissioner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
209pgl
|
Was there much tension between Dixiecrats and the rest of the Democratic party before the Southern Strategy, LBJ, Nixon, etc.?
|
[
{
"answer": "There was a lot of tension between the Dixiecrats and the mainstream of the Democrat Party in the late 1940s. They walked out of the 1948 Democratic Party's National Convention and organized a third party. It is best known as the Dixiecrats today, but its official title was the States' Rights Democratic Party. Strom Thurmond was their presidential nominee and he won 39 electoral votes in the 1948 election, almost costing Harry Truman the election. \n \nAfter 1948, the New Dealers and establishment members of the Democrat party scaled back their civil rights agenda in an attempt to mollify the Dixiecrats and prevent them from forming a more serious and long lasting third party. That changed after JFK and RFK began to show renewed interest in Civil Rights, after 1960. \nSource:\"1948: Harry Truman's Improbable Victory and the Year that Changed America\" by David Pietrusza",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "723054",
"title": "Solid South",
"section": "Section::::Presidential voting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1094,
"text": "Democratic President Harry S. Truman's support of the civil rights movement, combined with the adoption of a civil rights plank in the 1948 Democratic platform, prompted many Southerners to walk out of the Democratic National Convention and form the Dixiecrat Party. This splinter party played a significant role in the 1948 election; the Dixiecrat candidate, Strom Thurmond, carried Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina. In the elections of 1952 and 1956, the popular Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower, commander of the Allied armed forces during World War II, carried several Southern states, with especially strong showings in the new suburbs. In 1956, Eisenhower also carried Louisiana, becoming the first Republican to win the state since Rutherford B. Hayes in 1876. The rest of the Deep South voted for his Democratic opponent, Adlai Stevenson. The 1948 election also marked Maryland's permanent defection from the Solid South as the expansion of the federal government led to a population explosion in the state that changed Maryland politically into a Northeastern State.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "454963",
"title": "Southern strategy",
"section": "Section::::Background.:World War II and population changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1126,
"text": "In the 1948 election, after President Harry S. Truman signed Executive Order 9981 to desegregate the military, a group of conservative Southern Democrats known as Dixiecrats split from the Democratic Party in reaction to the inclusion of a civil rights plank in the party's platform. This followed a floor fight led by civil-rights activist, Minneapolis Mayor (and soon-to-be Senator) Hubert Humphrey. The disaffected conservative Democrats formed the States' Rights Democratic, or Dixiecrat Party and nominated Governor Strom Thurmond of South Carolina for President. Thurmond carried four Deep South states in the general election: South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana. The main plank of the States' Rights Democratic Party was maintaining segregation and Jim Crow in the South. The Dixiecrats, failing to deny the Democrats the presidency in 1948, soon dissolved, but the split lingered. In the fall of 1964, Thurmond was one of the first conservative Southern Democrats to switch to the Republican Party just a couple months after Democratic President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act into law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158006",
"title": "Dixiecrat",
"section": "Section::::Subsequent elections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "The States' Rights Democratic Party dissolved after the 1948 election, as Truman, the Democratic National Committee, and the New Deal Southern Democrats acted to ensure that the Dixiecrat movement would not return in the 1952 presidential election. Some Southern diehards, such as Leander Perez of Louisiana, attempted to keep it in existence in their districts. Former Dixiecrats received some backlash at the 1952 Democratic National Convention, but all Southern delegations were seated after agreeing to a party loyalty pledge. Moderate Alabama Senator John Sparkman was selected as the Democratic vice presidential nominee in 1952, helping to boost party loyalty in the South. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3088213",
"title": "History of the United States Democratic Party",
"section": "Section::::Presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson (1963–1969).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "After Harry Truman's platform gave strong support to civil rights and anti-segregation laws during the 1948 Democratic National Convention, many Southern Democratic delegates decided to split from the party and formed the \"Dixiecrats\", led by South Carolina governor Strom Thurmond (who as Senator would later join the Republican Party). Thurmond carried the Deep South in the election, but Johnson carried the rest of the South. Meanwhile, in the North far left elements were leaving the Democrats to join Henry A. Wallace in his new Progressive Party. They possibly cost Johnson New York, but he won reelection anyway.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1257131",
"title": "Boll weevil (politics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1051,
"text": "During and after the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt, conservative Southern Democrats were part of the coalition generally in support of Roosevelt's New Deal and Harry Truman's Fair Deal economic policies, but were opposed to desegregation and the American civil rights movement. On several occasions between 1948 and 1968, prominent conservative Southern Democrats broke from the Democrats to run a third party campaign for President on a platform of states' rights: Strom Thurmond in 1948, Harry F. Byrd in 1960, and George Wallace in 1968. In the 1964 presidential election, five states in the Deep South (then a Democratic stronghold) voted for Republican Barry Goldwater over Southern Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson, partly due to Johnson's support of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Goldwater's opposition to it. After 1968, with desegregation a settled issue, the Republican Party began a strategy of trying to win conservative Southerners away from the Democrats and into the Republican Party (see Southern strategy and silent majority).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "861808",
"title": "Southern Democrats",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1297,
"text": "The monopoly that the Democratic Party held over most of the South first showed major signs of breaking apart in 1948, when many Southern Democrats, dissatisfied with the policies of desegregation enacted during the administration of Democratic President Harry Truman, created the States Rights Democratic Party, which nominated South Carolina Governor Strom Thurmond for president. The \"Dixiecrats\" won most of the deep South (where Truman was not on the ballot). The new party collapsed after the election, with a return to the Democratic Party. The Civil Rights Act of 1964, ultimately signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson, a Democrat, was filibustered by Democratic Senator and former KKK member Robert Byrd which led many Southern Democrats to vote for Barry Goldwater at the national level. In the ensuing years, with the passing of the Civil Rights Act and the increasing conservatism of the Republican Party compared to the liberalism of the Democratic Party (especially on social and cultural issues) led many more southern Democrats in the South to vote Republican. However, many continued to vote for Democrats at the state and local levels, especially before 1994. After 2010, Republicans had gained a solid advantage over Democrats at all levels of politics in most Southern states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2608856",
"title": "Politics of the Southern United States",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:1948: Dixiecrat revolt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1862,
"text": "Many Southern Democrats rejected the 1948 Democratic political platform over President Harry's Truman's civil rights platform. They met at Birmingham, Alabama, and formed a political party named the \"States' Rights\" Democratic Party, more commonly known as the \"Dixiecrats.\" Its main goal was to continue the policy of racial segregation in the South and the Jim Crow laws that sustained it. South Carolina Governor Strom Thurmond, who had led the walkout, became the party's presidential nominee. Mississippi Governor Fielding L. Wright received the vice-presidential nomination. Thurmond had a moderate position in South Carolina politics, but with his allegiance with the Dixiecrats, he became the symbol of die-hard segregation. The Dixiecrats had no chance of winning the election since they failed to qualify for the ballots of enough states. Their strategy was to win enough Southern states to deny Truman an electoral college victory and force the election into the House of Representatives, where they could then extract concessions from either Truman or his opponent Thomas Dewey on racial issues in exchange for their support. Even if Dewey won the election outright, the Dixiecrats hoped that their defection would show that the Democratic Party needed Southern support to win national elections, and that this fact would weaken the Civil Rights Movement among Northern and Western Democrats. However, the Dixiecrats were weakened when most Southern Democratic leaders (such as Governor Herman Talmadge of Georgia and \"Boss\" E. H. Crump of Tennessee) refused to support the party. In the November election, Thurmond carried the states of Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina. Outside of these four states, however, it was only listed as a third-party ticket. Thurmond received well over a million popular votes and 39 electoral votes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
39xkla
|
why old phones had a rotating disk with holes in it, and you need to turn the disk to dial the numbers?
|
[
{
"answer": "Old phones used pulse dialing and each digit was represented by a number of pulses. You would move the disc in one direction with your finger, and then when letting it go, a spring would move it back at the correct speed to create pulses. Each number position created 1 pulse. So if you moved the disc to 8 and let it go, it would pass 8 numbers creating 8 pulses. 0 was 10 pulses. \n\nIf you wanted, you could also create the pulses manually by pressing the hang up button quickly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It was the days before sophisticated electronics, and there wasn't a simple way to use electronics to create the impulses representing a telephone number.\n\nThe dial (as it was called -- a dial is a flat disk with numbers on it, as in a clock dial or a sundial) provided a mechanical solution. For each number you needed to \"dial\", you would put your finger in the hole corresponding to that number, turn the dial clockwise as far as it would go, and then remove your finger. A spring causes the dial to return to its original position at a certain speed: as it does so, a cam causes a brief electrical contact to be made at regular intervals, so that, for example, dialling a 2 makes contact twice, sending two pulses like clicks down the line to the exchange.\n\nLater, tone dialling was introduced: instead of a literal dial, push buttons were used (although we continued to call the process \"dialling\", and we still do today). Instead of a series of clicks, each button sends a tone of a specific pitch.\n\nSome landline phones, though, can still be switched to impulse dialling (so they can be used on exchanges that aren't equipped for tone dialling). This creates clicks electronically, simulating the impulses from a rotary dial: you can hear them if you hold the receiver to your ear as you dial.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6767",
"title": "Commodore 1541",
"section": "Section::::Media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Owing to the drive's non-use of the index hole, it was also possible to make \"flippy\" disks by inserting the diskette upside-down and formatting the other side, and it was commonplace and normal for commercial software to be distributed on such disks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10891",
"title": "Floppy disk",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Structure.:-inch disk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1299,
"text": "Two holes at the bottom left and right indicate whether the disk is write-protected and whether it is high-density; these holes are spaced as far apart as the holes in punched A4 paper, allowing write-protected high-density floppies to be clipped into standard ring binders. The dimensions of the disk shell are not quite square: its width is slightly less than its depth, so that it is impossible to insert the disk into a drive slot sideways (i.e. rotated 90 degrees from the correct shutter-first orientation). A diagonal notch at top right ensures that the disk is inserted into the drive in the correct orientation—not upside down or label-end first—and an arrow at top left indicates direction of insertion. The drive usually has a button that when pressed ejects the disk with varying degrees of force, the discrepancy due to the ejection force provided by the spring of the shutter. In IBM PC compatibles, Commodores, Apple II/IIIs, and other non-Apple-Macintosh machines with standard floppy disk drives, a disk may be ejected manually at any time. The drive has a disk-change switch that detects when a disk is ejected or inserted. Failure of this mechanical switch is a common source of disk corruption if a disk is changed and the drive (and hence the operating system) fails to notice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21739028",
"title": "Form factor (mobile phones)",
"section": "Section::::With movable sections.:Flip.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "A flip or clamshell phone consists of two or more sections that are connected by hinges, allowing the phone to flip open then fold closed in order to become more compact. When flipped open, the phone's screen and keyboard are available. When flipped shut, the phone becomes much smaller and more portable than when it is opened for use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4399237",
"title": "Disk II",
"section": "Section::::History.:Disk II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "The Shugart SA-400, from which the Disk II was adapted, was a single-sided, 35-track drive. However, it was common for users to manually flip the disk to utilize the opposite side, after cutting a second notch on the diskette's protective shell to allow write-access. Most commercial software using more than one disk side was shipped on such \"flippy\" disks as well. Only one side could be accessed at once, but it did essentially double the capacity of each floppy diskette, an important consideration especially in the early years when media was still quite expensive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10891",
"title": "Floppy disk",
"section": "Section::::Sizes.:-inch floppy disk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Writing at different densities than disks were intended for, sometimes by altering or drilling holes, was possible but not supported by manufacturers. A hole on one side of a ‑inch disk can be altered as to make some disk drives and operating systems treat the disk as one of higher or lower density, for bidirectional compatibility or economical reasons. Some computers, such as the PS/2 and Acorn Archimedes, ignored these holes altogether.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4399237",
"title": "Disk II",
"section": "Section::::History.:Disk II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "In the Disk II, the full-height drive mechanism shipped inside a beige-painted metal case and connected to the controller card via a 20-pin ribbon cable; the controller card was plugged into one of the bus slots on the Apple's mainboard. The connector is very easy to misalign on the controller card, which will short out a certain IC in the drive; if later connected correctly, a drive damaged this way will delete data from any disk inserted into it as soon as it starts spinning, even write-protected disks such as those used to distribute commercial software. This problem resulted in numerous customer complaints and repairs, which led to Apple printing warning messages in their user's manuals to explain how to properly install the connector. They used different connectors that could not be misaligned in later drives. DB-19 adapters for the original Disk II were eventually available for use with Apple's later connector standard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18171857",
"title": "History of the floppy disk",
"section": "Section::::The -inch minifloppy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "These early drives read only one side of the disk, leading to the popular budget approach of cutting a second write-enable slot and index hole into the carrier envelope and flipping it over (thus, the “flippy disk”) to use the other side for additional storage. This was considered risky by some, for the reason that single sided disks would only be certified by the manufacturer for single sided use. The reasoning was that, when flipped, the disk would spin in the opposite direction inside its cover, so some of the dirt that had been collected by the fabric lining in the previous rotations would be picked up by the disk and dragged past the read/write head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3eldf7
|
upon reading about sandra bland, i have to ask: what civil rights do i have as a citizen when a cop pulls me over? (ex. cigarette)
|
[
{
"answer": "I would really like to know what rights I have in California. The only one I know of is the right to remain silent. :/",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You have the right to free speech. You have the right to be secure in your person and papers. You have the right to remain silent. These are given by the first, fourth, and fifth amendments to the constitution. In actuality you have a lot of rights beyond that, but it is going to depend on the jurisdiction you get pulled over in and how the courts apply the cop's responsibility to abridge your rights because of the probable cause. And how the courts apply those legal abridgments are dictated (ideally) by legislation drafted by your representatives. So be careful how you vote, it may ultimately determine if a cop is acquitted for shooting at you because of a lit cigarette. \n\n2 notes:\n1)A traffic stop is not a classroom. Nobody is going to learn anything. The cop won't learn to do things differently or not be a dick because you are able to rattle off case law and refuse to cooperate. That just makes him more upset because you are refusing to respect his authority (which he DOES have). Things go a lot smoother if you cooperate and sue the crap out of him later. Also, nobody gets shot.\n2) Some cops are dicks to civilians as a defense. I would be too if my job REQUIRED me to go put my life on the line for strangers every day. However, MOST civilians are dicks to cops. So for every on person a cop is a dick to, he deals with a crapload more people being dicks to him. And he can't tell who is crazy enough to kill him over a traffic ticket. \n\nTL;DR\nDon't be a dick to people, exercise your rights in court instead of in traffic, and vote wisely (elections have consequences). \n\nEdit: spelling",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "/r/AmIFreeToGo can help you and everyone else here with knowing your rights when talking to the police.\n\nA quick few things about driving in particular.\n\nWhen you are stopped driving you have to show I'd/insurance. \n\nOther than that you do not have to answer any questions or consent to any searchs, you don't even have to talk to the cop best thing to do is always remain silent and record. Both of those are your right.\n\nAn officer can order you out of the car at any time for any reason, it is a lawful command and you have to obey.\n\nYou do not have to put out your cigarette. The cop can ask you to all they want but you are under no legal obligation to comply. As far as I know that is.\n\nIf you somehow consent to a search of your car you can withdraw that consent at anytime. Ideally the officer is supposed to stop but they can easly get around this by saying that you are now being suspicious and they are going to tow/search anyway.\n\nMy advice for every American is to know your rights and know state laws. Laws vary from state to state and it is best to be informed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For any question of the form \"What are my rights when dealing with law enforcement?\", you will need to ask _**your attorney**_. \n\nAnyone who attempts to explain your rights to you without knowing your own legal history and your particular jurisdiction is doing you a disservice: at best they're giving you free and bad advice, at worst they're going to tell you something wrong which you rely on which gets you killed or imprisoned.\n\nYou generally have the right to remain silent (but there are exceptions to this), the right to an attorney (but there are exceptions to this) and the right to a phone call (but there are exceptions to this), the right to a trial by jury of your peers (but there are exceptions to this), etcetera.\n\nYou might beat the charges and you *miiiight* win a civil suit in the future, but you cannot stop the police officer from arresting you. \n\nWhen you are engaged by a police, your job is to do as nothing as possible that provides them with a reason to arrest or press charges against you. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sometimes things that are within our rights are not a good idea. If pulled over its best not to piss off a cop and follow a few basic common sense things. \n\nIf you are pulled over put the car in park, put on flashers, roll down window, keep seatbelt on. If its night then turn on your interior lights too. Don't reach for anything unless you are asked and don't volunteer any information or admit any fault. If asked why you think you got pulled over simply say I don't know officer. If you are wrong don't admit but take your ticket and go. If you are right then you can go to court and prove it. Arguing with a cop will get you nowhere.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44803558",
"title": "2014 killings of NYPD officers",
"section": "Section::::Reactions.:Civil rights groups.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Protest organizer Charles Wade said about civil rights groups, \"We've all said that this is a horrible thing that shouldn't have happened. I say time and time again that I'm against police violence, and I'm not against police officers in general. I have an issue with improper policing, police violence and police impunity.\" Reverend Al Sharpton said, \"From the beginning, we have stressed that this is a pursuit of justice to make the system work fairly for everyone. This is not about trying to take things into our own hands. That does not solve the problem of police brutality.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6833714",
"title": "Hate crime laws in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Federal prosecution of hate crimes.:Civil Rights Act of 1968.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "The Civil Rights Act of 1968 enacted (b)(2), which permits federal prosecution of anyone who \"willfully injures, intimidates or interferes with, or attempts to injure, initimidate or interfere with ... any person because of his race, color, religion or national origin\" or because of the victim's attempt to engage in one of six types of federally protected activities, such as attending school, patronizing a public place/facility, applying for employment, acting as a juror in a state court or voting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "704465",
"title": "Tiananmen Mothers",
"section": "Section::::Campaign.:Arrests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "The women have been under what advocates describe as house arrest. All their calls are monitored and they are told not to talk to other activists, with foreign media, and with human rights organizations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "653071",
"title": "Civil Rights Act of 1968",
"section": "Section::::Parts.:Title I: Hate crimes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "The Civil Rights Act of 1968 also enacted (b)(2), which permits federal prosecution of anyone who \"willingly injures, intimidates or interferes with another person, or attempts to do so, by force because of the other person's race, color, religion or national origin\" because of the victim's attempt to engage in one of six types of federally protected activities, such as attending school, patronizing a public place/facility, applying for employment, acting as a juror in a state court or voting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151226",
"title": "Montgomery bus boycott",
"section": "Section::::History.:Boycott.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1092,
"text": "Another woman has been arrested and thrown in jail because she refused to get up out of her seat on the bus for a white person to sit down. It is the second time since the Claudette Colvin case that a Negro woman has been arrested for the same thing. This has to be stopped. Negroes have rights too, for if Negroes did not ride the buses, they could not operate. Three-fourths of the riders are Negro, yet we are arrested, or have to stand over empty seats. If we do not do something to stop these arrests, they will continue. The next time it may be you, or your daughter, or mother. This woman's case will come up on Monday. We are, therefore, asking every Negro to stay off the buses Monday in protest of the arrest and trial. Don't ride the buses to work, to town, to school, or anywhere on Monday. You can afford to stay out of school for one day if you have no other way to go except by bus. You can also afford to stay out of town for one day. If you work, take a cab, or walk. But please, children and grown-ups, don't ride the bus at all on Monday. Please stay off all buses Monday.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30700846",
"title": "Civil Rights of Institutionalized Persons Act",
"section": "Section::::How a Case is Brought About.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The Department of Justice (DOJ) discovers possible civil rights violations in a number of ways. These reports can range from a number of informal means such as news reports, family members, the prisoners or inhabitants themselves, and from former and current employees of the institution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45609783",
"title": "Alicia Garza",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "Alicia Garza (born January 4, 1981) is an American civil rights activist and editorial writer from Oakland, California. She has organized around the issues of health, student services and rights, rights for domestic workers, ending police brutality, anti-racism, and violence against trans and gender non-conforming people of color. Her editorial writing has been published by \"The Guardian\", \"The Nation\", The Feminist Wire, \"Rolling Stone\", \"HuffPost\" and Truthout. She currently directs Special Projects at the National Domestic Workers Alliance. Garza also co-founded the Black Lives Matter movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32wauc
|
whats going on in south africa? why are foreigners being targetted and what economic issues is it experiencing?
|
[
{
"answer": "First I must say. I am not a South African and not a expert at all but I think I can show some insight. If I am wrong, please correct me. \n\nSouth Africa is a ''broken'' nation. There still are big differences between White, Coloured and Black. Not only in terms of wealth, but also education, language and culture. \n\nBecause of these differences they are still living mostly segegrated from eachother. Whites have there own middle class and upper clas neighbourhoods. There own schools, churches etc. etc. \n\nAnd ofcourse Blacks are still pissed at Apartheid, a lot are mad because theire situation did not really became better after Apartheid. About 25% unemployement, black ghettos's etc. And if what I hear is true, in a lot of cases it is getting worse (I've heard stories about some black people missing the days of Apartheid, where they where second class citizens but atleast had more in terms of food and security. I don't know if these are true so take it with a grain of salt.). \n \nOn the other hand: some (or maybe a lot) of whites dislike seeing their culture/heritage being ripped from them (removing statues etc.) They feel discriminated by Afermative Action. They fear the loss of farmland (Farming culture is very big in white South African culture, they call themselves Boers, meaning Farmers in Dutch/Afrikaans). \n\nSo take all this history, and put it in the current situation. There is a lot of employment and poverty. Discrimination is still very common (from both sides). People are doing worse, power shutdown, crime is very high, South Africa is the rape capital of the world. Some parts are very unsafe, and a lot of parts that used to be safe are getting unsafer. \n\nCombine this with (illegal) immigration from black people from other countries in South Africa who are willing to work for less and are considered (by some) businessowners as ''better/harder'' workers then the South African people. You have a recipe for extreme violance against these immigrants [They took our jobs](_URL_0_). Basicly South Africa is barrel of powder with a fuse already inside the barrel. I can combust in violance very quick. \n\nThinking averything was okey after Apertheid is saying everything went swimming for black people after the abolishing of slavery, or Eastern Europe was fine when communist Russia fell. There are a lot of open wounds that need a lot of time and work to heal. \n\nI can't stress this enough. South Africa is a complicated country. I hope people with more knowledge then me can comment. If I am wrong please correct me. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46431000",
"title": "2015 South African xenophobic riots",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "In South Africa, there is a sentiment prevalent among a sizable portion of unemployed South Africans that immigrants and expatriates from other parts of Africa who reside in South Africa are responsible for the high unemployment rate that South Africa has. This sentiment sometimes results in such South Africans attacking African expatriates and foreigners, as happened in 2008, with the ultimate goal of driving them out of South Africa. This sentiment is exacerbated by comments from public figures in support it. In this case, some have said it was sparked by an alleged statement by the Zulu King Goodwill Zwelithini demanding that all foreigners leave South Africa and \"go back to their countries\", leaving South Africa more jobs for the unemployed youth of South Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22545383",
"title": "Australia–South Africa relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:2018 diplomatic disputes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "In April 2018, the South African government issued a statement that it took \"strong exception\" to an Australian travel advisory that warned persons travelling to Souths Africa to \"exercise a high degree of caution\", with the South African foreign ministry stating that it would deter Australians from visiting, as well as tarnishing the image of South Africa. According to the South African foreign ministry, previous attempts to get the advice changed were unsuccessful, and the escalation reflected the importance of the tourist sector to the economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59301695",
"title": "South African Tourism",
"section": "Section::::Challenges faced by South African Tourism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "complicated visa policy of South Africa. South African authorities require an unabridged birth certificate for the child and a letter of consent from both parents which has discouraged some international visitors and negatively impacted tour operator business in South Africa. Additionally, airlines that allow ineligible passengers to fly into South Africa, incur severe penalties where they are compelled to pay for the return fare of the passengers. The Institute for Security Studies, said it was becoming increasingly difficult to market the country as more and more people emigrate to countries like Australia and New Zealand due to the crime rate in addition to numerous tourists being attacked in Cape Town on Table Mountain and Johannesburg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188432",
"title": "Human capital flight",
"section": "Section::::By region.:Africa.:South Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "Along with many African nations, South Africa has been experiencing human capital flight in the past 20 years, since the end of apartheid. This is believed to be potentially damaging for the regional economy, and is arguably detrimental to the wellbeing of the region's poor majority, desperately reliant on the health care infrastructure because of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. The skills drain in South Africa tends to reflect racial contours exacerbated by Black Economic Empowerment policies, and has thus resulted in large White South African communities abroad. The problem is further highlighted by South Africa's request in 2001 of Canada to stop recruiting its doctors and other highly skilled medical personnel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27372",
"title": "Economy of South Africa",
"section": "Section::::Labour market.:Knowledge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "In a case of reverse brain drain a net 359,000 high-skilled South Africans have returned to South Africa from foreign work assignments over a five-year period from 2008 to 2013. This was catalysed by the global financial crisis of 2007-8 and perceptions of higher quality of life in South Africa relative to the countries from which they first emigrated to. It is estimated that around 37% of those returning are professionals such as lawyers, doctors, engineers and accountants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2200527",
"title": "Apartheid",
"section": "Section::::International relations during apartheid.:Western influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "The UK's significant economic involvement in South Africa may have provided some leverage with the South African government, with both the UK and the US applying pressure and pushing for negotiations. However, neither the UK nor the US was willing to apply economic pressure upon their multinational interests in South Africa, such as the mining company Anglo American. Although a high-profile compensation claim against these companies was thrown out of court in 2004, the US Supreme Court in May 2008 upheld an appeal court ruling allowing another lawsuit that seeks damages of more than US$400,000,000,000 from major international companies which are accused of aiding South Africa's apartheid system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17503833",
"title": "Xenophobia in South Africa",
"section": "Section::::May 2008 riots.:Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "A subsequent report, \"Towards Tolerance, Law and Dignity: Addressing Violence against Foreign Nationals in South Africa\" commissioned by the International Organisation for Migration found that poor service delivery or an influx of foreigners may have played a contributing role, but blamed township politics for the attacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5hzbua
|
how both big mmo games & small online games are hosted
|
[
{
"answer": "OK, there's a few levels:\n\n1) Peer to peer: no central servers at all, except maybe one matching people up into games (not even that on some old games: having to connect via typing in the IP address of whoever was hosting was common on a lot of older games). Games are hosted on one of the players' computers. See lots of old games - if you ever had to mess around with port forwarding, this was why. \n\n2) Community servers: Release both a server and a client version of the game. Let other people host your servers for you, however they damned well like. \n\n3) Dedicated servers: You get a server (or if you're a big game, a whole bunch of servers) and host the games directly on that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20844",
"title": "Massively multiplayer online role-playing game",
"section": "Section::::Common features.:System architecture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1393,
"text": "Depending on the number of players and the system architecture, an MMORPG might actually be run on multiple separate servers, each representing an independent world, where players from one server cannot interact with those from another; \"World of Warcraft\" is a prominent example, with each separate server housing several thousand players. In many MMORPGs the number of players in one world is often limited to around a few thousand, but a notable example of the opposite is \"EVE Online\", which accommodates several hundred thousand players on the same server, with over 60,000 playing simultaneously (June 2010) at certain times. Some games allow characters to appear on any world, but not simultaneously (such as \"Seal Online: Evolution\"), others limit each character to the world in which it was created. \"World of Warcraft\" has experimented with \"cross-realm\" (i.e. cross-server) interaction in player vs player \"battlegrounds\", using server clusters or \"battlegroups\" to co-ordinate players looking to participate in structured player vs player content such as the Warsong Gulch or Alterac Valley battlegrounds. Additionally, patch 3.3, released on December 8, 2009, introduced a cross-realm \"looking for group\" system to help players form groups for instanced content (though not for open-world questing) from a larger pool of characters than their home server can necessarily provide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "529056",
"title": "Massively multiplayer online game",
"section": "Section::::Game types.:Role-playing.:Bulletin board role-playing games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "A large number of games are categorized as MMOBBGs, Massively Multiplayer Online Bulletin Board Games, also called MMOBBRPGs. These particular types of games are primarily made up of text and descriptions, although images are often used to enhance the game.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20844",
"title": "Massively multiplayer online role-playing game",
"section": "Section::::Common features.:System architecture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Most MMORPGs are deployed using a client–server system architecture. The server software generates a persistent instance of the virtual world that runs continuously, and players connect to it via a client software. The client software may provide access to the entire playing world, or further 'expansions' may be required to be purchased to allow access to certain areas of the game. \"EverQuest\" and \"Guild Wars\" are two examples of games that use such a format. Players generally must purchase the client software for a one-time fee, although an increasing trend is for MMORPGs to work using pre-existing \"thin\" clients, such as a web browser.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "529056",
"title": "Massively multiplayer online game",
"section": "Section::::Virtual economies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "MMORPGs usually have sharded universes, as they provide the most flexible solution to the server load problem, but not always. For example, the space simulation \"Eve Online\" uses only one large cluster server peaking at over 60,000 simultaneous players.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "529056",
"title": "Massively multiplayer online game",
"section": "Section::::Virtual economies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 932,
"text": "Most MMOGs also share other characteristics that make them different from other multiplayer online games. MMOGs host a large number of players in a single game world, and all of those players can interact with each other at any given time. Popular MMOGs might have thousands of players online at any given time, usually on company owned servers. Non-MMOGs, such as \"Battlefield 1942\" or \"Half-Life\" usually have fewer than 50 players online (per server) and are usually played on private servers. Also, MMOGs usually do not have any significant mods since the game must work on company servers. There is some debate if a high head-count is a requirement to be an MMOG. Some say that it is the size of the game world and its capability to support a large number of players that should matter. For example, despite technology and content constraints, most MMOGs can fit up to a few thousand players on a single game server at a time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2642358",
"title": "Vault Network",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "As new online games and MMORPGs are created or announced, respective vaults and message boards are created if the game is popular enough to warrant the resources. As of December 2007, there are over 20 Vaults and forums exist for over 70 games. Vaults include those for games such as World of Warcraft, , Final Fantasy XI, EverQuest II, Lineage and Lineage II, Guild Wars, Star Wars Galaxies, Dark Age of Camelot and many more. In addition to the gaming message boards, there are community and off topic forums where users can discuss issues not related to any one game in particular.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "419271",
"title": "Final Fantasy XI",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "There are currently 16 public game worlds available for play, down from 32 at the game's height, with approximately 15,000 to 20,000 players in each. A private Test Server was opened to eligible players to aid in feedback of updates in development for the game in mid-2011. The servers are named after summoned monsters from previous \"Final Fantasy\" titles, such as Ifrit and Diabolos. Players have the ability to move between servers, though Square-Enix charges a \"world transfer\" fee to do so. There are no region-specific or system-specific servers, and unlike most online games, players of different languages play in the same world and can interact through automatic language translation from a library of translated phrases. The game servers are run by Square-Enix as part of their PlayOnline network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1x5dx6
|
Who lived in Britain before the Celts?
|
[
{
"answer": "Although I'm not sure how far back you're looking, I'll start with the Bronze Age immigrants to Britain known as the Beaker People. Originally from Spain, these travelers ventured over in approximately 2500 BC, and flourished on the British Isles. They constructed elaborate gold and bronze jewelry, as well as detailed stone circles, the best known of which is Stonehenge. There were two waves of Celtic immigration to England. The first is popularly known as the Goidelic Migration, which occurred between 2000 and 1200. The next is known as the Brythonic migration, which most likely took place between 500 and 300\n\n\n\n_URL_0_\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6546",
"title": "Celts",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "The Celts (, see pronunciation of \"Celt\" for different usages) are an Indo-European ethnolinguistic group of Europe identified by their use of Celtic languages and cultural similarities. The history of pre-Celtic Europe and the exact relationship between ethnic, linguistic and cultural factors in the Celtic world remains uncertain and controversial. The exact geographic spread of the ancient Celts is disputed; in particular, the ways in which the Iron Age inhabitants of Great Britain and Ireland should be regarded as Celts have become a subject of controversy. According to one theory, the common root of the Celtic languages, the Proto-Celtic language, arose in the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of Central Europe, which flourished from around 1200 BC. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2300559",
"title": "Cornish people",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancestral roots.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1608,
"text": "Throughout classical antiquity the Celts spoke Celtic languages, and formed a series of tribes, cultures and identities, notably the Picts and Gaels in the north and the Britons in the south. The Britons were themselves a divided people; although they shared the Brythonic languages, they were tribal, and divided into regional societies, and within them sub-groups. Examples of these tribal societies were the Brigantes in the north, and the Ordovices, the Demetae, the Silures and the Deceangli in the west. In the extreme southwest, what was to become Cornwall, were the Dumnonii and Cornovii, who lived in the Kingdom of Dumnonia. The Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century introduced Romans to Britain, who upon their arrival initially recorded the Dumnonii, but later reported on the Cornovii, who were possibly a sub-group of the Dumnonii. Although the Romans colonised much of central and southern Britain, Dumnonia was \"virtually unaffected\" by the conquest; Roman rule had little or no impact on the region, meaning it could flourish as a semi- or fully independent kingdom which evidence shows was sometimes under the dominion of the kings of the Britons, and sometimes to have been governed by its own Dumnonian monarchy, either by the title of duke or king. This petty kingdom shared strong linguistic, political and cultural links with Brittany, a peninsula on continental Europe south of Cornwall inhabited by Britons; the Cornish and Breton languages were nearly indistinguishable in this period, and both Cornwall and Brittany remain dotted with dedications to the same Celtic saints.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49441811",
"title": "Ancient Celtic women",
"section": "Section::::Duration and extent of Celtic culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "The Celts (Ancient Greek Κέλτοι \"Keltoi\"; Latin \"Celtae\", \"Galli\", \"Galati\") were tribes and tribal confederations of ancient Europe, who resided in west central Europe in the Late Bronze Age and early Iron Age (the Hallstatt culture). In the La Tène period they expanded, through migration and cultural transmission, to the British Isles, northern Iberia, the Balkan peninsula and Asia Minor. The Greeks and Romans commonly referred to areas under Celtic rule as Κελτική or \"Celticum\". They had a relatively uniform material culture (especially in the La Tène period) and non-material culture (customs and norms), which differed from neighbouring peoples like the Italians, Etruscans, Illyrians, Greeks, Iberians, Germans, Thracians and Scythians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13854",
"title": "History of France",
"section": "Section::::Ancient history.:Roman Gaul.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "A migration of Celts appeared in the 4th century in Armorica. They were led by the legendary king Conan Meriadoc and came from Britain. They spoke the now extinct British language, which evolved into the Breton, Cornish, and Welsh languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1270879",
"title": "Pan-Celticism",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern conception of the Celtic peoples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1098,
"text": "By the time the modern concept of the Celts as a people had emerged, their fortunes had declined substantially, taken over by Germanic people. Firstly, the Celtic Britons of sub-Roman Britain were swamped by a tide of Anglo-Saxon settlement from the 5th century on and lost most of their territory to them. They were subsequently referred to as the Welsh people and the Cornish people. A group of these fled Britain altogether and settled in Continental Europe in Armorica, becoming the Breton people. The Gaels for a while actually expanded, pushing out of Ireland to conquer Pictland in Britain, establishing Alba by the 9th century. From the 11th century onward, the arrival of the Normans, caused problems not only for the English but also for the Celts. The Normans invaded the Welsh kingdoms (establishing the Principality of Wales), the Irish kingdoms (establishing the Lordship of Ireland) and took control of the Scottish monarchy through intermarrying. This advance was often done in conjunction with the Catholic Church's Gregorian Reform, which was centralising the religion in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56213227",
"title": "Prehistoric Cumbria",
"section": "Section::::Earliest human inhabitants: the Late Upper Palaeolithic, c.12670–9600 BC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Evidence for human (homo heidelbergensis and Neanderthal) occupation of Britain goes back to c.700,000 years ago. The presence in Britain of homo sapiens can be detected at around 27,000-26,000BC (at Paviland Cave, South Wales).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1040165",
"title": "Celts (modern)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The modern Celts (, see pronunciation of \"Celt\") are a related group of ethnicities who share similar Celtic languages, cultures and artistic histories, and who live in or descend from one of the regions on the western extremities of Europe populated by the Celts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ge4gl
|
How does human muscle fiber compare to that of other animals?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't know of any specific studies to point you to, but I do remember that one group of scientists had done this study among primates. Turns out a female orangutan (in heat)is pound for pound the strongest primate. They tested using a one-arm pull test. Humans max out at around 200 lbs.-maybe 400 pounds if your a mutant. Female orangutan in heat 1800lbs pulled/dragged with one arm!! \n\nI also remember reading once that dolphin and whale's muscle strength is about the same as a human's - they just have so much more muscle mass that it gives them the power to jump above the water line. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19333613",
"title": "Sea anemone",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Musculature and nervous system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "The muscles and nerves are much simpler than those of most other animals, although more specialised than in other cnidarians, such as corals. Cells in the outer layer (epidermis) and the inner layer (gastrodermis) have microfilaments that group into contractile fibers. These fibers are not true muscles because they are not freely suspended in the body cavity as they are in more developed animals. Longitudinal fibres are found in the tentacles and oral disc, and also within the mesenteries, where they can contract the whole length of the body. Circular fibers are found in the body wall and, in some species, around the oral disc, allowing the animal to retract its tentacles into a protective sphincter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2270895",
"title": "Soleus muscle",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Soleus muscles have a higher proportion of slow muscle fibers than many other muscles. In some animals, such as the guinea pig and cat, soleus consists of 100% slow muscle fibers. Human soleus fiber composition is quite variable, containing between 60 and 100% slow fibers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32156908",
"title": "Muscular evolution in humans",
"section": "Section::::Strength changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1345,
"text": "Compared to our closest living relatives, chimpanzees and bonobos, Homo sapiens' skeletal muscle is on average about 1.35 to 1.5 times weaker when normalized for size. As little biomechanical difference was found between individual muscle fibers from the different species, this strength difference is likely the result of different muscle fiber type composition. Humans' limb muscles tend to be more biased toward fatigue-resistant, slow twitch Type I muscle fibers. While there is no proof that modern humans have become physically weaker than past generations of humans, inferences from such things as bone robusticity and long bone cortical thickness can be made as a representation of physical strength. Taking such factors into account, there has been a rapid decrease in overall robusticity in those populations that take to sedentism. For instance, bone shaft thickness since the 17th and 18th centuries have decreased in the United States, indicating a less physically stressful life. This is not, however, the case for current hunter gatherer and foraging populations, such as the Andaman Islanders, who retain overall robusticity. In general, though, hunter gatherers tend to be robust in the legs and farmers tend to be robust in the arms, representing different physical load (i.e., walking many miles a day versus grinding wheat).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3181367",
"title": "Extrafusal muscle fiber",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Extrafusal muscle fibers are the skeletal standard muscle fibers that are innervated by alpha motor neurons and generate tension by contracting, thereby allowing for skeletal movement. \"The Public Library of Science says that in most mammals, skeletal muscle comprises about 55% of individual body mass and plays vital roles in locomotion, heat production during periods of cold stress, and overall metabolism.\" They make up the large mass of skeletal muscle tissue and are attached to bone by fibrous tissue extensions (tendons).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9078504",
"title": "Congenital myopathy",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Types.:Congenital fiber type disproportion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Congenital fiber type disproportion affects skeletal muscle, typically causing weakness in the shoulders, upper arms, thighs, and hips. Skeletal muscle is made up of two kinds of fiber, type 1 and type 2. In congenital fiber type disproportion, type 1 fibers are not only smaller but often more abundant than type 2 fibers. This leads to affected individuals being able to maintain an active lifestyle, though they usually have lower levels of stamina.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74711",
"title": "Horse racing",
"section": "Section::::Breeds.:Horse breeds and muscle structure.:Type 1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Type I muscle fibers are adapted for aerobic exercise and rely on the presence of oxygen. They are slow-twitch fibers. They allow muscles to work for longer periods of time resulting in greater endurance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18940",
"title": "Meat",
"section": "Section::::Biochemical composition.:Main constituents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Adult mammalian muscle flesh consists of roughly 75 percent water, 19 percent protein, 2.5 percent intramuscular fat, 1.2 percent carbohydrates and 2.3 percent other soluble non-protein substances. These include nitrogenous compounds, such as amino acids, and inorganic substances such as minerals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
hxgus
|
Why do sound waves not affect each other?
|
[
{
"answer": "They do, in fact, interact with each other. In very much the same way that water does, actually.\n\nA frequency (or pitch) of audio has a certain wavelength, or size. This is the distance it takes for the sound pressure in the air to complete a full cycle of compression and rarefaction. Square rooms often have what are known as 'room nodes'. When there are parallel surfaces for sound to bounce off, the audio wavelength that is equivalent to the distance between the two walls will be naturally amplified when the two waves come across each other. \n\nThis same method can be used for noise cancellation. A good set of noise cancellation headphones have a built in microphone that monitors the ambient sound of a room, and then plays back that same frequency in opposite polarity, and when the two waveforms combine, they cancel each other out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[relevant](_URL_0_)\n\nI think you are confusing two concepts, the waves don't actually affect one and other, but the resultant disturbance is a superposition of the waves at all different points.\n\nSo say I have two waves traveling in perpendicular directions, where they intersect, there is a combination of the waves and you get a resultant wave, but after they intersect, they move just as if the other wave has never existed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Adding to B-80's answer: Sound waves don't affect other sound waves because superposition holds. It holds (approximately) because the equations that describe sound are (approximately) \"linear\". If you had a really powerful disturbance (really loud sound, or object making sound moving near the speed of sound), then the equations would be non-linear, and sound would no longer interfere only by superposition.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your teacher was wrong about waves affecting one another: all waves pass through each other. The basic idea of \"combinable non-interacting parts\" is called \"linearity\" and it is one of the most useful ideas in mathematics. Here is a wiki link: _URL_0_\n\nSound, heat and light are all described by solutions of mathematical systems called linear differential equations. The reason the equations are linear is precisely because you can take any two solutions to such an equation and then add/subtract/rescale them and still get a valid solution. So, the mathematical reason that waves pass through each other is linearity.\n\nThis property is what makes linear systems especially nice and is also what allows you to decompose their solutions into simple parts. In the special case of translation invariant differential equations, just like sound, these simple parts are called \"waves\" and they look just like what you normally think of a wave to be. Intuitively, the reason this works is that you can build up any solution by summing these simple parts back together.\n\nNow in non-linear systems, like a turbulent fluid for example, this is not true. You can't just add two solutions together and get another. As a result, it is very difficult to decompose these systems, and so it is also much harder to construct solutions. This physically manifests as more chaotic behavior in the system. It is possible to define a wave-like object (called a soliton) for some types nonlinear systems, but it is much more sophisticated and some of the usual intuition for waves breaks down. Studying these types of non-linear systems is currently an active area of mathematical research, and we don't yet have a single good picture yet of what a \"non-linear wave\" should be.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5786179",
"title": "Acoustic wave",
"section": "Section::::Wave properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Acoustic waves are longitudinal waves that exhibit phenomena like diffraction, reflection and interference. Sound waves however don't have any polarization since they oscillate along the same direction as they move.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5786179",
"title": "Acoustic wave",
"section": "Section::::Wave properties.:Interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Interference is the addition of two or more waves that results in a new wave pattern. Interference of sound waves can be observed when two loudspeakers transmit the same signal. At certain locations constructive interference occurs, doubling the local sound pressure. And at other locations destructive interference occurs, causing a local sound pressure of zero pascals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "324749",
"title": "Sine wave",
"section": "Section::::Occurrences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "To the human ear, a sound that is made of more than one sine wave will have perceptible harmonics; addition of different sine waves results in a different waveform and thus changes the timbre of the sound. Presence of higher harmonics in addition to the fundamental causes variation in the timbre, which is the reason why the same musical note (the same frequency) played on different instruments sounds different. On the other hand, if the sound contains aperiodic waves along with sine waves (which are periodic), then the sound will be perceived to be noisy, as noise is characterized as being aperiodic or having a non-repetitive pattern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14405771",
"title": "Speech science",
"section": "Section::::Transmission of speech.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Since sound waves are produced by a vibrating body, the vibrating object moves in one direction and compresses the air directly in front of it. As the vibrating object moves in the opposite direction, the pressure on the air is lessened so that an expansion, or rarefaction, of air molecules occurs. One compression and one rarefaction make up one longitudinal wave. The vibrating air molecules move back and forth parallel to the direction of motion of the wave, receiving energy from adjacent molecules nearer the source and passing the energy to adjacent molecules farther from the source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1664363",
"title": "Consonance and dissonance",
"section": "Section::::Physiological basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 852,
"text": "Sensory dissonance and its two perceptual manifestations (beating and roughness) are both closely related to a sound signal's amplitude fluctuations. Amplitude fluctuations describe variations in the maximum value (amplitude) of sound signals relative to a reference point and are the result of wave interference. The interference principle states that the combined amplitude of two or more vibrations (waves) at any given time may be larger (constructive interference) or smaller (destructive interference) than the amplitude of the individual vibrations (waves), depending on their phase relationship. In the case of two or more waves with different frequencies, their periodically changing phase relationship results in periodic alterations between constructive and destructive interference, giving rise to the phenomenon of amplitude fluctuations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162312",
"title": "Mechanical wave",
"section": "Section::::Longitudinal wave.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Longitudinal waves cause the medium to vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave. It consists of multiple compressions and rarefactions. The rarefaction is the farthest distance apart in the longitudinal wave and the compression is the closest distance together. The speed of the longitudinal wave is increased in higher index of refraction, due to the closer proximity of the atoms in the medium that is being compressed. Sound is a longitudinal wave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1201321",
"title": "Superposition principle",
"section": "Section::::Wave superposition.:Wave interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The phenomenon of interference between waves is based on this idea. When two or more waves traverse the same space, the net amplitude at each point is the sum of the amplitudes of the individual waves. In some cases, such as in noise-cancelling headphones, the summed variation has a smaller amplitude than the component variations; this is called \"destructive interference\". In other cases, such as in a line array, the summed variation will have a bigger amplitude than any of the components individually; this is called \"constructive interference\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4rhy5l
|
why are feral children often incapable of adapting to civilization? are they permanently learning impaired?
|
[
{
"answer": "Areas of the brain that typically used for various social behaviours are pruned if inactive. This is why for instance if you don't learn to speak by age ~12 or so you will never really learn to speak. \n\nWe've evolved to have these traits in our brains but they only work if exercised in a community. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "remember that kid who was homeschooled and just ended up slightly more shy than the other kids.\n\nimagine that but with NO human contact\n\nsocial skills are only gained through practice, and for some reason your brain only tries to learn them for a few years.\n\nso after you pass that age its pretty much it for you ever hoping to fit in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This documentation should answer most of your questions:\n\nWild Child: The Story of Feral Children:\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A language theorist named Lenneberg studied this, and came to the conclusion that children have a 'critical period' from age two through to puberty where, if they don't learn skills such as language in this time, they'll never be able to fully grasp it later in life. \n\nIt's debated as to why this is, but one commonly accepted theory is to due with 'brain plasticity'; which is exactly how it sounds: it's the ability for your brain to change its structure and neural connections to retain this information. After the 'critical period' brain plasticity is reduced and learning becomes harder. \n\nThere's been a few studies on this critical period and so-called 'feral children' but the most famous is a girl named 'Genie' who was neglected as a child (and thus was never stimulated to learn language) and was rescued during her early teens. Although she was cared for and attempts were made to teach her language, she never became fluent and only retained a basic understanding of English.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As your brain develops, they are critical learning periods where it is particularly receptive to picking new abilities, like language. If you don't learn within those time frames, that part of the brain gets \"locked down\", and it becomes much more difficult to learn later.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19005888",
"title": "Feral child",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "Feral children lack the basic social skills that are normally learned in the process of enculturation. For example, they may be unable to learn to use a toilet, have trouble learning to walk upright after walking on fours all their lives, or display a complete lack of interest in the human activity around them. They often seem mentally impaired and have almost insurmountable trouble learning a human language. The impaired ability to learn a natural language after having been isolated for so many years is often attributed to the existence of a critical period for language learning, and taken as evidence in favor of the critical period hypothesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25116337",
"title": "Socialization of animals",
"section": "Section::::Ferality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Feral children are children who lack socially accepted communication skills. Reports of feral children, such as those cited by Kingsley Davis, have largely been shown to be exaggerations, or complete fabrications, with regards to the specific lack of particular skills; for example, bipedalism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "56843886",
"title": "J. Marvin Brown",
"section": "Section::::Automatic Language Growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "From his experience and observations Brown concluded that, contrary to the critical period hypothesis for second language acquisition, where adults have lost the ability that children have to learn languages to a native-like level without apparent effort, adults actually obstruct this ability when learning a new language through using abilities they have gained to consciously practice and think about language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25216051",
"title": "Social deprivation",
"section": "Section::::Early development.:Critical periods.:Feral children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 951,
"text": "Feral children provide an example of the effects of severe social deprivation during critical developmental periods. There have been several recorded cases in history of children emerging from the wilderness in late childhood or early adolescence, having presumably been abandoned at an early age. These children had no language skills, limited social understanding, and could not be rehabilitated. Genie, a contemporary victim of social deprivation, had severely limited human contact from 20 months until 13.5 years of age. At the time of her discovery by social workers, Genie was unable to talk, chew solids foods, stand or walk properly, or control bodily functions and impulsive behaviours. Although Genie was able to learn individual words, she was never able to speak grammatical English. These children lacked important social and environmental conditions in childhood and were subsequently unable to develop into normal, functioning adults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35035141",
"title": "Language deprivation",
"section": "Section::::Feral children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 839,
"text": "Feral children are children discovered by society to be living in the wild with the assumption that they were raised by animals. It is stated that such children are deprived of human associations and are too strongly conditioned with animal behaviours, such that the human development is permanently inhibited and the animal inhibitions are never lost throughout life. There are several known cases of feral children relearning language, the most well-known is Victor. Victor was found at the age of 13 and was given to Dr. Itard, who \"experimented\" on the child. Victor was also known as the \"wild boy of Aveyron\". He was characterized to be insensitive to temperature, uncivilized and to run on all fours. Dr. Jean Marc Gaspard Itard conducted training over a period of 5 years, during which time Victor was able to recover some speech.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "68753",
"title": "Attention",
"section": "Section::::Alternative topics and discussions.:Cultural variation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Many Indigenous children in the Americas predominantly learn by observing and pitching in. There are several studies to support that the use of keen attention towards learning is much more common in Indigenous Communities of North and Central America than in a middle-class European-American setting. This is a direct result of the Learning by Observing and Pitching In model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18614",
"title": "Language acquisition",
"section": "Section::::Representation in the brain.:Sensitive period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Assuming that children are exposed to language during the critical period, it is almost never missed by cognitively normal children—humans are so well prepared to learn language that it becomes almost impossible not to. Researchers are unable to experimentally test the effects of the sensitive period of development on language acquisition, because it would be unethical to deprive children of language until this period is over. However, case studies on abused, language deprived children show that they were extremely limited in their language skills, even after instruction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
1hbaaw
|
the origin of species
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm currently reading it also.\n\nAs I understand it, it's just a collection of his observations about the evolution of different species over time. Being that it was written so long ago, there are things that he observes and speculates over where he was surprisingly correct, and then other cases of course where he wasn't.\n\nYou should read it as a means of peering into the past and think about how extraordinary it is that they (Darwin and the other scientists that he references) were able to hypothesize such things about how, where, and why evolution takes place without having the means to prove it.\n\nAs I said before though, I just started reading it myself. So if anyone else feels that I need to be corrected, definitely do so.",
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"answer": "Darwin published the Origin of Species in 1859. It was based on a series of simple observations that he made, as he was a naturalist (which, at the time, meant mostly that he went about studying nature and cataloging what he learned about it).\n\nHe noticed the following:\n\n**OBSERVATIONS**\n\n* Given enough time and no constraints, species will produce a potentially unlimited number of offspring. (This is intuitive; creatures make more creatures. 1,000 elephants, left to their own devices, will eventually become 10,000 elephants, and so on.)\n\n- Resources are limited. (Food, water, shelter; these are finite).\n\n**INFERENCE**:\n\n- Competition for resources exists.\n\n**OBSERVATIONS**:\n\n- Individuals vary.\n\n- Some proportion of this variation may be inherited.\n\n**INFERENCES**:\n\n- Individuals whose natural variation makes them more suited to the environment are more likely to survive.\n\n- Individuals who survive are more likely to pass on their genes, including those genes that increased their likelihood of survival.\n\nIn this way, the environment creates pressure that favors certain traits, some of which are heritable.\n\n**This set of observations and inferences helps to explain a great deal of what we observe in terms of the structure, function, and diversity of living systems**.\n\nThe *Origin of Species* is so long, in part, because Darwin recognized that his findings would be controversial; they provided for a model by which species could have originated without any divine involvement whatsoever. He held off on publishing for a while out of concern, and when he *did* publish, he wanted to make sure his ideas were *very* clearly laid out and *extremely* well supported.\n\n---\n\nLater, [Gregor Mendel's work](_URL_2_) would help us understand *precisely* how this heritable variation is passed on.\n\nWe now understand evolution to be **a change in allele frequences over time**, and one very important mechanism of evolution, as elucidated primarily by Darwin, is the process known as [natural selection.](_URL_0_)\n\nHonorable mention: [Alfred Russell Wallace](_URL_1_), for coming up with pretty much the same idea as Darwin did at pretty much the same time.\n\n---\n\nIf you have any more questions on evolution, feel free to ask away.",
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"answer": "It is a terrible book to read if your desire it to learn about evolution, read modern books on the subject. ",
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{
"answer": "OKAY, so. The term evolution means something changing from one thing to another over time. Obvious, right? But the form that evolution takes in our world is usually of the same pattern.\n\nBasically it's a three step process:\n\n1. Some sort of \"random\" force makes many different kinds of things.\n\n2. This large pool of things is pushed through rigorious tests until only the best adapted remain.\n\nIn capital evolution, entrepreneurs represent the random force that creates lots of different businesses. The consumers represent the rigorous tests that only leave the best products and the best businesses left.\n\nIn memetic evolution, creativity creates new ideas, and people sharing and testing these ideas is what makes our cultural ideas improve over time.\n\nIn the scientific method, the creation of a hypothesis is the random force, and the follow up tests are what determines which hypothesis becomes the leading theory.\n\nIn biological evolution, radiation/genetic defects/etc. create many different kinds of genetic traits, the trials of everyday life leave only those best adapted left to survive.\n\nThat's Darwinism in a nutshell.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "9236",
"title": "Evolution",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary history of life.:Common descent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "All organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool. Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction events. The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation. Second, the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique organisms, but organisms that share morphological similarities. Third, vestigial traits with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits. Fourth, organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups, similar to a family tree. \n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "7407703",
"title": "The Origin of Species (The Outer Limits)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "\"The Origin of Species\" is an episode of \"The Outer Limits\" television show. It was first broadcast on November 14, 1998, during the fourth season, and is a sequel to a previous episode, \"Double Helix\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2056572",
"title": "Marine life",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "Current species are a stage in the process of evolution, with their diversity the product of a long series of speciation and extinction events. The common descent of organisms was first deduced from four simple facts about organisms: First, they have geographic distributions that cannot be explained by local adaptation. Second, the diversity of life is not a set of completely unique organisms, but organisms that share morphological similarities. Third, vestigial traits with no clear purpose resemble functional ancestral traits and finally, that organisms can be classified using these similarities into a hierarchy of nested groups—similar to a family tree. However, modern research has suggested that, due to horizontal gene transfer, this \"tree of life\" may be more complicated than a simple branching tree since some genes have spread independently between distantly related species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5259",
"title": "Common descent",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1032,
"text": "Common ancestry between organisms of different species arises during speciation, in which new species are established from a single ancestral population. Organisms which share a more-recent common ancestor are more closely related. The most recent common ancestor of all currently living organisms is the last universal ancestor, which lived about 3.9 billion years ago. The two earliest evidences for life on Earth are graphite found to be biogenic in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in western Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. All currently living organisms on Earth share a common genetic heritage, though the suggestion of substantial horizontal gene transfer during early evolution has led to questions about the monophyly (single ancestry) of life. 6,331 groups of genes common to all living animals have been identified; these may have arisen from a single common ancestor that lived 650 million years ago in the Precambrian.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "46379425",
"title": "Evolution: The Origin of Species",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 256,
"text": "Evolution: The Origin of Species is a card game created by Dmitriy Knorre and Sergey Machin in 2010. The game is inspired by the evolutionary biology. It was published by SIA Rightgames RBG. English, French and German game editions were published in 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1740264",
"title": "Mutationism",
"section": "Section::::Later mutationist theories.:Willis's macromutations, 1923.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "In 1923, the botanist John Christopher Willis proposed that species were formed by large mutations, not gradual evolution by natural selection, and that evolution was driven by orthogenesis, which he called \"differentiation\", rather than by natural selection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "29000",
"title": "Speciation",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "In addressing the question of the origin of species, there are two key issues: (1) what are the evolutionary mechanisms of speciation, and (2) what accounts for the separateness and individuality of species in the biota? Since Charles Darwin's time, efforts to understand the nature of species have primarily focused on the first aspect, and it is now widely agreed that the critical factor behind the origin of new species is reproductive isolation. Next we focus on the second aspect of the origin of species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
17zztg
|
How common was casual sex throughout history?
|
[
{
"answer": "Just ignore pretty much everything said in that thread. The idea that sex is a purely biological urge, and thus it occurs in the same frequency throughout time and space, is absurd. I can be sure of this because it [varies a great deal based on country today](_URL_0_). Sex is highly culturally specific, and I think the people in that thread don't realize just how much their reaction to it is influenced by their specific cultural surroundings.\n\nThroughout history it is rather difficult to answer your question because it varies so much based on region, class, and time period. Looking at Ovid and Catullus, for example, we can see that sex certainly wasn't nonexistent in their lives, but looked at another way, the sexual relations they describe tend to be fairly personal. That is, they do not describe going to the local club, picking up a random girl, sleeping with her, and parting the next morning. Instead, there are fairly elaborate courtship rituals, with go betweens, wax tablets, secret messages, and the like. The big difference here, I would argue, is female freedom. For a pre-modern society Roman women were quite liberated, but that doesn't mean they could stay out all night and come home the next morning with nothing but an eye roll from their household. Of course, this applies to the upper class of the late Republican/early Imperial city of Rome. It would probably be very different for an innkeepers daughter in second century Autun, but in *what way* is impossible to know.\n\nHowever, there is one other major factor: prostitution. The Romans didn't seem to think there was anything at all unseemly about going to a brothel, and prostitutes were a part of everyday life.\n\nOne other thing, because someone had to bring it up: **Roman orgies were NOT orgies**. They were lavish quasi-religious banquets involving elaborate food preparation, music, and dancing. Sex might be involved, but when might it not?",
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"answer": "Thank you so much for asking this, OP, I've wanted to know this for years. And I'd like to expand (or maybe define) casual sex for the purposes of this thread. There is sex between people who aren't close and met that night. There is also fooling around between young unattached people. In the liberal arts world, a lot of the academics are in my circles have been of the opinion that all pretenses of monogamy and chastity have always been false, and are so everywhere, and that the only difference between modern western culture and former or distant cultures is that the other ones are lying. As someone who really did have a super-chaste conservative religious upbringing, I know first-hand that something like the traditional conservative ideal of sexuality is possible, but I don't know if my single self-sample is adequate grounds to build a theory. I'd love to know about hooking up, and I'd love to know about the spectrum of sexual behaviors between that and no-sex-till-marriage. ",
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"answer": "It is hard to give specifics in things like this because sex has often been a taboo subject and so even if casual sex were common, nobody may write that down. \n\nFrom my own area of expertise, one of the deciding factors was class and wealth. The more wealthy were concerned with being a gentleman or a lady and the scores of books written on the subject seem to imply that casual sex was heavily frowned upon (however it was generally accepted that men had sexual urges while women didn't). These ideas wouldn't apply to lower income people, but for many their religions would hinder this. \n\nThen again- humans are always human so the urges would still be there. Prostitution in the U.S. was seen as something of a necessary evil in many places- as long as it was confined to a certain district in a city it was basically legal. Add in the fact that alcohol consumption was probably pretty high and I'd say casual sex in 19th century America was almost as common as it is today. However this wouldn't apply to homosexuals, unfortunately, since sodomy and the female equivalent (given various names) were often illegal and very much against societal norms of the time. That isn't to say homosexuals weren't having sex, they were, it just would have been riskier.",
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"answer": "Sex has been seen as something history abhorred, but this idea really only came about due to the prudishness of the Puritanical period, if we go back to Ancient Greece we see sex talked about a huge amount, Eros the God of Love was a major god, [Here's](_URL_3_) a Guardian article about a museum exhibition. This idea persisted into Roman culture, as Ancient Rome as usual copied the Greeks in this regard.\n\nWe really see casual sex as banned since the rise of the Catholic Church, to some even maritable sex was sinful if it was for pleasure, but even so this was incredibly hard to enforce, I mean there's usually only 2 witnesses both of which are guilty to these crimes, so it's difficult to prove one's guilt, not to mention many clerics and other clergymen engaged in these practices. It was only in the [Third Lateran Council](_URL_2_) in 1179, that there were specific Canon law on how to deal with sex within the clergy\n\n > Canon 11 forbade clerics to have women in their houses or to visit the monasteries of nuns without a good reason; declared that married clergy should lose their benefices; and decreed that priests who engaged in sodomy should be deposed from clerical office and required to do penance - while laymen should be excommunicated.\n\nThis is the first documentation by the Catholic Church that really decreed that adultery and sex outside of marriage was punishable, previously it was a sin, but not one that many outside of the zealous cared about.\n\nThe next period I'll look at is Protestantism. One of the major reforms of the German Reformation and the spread of the teachings of Luther, Calvin and so on was that clergymen were allowed to be married. Whilst this obviously isn't general culture, it's religious in nature, it does suggest that sex in the Protestant culture is becoming more mainstream. \n\n > Clerical marriage necessitated a reconsideration of one of the oldest Christian conundrums, the relationship between the holy and the body\n\nFrom *Oedipus and the Devil witchcraft, sexuality, and religion in early modern Europe* Lyndal Roper, 1994. Page 80.\n\nHowever, sex outside of marriage was still strictly denied and policed too, the Puritan Reformation of Britain increased this, going so far to make actions like buggery a capital offence, and adultery sometimes carrying a lifetime sentence. The [Economist](_URL_5_) has a good article on it.\n\nThe exception to the rule was a group in England during the 17th Century called the [Ranters](_URL_0_) whilst not long-lived nor that popular were associated strongly with a casual sex and nude society, to the Government they were seen as a genuine threat to the societal order, again showing how the society cracked down on this sort of activity.\n\nThe Puritanical faith loses a lot of steam in the second half of the 18th century though, especially among the upper classes we see a rejection of the Calvin leaning faith within England. Whilst a bastard was looked down upon within the poorer classes as he was seen as a drain on resources, in the upper classes visiting brothels, whorehouses and the like, this is exemplified by Samuel Johnson, a high Anglican Tory:\n\n > \"every man should regulate his actions by his own conscience\"\n\nBacking this up, in the 18th Century we see one of the oldest sex guides surviving today and popular all the way to the 1930s, it's earliest date is 1766 and was banned in Britain up till 1961, [Here's](_URL_1_) a tad more information on it.\n\nThis suggests a sort of revolution, which however only applied to men, mainly refined to the upper or middle classes too. Women were still expected to be virtuous.\n\nVictorian Britain, and the 19th Century as a whole for Britain was a time of industrialisation, which is important as it meant a rise in population within cities. This leads me onto my point about this period and it's the rise of prostitution, and casual harlotry. Whilst it was seen as socially depraving, we do see a rise in it, even so far as the British government to issue a [Contagious Diseases Act](_URL_4_) in 1864. This Act was put in place to prevent the spread of sexual diseases, especially syphilis that was prevalent in this period. It basically gave the police the right to arrest prostitutes and give them compulsory examinations, which ironically instead of subjecting prostitutes to abuse it actually helped women. Josephine Butler, leader of the CD movement argued that public vices were the product of male lusts rather than a lack of feminine purity, this was later encouraged in the 70's and 80s by a lot of writings suggesting male lust was a biological imperative, and as a man they should be able to overcome animalistic tendancies. [Source](_URL_6_)\n\nBasically my argument is that sex has been fairly prevalent all the way through history, however the Catholic and later Protestant churches did demonize sex, especially outside of marriage it didn't have a lasting effect, with brothels and the like persisting throughout these periods and flourishing within the Industrial Revolution. \n\nSorry for using Wikipedia for a few sources, as I'd read them in university textbooks that I didn't have in front of me I couldn't easily source them. \n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "There was a UK documentary on specifically this subject a few years back. Not an academic source, but plenty of personal testimony suggesting that the turmoil of the war did lead to a sexual revolution.\n\nThe series in question: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "There's some great commentary about casual sex incidences between opposite-sexed partners throughout history, with nice explanations taking into account class differences, older/younger (and/or prostitution/temple rituals), pre- and post-Christian dominance, and other great differences raised. I especially like how historians here point out the difficulty of there not being a lot in the written record for what might be viewed as illicit activities, with all the cautions we in our age should recognize.\n\nThat said. And I know it's hard. But... \n\nAnyone care to do the same for casual sex incidences between **same-sex** partners? Both male/male and female/female (the latter seems to be the most undocumented). I'd be more interested in peer/peer, versus prostitution/temple rituals (wait: did for instance the Roman temples even have male acolytes?), since the OP's question concerned casual, social sex versus formalized, ritual-based encounters.\n\nI'm also assuming (uh oh) that, in regards the OP's curiosity about the 1940s, that it was more or less like pre-Stonewall activities. Is this a reasonable assumption?\n\nAnd, I also know that the vast majority of surviving documents concerned the wealthy, but what of the non-elites?\n\nAnd, if more ancient eyes viewed same-sex activities as an act versus an orientation, were there different rules/expectations among youth, young adults and \"settled\" older adults. It seems even recently (WWII era Britain and below), the wink-and-nod attitude towards same-sex activities during one's youth in say, boarding schools for the elites – contrasted with the draconian rules against same-sex activities done by adults – suggests a shifting set of rules. Well, and rank hypocrisy. \n\nWere Lesbian women's preferences/activities largely ignored since, so long as they performed a biological role, men were indifferent (i.e., what women did absent men were \"too insignificant\" to rate a mention), or would these incidences be too scandalous to be part of the surviving record?\n\nAnd related to this last point: is it credible that male/male same-sex incidences were roughly similar but due to the post-Christian (in the West) prohibitions, it was simply hidden better, and thus absent from the *documented* record?\n\nThanks!\n\n(Mods, let me know if this is off-topic and I'll gladly delete)",
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"answer": "Well, I can't quite say much about heterosexual casual sex during World War II, but I can remark on homosexual casual sex in the era, referencing two very fascinating books. The first is [*Coming Out Under Fire*](_URL_1_) by Allan Berube, and the second is [*The Straight State*](_URL_0_) by Margot Canaday.\n\n*Coming Out Under Fire* remarks with incredible detail the opportunities that World War II provided young Americans to discover their sexuality and encounter other likewise-oriented people. Most of the book follows homosexual men, but a few significant chapters focus on women in the Women's Army Corps. Berube moves through basic training all the way to the combat zone, and shows that homosexual acts happened at every step along the way. He states that in basic: \"They usually didn't experiment sexually with other men until they learned how to bend the rules or until they found themselves paired up in secluded situations.\" Both straight and gay men avoided intimate friendship and close physical contact in basic because of the fear of being accused of homosexuality. But increasingly, as training went by, men found themselves more often in secluded situations with each other. My favorite part of the book - besides Berube's wonderful work on gay men in combat - is the sleeping accommodations on Pullman train cars during troop movements and the hotel / private home accommodations in towns during overnight passes. Pairs of men slept together in one bed in these situations, and physical affection appears to be common, from what we can tell from personal/private sources. The best line is this one, from a Navy man going from San Diego to Madison, Wisconsin: \"At the end of some of the cars, there were little compartments that would sleep maybe four. I think four of us had the same idea when we got on the train. We just rushed for those compartments and all of us were gay. So it was something that night when we closed that door.\"\n\n*The Straight State* is definitely less positive about World War II for gay men, and it covers three distinct themes (immigration, the military, and welfare) in two eras of American history. Canaday makes it clear that lesbian women, their relationships, and their acts were not a priority to the state, who regulated them very little but kept a very watchful eye on them at points. The state's main concern was young homosexual men, who they started trying to weed out at the turn-of-the-century with immigrants (screening for \"perverse\" or \"sexually inverted\" bodies at Ellis Island) and continued desperately to find by not allowing transient single men during the Great Depression / New Deal to have certain rights and freedoms. In terms of the military, the state implemented an increasingly intense series of policies aimed to keep homosexual men out of the military service and World War I and World War II. However, Canaday shows very clearly that scandals emerged in both wars, as young men did experiment with each other sexually both in training and overseas, and that the state responded harshly to these events by removing them from service and stripping them of their rights by giving them a \"blue discharge\" (which disallowed them any benefits from the G.I. Bill). The excessive amount of transient men who wandered the country post-WW1 led to the development of the G.I. Bill, which, as one reviewer has put it, was and is \"the most massive federal welfare program in U.S. history\" and is primarily \"designed to create settled, married, and yes, heterosexual men.\" The rewards went to heterosexual men and homosexual men who kept their identities secret and their acts few to none. That isn't to say that casual homosexual sex didn't occur during World War II - Allan Berube's book proves that it did - but it does suggest that homosexual sex during this time period was quite risky. \n\nI don't mean to leave out lesbians and their casual sex, but both Berube and Canaday admit rather despondently there is a decided lack of sources regarding lesbian subculture during World War II. There were scandals, of course, especially in W.A.C. where women were caught together in sexual situations, but they were treated very differently than homosexual men. Only so many were given blue discharges, and few left the military service with the stigma of homosexuality. Possibly a great deal of lesbian casual sex occurred during World War II due to the opportunities of sex segregation, but this has been less apparent in the archives than the homosexual male counterpart.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "My mother was a love child in post WW II \"holy catholic Ireland\" - my grandfather was in the army, the 2nd youngest of 10, granny was in service (a maid) and the eldest of 13. They were no longer in touch and Grandad was seeing someone new when granny found out she was pregnant. She only had his name. Her employer contacted the army and they gave him two (well three) options: abscond the army/country, pay her an allowance (deducted from his wages) or get married. He chose the latter. My mother only found this out after my grandmother died. She didn't believe it - granny was a decades-of-the-rosary, mass every day, four priests at her funeral sort of catholic. Grandad softened the blow by telling mum about how many other instances of premarital sex occurred - basically other uncles, aunts, cousins etc. who had been in roughly the same boat. It didn't sound endemic, but it sounded common.\n\nSo here's my askhistorians question: the choice grandad was given by the army, to pay for the upkeep of an out of wedlock child, I don't know if that was a formal arrangement through the army. Does anyone know? If so, could records of such payments from old salary records be used as a proxy for guesstimating a rate of premarital sex? Could digitized birth and marriage certificates be used to identify (say) six month or less gaps between wedding-with-a-bump and first baby? I realize this is just relating to premarital sex, but at least with granny and grandad there is a hint of casualness - she only knew his name and job, not where he lived.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "When Paul Revere married his first wife Sarah Orne she was pregnant (the baby came 8 months after the marriage). David Hackett Fischer says that this was a common occurrence at the time (1750s or so) and place (New England). According to him up to 1/3rd of New England brides were pregnant on their wedding day. \n\n\n(From *Paul Revere's Ride*)\n\nApparently this wasn't exactly casual sex, but a philosophy that it was not immoral to have sex as long as you were engaged. Cohabitation was also apparently quite common in both North and South during the early to mid 18th centuries with preachers being upset at the state of affairs and also upset that nobody seemed to care. A man named John Miller traveled through New England at the beginning of the 18th century and was appalled at how many people cohabitated. He reported that people would live together for a period of time and then break up without any sense of moral wrong. He also saw that pre-marital sex among engaged couples was quite common. \n\nThere's a letter from a man named John Updike who wrote to the Anglican Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, and he claimed that the people of North Carolina were among the most notorious prolifigates on earth. Pre-marital sex was common, cohabitation was common, and often he found that newly arrived immigrants had abandoned spouses and were committing adultery. Another Anglican minister wrote that \"polygamy was common, concubinage general, and bastardy of no disrepute\". (*Sexual Revolution in Early America* Richard Godbeer). ",
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},
{
"answer": "My view of sexuality comes through art and music. What about all of those lovely English ballads about \"going a-maying\"? Or strolling through the *bonnie broom*, or down by the *rushing stream*? \n\nThere are hundreds of songs about young lads entreating young lasses to disappear somewhere private, and the lasses responding no (for the sake of their father dear, or dead mother, or honor) until they finally say \"yes\". Were they just hiding in the haymow for some heavy petting? I've always rather assumed they were going for the whole deal, otherwise why the concern about honor?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39693193",
"title": "Hookup culture",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1237,
"text": "The rise of hookups, a form of casual sex, has been described by evolutionary biologist Justin Garcia and others as a \"cultural revolution\" that had its beginnings in the 1920s. Historians D'Emilio and Freedman put the beginning of casual sex, including college hookups, further back in history, to the early 1800s, and explain the phenomenon as shaped by historical and cultural forces. They give as examples planter class white men who had casual sex with enslaved African American women, and white male college students who had casual sex with both white and black women. Lisa Wade, a sociologist, documents that 19th-century white fraternity men often had what would be called hookup sex with prostitutes, poor women, and the women they had enslaved. Homosexual men also engaged in hookup sex during the 1800s, meeting in spaces that were transient in nature, such as wharves and boarding houses. Since the 1920s, there has been a transition from an age of courtship to an era of hookup culture. Technological advancements such as the automobile and movie theaters brought young couples out of their parents' homes, and out from their watchful eyes, giving them more freedom and more opportunity to engage in casual sexual activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1106704",
"title": "Casual sex",
"section": "Section::::Social norms and moral concerns.:Sexual revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1391,
"text": "In the United States, one-time sexual encounters among college-aged students are growing increasingly common; nearly 70% of people in this age group have partaken in casual sex at least once because of their newfound adult identities and freedom to explore their sexualities. Men and women are found to engage in very similar casual sex conducts, despite popular social beliefs. Most young adults in this age group believe that their peers are having a higher frequency of casual sex than they actually are, and this is due to vocabulary choice. For example, using the term \"hookup\" denotes that the sexual activity, whether it is vaginal sex, oral sex, or sexual touching, is casual and between unfamiliar partners. However, it is vague and does not detail what specific sexual activities occurred. This is especially distorting towards others' impressions because 98% of college hookups involve kissing, 81% of hookups involve more than kissing, and only 34% of hookups involve penetrative sex. Studies have also linked this common misperception of peer hookup activity to media and pop culture portrayals of casual sexual encounters. Television and movies project distorted depictions of casual sex because they also commonly portray people who have just hooked up as emotionally satisfied and physically pleasured while simultaneously emotionally detached, which is not always the case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35087949",
"title": "Casual Sex (song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "\"Casual Sex\" is a song by Canadian rock band My Darkest Days. It was released on January 13, 2012, as the lead single from the band's second studio album, \"Sick and Twisted Affair\". The song features John 5 on guitar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1106704",
"title": "Casual sex",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Casual sex is sexual activity that takes places outside a romantic relationship and implies an absence of commitment, emotional attachment, or familiarity between sexual partners. Examples are sexual activity while casually dating, one-night stands, premarital sex, prostitution, or swinging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "253012",
"title": "Prostitution in New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::History.:Before 2003.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "The earliest known examples of the exchange of sex for material gain in New Zealand, outside of the context of slavery by Māori, occurred in the early period of contact between indigenous Māori and European and American sailors. Along with food, water and timber, sex was one of the major commodities exchanged for European goods. The Bay of Islands and in particular the town of Kororareka was notorious for this and brothels proliferated. It is not clear whether all of these exchanges necessarily constituted prostitution in the usual sense of the word. In some cases, the sex may have been part of a wider partnership between a tribe and a ship's crew, akin to a temporary marriage alliance. The amount of choice women had about their participation seems to have varied. Throughout this period there was a severe gender imbalance in the settler population and women were in short supply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1380550",
"title": "Strip club",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "The term \"striptease\" was first recorded in 1938, though \"stripping\", in the sense of women removing clothing to sexually excite men, seems to go back at least 400 years. For example, in Thomas Otway's comedy \"The Soldier's Fortune\" (1681) a character says: \"Be sure they be lewd, drunken, \"stripping\" whores\". Its combination with music seems to be as old. A conclusive description and visualization can be found in the 1720 German translation of the French \"La Guerre D'Espagne\" (Cologne: Pierre Marteau, 1707), where a galant party of high aristocrats and opera singers has resorted to a small château where they entertain themselves with hunting, play and music in a three-day turn:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "236648",
"title": "Sex work",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Sex work, in many different forms, has been practiced since ancient times. It is reported that even in the most primitive societies, there was transactional sex. Prostitution was widespread in ancient Egypt and Greece, where it was practiced at various socioeconomic levels. Hetaera in Greece and geisha in Japan were seen as prestigious members of society for their high level of training in companionship. Attitudes towards prostitution have shifted through history. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fv2or
|
[META] AskScience open house!
|
[
{
"answer": "Thanks to all the mods as well, they help keep the discussions on topic and informative. With that said, I'm very satisfied with the subreddit. Here's to a goal of 1 million.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'd really love it if you gave a shot at making the journal club a weekly feature. I think a weekly open thread for theoretical/methodological questions/discussions could be valuable too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Am I allowed to just say thanks at how awesome and fascinating I find this subreddit everyday? \n\nMy first comment here, since I typically appreciate and abide by the \"keep yur mouth shut kid if it ain't real science\" rule. :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Huge shout-out to the mods--I consider this one of the top subreddits!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I keep thinking there's an improvement you could make here. I know the rules are strictly enforced, and that's great.. but here's an idea I had for an improvement that follows the ideals of science at the same time.\n\nOn several occasions I've seen a question on a subject in which I'm not an expert. However, I'm an analytical thinker and I feel like I could speculate with a reasonable degree of accuracy, but this wouldn't be allowed under the current rules.\n\nBut isn't this how science is done? Question - > Hypothesis - > Testing - > Changes to Hypothesis to meet observed results - > Repeated testing - > Peer review - > Good science.\n\nWe're stuck on Question - > [Expert knowledge required here] - > Good science\n\nIn the absence of a well cited response to a question, would it be so wrong for a structured speculation thread instead? You could define a basic template for it and require some minimum level of input. Propose your theory to answer the question, explain how you would go about testing it, what results you would look for, etc. If, at some point, an expert does show up who can answer the question, or a proof is found elsewhere, the speculation could then be scored as to how accurate it was, if your methodology was sound, or why you were wrong.\n\nIt seems like you could involve the lay person (ie, me) in the conversation in a meaningful and potentially educational way, if it were done right.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am 14 years old right now and I would say that I'm pretty curious.\n\n Most times I just can't get enough of learning anything. I come up with questions, google them, and then I see these convoluted long mathematical explanations that I couldn't possible understand at this stage in my education.\n\nThat's when I come to askscience and I use the search box and BAM I suddenly find some easy to understand explanations that satiate my curiosity while bringing up even more questions.\n\nWithout this community I think it would be safe to say that I would not be near as interested in science as I am now.\n\nThank you mods for keeping this subreddit great with your moderating. \n\nThank you everyone that continues to answer questions and help everyone with that feeling of curiosity on their brain. \n\nThanks everyone for making this the greatest subreddit and my personal favorite sub to read.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I didn't realize we were getting this big! Yay!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is something that bothers me regarding something that is not really in the rules but is done nonetheless:\n\nSomeone reacts with something that is in between a follow up question but is thereby analyzing and putting things together, and mentions something like 'correct me if I'm wrong', like [here](_URL_0_).\n\nThis question is totally downvoted but there are corrections below, there is a lively discussion and also on top of that the fallacy in the remark of the pp is tackled. \n\nWhy oh why do we downvote this?\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Askscience is an awesome subreddit! It really fosters scientific knowledge.\n\nHowever, in some cases I have seen good questions get downvoted, probably because they appear simplistic.\n\nThough they may seem so to the experts on askscience, the asker wouldn't be posting it here if they weren't curious enough to want an answer, which should be encouraged rather than discouraged. I personally feel that this kind of action discourages people from asking questions by fear of \"looking stupid\".\n\nIt is by no means a common occurrence, but it happens.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1013517",
"title": "Open House London",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "Open House London is an event which promotes appreciation of architecture by the general public. It is a part of the organisation Open-City and is best known for its annual Open House Weekend which is a two-day event held on one weekend each September throughout London since 1992. The event forms a London version of the European Heritage Days (\"Journées Européennes du Patrimoine\"), a Europe-wide event that started as \"Journées Portes ouvertes des monuments historiques\" (Historic Monument Open Door Days) in France in 1983. During the Open House Weekend many buildings considered to be of architectural significance open their doors for free public tours. Heritage Open Days is a similar event covering the rest of England, and takes place the previous weekend to Open House London.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "654253",
"title": "Open Homes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Open Homes is a Canadian home improvement television show, unique in that it helps people prepare their homes for sale on the open market. The series airs in Canada on Prime on Friday evenings at 11 p.m. EST, and also on W through the weekend day. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48536502",
"title": "Open House Chicago",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Open House Chicago (OHC) is a free weekend festival held annually in Chicago that allows participants to visit dozens of buildings that are not typically open to the public. The next festival will be held October 19-20th, 2019.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11324648",
"title": "Open house (school)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "An open house (also known as open day and at-home day) is an event held at an institution where its doors are open to the general public to allow people to look around the institution and learn about it. These are often held at schools and universities to attract prospective students, familiarize them (and their parents) with the facilities, allow new students to become familiar with facilities and meet others, or to open informal communication channels between school staff and the students and their parents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28977695",
"title": "Brisbane Open House",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Brisbane Open House is a Doors Open Days event held in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia that showcases many of the city's buildings to the public. Among the buildings included are historical landmarks, galleries, office buildings, museums, places of worship and bridges. Well known buildings not usually open to the public are open for free public tours. The annual event is usually held on the first weekend in October.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6533746",
"title": "Open House (Irish TV programme)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Open House is an afternoon television show broadcast on RTÉ One between 1999 and 2004. The last episode was broadcast in 2004. It was presented by Mary Kennedy and Marty Whelan and focused on lifestyle, cookery and human interest issues. Presenters included Dermot O'Neill, the popular gardening expert. The show was broadcast five days a week (Monday to Friday), and was also transmitted to the United Kingdom via Tara Television.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1013517",
"title": "Open House London",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "The Open House event in London is usually held on the third weekend in September. The 2010 event featured over 700 buildings, neighbourhood walks, architects' talks, cycle tours, and more. Well-known buildings not usually open to the public which were open on Open House weekend in 2005, for example, included Marlborough House, Lancaster House, Mansion House, the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, and Horse Guards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1hxslu
|
Have there been any conclusive studies done on sugar/calorie-free energy drinks?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm sure someone can go more in-depth on some of the ingredients but here's some information on two of them. Artificial sweeteners are always a topic for discussion. The linked drink uses acesulfame potassium and sucralose which according to [_URL_2_](_URL_4_) is not linked to increased cancer risks. \n > Before approving these sweeteners, the FDA reviewed more than 100 safety studies that were conducted on each sweetener, including studies to assess cancer risk. The results of these studies showed no evidence that these sweeteners cause cancer or pose any other threat to human health.\n\nOther [sources](_URL_0_) indicate that acesulfame potassium may have carcinogenic properties and needs to be studied more. \n\nIt was a little difficult to find but a [few](_URL_6_) [websites](_URL_7_) show that it contains about 135mg of caffeine per can which is about the same amount of caffeine contained in a normal 8oz cup of brewed coffee. While caffeine is a well understood compound, additional research is bringing more details to light. A good read is [Caffeine Jitters](_URL_3_) on _URL_5_.\n\nMore and more products are adding caffeine. Some energy drink brands don't list the caffeine content because it's a part of their 'energy blend formula'. Couple this with some people drinking multiple energy drinks each day in addition to sodas and other caffeine-infused drinks and you're easily spiking your daily caffeine levels. This has led to an increase in ER visits (from the Caffeine Jitters link above):\n > According to a report released last month by the U.S. Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration, the annual number of emergency room visits associated with energy drinks increased to 20,000 in 2011, a 36% boost from the previous year.\n\nI can't quite go into detail about every ingredient in the blends. Information on Guarana is available [here](_URL_1_). \n\nAll in all the biggest risk in energy drinks is most likely going to come from consuming them too frequently. Especially when you take into consideration that each can is two servings on top of whatever other drinks you consume that day. The Caffeine Jitters article points out some situations in which caffeine consumption can amplify existing medical conditions. Sorry I couldn't give further information on the rest of the ingredients. Hopefully others can fill in on them. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27712",
"title": "Sugar",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Hyperactivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Some studies report evidence of causality between high consumption of refined sugar and hyperactivity. One review of low-quality studies of children consuming high amounts of energy drinks showed association with higher rates of unhealthy behaviors, including smoking and alcohol abuse, and with hyperactivity and insomnia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22180699",
"title": "Diet and obesity",
"section": "Section::::Sugar consumption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "More recently, evidence from large-scale cross-sectional and prospective cohort studies supports that consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages is correlated with the childhood and adult obesity epidemic in the United States population (Malik et al. 2006). Sweetened drinks containing either sucrose alone or sucrose in combination with fructose appear to lead to weight gain due to increase energy intake. Fructose might also be preferentially metabolized into fat as feedback inhibition as with glucose is missing. In fact, about half of total added sugar consumed in the United States is in liquid form. Teenage boys showed the greatest consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages, upwards of 357 calories per day. In addition to the evidence that humans have a natural propensity towards sugar, there exists additional biological plausibility that explains the correlation of sugar-sweetened beverage consumption and obesity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49479203",
"title": "Action on Sugar",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Published studies in The Lancet Diabetes and Endocrinology journal by expert advisors associated with Action on Sugar have highlighted the cost to public health of excessive amounts of sugar in carbonated drinks. Research findings frequently contested by UK food and beverage industry groups, specifically, the Food and Drink Federation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28248191",
"title": "Funding bias",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "BULLET::::- In 2016, an analysis of studies exploring health effects of sugary soda consumption published between 2001 and 2016 found a 100% probability that a study was funded by sugar-sweetened beverage companies if it found no link between sugar-sweetened beverage consumption and poorer metabolic health. Only 2.9% of studies that found sugary beverages linked to higher rates of diabetes and obesity were underwritten by the sugar-sweetened beverage industry (see also sugar marketing). The authors concluded \"This industry seems to be manipulating contemporary scientific processes to create controversy and advance their business interests at the expense of the public's health.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27712",
"title": "Sugar",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Sugar industry funding and health information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Sugar refiners and manufacturers of sugary foods and drinks have sought to influence medical research and public health recommendations, with substantial and largely clandestine spending documented from the 1960s to 2016. The results of research on the health effects of sugary food and drink differ significantly, depending on whether the researcher has financial ties to the food and drink industry. A 2013 medical review concluded that \"unhealthy commodity industries should have no role in the formation of national or international NCD [non-communicable disease] policy\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39164260",
"title": "Sweetened beverage",
"section": "Section::::Health implications of sugar sweetened beverages.:Sugar addiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1087,
"text": "In a recent study, the notion of sugar addiction has been challenged. The study examined a sample of 1495 human participants to determine if foods mainly containing sugar cause \"addiction-like\" problems that meet clinical Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders criteria for substance dependence. The researchers also investigated whether potential dependence on sugar relates to body weight and negative affectivity such as mood depression. The results revealed that the majority of participants experienced at least one symptom of food dependence for combined high-fat savoury (30%) and high-fat sweet (25%) foods while only a minority experienced such problems for low-fat/savoury (2%) and mainly sugar-containing foods (5%). Furthermore, while addictive-like symptoms for high-fat savoury and high-fat sweet foods correlated to overweight conditions, this was not found to be the case for foods mainly containing sugar. Consequently, the findings indicated that sugary foods have a minimal role to contributing to food dependence and the increased risk of weight gain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39164260",
"title": "Sweetened beverage",
"section": "Section::::Health implications of sugar sweetened beverages.:Sugar addiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1579,
"text": "Evidence regarding sugar addiction is mainly based on literature and research conducted on animals. There is a biomedical and neurological science behind the usage of mini-pigs and lab rodents. In these animal species, there are similarities with humans in terms of cognition, development of food preferences and eating disorders, digestive anatomy and functions, as well as brain development. Research has demonstrated that, under certain conditions, rats can develop addiction-like behaviors with respect to sugar. The food addiction model asserts that excessive consumption of palatable foods may be understood within the same neurobiological framework as drug addiction. The test subjects have similar brain anomalies as those described in humans. Drug addiction has an impact on the brain's reward center and substance abuse. In drug addiction, there is a \"drug-seeking\" behavior, which is similar having a \"sweet tooth\" and seeking to satisfy the desire for a sweet item. Reward from eating is controlled by the mesolimbic dopamine (DA) pathway. In the animal study, a fructose and glucose diet induced modifications in several brain regions involved in reward and eating behavior. The observations from the study asserts that food and drug consumption share a common neurobiology that \"hijack\" a neural system that primarily processes natural rewards like foods. Sugar is believed to stimulate dopamine in the central nervous system. In summary, the research provided several clinical facts and evidences on the effects of sugar consumption on the central nervous system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2z1622
|
dogs and cats cry; why don't they perform a similar function to a human's laugh?
|
[
{
"answer": "Actually, research suggests that they do laugh but it is on frequencies that we can't hear or discern. I know I've had a few dogs that have been ticklish between their paws, or at least seem like they \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Laughter is a function of being surprised by the unexpected. We laugh because we are able to expect a certain thing to happen and when that thing does not happen we are intelligent enough to be surprised and we laugh. Deep laughter is really quite like a scream that has been broken up by the closure of the throat kind of like a spasm. \nMost Animals don't really have such deeply engrained expectations to be able to laugh. The higher intelligence animals seem to have this ability, try googling Dolphins laughing for some examples. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18555273",
"title": "Jaak Panksepp",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "In the 1999 documentary \"Why Dogs Smile and Chimpanzees Cry\", he is shown to comment on the research of joy in rats: the tickling of domesticated rats made them produce a high-pitch sound which was hypothetically identified as laughter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "302319",
"title": "Empathy",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 162,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 162,
"end_character": 1068,
"text": "Canines have been hypothesized to share empathic-like responding towards human species. Researchers Custance and Mayer put individual dogs in an enclosure with their owner and a stranger. When the participants were talking or humming, the dog showed no behavioral changes, however when the participants were pretending to cry, the dogs oriented their behavior toward the person in distress whether it be the owner or stranger. The dogs approached the participants when crying in a submissive fashion, by sniffing, licking and nuzzling the distressed person. The dogs did not approach the participants in the usual form of excitement, tail wagging or panting. Since the dogs did not direct their empathic-like responses only towards their owner, it is hypothesized that dogs generally seek out humans showing distressing body behavior. Although this could insinuate that dogs have the cognitive capacity for empathy, this could also mean that domesticated dogs have learned to comfort distressed humans through generations of being rewarded for that specific behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5741167",
"title": "Cat communication",
"section": "Section::::Vocal.:Meow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "The most familiar vocalisation of adult cats is a \"meow\" or \"miaow\" sound (pronounced ). The meow can be assertive, plaintive, friendly, bold, welcoming, attention-soliciting, demanding, or complaining. It can even be silent, where the cat opens its mouth but does not vocalize. Just like humans who talk a lot when they're happy, cats can too. According to \"The Purrington Post\", a chatty cat is likely happy too.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "8595464",
"title": "Cat behavior",
"section": "Section::::Socialization.:Socialization and communication between cats and humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "Cats have learned how to develop their vocals in order to converse with humans, in which they try to tell humans what they want. Cats vocalize to other cats. Hisses and spits warn other cats to keep their distance. It may be noted that a \"hiss\" is less about the sound and more about the showing of teeth along with their stance. Kittens also meow at their mothers for milk and attention, but this may go away once they have no need for milk as they become adults if they are not actively socialized. Another way that cats and humans interact is through what people call \"head bunting\" in which a cat rubs its head on a human in order to leave their scent, mark to claim territory, and create a bond.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22209340",
"title": "Laughter in animals",
"section": "Section::::Dogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Dogs sometimes pant in a manner that sounds like a human laugh. By analyzing the pant using a sonograph, this pant varies with bursts of frequencies. When this vocalization is played to dogs in a shelter setting, it can initiate play, promote pro-social behavior, and decrease stress levels. One study compared the behaviour of 120 dogs with and without exposure to a recorded \"dog-laugh\". Playback reduced stress-related behaviors, increased tail wagging, the display of a \"play-face\" when playing was initiated, and pro-social behavior such as approaching and lip licking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29228",
"title": "Shiba Inu",
"section": "Section::::Temperament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "A distinguishing characteristic of the breed is the so-called \"shiba scream\". When sufficiently provoked or unhappy, the dog will produce a loud, high-pitched scream. This can occur when attempting to handle the dog in a way that it deems unacceptable. The animal may also emit a very similar sound during periods of great joy, such as the return of the owner after an extended absence, or the arrival of a favored human guest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8595464",
"title": "Cat behavior",
"section": "Section::::Panting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Unlike dogs, panting is a rare occurrence in cats, except in warm weather environments. Some cats may pant in response to anxiety, fear or excitement. It can also be caused by play, exercise, or stress from things like car rides. However, if panting is excessive or the cat appears in distress, it may be a symptom of a more serious condition, such as a nasal blockage, heartworm disease, head trauma, or drug poisoning. In many cases, feline panting, especially if accompanied by other symptoms, such as coughing or shallow breathing (dyspnea), is considered to be abnormal, and treated as a medical emergency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c16v99
|
how is a blood clot not a death sentence?
|
[
{
"answer": "The clot stays in one place. The big danger is if it’s dislodged and then travels to the heart or lungs or brain. Some pharmaceuticals can dissolve a clot, some don’t necessarily impact the existing clot but prevent new ones from forming. In some cases, a physician will actually go in and try to extract the clot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a question of where the blood is going. A blood clot is typically not big enough to block the central passage through the atrium and ventricle. It's when the blood clot passes through these central passages and is pumped into the artery that supplies oxygen to the heart muscle and gets lodged there that a heart attack occurs, as the heart muscle itself is starved of oxygen and stares to die further down stream.\n\nThis is the case with embolic clots (clots that are moving in the blood). Static blood clots (atherosclorosis) that are casued by cholesterol and other junk building up on the wall of an artery are also a thing, but they have to reach about 80% - 90% occlusion before you really start to notice it and they typically fragment. \n\nBlood 'thinners' inhibit coagulalation and stop the stuff that forms clots from sticking.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When most people think of a blood clot, they think of an embolus, which is a clot that moves through the vein or artery. Most blood clots are thrombi, which are stationary blood clots. If a thtomus is mobilized it becomes an embolus, and either moves through the vein towards the heart; or if it's located in an artery it will move towards the extremities or an organ.\n\nIf an embolus reaches your brain, it will usually cause a stroke. The blood vessels of the brain are small, and depending on the size of the clot it can block the flow of oxygen to a significant portion of the brain.\n\nA clot that makes its way to the lungs will cause a pulmonary embolism. PE's can cause shortness of breath and even affect the heart, causing palpitations.\n\nIf a clot makes its way into the coronary arteries it can cause a heart attack. Which means the heart isn't receiving enough oxygen. \n\nYour body is a machine, and it works well while it's working, a little tiny clot can really cause any number of issues depending on where it is and how big it is.\n\nIf this didn't answer your question, please let me know. I'm not a doctor, I'm a student of massage therapy, so my knowledge is limited but I'm still hoping it might have answered at least part of your question.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2279676",
"title": "Simultaneous death",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Simultaneous death is a problem of inheritance which occurs when two people (sometimes referred to as commorientes) die at, or very near, the same time, and at least one of them is entitled to part or all of the other's estate on their death. This is usually the result of an un-natural death occurring from events such as an accident, a homicide, or a murder-suicide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1047151",
"title": "Blood Law",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Currently in the United States, only state and federal governments or military courts can impose the death penalty. Justice under Blood Law would be considered revenge killing or summary murder, and also could be an additional aggravating circumstance requiring the death penalty for the crime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60854490",
"title": "Death recorded",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "In British courts, beginning in 1823, a sentence of death recorded meant that the judge was abstaining from voicing a sentence of capital punishment in cases where the judge foresaw that a royal pardon would be forthcoming if a proper death sentence were to be issued. It was, in other words, a death sentence in name only, with no actual effect in law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "288593",
"title": "Pardon",
"section": "Section::::By country.:France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "When the death penalty was in force in France, all capital sentences resulted in a presidential review for a possible clemency. Executions were carried out if and only if the President rejected clemency, by signing a document on which it was written: \"decides to let justice take its course\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1047151",
"title": "Blood Law",
"section": "Section::::Misuse of \"Blood Law\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "The term \"blood law\" is sometimes used in a looser sense, to mean \"any\" form of capital punishment, or any form of collective revenge without a formal trial. In this broader sense, blood law was common in Western societies. It was called outlawing, and was practiced as a part of common law in England, Europe, and Iceland. A person could be declared an outlaw for refusing to submit to a legal system. Thereafter, such a person had no recourse to the legal system, and could legally be killed or robbed. The use of \"blood law\" to refer to outlawry may be considered ethnocentric.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4967816",
"title": "Capital punishment in Japan",
"section": "Section::::System.:Sentencing guideline – Nagayama Standard.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "The study also found that the death penalty was handed down in all cases of convicted murderers who killed again after being released on parole from life prison terms, and in all robbery-murder cases with three or more people slain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1227309",
"title": "Summary execution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "A summary execution is an execution in which a person is accused of a crime and immediately killed without benefit of a full and fair trial. Executions as the result of summary justice (such as a drumhead court-martial) are sometimes included, but the term generally refers to capture, accusation, and execution all conducted simultaneously or within a very short period of time, and without any trial at all. Under international law, refusal to accept lawful surrender in combat and instead killing the person surrendering (no quarter) is also categorized as a summary execution (as well as murder). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14jtd6
|
Why do mammals give birth from their vaginas?
|
[
{
"answer": "Mammals give birth through their vaginas because a vagina is, by definition, the tube leading from the uterus to the outside of the body, and that's the tube that has to be used.\n\nOther vertebrates aren't any different, save that their vaginas open into a cloaca before going outside the body. In either case, whatever is coming out of the uterus (be it an egg or a life-born offspring) has to pass through the vagina because that's the only tube that leads out of the uterus.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As opposed to what? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32476",
"title": "Vagina",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "The vagina is a structure of animals in which the female is internally fertilized, rather than by traumatic insemination used by some invertebrates. The shape of the vagina varies among different animals. In placental mammals and marsupials, the vagina leads from the uterus to the exterior of the female body. Female marsupials have two lateral vaginas, which lead to separate uteri, but both open externally through the same orifice; a third canal, which is known as the median vagina, and can be transitory or permanent, is used for birth. The female spotted hyena does not have an external vaginal opening. Instead, the vagina exits through the clitoris, allowing the females to urinate, copulate and give birth through the clitoris. The vagina of the female coyote contracts during copulation, forming a copulatory tie.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17322701",
"title": "Penis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "In most species of animals in which there is an organ that might reasonably be described as a penis, it has no major function other than intromission, or at least conveying the sperm to the female, but in the placental mammals the penis bears the distal part of the urethra, which discharges both urine during urination and semen during copulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18838",
"title": "Mammal",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Reproductive system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 1241,
"text": "In male placentals, the penis is used both for urination and copulation. Depending on the species, an erection may be fueled by blood flow into vascular, spongy tissue or by muscular action. A penis may be contained in a prepuce when not erect, and some placentals also have a penis bone (baculum). Marsupials typically have forked penises, while the echidna penis generally has four heads with only two functioning. The testes of most mammals descend into the scrotum which is typically posterior to the penis but is often anterior in marsupials. Female mammals generally have a clitoris, labia majora and labia minora on the outside, while the internal system contains paired oviducts, 1-2 uteri, 1-2 cervices and a vagina. Marsupials have two lateral vaginas and a medial vagina. The \"vagina\" of monotremes is better understood as a \"urogenital sinus\". The uterine systems of placental mammals can vary between a duplex, were there are two uteri and cervices which open into the vagina, a bipartite, were two uterine horns have a single cervix that connects to the vagina, a bicornuate, which consists where two uterine horns that are connected distally but separate medially creating a Y-shape, and a simplex, which has a single uterus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62166",
"title": "Rotifer",
"section": "Section::::Reproduction and life cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Males do not usually have a functional digestive system, and are therefore short-lived, often being sexually fertile at birth. They have a single testicle and sperm duct, associated with a pair of glandular structures referred to as \"prostates\" (unrelated to the vertebrate prostate). The sperm duct opens into a gonopore at the posterior end of the animal, which is usually modified to form a penis. The gonopore is homologous to the cloaca of females, but in most species has no connection to the vestigial digestive system, which lacks an anus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32476",
"title": "Vagina",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Although research on the vagina is especially lacking for different animals, its location, structure and size are documented as varying among species. Female mammals usually have two external openings in the vulva, the urethral opening for the urinary tract and the vaginal opening for the genital tract. This is different from male mammals, who usually have a single urethral opening for both urination and reproduction. The vaginal opening is much larger than the nearby urethral opening, and both are protected by the labia in humans. In amphibians, birds, reptiles and monotremes, the cloaca is the single external opening for the gastrointestinal tract, the urinary, and reproductive tracts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32476",
"title": "Vagina",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "In mammals, the vagina is the elastic, muscular part of the female genital tract. In humans, it extends from the vulva to the cervix. The outer vaginal opening is normally partly covered by a membrane called the hymen. At the deep end, the cervix (neck of the uterus) bulges into the vagina. The vagina allows for sexual intercourse and birth. It also channels menstrual flow (menses), which occurs in humans and closely related primates as part of the monthly menstrual cycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2500",
"title": "Anus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Amphibians, reptiles, and birds use the same orifice (known as the cloaca) for excreting liquid and solid wastes, for copulation and egg-laying. Monotreme mammals also have a cloaca, which is thought to be a feature inherited from the earliest amniotes via the therapsids. Marsupials have a single orifice for excreting both solids and liquids and, in females, a separate vagina for reproduction. Female placental mammals have completely separate orifices for defecation, urination, and reproduction; males have one opening for defecation and another for both urination and reproduction, although the channels flowing to that orifice are almost completely separate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
lcbgq
|
free trade and fair trade.
|
[
{
"answer": "They're two completely different things (I can see where it's confusing, though).\n\nFree trade: trade between nations with very few or no restrictions at all.\n\nFair trade: a label given to certain products certifying that the people who made them (usually third-world farmers, etc.) were paid a fair price for the product and were not taken advantage of by predatory practices.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They're two completely different things (I can see where it's confusing, though).\n\nFree trade: trade between nations with very few or no restrictions at all.\n\nFair trade: a label given to certain products certifying that the people who made them (usually third-world farmers, etc.) were paid a fair price for the product and were not taken advantage of by predatory practices.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45700729",
"title": "Alternative purchase network",
"section": "Section::::Main areas.:Trade and finance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "Fair trade is a trading partnership, based on dialogue, transparency and respect, that seeks greater equity in international trade. It contributes to sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to, and securing the rights of, marginalized producers and workers – especially in the South. Developing from political solidarity movements in the sixties, its main purpose is to replace the conventional international trading system. The World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO), which operates in over 70 countries across 5 regions, is a global network of organizations representing the Fair Trade supply chain. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49147",
"title": "Fair trade",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1280,
"text": "Fair trade is an institutional arrangement designed to help producers in developing countries achieve better trading conditions. Members of the fair trade movement advocate the payment of higher prices to exporters, as well as improved social and environmental standards. The movement focuses in particular on commodities, or products which are typically exported from developing countries to developed countries, but also consumed in domestic markets (e.g. Brazil, India and Bangladesh) most notably handicrafts, coffee, cocoa, wine, sugar, fresh fruit, chocolate, flowers and gold. The movement seeks to promote greater equity in international trading partnerships through dialogue, transparency, and respect. It promotes sustainable development by offering better trading conditions to, and securing the rights of, marginalized producers and workers in developing countries. Fair trade is grounded in three core beliefs; first, producers have the power to express unity with consumers. Secondly, the world trade practices that currently exist promote the unequal distribution of wealth between nations. Lastly, buying products from producers in developing countries at a fair price is a more efficient way of promoting sustainable development than traditional charity and aid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29678",
"title": "Trade",
"section": "Section::::International trade.:Fair trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The \"fair trade\" movement, also known as the \"trade justice\" movement, promotes the use of labour, environmental and social standards for the production of commodities, particularly those exported from the Third and Second Worlds to the First World. Such ideas have also sparked a debate on whether trade itself should be codified as a human right.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2088684",
"title": "World Fair Trade Organization",
"section": "Section::::WFTO verification and logo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Fair Trade is a type of partnership based on communication and reverence that ensures fairness in international trade. Since the seventies, there have been several groups and conferences held that discussed the implementation of regulations regarding trade. However, The World Fair Trade Organization (WFTO) was not established until the early nineties. The WFTO has several hundred partnerships across the globe with established practices and procedures meant to protect the groups and individuals associated with Fair Trade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37151",
"title": "Association for the Taxation of Financial Transactions and for Citizens' Action",
"section": "Section::::Issues and activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Fair\" instead of \"free\" trade, via democratic control of the World Trade Organization and international financial institutions such the International Monetary Fund, Worldbank, European Union, North American Free Trade Agreement, Free Trade Area of the Americas, and G8.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27245738",
"title": "Fair trade certification",
"section": "Section::::How it works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Fair trade is a strategy for poverty alleviation and sustainable development, aiming at creating greater equity in the international trading system. Through trading partnerships with marginalised farmers and craftspeople in developing countries, social and economic opportunities are created for these producers in a way that more customers are accessible to their products and a better deal is issued. In return, the producers have to comply with all the standards laid down by Fairtrade International.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32252638",
"title": "Trade as One",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Trade as One was formed in 2006 and began operations from a garage in the San Francisco Bay Area of California. It now operates from a warehouse and office in Santa Cruz, CA. Trade as One is based on the premise that Fair Trade is a way to alleviate two major crises in our world - both the crisis of extreme poverty in many parts of the developing world, and the crisis of consumerism in the developed world by enabling people to connect their values and beliefs with the way their money is spent and thus enable positive change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1pycmi
|
Who were the local law enforcers in Medieval Germany?
|
[
{
"answer": "Law enforcement was mostly organized on a local level, in towns or small villages. In the villages mostly by the \"owners\" of that villages, the lower nobility or the owners of the farms.\n\nThe Lower Law (niedere Gerichtsbarkeit, don't know if the translation is correct), also called *Thing* or patrimonial Law, was enforced by the local officers. They were called *Schultheiß* or similar in the local dialects, like *Schulze*, *Schulte* or *Schultes*. Schulze is still one of the most common names in Germany. The polish Sołectwo is derived from the German term, the English equivalent is bailiff or mayor. \nThe were not allowed to torture, maim or kill someone. The could only sentence lighter punishments, like monetary punisment, pranger, scold's bridle and such. \n\nThe Schultheiß office later evolved and turned into what is a mayor in modern days. The term was used in Württemberg until 1930. \n\nHerebord von Bismarck died in 1280 in Stendal and was a Schultheiß there. He is also the oldest known ancestor of Otto von Bismarck. \n\nHere is a pic of a Schultheiß from the 16th century: _URL_0_\n\nThe *Blutgerichtsbarkeit* (ius gladiim, law of the blade) was a criminal court that could inflict bodily punishment. These officers were usually noble and called *Vogt*, *Voigt* or *Voight*, which is also still a common name in Germany. The term itself is derived from advocatus and the English equivalent is the reeve. \n\nThe Vogt was also responsible to organize the defense of the county and he had to lead the feudal levy/array. \n\nCarolus Magnus installed a lot of *Vögte* in 802, who later (11th/12th century) evolved into heritable fief offices. The *Vögte* became *Grafen* (counts) and were now high nobility. \n\n\n\n \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1048798",
"title": "Civil law (legal system)",
"section": "Section::::Codification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1220,
"text": "Germanic codes appeared over the 6th and 7th centuries to clearly delineate the law in force for Germanic privileged classes versus their Roman subjects and regulate those laws according to folk-right. Under feudal law, a number of private custumals were compiled, first under the Norman empire (\"Très ancien coutumier\", 1200–1245), then elsewhere, to record the manorial – and later regional – customs, court decisions, and the legal principles underpinning them. Custumals were commissioned by lords who presided as lay judges over manorial courts in order to inform themselves about the court process. The use of custumals from influential towns soon became commonplace over large areas. In keeping with this, certain monarchs consolidated their kingdoms by attempting to compile custumals that would serve as the law of the land for their realms, as when Charles VII of France in1454 commissioned an official custumal of Crown law. Two prominent examples include the \"Coutume de Paris\" (written 1510; revised 1580), which served as the basis for the Napoleonic Code, and the \"Sachsenspiegel\" (c. 1220) of the bishoprics of Magdeburg and Halberstadt which was used in northern Germany, Poland, and the Low Countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188298",
"title": "Magdeburg rights",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "Magdeburg rights (; also called Magdeburg Law) were a set of town privileges first developed by Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor (936–973) and based on the Flemish law, which regulated the degree of internal autonomy within cities and villages, granted by the local ruler. Named after the German city of Magdeburg, these town charters were perhaps the most important set of medieval laws in Central Europe thus far. They became the basis for the German town laws developed during many centuries in the Holy Roman Empire. Even more importantly, adopted and modified by numerous monarchs including the rulers of Bohemia, Hungary, and Poland, the laws were a milestone in urbanization of the entire region and prompted the development of thousands of villages and cities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4257",
"title": "Burgundians",
"section": "Section::::Law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Like many of the Germanic tribes, the Burgundians' legal traditions allowed the application of separate laws for separate ethnicities. Thus, in addition to the \"Lex Gundobada\", Gundobad also issued (or codified) a set of laws for Roman subjects of the Burgundian kingdom, the \"Lex Romana Burgundionum\" (\"The Roman Law of the Burgundians\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5030127",
"title": "German town law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "The German town law () or German municipal concerns (\"Deutsches Städtewesen\") was a set of early town privileges based on the Magdeburg rights developed by Otto I. The Magdeburg Law became the inspiration for regional town charters not only in Germany, but also in Central and Eastern Europe who modified it during the Middle Ages. The German town law (based on Magdeburg rights) was used in the founding of many German cities, towns, and villages beginning in the 13th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188298",
"title": "Magdeburg rights",
"section": "Section::::Spread of the law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "Among the most advanced systems of old Germanic law of the time, in the 13th and 14th centuries, Magdeburg rights were granted to more than a hundred cities, in Central Europe apart from Germany, including Schleswig, Bohemia, Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, especially in Pomerania, Prussia, Lithuania (following the Christianization of Lithuania), and probably Moldavia. In these lands they were mostly known as \"German\" or \"Teutonic\" law. Since the local tribunal of Magdeburg also became the superior court for these towns, Magdeburg, together with Lübeck, practically defined the law of northern Germany, Poland and Lithuania for centuries, being the heart of the most important \"family\" of city laws. This role remained until the old Germanic laws were successively replaced with Roman law under the influence of the \"Reichskammergericht,\" in the centuries after its establishment during the Imperial Reform of 1495.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12369",
"title": "Guild",
"section": "Section::::History of guilds.:Post-classical guild.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "The guild system reached a mature state in Germany circa 1300 and held on in German cities into the 19th century, with some special privileges for certain occupations remaining today. In the 15th century, Hamburg had 100 guilds, Cologne 80, and Lübeck 70. The latest guilds to develop in Western Europe were the \"\" of Spain: e.g., Valencia (1332) or Toledo (1426).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30865179",
"title": "Ancient Germanic law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "Germanic law was codified in writing under the influence of Roman law; previously it was held in the memory of designated individuals who acted as judges in confrontations and meted out justice according to customary rote, based on careful memorization of precedent. Among the Franks they were called \"rachimburgs\". \"Living libraries, they were law incarnate, unpredictable and terrifying.\" Power, whose origins were at once said to be magical, divine, and military, was, according to Michel Rouche, exercised jointly by the \"throne-worthy\" elected king and his free warrior companions. Oral law sufficed as long as the warband was not settled in one place. Germanic law made no provisions for the public welfare, the \"res publica\" of Romans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2f0q2a
|
Can an adhesive stick to oxygen or other air molecules?
|
[
{
"answer": "The problem I see with this is that gases don't have a \"surface\". I could certainly see gases dissolving and equilibrating in an adhesive, and possibly being physically absorbed to the surface of the adhesive (also at equilibrium). However, if you apply your adhesive to a gas, and then move the other surface away, you won't suddenly pull all the gases in your space along with it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2396",
"title": "Adhesive",
"section": "Section::::Application.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Applicators of different adhesives are designed according to the adhesive being used and the size of the area to which the adhesive will be applied. The adhesive is applied to either one or both of the materials being bonded. The pieces are aligned and pressure is added to aid in adhesion and rid the bond of air bubbles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2396",
"title": "Adhesive",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms of adhesion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "For an adhesive to be effective it must have three main properties. It must be able to wet the substrate. It must increase in strength after application, and finally it must be able to transmit load between the two surfaces/substrates being adhered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2396",
"title": "Adhesive",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms of adhesion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Adhesion, the attachment between adhesive and substrate may occur either by mechanical means, in which the adhesive works its way into small pores of the substrate, or by one of several chemical mechanisms. The strength of adhesion depends on many factors, including the means by which it occurs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16702705",
"title": "Dispersive adhesion",
"section": "Section::::Source of dispersive adhesion attractions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "The source of adhesive forces, according to the dispersive adhesion mechanism, is the weak interactions that occur between molecules close together. These interactions include London dispersion forces, Keesom forces, Debye forces and hydrogen bonds. Taken on an individual basis, these attractions are not very strong, but when summed over the bulk of a material, can become significant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2396",
"title": "Adhesive",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Adhesive, also known as glue, cement, mucilage, or paste, is any non metallic substance applied to one surface, or both surfaces, of two separate items that binds them together and resists their separation. Adjectives may be used in conjunction with the word \"adhesive\" to describe properties based on the substance's physical or chemical form, the type of materials joined, or conditions under which it is applied.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2396",
"title": "Adhesive",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms of adhesion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "In some cases, an actual chemical bond occurs between adhesive and substrate. In others, electrostatic forces, as in static electricity, hold the substances together. A third mechanism involves the van der Waals forces that develop between molecules. A fourth means involves the moisture-aided diffusion of the glue into the substrate, followed by hardening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4852467",
"title": "Pressure-sensitive adhesive",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Pressure-sensitive adhesive (PSA, self-adhesive, self-stick adhesive) is a type of non reactive adhesive which forms a bond when pressure is applied to bond the adhesive with the adherend. No solvent, water, or heat is needed to activate the adhesive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
j3xwt
|
Why and how do drugs get you "high"?
|
[
{
"answer": "As far as we can tell, mostly by acting like existing neurotransmitters, or by releasing those neurotransmitters, or by causing a buildup of those neurotransmitters.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This should answer your question](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44578367",
"title": "Devil Pray",
"section": "Section::::Background and release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "It's about how people take drugs to connect to God or to a higher level of consciousness. I keep saying, 'Plugging into the matrix'. If you get high, you can do that, which is why a lot of people drop acid or do drugs, because they want to get closer to God. But there's going to be a short circuit, and that's the illusion of drugs, because they give you the illusion of getting closer to God, but ultimately they kill you. They destroy you. I mean, I tried everything once, but as soon as I was high, I spent my time drinking tons of water to get it out of my system. As soon as I was high, I was obsessed with flushing it out of me. I was like, 'OK, I'm done now'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1016857",
"title": "Law of effect",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "An example is often portrayed in drug addiction. When a person uses a substance for the first time and receives a positive outcome, they are likely to repeat the behavior due to the reinforcing consequence. Over time, the person's nervous system will also develop a tolerance to the drug. Thus only by increasing dosage of the drug will provide the same satisfaction, making it dangerous for the user.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26955647",
"title": "Addictive personality",
"section": "Section::::Relation to leadership.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "The reason that this connection exists is because pleasure is a motivator that is central to learning. Dopamine can be artificially created by substances that carry a risk for addiction, like cocaine, heroin, nicotine and alcohol. People with risk-taking and obsessive personality traits, which are often found in addicts, can be useful in becoming a leader. For many leaders, it is not the case that they are able to do well in spite of their addiction; rather, the same brain wiring and chemistry that make them addicts serve them well in becoming a good leader.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48548",
"title": "Dopamine",
"section": "Section::::Disease, disorders, and pharmacology.:Drug addiction and psychostimulants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "A variety of addictive drugs produce an increase in reward-related dopamine activity. Stimulants such as nicotine, cocaine and methamphetamine promote increased levels of dopamine which appear to be the primary factor in causing addiction. For other addictive drugs such as the opioid heroin, the increased levels of dopamine in the reward system may only play a minor role in addiction. When people addicted to stimulants go through withdrawal, they do not experience the physical suffering associated with alcohol withdrawal or withdrawal from opiates; instead they experience craving, an intense desire for the drug characterized by irritability, restlessness, and other arousal symptoms, brought about by psychological dependence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2304328",
"title": "Opponent-process theory",
"section": "Section::::Motivation and emotion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "The most important contribution is Solomon's findings on work motivation and addictive behavior. According to opponent-process theory, drug addiction is the result of an emotional pairing of pleasure and the emotional symptoms associated with withdrawal. At the beginning of drug or any substance use, there are high levels of pleasure and low levels of withdrawal. Over time, however, as the levels of pleasure from using the drug decrease, the levels of withdrawal symptoms increase, thus providing motivation to keep using the drug despite a lack of pleasure from it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56103154",
"title": "Discrimination against drug addicts",
"section": "Section::::Motivational patterns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Drugs (especially opioids and stimulants) can change the motivational patterns of a person and lead to desocialization and degradation of personality. Acquisition of the drugs some times involves black market activities and leads to criminal social circle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23664942",
"title": "Rush (psychology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "These drugs include opiates and opioids, such as heroin and morphine, and psychostimulants, such as methamphetamine and cocaine. Studies have shown that the subjective pleasure of drug use (the reinforcing component of addiction) is proportional to the rate at which the blood level of the drug increases. Intravenous injection is the fastest route of administration, causing blood concentrations to rise the most quickly, followed by smoking, suppository (anal or vaginal insertion), insufflation (snorting), and ingestion (swallowing). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
qfvjb
|
minecraft
|
[
{
"answer": "You can kind of think of it as computerized legos. \n\nMinecraft has two main forms of play: Survival and creative. Creative is the easiest to explain-- you have unlimited block materials of all sorts of colors and textures, as well as electrical components (Wire, levers, push blocks), interactive pieces (Doors, railroads), and transportation sets (Boats, railcars). You also have the ability to fly (As in, you can go wherever you want, place whatever you want). It's in this mode you see creations such as [a full 1-1 scale representation of Azeroth](_URL_2_), and all sorts of remakings of our favorite video games characters such as [Sonic](_URL_1_). \n\nSurvival is the exact same game, except you start out with nothing and everything you use, you have to mine or craft. I could delve into the mass, mass amount of things you can craft using the eleven or so simple, mineable materials, but I'll let [this](_URL_0_) do the talking for me. In survival, you also have life and hunger you have to worry about, as well as a slew of monsters. It's really hard to explain what Minecraft is *about* because there are SO many things you can do in it. My friends and I have a multiplayer server set to Survival, and we have this big great area where we build things and share materials, as well as go out on adventures to find monsters and Spawners (Think of them like... monster instances) and kill the spawners (Where the monsters come out of) to reap the loot from the cave. We have wheat farms and roller coasters, castles and underwater tunnels. It's just... fun. I guess the addictiveness comes into play with the fact that gathering materials in Survival takes a really long time. Not so long that you become annoyed and aggravated, but long enough that whenever you finish a build you can look at it and be really proud of yourself. \n\nYahtzee said it best-- \"Minecraft is a good parent who knows that if it just gives you your golden cock and balls you will get bored of it. So it pays you five dollars a week to wash its car until you save up enough money to buy yourself the golden cock and balls and at the end of the trek you'll love it all the more.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "negative_epsilon already kind of mentioned it in his creative section. Most of my fellow students who play Mine Craft are amazed by the part with electrical components. With levers, repeaters, red stones and all that stuff you can build electrical devices in Mine Craft which is... well you could do that IRL of course, but there is the fascination of the fact that you can build calculators, clocks and even paddles inside of a game and you don't need to buy components, learn how to solder or combine them in other ways and think about boundary effects or things like that. You turn on your computer, start a game and build a computer within the game.\n\nIf you never heard of it before, search youtube for some examples of interesting Mine Craft constructions. [This](_URL_0_) is an example for a 24h-digital clock built in Mine Craft (not ELI5-suitable explanation). I was told someone built an ingame computer you could play Mine Craft 2D on, but I can't remember where it was, so this is what I know as the amazement-factor of Mine Craft.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Oh, and the best tip of all:\n\nEnjoy being a noob.\n\nSeriously, it's the best part of the game.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Survival mode on Minecraft is much more than computerised LEGO bricks.\n\nIn single player, you are essentially alone in a world theoretically infinite, but actually about 8 times the size of the actual planet earth. Like, the world is literally almost as large as Saturn.\n\nIn multiplayer, it's the same thing, but either you and your friends or a community of strangers.\n\nYou have a health bar, and hunger level. Being well fed stops you from dying, allows you to gradually restore health and also gives you the energy to run.\n\nIn the day time, you are free to explore the world and build things. You'll start by gathering materials with just your hands, but quickly construct tools like shovels, pick-axes hatchets to gather a wider variety of resources with greater efficiency. Materials usually are either in the form of blocks, or can be crafted into blocks. These blocks can then be joined in any way, just like the world of Minecraft itself.\n\nHowever, at night... monsters appear. Zombies, spiders, skeletons and other fearsome creature roam the planet, and you're unlikely to be able to fight them all off. You'll have to take shelter in your buildings.\n\nOnce you and your friends have built a safe camp, you can begin to be more creative. Perhaps you'll start a farm, growing crops and livestock for food. Maybe you'll dig a deep underground mine with a complex railway system to transport your minerals to the surface. The game features a simple binary circuit system - blocks can be on or off which, in its simplest form can be used to open or close your front door, or in its more advanced use be used to create entire computer systems, musical sequencers and interactive games.\n\nIt's cheesy, but you're limited by your imagination in this game. The world itself is randomly generated, but somehow turns out absolutely beautiful. There are expansive underground caves to explore, with treasure hidden in the very depths, but teeming with monsters, and at the same time lofty bluffs perfecting for constructing your ideal castle, complete with lava pouring out.\n\n[Map of the currently explored world on the largest Minecraft server, which features cities, towns, countries, government, economy and all sorts. Zoom in. It's awesome.](_URL_0_)\n\n[A random Minecraft world](_URL_1_)\n\n[A music sequencer](_URL_4_)\n\n[A piano](_URL_3_)\n\n[Some underwater creations](_URL_2_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27815578",
"title": "Minecraft",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "\"Minecraft\" is a 3D sandbox game that has no specific goals to accomplish, allowing players a large amount of freedom in choosing how to play the game. However, there is an achievement system. Gameplay is in the first-person perspective by default, but players have the option for third-person perspective. The game world is composed of rough 3D objects—mainly cubes and fluids, and commonly called \"blocks\"—representing various materials, such as dirt, stone, ores, tree trunks, water, and lava. The core gameplay revolves around picking up and placing these objects. These blocks are arranged in a 3D grid, while players can move freely around the world. Players can \"mine\" blocks and then place them elsewhere, enabling them to build things.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27815578",
"title": "Minecraft",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "Minecraft is a sandbox video game created by Swedish game developer Markus Persson and released by Mojang in 2011. The game allows players to build with a variety of different blocks in a 3D procedurally generated world, requiring creativity from players. Other activities in the game include exploration, resource gathering, crafting, and combat. Multiple game modes that change gameplay are available, including—but not limited to—a survival mode, in which players must acquire resources to build the world and maintain health, and a creative mode, where players have unlimited resources to build with. The \"Java Edition\" of the game allows players to modify the game with mods to create new gameplay mechanics, items, textures and assets. In September 2014, Microsoft announced a deal to buy Mojang and the \"Minecraft\" intellectual property for , with the acquisition completed two months later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44263177",
"title": "Far Lands or Bust",
"section": "Section::::The Far Lands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "Minecraft is a sandbox video game which places players in a 3D procedurally generated world. As a player walks in any direction, the game generates terrain ahead of them, creating (in theory) a virtually infinite world for the player to explore. However, due to computational limits in earlier versions of the game, at a distance of roughly from the center of the world the terrain generation algorithm behaves unexpectedly, creating a sudden warped landscape. Markus Persson, the original developer of Minecraft, commented that \"\"Walking that far will take a very long time. Besides, the bugs add mystery and charisma to the Far Lands.\"\" The name \"Far Lands\" was adopted by the community to refer to this area. Persson also said it would be \"impossible to reach the Far Lands\" and Kurt took that as a challenge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60792697",
"title": "Minecraft Earth",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Similar to the original, \"Minecraft Earth\" is centered around building structures, gathering resources, crafting and exploration. Players could build augmented reality structures in collaboration with other players, gather resources through tapping on \"tappables\" in the in-game map, and access \"Adventures\" which may be a puzzle or a specific task, or a virtual location with hostile entities to defeat. The adventures reward players with in-game currency. Collaborative construction is done on \"build plates\", and players can share copies of their completed structures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44764608",
"title": "Minecraft: Story Mode",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.:Setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "\"Minecraft: Story Mode\" takes place in an interpretation of the world of \"Minecraft,\" where the game is the extent of the characters' universe, and the characters are unaware that they are in a game. The main character, Jesse, is an inexperienced resident of said universe who sets out on a journey with his/her friends within the world of \"Minecraft\" to find The Order of the Stone (Gabriel the Warrior, Ellegaard the Redstone Engineer, Magnus the Rogue, Soren the Architect and Ivor the Potion Brewer and Enchanter), five legendary adventurers who saved the \"Minecraft\" world. The game includes settings that are normally difficult to access from within \"Minecraft\", including the Nether and The End.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27815578",
"title": "Minecraft",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Survival mode.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Players can craft a wide variety of items in \"Minecraft\". Craftable items include armor, which mitigates damage from attacks; weapons (such as swords), which allows monsters and animals to be killed more easily; and tools, which break certain types of blocks more quickly. Some items have multiple tiers depending on the material used to craft them, with higher-tier items being more effective and durable. Players can construct furnaces, which can cook food, process ores, and convert materials into other materials. Players may also trade goods with villager NPCs through a bartering system, which involves trading emeralds for different goods and vice versa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33411597",
"title": "Video games in education",
"section": "Section::::Using video games in the classroom.:Possible benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 991,
"text": "Video games such as \"Minecraft\" and \"Portal\" have been suggested as platforms for teachers to experiment with their educational abilities. \"Minecraft\" is a sandbox game in which the user can create objects using the crafting system, while \"Portal\" is a physics game: the player uses the laws of physics, such as gravity and inertia, to advance through the game's series of test chambers. Critical thinking and problem solving are inherent in the latter game's design. Both \"Minecraft\" and \"Portal\" are adaptable to some learning environments; for instance, \"Minecraft\" has been used for young children while \"Portal\" has been used by high school physics teachers. \"Portal 2\" has also been used to develop cognitive skills in older undergraduate students, however. A 2017 study found that games including \"Portal 2\", \"Borderlands 2\", \"Gone Home\" and \"Papers, Please\" may be used to develop a range of skills in undergraduate students, such as communication, resourcefulness and adaptability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ws3ty
|
During WW2, was there an Allied equivalent of doctors Josef Mengele or Shiro Ishii (of Japanese medical experimentation Unit 731?)
|
[
{
"answer": "There was lots of human experimentation by the Americans during World War II, but most of it was much more consensual, less horrific. [Volunteer conscientious objectors were used for research on a starvation study at the University of Minnesota](_URL_0_), for example, as part of research funded by the Office for Scientific Research and Development.\n\nThe most problematic work though was in the area of nuclear technology. It was new, there were key safety questions to be asked, the whole thing was being massively expedited, and yet it was all kept secret to an unprecedented level. This meant that informed consent was not seen as an option.\n\nSo at several sites, coordinated by of the Manhattan Engineer District (the Manhattan Project) there were human radiation experiments that involved injecting terminally-ill patients with substances like plutonium, to see how it was excreted by their systems. It also involved passive monitoring of people working with plutonium, uranium, and polonium to see how their bodies were processing the toxic and radioactive metals. There were concerns, shared amongst people working on the project, that this work was in many ways unethical, because they did not have any intention of telling people if they had gotten too-large doses, especially in places where the workers in question did not have knowledge of what they were handling. \n\nSeparately, there is also the issue of testing a surface-burst nuclear weapon, knowing it will produce downwind fallout, in an area that had low population density but not zero population density. The scientists and security agents of course had no intention of telling the surrounding populace that they were being silently irradiated at low levels. The scientists were acutely aware of the possible dangers, and stationed MPs and scientists in nearby towns with Geiger counters, hoping for the best. \n\nThere were other issues of this nature, this bad mixture of secrecy with safety. The small \"water boiler\" reactor at Los Alamos, for example, vented radioactive gases into a canyon nearby, but its vent carried no warning labeling on it or restrictions — something that made the safety officers very uncomfortable.\n\nEileen Welsom's _The Plutonium Files_ talks about the plutonium injections, and the reports by the Advisory Committee on Human Radiation Experiments, from the early 1990s, contain discussion of other WWII-era unreported exposures. Most of the exposures were pretty low, but it is still pretty unethical. The people who took over the atomic work in the mid-1940s explicitly talked about this as having violated the Nuremberg conventions, and kept it secret explicitly in order to avoid causing scandal.\n\nAll that being said, in my view this is pretty piddling compared to Mengele and Unit 731 — unethical, but it lacks the horror. And there is a \"great good\" being sought-after here; knowing how plutonium was excreted helped set safety standards, for example, for the thousands of workers who had to deal with it. It wasn't arbitrary, in the way many of Mengele's sadistic experiments were, trying to sew together twins and the like. But it was still unethical, still a dirty deal made under the cover of war, and this is not just the judgment of hindsight, but how many people who knew about it thought about it at the time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10106868",
"title": "Batu Lintang camp",
"section": "Section::::Daily life in the camp.:Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Little medicine was available to the internees from the Japanese: they provided small amounts of quinine and aspirins. Morris recounts how Yamamoto would quite often beat sick men until they fell down, especially if they approached him for drugs. Few Red Cross supplies were available and most medication was bought or bartered from the outside world or from the guards themselves. No anaesthesia was available for operations. The main source of medical supplies in early 1943 was a pro-Allied ethnic Chinese family who lived nearby and were assisting in the provision of materials for the construction of a radio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "400772",
"title": "Vivisection",
"section": "Section::::Human vivisection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Unit 731, a biological and chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army, undertook lethal human experimentation during the period that comprised both the Second Sino-Japanese War, and the Second World War (1937–1945). In Mindanao, Moro Muslim prisoners of war were subjected to various forms of vivisection by the Japanese, in many cases without anesthesia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1028044",
"title": "Medical torture",
"section": "Section::::Asserted instances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "BULLET::::- During World War II, the Nazi regime in Germany conducted human medical experimentation on large numbers of people held in its concentration camps. In particular, Josef Mengele's experiments on prisoners at Auschwitz earned him the nicknames \"the Angel of Death\" and \"Dr. Death\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13977183",
"title": "Ken Yuasa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Ken Yuasa (Japanese: 湯浅 謙) (October 23, 1916 – November 2, 2010) was a World War II surgeon for the Japanese army. During his service in occupied China, he (along with at least 1000 other doctors and nurses) conducted vivisections on Chinese prisoners and civilians, and provided typhoid and dysentery bacillus to the Japanese army for use in biological warfare. Years after the war, he began to realize the extent of the atrocities he and others had committed and began writing and speaking about his experiences all over Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "84508",
"title": "Josef Mengele",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "Josef Mengele (; 16 March 19117 February 1979), also known as the Angel of Death (German: Todesengel), was a German \"Schutzstaffel\" (SS) officer and physician in Auschwitz concentration camp during World War II. He performed deadly human experiments on prisoners and was a member of the team of doctors who selected victims to be killed in the gas chambers. Arrivals that were judged able to work were admitted into the camp, while those deemed unsuitable for labor were sent to the gas chambers to be killed. With Red Army troops sweeping through Poland, Mengele was transferred from Auschwitz to the Gross-Rosen concentration camp on 17 January 1945, just ten days before the arrival of the Soviet forces at Auschwitz. After the war, he fled to South America where he evaded capture for the rest of his life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40293145",
"title": "Friedrich Entress",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Friedrich Karl Hermann Entress (8 December 1914 – 28 May 1947) was a German-Polish camp doctor in various concentration and extermination camps during the Second World War. He conducted human medical experimentation at Auschwitz and introduced the procedure there of injecting lethal doses of phenol directly into the hearts of prisoners. He was captured by the Allies in 1945, sentenced to death at the Mauthausen-Gusen camp trials, and executed in 1947.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2721845",
"title": "Simon Wiesenthal",
"section": "Section::::Nazi hunter.:Josef Mengele.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "Josef Mengele was a medical officer assigned to Auschwitz concentration camp from 1943 until the end of the war. As well as making most of the selections of inmates as they arrived by train from all over Europe, he performed unscientific and usually deadly experiments on the inmates. He left the camp in January 1945 as the Red Army approached and was briefly in American custody in Weiden in der Oberpfalz, but was released. He took work as a farm hand in rural Germany, remaining until 1949, when he decided to flee the country. He acquired a Red Cross passport and left for Argentina, setting up a business in Buenos Aires in 1951. Acting on information received from Wiesenthal, West German authorities tried to extradite Mengele in 1960, but he could not be found; he had in fact moved to Paraguay in 1958. He moved to Brazil in 1961 and lived there until his death in 1979.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5pzfbv
|
Bounties and sniper combat during the Vietnam War
|
[
{
"answer": "I think the fundamental question you need to ask yourself when considering the concept of bounties is the following: Was it actually a reality during the Vietnam War? \n\nThe truth of the matter is that there simply isn't much evidence supporting the existence of bounties beyond field reports and the testimonies of American soldiers. /u/Lich-Su [answered this question the best way possible a few months ago](_URL_0_) and the conclusion that Lich-Su reaches is one that I fully agree with.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "792474",
"title": "Adjustable Ranging Telescope",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "During the Vietnam War, the United States Army found that they desperately needed snipers. They were losing troops to enemy snipers and had no capability of retaliating in kind. Their major problem was that the classic training of a sniper in range estimation, ballistics, compensation for weather or climate variables, and precision shooting is a lengthy process and they didn't have the time. About this time, Lieutenant Leatherwood, who already had the patents for his ART system, entered the Army and began working with U.S. Army Ordnance specialists. The combination of the Leatherwood ART with M14 National Match rifles to produce what became the M21 Sniper Rifle, allowed the Army to place competent snipers in the field with all line units.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "506665",
"title": "Carlos Hathcock",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Confirmed kills.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "During the Vietnam War, Hathcock had 93 confirmed kills of PAVN and Viet Cong personnel. In the Vietnam War, kills had to be confirmed by an acting third party, who had to be an officer, besides the sniper's spotter. Snipers often did not have an acting third party present, making confirmation difficult, especially if the target was behind enemy lines, as was usually the case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28123",
"title": "Sniper",
"section": "Section::::Modern warfare.:Military doctrine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Military snipers from the US, UK, and other countries that adopt their military doctrine are typically deployed in two-man sniper teams consisting of a shooter and spotter. A common practice is for a shooter and a spotter to take turns in order to avoid eye fatigue. In most recent combat operations occurring in large densely populated towns, such as Fallujah, Iraq, two teams would be deployed together to increase their security and effectiveness in an urban environment. A sniper team would be armed with its long-range weapon and a shorter-ranged weapon in case of close contact combat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14230108",
"title": "Special reconnaissance",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "During the Vietnam War, respective division and brigades in-country trained their Long Range Reconnaissance Patrol members (now known as the Long Range Surveillance units). However, the US Army's 5th Special Forces Group held an advanced course in the art of patrolling for potential Army and Marine team leaders at their Recondo School in Nha Trang, Vietnam, for the purpose of locating enemy guerrilla and main force North Vietnamese Army units, as well as artillery spotting, intelligence gathering, forward air control, and bomb damage assessment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42675525",
"title": "1966 in Vietnam",
"section": "Section::::Events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "BULLET::::- June 15 - Vietnam War: Battle of Hill 488 - A small United States Marine Corps reconnaissance platoon inflicts large casualties on regular North Vietnamese Army and Viet Cong fighters before withdrawing with fourteen dead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26744981",
"title": "1972 in the Vietnam War",
"section": "Section::::August.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Task Force Gimlet, Delta Company, 3rd Battalion, 21st Infantry undertook the last patrol by American troops in the Vietnam War to seek out communist forces shooting rockets at the city of Da Nang. Two U.S. soldiers were wounded by booby traps. The unit was relieved by ARVN soldiers. Task Force Gimlet departed Vietnam on 11 August.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9859522",
"title": "Lewis Albanese",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "In December 1966, while on patrol in the Republic of Vietnam with Company B of the 5th Battalion, his unit received heavy fire from concealed enemy positions. During an attempted encirclement of the platoon by the Vietnamese forces, Albanese fixed a bayonet to his weapon and charged the enemy positions. Upon arriving and momentarily silencing the enemy fire, Albanese discovered that the ditch he had charged was a well-entrenched position. He continued 100 metres through the position, killing at least eight enemy snipers despite running out of ammunition, being forced to fight hand to hand, and being mortally wounded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xsy6v
|
why do some people black out from high levels of g-forces while other don't?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are 2 types of G-forces: Positive and Negative\n\nPositive G's force your blood into your feet, you black out due to lack of blood in the brain.\n\nNegative G's force the blood into your head, you red out as the pressure in your brain increases.\n\nFighter Pilots wear specialized equipment to keep their blood flowing even when faced with high G forces.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everyone will black out if exposed to sufficient G-forces. But pilots are (1) in peak physical condition, (2) trained in techniques for resisting the effects of G-forces, and (3) usually wearing flight suits with equipment designed to counteract the effects of G-forces. They work by putting pressure on the limbs, particularly the legs, in an attempt to keep blood from pooling down there. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15580787",
"title": "High-G training",
"section": "Section::::G-suits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "A G-suit is worn by aviators and astronauts who are subject to high levels of acceleration ('G'). It is designed to prevent a black-out and g-LOC (gravity-induced Loss Of Consciousness), due to the blood pooling in the lower part of the body when under G, thus depriving the brain of blood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15580787",
"title": "High-G training",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "High-G training is done by aviators and astronauts who are subject to high levels of acceleration ('G'). It is designed to prevent a g-induced loss of consciousness (G-LOC), a situation when the action of \"g\"-forces move the blood away from the brain to the extent that consciousness is lost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2617660",
"title": "G-LOC",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "G-force induced loss of consciousness (abbreviated as G-LOC, pronounced 'JEE-lock') is a term generally used in aerospace physiology to describe a loss of consciousness occurring from excessive and sustained g-forces draining blood away from the brain causing cerebral hypoxia. The condition is most likely to affect pilots of high performance fighter and aerobatic aircraft or astronauts but is possible on some extreme amusement park rides. G-LOC incidents have caused fatal accidents in high performance aircraft capable of sustaining high \"g\" for extended periods. High-G training for pilots of high performance aircraft or spacecraft often includes ground training for G-LOC in special centrifuges, with some profiles exposing pilots to 9 \"g\"s for a sustained period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "417678",
"title": "G-suit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "A g-suit, or the more accurately named anti-g suit, is a flight suit worn by aviators and astronauts who are subject to high levels of acceleration force (g). It is designed to prevent a black-out and g-LOC (g-induced loss of consciousness) caused by the blood pooling in the lower part of the body when under acceleration, thus depriving the brain of blood. Black-out and g-LOC have caused a number of fatal aircraft accidents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1137568",
"title": "Artificial gravity",
"section": "Section::::Centripetal.:Centrifuges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "High-G training is done by aviators and astronauts who are subject to high levels of acceleration ('G') in large-radius centrifuges. It is designed to prevent a \"g-induced loss Of consciousness\" (abbreviated G-LOC), a situation when \"g\"-forces move the blood away from the brain to the extent that consciousness is lost. Incidents of acceleration-induced loss of consciousness have caused fatal accidents in aircraft capable of sustaining high-\"g\" for considerable periods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2617660",
"title": "G-LOC",
"section": "Section::::Thresholds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "The \"g\" thresholds at which these effects occur depend on the training, age and fitness of the individual. An un-trained individual not used to the \"G\"-straining manoeuvre can black out between 4 and 6 \"g\", particularly if this is pulled suddenly. A trained, fit individual wearing a \"g\" suit and practicing the straining manoeuvre can, with some difficulty, sustain up to 12-14\"g\" without loss of consciousness. The “Blue Angels” have to perform their maneuvers without the aid of flight-suits, and regularly sustain 3-5 second bursts of 10 ‘g’ thresholds. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15580787",
"title": "High-G training",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The human body has different tolerances for g-forces depending on the acceleration direction. Humans can withstand a positive acceleration forward at higher g-forces than they can withstand a positive acceleration upwards. This is because when the body accelerates up at such high rates the blood rushes from the brain which causes loss of vision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
66a2pv
|
At r/TIL, there is a post trending with people in the comments section saying the FBI sent a letter telling Martin Luther King Jr. to kill himself and the FBI/CIA later killed him. Is this true?
|
[
{
"answer": "While the letter is anonymous (in the sense that it's not signed and it's not on any letterhead), [a complete copy was found in J. Edgar Hoover's files](_URL_0_) and a congressional investigation verified that it was sourced from the FBI. Whether Hoover himself wrote it is apparently unclear, but he almost certainly knew about it, given where the unredacted letter was found. The phrasing of the letter does not directly call for King to commit suicide, but it ends saying in part, \"King, there is only one thing left for you to do. You know what it is.\" King believed that it called for his suicide, and many others have agreed.\n\nHis death is a different story. Blaming an assassination or even an attempt on the US government has a long and storied history. Some of these are accurate (Castro was long a target of the CIA), some are not (evidence strongly ties JFK's death to Oswald), and some are in between (Salvador Allende almost certainly committed suicide in the midst of a coup that was probably backed by the CIA).\n\nBut the evidence that it was carried out by the US government is basically nonexistent, and those comments don't provide any evidence besides the equivalent of a knowing nod. King had a lot of enemies, including a large portion of the white population but also some in the black population who disagreed with his nonviolent ways. James Earl Ray was convicted for King's death based on reasonably strong evidence, but over the years, various claims have been made that King was killed by others for various reasons, mostly having to do with racism or anti-communism, carried out by the Mafia, the KKK, or some other loner at least as often as the government is claimed to be involved. To my knowledge, the claims are backed by little or no physical evidence and mostly involve people long dead who cannot confirm or deny the claims.\n\nThere's probably more doubt about James Earl Ray than there is about Oswald, but not a lot more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11127",
"title": "Federal Bureau of Investigation",
"section": "Section::::History.:J. Edgar Hoover as FBI Director.:Civil rights movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "The FBI frequently investigated Martin Luther King, Jr. In the mid-1960s, King began publicly criticizing the Bureau for giving insufficient attention to the use of terrorism by white supremacists. Hoover responded by publicly calling King the most \"notorious liar\" in the United States. In his 1991 memoir, \"Washington Post\" journalist Carl Rowan asserted that the FBI had sent at least one anonymous letter to King encouraging him to commit suicide. Historian Taylor Branch documents an anonymous November 1964 \"suicide package\" sent by the Bureau that combined a letter to the civil rights leader telling him \"You are done. There is only one way out for you...\" with audio recordings of King's sexual indiscretions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50160803",
"title": "FBI–King suicide letter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "The FBI–King suicide letter or blackmail package was an anonymous 1964 letter and package by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) meant to blackmail Martin Luther King Jr. The phrase \"You Are Done\" is a noted warning from the letter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20076",
"title": "Martin Luther King Jr.",
"section": "Section::::State surveillance and coercion.:Adultery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 238,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 238,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The FBI distributed reports regarding such affairs to the executive branch, friendly reporters, potential coalition partners and funding sources of the SCLC, and King's family. The bureau also sent anonymous letters to King threatening to reveal information if he did not cease his civil rights work. The FBI–King suicide letter sent to King just before he received the Nobel Peace Prize read, in part:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11095824",
"title": "April 1968",
"section": "Section::::April 17, 1968 (Wednesday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "BULLET::::- The FBI identified a suspect in the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, filing a request for an arrest warrant and releasing a photograph of fugitive \"Eric Starvo Galt\", which would turn out to be an alias for James Earl Ray. The warrant request, filed in Birmingham, Alabama, alleged a conspiracy between Galt \"and an individual whom he alleged to be his brother\". Following the granting of the warrant, police in Memphis, Tennessee, filed charges of murder against \"Galt\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55247184",
"title": "List of monument and memorial controversies in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Action proposed but not taken, by state.:District of Columbia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "BULLET::::- J. Edgar Hoover Building, the national headquarters of the FBI, because he was a \"racist, anti-communist zealot who, in the name of God and the American flag, set out to destroy Martin Luther King Jr.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30123524",
"title": "G. Duncan Bauman",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "A special congressional committee investigating efforts by the Federal Bureau of Investigation to discredit Martin Luther King Jr. suggested that a March 30, 1968 \"Globe-Democrat\" editorial critical of Dr. King was inspired and ghostwritten by the FBI, which considered the newspaper’s publisher to be “especially cooperative to the bureau.” While recognizing that the \"Globe-Democrat\"’s editorial was protected by the First Amendment, the Committee was highly critical of “the ease with which the Bureau had been able to use the newspaper for its counterintelligence initiatives.” The Committee found that, not only did the FBI’s conduct “contribute to the hostile climate that surrounded Dr. King, it was morally reprehensible, illegal, felonious, and unconstitutional.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5119376",
"title": "John F. Kennedy",
"section": "Section::::Presidency (1961–1963).:Civil liberties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 155,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 155,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "In February 1962, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover, who was suspicious of civil-rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. and viewed him as an upstart troublemaker, presented the Kennedy Administration with allegations that some of King's close confidants and advisers were communists. Concerned by these allegations, the FBI deployed agents to monitor King in the following months. Robert Kennedy and the president also both warned King to discontinue the suspect associations. After the associations continued, Robert Kennedy issued a written directive authorizing the FBI to wiretap King and other leaders of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, King's civil rights organization, in October 1963.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3d3kz2
|
How did the Mongols achieve crazy speed from their multiple horses?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's a big difference between carrying a rider and following along unmounted; the steppe mares favored by the Mongols weigh in at about 600 lbs, so a 180 lb man with some basic provisions is going to be a third of their body weight. It's much more efficient to shift the weight between your string of horses; imagine going on a hike with four friends, but you need to carry a single 60 lb pack. Everyone's going to tire out over the day, but it'll be much faster for the person carrying the load, so it makes sense to share it among the group.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not necessarily. For example, imagine you are in a field running. Your body is designed to carry your flesh over your bone, and not much else. The same goes for a horse, and they can run for hours on end, but when you stick 150 pound lump of anger in human form on top, plus 50 pounds of laminar in addition to whatever marching kit and such an ostensibly nomadic fighting force will be carrying on their person, it naturally cuts down on how long they can endure a full out sprint, while the harem of horses they may be leading behind them will be a few degree's more rested.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1909414",
"title": "Mongol military tactics and organization",
"section": "Section::::Cavalry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "The main drawback to Mongol horses was their lack of speed. They would lose short-distance races under equal conditions with larger horses from other regions. However, since most other armies carried much heavier armor, the Mongols could still outrun most enemy horsemen in battle. In addition, Mongolian horses were extremely durable and sturdy, allowing the Mongols to move over large distances quickly, often surprising enemies that had expected them to arrive days or even weeks later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240146",
"title": "Mongol Empire",
"section": "Section::::Military organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Another advantage of the Mongols was their ability to traverse large distances, even in unusually cold winters; for instance, frozen rivers led them like highways to large urban centers on their banks. The Mongols were adept at river-work, crossing the river Sajó in spring flood conditions with thirty thousand cavalry soldiers in a single night during the Battle of Mohi (April 1241) to defeat the Hungarian king Béla IV. Similarly, in the attack against the Muslim Khwarezmshah a flotilla of barges was used to prevent escape on the river.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7083842",
"title": "Society of the Mongol Empire",
"section": "Section::::Tools of warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "The Mongol Empire utilized the swiftness and strength of the horses to their advantage. Despite being only 12 to 13 hands high, the Mongols respected these small animals. At a young age, boys trained with the horses by hunting and herding with them. Eventually they became experienced riders, which prepared them for the military life that awaited them when they turned fifteen years old. Once these boys became soldiers, four to seven horses were given to them to alternate between. This large number of horses ensured that some were always rested and ready to fight. Because of this, a soldier had little excuse to fall behind in his tasks. Overall, the Mongol society adored these animals because of their gentleness and loyalty to their masters. Anyone who abused or neglected to feed these horses properly was subjected to punishment by the government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1909414",
"title": "Mongol military tactics and organization",
"section": "Section::::Cavalry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Each soldier had two to four horses—so when a horse tired they could change to one of the others. This made them one of the fastest armies in the world, but also made the Mongol army vulnerable to shortages of fodder. Campaigning in arid regions such as Central Asia or forested regions of Southern China were thus difficult and even in ideal steppe terrain, a Mongol force had to keep moving to ensure sufficient grazing for its massive horse herd.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14368598",
"title": "Swarming (military)",
"section": "Section::::Swarming in history.:Mongols Horde.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1349,
"text": "Mongols under Genghis Khan practiced an equivalent of swarming, partially because their communications, which used flags, horns, and couriers, were advanced for the time. Also one of the standard tactics of Mongol military was the commonly practiced feigned retreat to break enemy formations and to lure small enemy groups away from larger groups and defended positions for ambush and counterattack. Genghis Khan used the Yam system, which established a rear line of points for supplies and for remounts of fast-moving couriers. The remount system allowed horsemen to move much faster than the couriers of opponents without them. These couriers kept the Mongol senior and subordinate commanders informed, such that they could make fast decisions based on current information. In modern terms, the courier system provided the means of getting inside the opponent's OODA loop. With fast communications, the Mongols could make decisions not just on what they could see locally, but with that information oriented within the overall situation. They could then decide and act while the enemy were still waiting for information. Outnumbered Mongols could beat larger forces by faster communications, which allowed units to withdraw and regroup while other groups continually stung the enemy, withdrew in turn, while the earlier group again hit the enemy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1909414",
"title": "Mongol military tactics and organization",
"section": "Section::::Mobility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "Each Mongol soldier typically maintained 3 or 4 horses. Changing horses often allowed them to travel at high speed for days without stopping or wearing out the animals. When one horse tired, the rider would dismount and rotate to another. Though the used mount would still have to travel, it would do so without the weight of the rider. Their ability to live off the land, and in extreme situations off their animals (mare's milk especially), made their armies far less dependent on the traditional logistical apparatus of agrarian armies. In some cases, as during the invasion of Hungary in early 1241, they covered up to per day, which was unheard of by other armies of the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1531454",
"title": "Withdrawal (military)",
"section": "Section::::Feigned retreat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "BULLET::::- Medieval Mongols were famed for, among other things, their extensive use of feigned retreats during their conquests, as their fast, light cavalry made successful pursuit by an enemy almost impossible. In the heat and muddle of a battle, the Mongol army would pretend to be defeated, exhausted and confused, and would suddenly retreat from the battlefield. The opposing force, thinking they had routed the Mongols, would give chase. The Mongol cavalry would, while retreating, fire upon the pursuers, disheartening them (See Parthian shot). When the pursuing forces stopped chasing the (significantly faster) Mongol cavalry, the cavalry would then turn and charge the pursuers, generally succeeding. This was used partly as a defeat in detail tactic to allow the Mongols to defeat larger armies by breaking them into smaller groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2es5f5
|
why do people criticize findings from data in saying "it's just correlative/correlation does not mean causation"? isn't everything we know about everything just from correlation?
|
[
{
"answer": "So what you're saying is that, as we increase funding for NASA, we're dooming more and more people to die at their own hand by hanging? \n_URL_0_\n\nSimply put, variables are eliminated in a well-done study until causation is clear. It's not just that the people that got the drug got well; it's also that the people who did not get the drug were still sick; and that the study can be repeated with the same results.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39834",
"title": "Correlation does not imply causation",
"section": "Section::::Use of correlation as scientific evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Much of scientific evidence is based upon a correlation of variables – they are observed to occur together. Scientists are careful to point out that correlation does not necessarily mean causation. The assumption that A causes B simply because A correlates with B is often not accepted as a legitimate form of argument.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1397857",
"title": "Coincidence",
"section": "Section::::Causality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "To establish cause and effect (i.e., causality) is notoriously difficult, as is expressed by the commonly heard statement that \"correlation does not imply causation.\" In statistics, it is generally accepted that observational studies can give hints but can never establish cause and effect. But, considering the probability paradox (see Koestler's quote above), it appears that the larger the set of coincidences, the more certainty increases and the more it appears that there is some cause behind a remarkable coincidence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34979767",
"title": "Nature connectedness",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "BULLET::::- Correlations (as many of the studies mentioned used) does not mean causation. Thus, just because two variables are related, this does not imply one causes another. Future research has yet to examine the causal role between nature connectedness and behavior (such as recycling) or between nature connectedness and well-being.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19442735",
"title": "Psychology of reasoning",
"section": "Section::::Judgment and reasoning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Other errors in judgment, therefore affecting reasoning, include errors in judgment about covariation – a relationship between two variables such that the presence and magnitude of one can predict the presence and magnitude of the other. One cause of covariation is confirmation bias, or the tendency to be more responsive to evidence that confirms your beliefs. But assessing covariation can be pulled off track by neglecting base-rate information – how frequently something occurs in general. However people often ignore base rates and tend to use other information presented.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39834",
"title": "Correlation does not imply causation",
"section": "Section::::Use of correlation as scientific evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Correlation is a valuable type of scientific evidence in fields such as medicine, psychology, and sociology. But first correlations must be confirmed as real, and then every possible causative relationship must be systematically explored. In the end correlation alone cannot be used as evidence for a cause-and-effect relationship between a treatment and benefit, a risk factor and a disease, or a social or economic factor and various outcomes. It is one of the most abused types of evidence, because it is easy and even tempting to come to premature conclusions based upon the preliminary appearance of a correlation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39834",
"title": "Correlation does not imply causation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "In statistics, the phrase \"correlation does not imply causation\" refers to the inability to legitimately deduce a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables solely on the basis of an observed association or correlation between them. The complementary idea that \"correlation implies causation\" is an example of a questionable-cause logical fallacy, in which two events occurring together are taken to have established a cause-and-effect relationship. This fallacy is also known by the Latin phrase cum hoc ergo propter hoc (\"with this, therefore because of this\"). This differs from the fallacy known as \"post hoc ergo propter hoc\" (\"after this, therefore because of this\"), in which an event following another is seen as a necessary consequence of the former event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34588743",
"title": "Cause (medicine)",
"section": "Section::::Chain of causation and correlation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Further thinking in epidemiology was required to distinguish causation from association or statistical correlation. Events may occur together simply due to chance, bias or confounding, instead of one event being caused by the other. It is also important to know which event is the cause. Careful sampling and measurement are more important than sophisticated statistical analysis to determine causation. Experimental evidence involving interventions (providing or removing the supposed cause) gives the most compelling evidence of etiology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1w4oio
|
Why do temperatures fluctuate more when it is cold but stay more consistent when it is warm?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's two main factors to this:\nA) Humidity. In the winter, there's very low humidity (because it's cold and air holds less moisture the colder it gets)... so temperatures can rise and fall by a lot more than in the summer.\n\nB) The temperature difference between the subarctic and subtropical air masses is much greater during the winter than the summer. Therefore, if the jet stream dips a bit south or north, you can have big temperature swings.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1446490",
"title": "Temperature gradient",
"section": "Section::::Physical processes.:Meteorology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Clearly, the temperature gradient may change substantially in time, as a result of diurnal or seasonal heating and cooling for instance. This most likely happens during an inversion. For instance, during the day the temperature at ground level may be cold while it's warmer up in the atmosphere. As the day shifts over to night the temperature might drop rapidly while at other places on the land stay warmer or cooler at the same elevation. This happens on the West Coast of the United States sometimes due to geography.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58015731",
"title": "2018 European heat wave",
"section": "Section::::General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "Researchers at the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute and World Weather Attribution estimated that global warming more than doubled the overall likelihood of the heat wave, and in some places like Denmark made it up to five times as likely. The heat has built up for two months due to slow and weakened jet stream. One possible cause for the jet stream to be slow and weak relates to global warming. In the polar regions, the average surface temperature is rising more quickly than at mid latitudes in a phenomenon called polar amplification. Many researchers believe a strong polar amplification reduces the strength and changes the pattern of the jet stream, producing patterns like those occurring during the 2018 heat wave. Dr. Michael Mann opined that global warming may be making such heat waves even more likely than the researchers estimated, because at the time of the study the climate models could not fully account for how the jet stream is affected by global warming. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2906879",
"title": "Air current",
"section": "Section::::Vertical currents.:Thermically induced.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Thermals are caused by local differences in temperature, pressure, or impurity concentration in the vertical. Temperature differences can cause air currents because warmer air is less dense than cooler air, causing the warmer air to appear \"lighter.\" Thus, if the warm air is under the cool air, air currents will form as they exchange places. Air currents are caused because of the uneven heating of Earth's surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29640242",
"title": "Smart thermostat",
"section": "Section::::Studies.:Study Discrepancies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "The weather will also have an impact on the results of a study. Having very high temperatures in the summer and very cold temperatures in the winter will lead to more cooling and heating in those months, requiring more energy. When comparing year to year data, if one year had extreme temperatures, while the following year had moderate temperatures, the savings may look drastic. In reality though, the savings are not from the thermostat, but rather from the change in weather. Studies will try to mitigate this problem through weather normalization procedures. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27554141",
"title": "Zero-curtain effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Because of this effect, the lowering of temperature in moist, cold ground does not happen at a uniform rate. The loss of heat through conduction is reduced when water freezes, and latent heat is released. This heat of fusion is continually released until all the subsurface water has frozen, at which point temperatures can continue to fall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10669865",
"title": "Fish kill",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Water temperature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "A short period of hot weather can increase temperatures in the surface layer of water, as the warmer water tends to stay near the surface and be further heated by the air. In this case, the top warmer layer may have more oxygen than the lower, cooler layers because it has constant access to atmospheric oxygen. If a heavy wind or cold rain then occurs (usually during the autumn but sometimes in summer), the layers can mix. If the volume of low oxygen water is much greater than the volume in the warm surface layer, this mixing can reduce oxygen levels throughout the water column and lead to fish kill.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52907358",
"title": "New York Harbor Storm-Surge Barrier",
"section": "Section::::Need.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "Because of global warming, oceanographic and meteorological experts currently predict that increasingly warmer future ocean surface temperature is the \"new normal\", implying that extreme weather events like Hurricanes Sandy and Maria will become more intense and possibly more frequent during future hurricane seasons. The reality is that the world’s oceans are steadily becoming warmer; storms are getting stronger, larger, and correspondingly will cause more damage. For example, research suggests that hurricanes that have hit the New York City area since 1970 are more intense or have larger wind fields, producing higher storm surge and flood risk when added to sea level, to the extent that what was a 500-year flood event before the anthropogenic era (i.e pre-1800) is now a 24-year flood event and in 30 years will be a 5-year flood event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
37kmid
|
why house of cards politics won't work in real life.
|
[
{
"answer": "Because in the show, Frank Underwood is some sort of super-persuasive Machiavellian. In real life, I doubt the president would even be able to convince his own party to go through with America Works.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In more general terms, \n\nHouse of Cards made some sense when it was a british series, since in a pariamentary system, it makes sense than any MP can plot to crush the PM and get elected by the parliament as the next PM instead.\n\nIn the american persidential system, to make it plausible that a House majority whip could become president, they had to make lots of allowances for Underwood being magically capable to manipulate both POTUS and VPOTUS into picking him as the new VPOTUS. \n\nIn Season 2, the \"scandal\" that breaks the Walker administration is vaguely defined, and realistically more similar to Benghazi than to Watergate, it's the kind of thing that the opposition would have a field day with, but it's hard to see why it would drop the presiden't spopularity into the single digits. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1346058",
"title": "Mode choice",
"section": "Section::::Econometric formulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "The \"house of cards\" problem largely arises from the utility theory basis of the model specification. Broadly, utility theory assumes that (1) users and suppliers have perfect information about the market; (2) they have deterministic functions (faced with the same options, they will always make the same choices); and (3) switching between alternatives is costless. These assumptions don’t fit very well with what is known about behavior. Furthermore, the aggregation of utility across the population is impossible since there is no universal utility scale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "761835",
"title": "A Game of Thrones (card game)",
"section": "Section::::Cards.:House cards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Each House card represents one of the main factions involved in the War of the Five Kings. Each House provides different strengths and weaknesses, allowing for various playstyles to interact within the same game. The House card selected will often restrict cards allowed in the remainder of the deck, by limiting cards that are marked as being allowed solely for another House.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10679",
"title": "Five-card draw",
"section": "Section::::House rules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "Another common house rule is that the bottom card of the deck is never given as a replacement, to avoid the possibility of someone who might have seen it during the deal using that information. If the deck is depleted during the draw before all players have received their replacements, the last players can receive cards chosen randomly from among those discarded by previous players. For example, if the last player to draw wants three replacements but there are only two cards remaining in the deck, the dealer gives the player the one top card he can give, then shuffles together the bottom card of the deck, the burn card, and the earlier players' discards (but not the player's own discards), and finally deals two more replacements to the last player.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48838609",
"title": "List of House of Cards characters",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "\"House of Cards\" is an American political drama web television series created by Beau Willimon for Netflix. It is an adaptation of the BBC's miniseries of the same name and is based on the novel by Michael Dobbs. Below is a list consisting of the many characters who have appeared throughout the series' seasons. The only two actors to have main appearances in all six seasons of \"House of Cards\" are Robin Wright and Michael Kelly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40007287",
"title": "Frank Underwood (House of Cards)",
"section": "Section::::Critical response.:Season 3.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Reviews for season 3 of \"House of Cards\" were mostly positive. However, a few critics found the Underwood character was becoming repetitive: the critical consensus on the review aggregation site Rotten Tomatoes held that, \"Season three introduces intriguing new political and personal elements to Frank Underwood's character, even if it feels like more of the same for some.\" Ed Power of \"The Daily Telegraph\" wrote, \"Everyone in House of Cards has an agenda—a secret twitching in the attic. The thrill, and the horror, may lie in the degree to which we catch reflections of real life in its dark, cool contours.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17255946",
"title": "How-to-vote card",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "The use of how-to-vote cards has benefited minor parties in a number of ways including increasing their chances of winning, punishing opponents and receiving policy commitments. Sometimes \"preference deals\" are done between political parties so that they are favoured by each other's how-to-vote cards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46893544",
"title": "House of Cards (Mary Chapin Carpenter song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "\"House of Cards\" is a song written and recorded by American folk and country music artist Mary Chapin Carpenter. it was released in March 1995 as the third single from the album \"Stones in the Road\". The song reached #21 on the \"Billboard\" Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1tbgwf
|
why would people get coal in their stocking for being naughty?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the days when most people heated their homes using open coal fires, a lump of coal was considered a completely commonplace and worthless item. It's the sort of thing that a very naughty person might receive from Santa, so that they can see he's been and decided they're not worthy of any decent gifts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43350168",
"title": "Rolling coal",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Rolling coal is a form of conspicuous air pollution, for entertainment or for protest. Some drivers intentionally trigger coal rolling in the presence of hybrid vehicles (when it is nicknamed \"Prius repellent\") to cause their drivers to lose sight of the road and inhale harmful air pollution. Coal rolling may also be directed at bicyclists, protesters, and pedestrians. Practitioners cite \"American freedom\" and a stand against \"rampant environmentalism\" as reasons for coal rolling. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7047304",
"title": "Company scrip",
"section": "Section::::Coal company scrip.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Coal scrip is \"tokens or paper with a monetary value issued to workers as an advance on wages by the coal company or its designated representative\". As such, coal scrip could only be used at the specific locality or coal town of the company named. Because coal scrip was used in the context of a coal town, where there are usually no other retail establishments in that specific remote location, employees who used this could only redeem their value at that specific location. As there were no other retail establishments, this constituted a monopoly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14598693",
"title": "Coal in China",
"section": "Section::::Coal consumption.:Domestic use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "In cities the domestic burning of coal is no longer permitted. In rural areas coal is still permitted to be used by Chinese households, commonly burned raw in unvented stoves. This fills houses with high levels of toxic metals leading to bad Indoor Air Quality (IAQ). In addition, people eat food cooked over coal fires which contains toxic substances. Toxic substances from coal burning include arsenic, fluorine, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and mercury. Health issues are caused which include severe arsenic poisoning, skeletal fluorosis (over 10 million people afflicted in China), esophageal and lung cancers, and selenium poisoning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291861",
"title": "Coal dust",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Grinding coal to dust before combusting it improves the speed and efficiency of burning and makes the coal easier to handle. However, coal dust is hazardous to workers if it is suspended in air outside the controlled environment of grinding and combustion equipment. It poses the acute hazard of forming an explosive mixture in air and the chronic hazard of causing pulmonary illness in people who inhale excessive quantities of it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11532542",
"title": "Coals to Newcastle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Selling, carrying, bringing, or taking coal(s) to Newcastle is an idiom of British origin describing a pointless action. It refers to the fact that historically, the economy of Newcastle upon Tyne in north-eastern England was heavily dependent on the distribution and sale of coal—by the time of the first known recording of the phrase in 1538, 15,000 tonnes of coal were being exported annually from the area—and therefore any attempt to sell coal to Newcastle would be doomed to fail because of the economic principle of supply. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10681275",
"title": "Coal scuttle",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Coal scuttles are usually made of metal and shaped as a vertical cylinder or truncated cone, with the open top slanted for pouring coal on a fire. It may have one or two handles. Homes that do not use coal sometimes use a coal scuttle decoratively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26896693",
"title": "Multi-fuel stove",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "The industrialization of coal mining led to a sharp increase in the burning of coal in stoves for home heating and cooking. Coal burns with twice the Btu of wood or peat, creating greater heat. Coal's greatest drawback, aside from being non-renewable, is that it creates thick, toxic smoke. This creates dense smog in urban areas, for example, in London, England during the Victorian era.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3brtx8
|
When did the Arabs become known as "Arabs?"
|
[
{
"answer": "Arabs were first mentioned in both Biblical and Assyrian texts of the ninth to the fifth centuries BC where they appear as nomadic pastoralists inhabiting the Syrian desert. The fact that the name begins to be used by both cultures during the same period suggests that \"Arab\" was how these pastoralists designated themselves. What its original significance was we do not know, but it came to be synonymous with desert-dweller and a nomadic way of life in the texts of settled peoples.\n\nSource: *Arabia and the Arabs. From the Bronze Age to the coming of Islam*, by Robert G. Hoyland.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2185",
"title": "Arabs",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "The most popular Arab account holds that the word \"Arab\" came from an eponymous father called Ya'rub who was supposedly the first to speak Arabic. Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani had another view; he states that Arabs were called \"Gharab\" (\"West\") by Mesopotamians because Bedouins originally resided to the west of Mesopotamia; the term was then corrupted into \"Arab\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2185",
"title": "Arabs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1336,
"text": "Before the expansion of the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661 C.E.), \"Arab\" referred to any of the largely nomadic and settled Semitic people from the Arabian Peninsula, Syrian Desert, and North and Lower Mesopotamia. Today, \"Arab\" refers to a large number of people whose native regions form the Arab world due to the spread of Arabs and the Arabic language throughout the region during the early Muslim conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries and the subsequent Arabisation of indigenous populations. The Arabs forged the Rashidun (632–661), Umayyad (661–750), Abbasid (750–1517) and the Fatimid (901–1071) caliphates, whose borders reached southern France in the west, China in the east, Anatolia in the north, and the Sudan in the south. This was one of the largest land empires in history. In the early 20th century, the First World War signalled the end of the Ottoman Empire; which had ruled much of the Arab world since conquering the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517. This resulted in the defeat and dissolution of the empire and the partition of its territories, forming the modern Arab states. Following the adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945. The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab homeland whilst respecting the individual sovereignty of its member states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56065186",
"title": "History of the Arabs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1250,
"text": "Before the expansion of the Rashidun Caliphate (632–661), \"Arab\" referred to any of the largely nomadic and settled Semitic people from the Arabian Peninsula, Syrian Desert, North and Lower Mesopotamia. Today, \"Arab\" refers to a large number of people whose native regions form the Arab world due to the spread of Arabs and the Arabic language throughout the region during the early Muslim conquests of the 7th and 8th centuries. The Arabs forged the Rashidun (632–661), Umayyad (661–750) and the Abbasid (750–1258) caliphates, whose borders reached southern France in the west, China in the east, Anatolia in the north, and the Sudan in the south. This was one of the largest land empires in history. In the early 20th century, the First World War signalled the end of the Ottoman Empire; which had ruled much of the Arab world since conquering the Mamluk Sultanate in 1517. This resulted in the defeat and dissolution of the empire and the partition of its territories, forming the modern Arab states. Following the adoption of the Alexandria Protocol in 1944, the Arab League was founded on 22 March 1945. The Charter of the Arab League endorsed the principle of an Arab homeland whilst respecting the individual sovereignty of its member states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23267",
"title": "Palestinians",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Arabization of Palestine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 865,
"text": "The term \"Arab\", as well as the presence of Arabians in the Syrian Desert and the Fertile Crescent, is first seen in the Assyrian sources from the 9th century BCE (Eph'al 1984). Southern Palestine had a large Edomite and Arab population by the 4th century BCE. Inscriptional evidence over a millennium from the peripheral areas of Palestine, such as the Golan and the Negev, show a prevalence of Arab names over Aramaic names from the Achaemenid period,550 -330 BCE onwards. Bedouins have drifted in waves into Palestine since at least the 7th century, after the Muslim conquest. Some of them, like the Arab al-Sakhr south of Lake Kinneret trace their origins to the Hejaz or Najd in the Arabian Peninsula, while the Ghazawiyya's ancestry is said to go back to the Hauran's Misl al-Jizel tribes. They speak distinct dialects of Arabic in the Galilee and the Negev.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2185",
"title": "Arabs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The first mention of Arabs is from the mid-ninth century BCE as a tribal people in eastern and southern Syria and the north of the Arabian Peninsula. The Arabs appear to have been under the vassalage of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–612 BCE), and the succeeding Neo-Babylonian (626–539 BCE), Achaemenid (539–332 BCE), Seleucid, and Parthian empires. Arab tribes, most notably the Ghassanids and Lakhmids, begin to appear in the southern Syrian Desert from the mid 3rd century CE onward, during the mid to later stages of the Roman and Sasanian empires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2185",
"title": "Arabs",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Yet another view is held by al-Masudi that the word \"Arabs\" was initially applied to the Ishmaelites of the \"Arabah\" valley. In Biblical etymology, \"Arab\" (in Hebrew \"Arvi\" ) comes both from the desert origin of the Bedouins it originally described (\"Arava\" means wilderness).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8632659",
"title": "Arabber",
"section": "Section::::Arabbing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The term \"arabber\" is believed to derive from the 19th century slang term \"street Arabs\". Arabbing began in the early 19th century, when access to ships and stables made it an accessible form of entrepreneurship. African American men entered the trade following the Civil War. Brightly painted and artfully arranged, arabber carts became a common sight on the streets of Baltimore. To alert city dwellers to their arrival, arabbers developed distinctive calls:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6vgbjh
|
When a nuclear bomb goes off underwater. Does it create a giant air bubble?
|
[
{
"answer": "It creates a massive steam bubble, it doesn't last too long (not sure on actual time it is there for) but something interesting happens when the \"bubble\" is there. The gas makes the bubble expand until it reaches the maximum size it can as the pressure forcing the bubble to expand becomes weaker the water pressure causes the bubble to collapse on itself before expanding again (this can also result in a flash of light as the bubble collapses). This actually happens a few times, each time the \"bubble\" gets smaller in size until the energy is depleted. I will try to find a video explaining it as I may not have done a terribly good job of explaining it.\n\nEdit: What I am talking about happens at the three min mark of this video: _URL_1_\n\nEdit 2: a more in depth video of the bubble side of things, _URL_0_ starts explaining it at the 6 min mark.\n\nI couldn't think of the word but the video reminded me, the bubble oscillates in the water. The size of the bubble would depend on the energy released by the explosion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6413844",
"title": "Underwater explosion",
"section": "Section::::Deep nuclear explosion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Blast bubbles from deep nuclear explosions become mere hot water in about six seconds and leave no \"regular\" bubbles to float up to the surface. This is sooner than blast bubbles from conventional explosives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50893060",
"title": "Nuclear blackout",
"section": "Section::::Bomb effects.:Within the atmosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "When a nuclear bomb is exploded near ground level, the dense atmosphere interacts with many of the subatomic particles being released. This normally takes place within a short distance, on the order of meters. This energy heats the air, promptly ionizing it to incandescence and causing a roughly spherical fireball to form within microseconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6413844",
"title": "Underwater explosion",
"section": "Section::::Deep nuclear explosion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "Unless it breaks the water surface while still a hot gas bubble, an underwater nuclear explosion leaves no trace at the surface but hot, radioactive water rising from below. This is always the case with explosions deeper than about .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "427992",
"title": "Water hammer",
"section": "Section::::Water hammer during an explosion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "When an explosion happens in an enclosed space, water hammer can cause the walls of the container to deform. However, it can also impart momentum to the enclosure if it is free to move. An underwater explosion in the SL-1 nuclear reactor vessel caused the water to accelerate upwards through of air before it struck the vessel head at with a pressure of . This pressure wave caused the steel vessel to jump 9 feet 1 inch (2.77 m) into the air before it dropped into its prior location. It is imperative to perform ongoing preventative maintenance to avoid water hammer as the results of these powerful explosions have resulted in fatalities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6413844",
"title": "Underwater explosion",
"section": "Section::::Deep nuclear explosion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Despite being in direct contact with a nuclear explosion, the water of the expanding bubble wall does not boil. This is because the pressure inside the bubble exceeds (by far) the vapor pressure of ocean water. The water touching the blast can only boil during contraction. This boiling is like evaporation, cooling the bubble wall, and it is another reason that an oscillating blast bubble contains only 40% of the energy it had in the previous cycle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31424",
"title": "Torpedo",
"section": "Section::::Warhead and fuzing.:Damage.:Bubble jet effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "The bubble jet effect occurs when a mine or torpedo detonates in the water a short distance away from the targeted ship. The explosion creates a bubble in the water, and due to the difference in pressure, the bubble will collapse from the bottom. The bubble is buoyant, and so it rises towards the surface. If the bubble reaches the surface as it collapses, it can create a pillar of water that can go over a hundred meters into the air (a \"columnar plume\"). If conditions are right and the bubble collapses onto the ship's hull, the damage to the ship can be extremely serious; the collapsing bubble forms a high-energy jet that can break a metre-wide hole straight through the ship, flooding one or more compartments, and is capable of breaking smaller ships apart. The crew in the areas hit by the pillar are usually killed instantly. Other damage is usually limited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22102",
"title": "Naval mine",
"section": "Section::::Damage.:Bubble jet effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "The bubble jet effect occurs when a mine or torpedo detonates in the water a short distance away from the targeted ship. The explosion creates a bubble in the water, and due to the difference in pressure, the bubble will collapse from the bottom. The bubble is buoyant, and so it rises towards the surface. If the bubble reaches the surface as it collapses, it can create a pillar of water that can go over a hundred meters into the air (a \"columnar plume\"). If conditions are right and the bubble collapses onto the ship's hull, the damage to the ship can be extremely serious; the collapsing bubble forms a high-energy jet that can break a metre-wide hole straight through the ship, flooding one or more compartments, and is capable of breaking smaller ships apart. The crew in the areas hit by the pillar are usually killed instantly. Other damage is usually limited.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6i1vkx
|
Would a supercomputer (from a government, University, organisation like NASA, ...) be able to mine all the bitcoins at once?
|
[
{
"answer": "No. For two main reasons.\n\nFirst of all, Bitcoin mining started out using CPUs. They're in every computer and they can do pretty much any computational task reasonably effective, but they don't really excel in anything. Then people figured out that graphics cards (or specifically, GPUs) are very well suited to doing the same computation on different data. A GPU contains a large number of simple processors and can perform certain tasks extremely quickly, but is essentially useless for others. Originally, GPUs were made to be good at generating 3D graphics for games, but people figured out that other types of computations also work very well with the specific architecture of a GPU. One example is Bitcoin mining. The performance of a modest GPU is much higher than that of a high-end CPU, so miners switched over to using GPUs in large numbers (so much so that the preferred models were often sold out).\n\nBut, people reasoned that while GPUs are much more efficient, they're still somewhat general purpose chips. What if you'd design a chip purely for Bitcon mining. And this is what was done. Such a single-purpose chip is called an ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit) and ASIC-miners were again a big step up in efficiency. I have a small USB device that cost me about $20 and uses 5W in power that is as effective at mining as a midrange GPU at the time I bought it.\n\nBy now, the entire Bitcoin network uses these ASICs for mining. They're so efficient that if you would pile up the top 500 supercomputers in the world and put them all to work on Bitcoin mining, they wouldn't outperform the current stack of mining hardware. Because of this, some Bitcoin-supporters like to claim that the Bitcoin network is more powerful than all the supercomputers in the world combined. But this is a bit disingenuous, since supercomputers are rather versatile and suitable for a wide range of workloads, where a Bitcoin-miner does only 1 thing.\n\nSo, if someone with a single supercomputer would start mining Bitcoin, they wouldn't make dent in the network.\n\nAnd now for the second reason, which is much more fundamental. Because you could imagine (even though it's not particularly realistic) that some organization would secretly create or buy a large stack of ASIC-miners and switch them all on all of the sudden. But even then they wouldn't be able to mine all the bitcoins at once.\n\nBitcoin-mining (and mining for pretty much every other cryptocurrency) revolves around an important parameters: The difficulty. This parameter determines how much computational power is needed, on average, to find a new block and therefore new bitcoins. In Bitcoin, this parameter is updated every 2016 blocks and this update is done by looking at the time it took to mine the previous batch of 2016 blocks and then set the difficulty parameter in such a way that if mining power remains the same, the next set of 2016 blocks will take 2 weeks (average of 10 minutes per block).\n\nIf the mining power on the network would suddenly jump by a large amount, the rate at which blocks are mined and bitcoins are created would temporarily spike up, but the next time a cycle of 2016 blocks has been completed, the difficulty would go up accordingly and the rate at which new blocks are mined would go down again. Depending on when in the 2016 block cycle the increase in mining power begins, it may take 2 cycles to properly adjust for it, but this takes a few weeks at most (and the greater the sudden increase is, the faster the cycle is completed, so the sooner the difficulty adjustment is).\n\nSo those are the two main reasons. First, the hardware being used is specifically designed and built for Bitcoin mining. Unless you have the same type of equipment, you won't be able to compete. Secondly, the protocol was designed to adjust to changes in the network mining power. A large increase will see a sudden speed up, but this'll get corrected relatively quickly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56412681",
"title": "Cryptocurrency and security",
"section": "Section::::Malware.:Bitcoin.:Unauthorized mining.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "In June 2011, Symantec warned about the possibility that botnets could mine covertly for bitcoins. Malware used the parallel processing capabilities of GPUs built into many modern video cards. Although the average PC with an integrated graphics processor is virtually useless for bitcoin mining, tens of thousands of PCs laden with mining malware could produce some results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39488873",
"title": "Bitcoin network",
"section": "Section::::Mining.:Difficulty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "Bitcoin mining is a competitive endeavor. An \"arms race\" has been observed through the various hashing technologies that have been used to mine bitcoins: basic CPUs, high-end GPUs common in many gaming computers, FPGAs and ASICs all have been used, each reducing the profitability of the less-specialized technology. Bitcoin-specific ASICs are now the primary method of mining bitcoin and have surpassed GPU speed by as much as 300-fold. The difficulty within the mining process involves self-adjusting to the network's accumulated mining power. As bitcoins have become more difficult to mine, computer hardware manufacturing companies have seen an increase in sales of high-end ASIC products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56412681",
"title": "Cryptocurrency and security",
"section": "Section::::Notable theft.:Currencies.:Bitcoin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "On May 7th of 2019, hackers stole over 7000 Bitcoins from the Binance Cryptocurrency Exchange, at a value of over 40 million US dollars. Binance CEO Zhao Changpeng stated: \"The hackers used a variety of techniques, including phishing, viruses and other attacks... The hackers had the patience to wait, and execute well-orchestrated actions through multiple seemingly independent accounts at the most opportune time.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1036106",
"title": "Flash mob computing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Despite these efforts, the project was unable to achieve its original goal of running a cluster momentarily fast enough to enter the (November 2003) Top 500 list of supercomputers. The system would have had to provide at least 402.5 Gflops to match a Chinese cluster of 256 Intel Xeon nodes. For comparison, the fastest super computer at the time, Earth Simulator, provided 35,860 Gflops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16750367",
"title": "FinisTerrae",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Even if this is the third fastest supercomputer in Spain, some projects that require special amounts of memory cannot be held by the first or second supercomputer, and therefore must be executed on the Finisterrae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39492103",
"title": "List of cryptocurrencies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "The number of cryptocurrencies available over the internet is over 1600 and growing. A new cryptocurrency can be created at any time. By market capitalization, Bitcoin is currently (December 15, 2018) the largest blockchain network, followed by Ripple, Ethereum and Tether.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57218766",
"title": "Analytics, Computing, and Complex Systems Laboratory",
"section": "Section::::Supercomputer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "ACCeSs@AIM's supercomputer is provided by Taiwanese technology firm Acer and was donated by the StanShih Foundation to AIM. The supercomputer has a capacity of 500 terabytes and computing speed of 500 teraflops making it the fastest supercomputer in the Philippines and among the fastest in Southeast Asia. It was expected to be fully operational by April 2018.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
trqcr
|
What will happen to the planets that aren't destroyed when the sun supernovas?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Here you go :3](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The biggest thing to consider it that our sun will not supernova but will expand to encompass the Earth and then contract to about the size Earth. [Here is a short video](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6139438",
"title": "Formation and evolution of the Solar System",
"section": "Section::::Future.:The Sun and planetary environments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 929,
"text": "This is a relatively peaceful event, nothing akin to a supernova, which the Sun is too small to undergo as part of its evolution. Any observer present to witness this occurrence would see a massive increase in the speed of the solar wind, but not enough to destroy a planet completely. However, the star's loss of mass could send the orbits of the surviving planets into chaos, causing some to collide, others to be ejected from the Solar System, and still others to be torn apart by tidal interactions. Afterwards, all that will remain of the Sun is a white dwarf, an extraordinarily dense object, 54% its original mass but only the size of the Earth. Initially, this white dwarf may be 100 times as luminous as the Sun is now. It will consist entirely of degenerate carbon and oxygen, but will never reach temperatures hot enough to fuse these elements. Thus the white dwarf Sun will gradually cool, growing dimmer and dimmer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26751",
"title": "Sun",
"section": "Section::::Life phases.:After core hydrogen exhaustion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The Sun does not have enough mass to explode as a supernova. Instead it will exit the main sequence in approximately 5 billion years and start to turn into a red giant. As a red giant, the Sun will grow so large that it will engulf Mercury, Venus, and probably Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24179592",
"title": "Future of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Solar evolution.:Post-red giant stage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "If Earth is not destroyed by the expanding red giant Sun in 7.6 billion years, then on a time scale of 10 (10 quintillion) years the remaining planets in the Solar System will be ejected from the system by violent relaxation. If this does not occur to the Earth, the ultimate fate of the planet will be that it collides with the black dwarf Sun due to the decay of its orbit via gravitational radiation, in 10 (Short Scale: 100 quintillion, Long Scale: 100 trillion) years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63025",
"title": "Variable star",
"section": "Section::::Intrinsic variable stars.:Cataclysmic or explosive variable stars.:Supernovae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Supernovae can result from the death of an extremely massive star, many times heavier than the Sun. At the end of the life of this massive star, a non-fusible iron core is formed from fusion ashes. This iron core is pushed towards the Chandrasekhar limit till it surpasses it and therefore collapses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10995375",
"title": "Super-Neutron",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "When the Earth is not destroyed, Hayes theorizes that this is because the Sun is like a cadmium nucleus among the uranium nuclei of other stars—able to absorb the super-neutron without undergoing fission. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6139438",
"title": "Formation and evolution of the Solar System",
"section": "Section::::Future.:The Sun and planetary environments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "As the Sun dies, its gravitational pull on the orbiting bodies such as planets, comets and asteroids will weaken due to its mass loss. All remaining planets' orbits will expand; if Venus, Earth, and Mars still exist, their orbits will lie roughly at , , and . They and the other remaining planets will become dark, frigid hulks, completely devoid of any form of life. They will continue to orbit their star, their speed slowed due to their increased distance from the Sun and the Sun's reduced gravity. Two billion years later, when the Sun has cooled to the 6000–8000K range, the carbon and oxygen in the Sun's core will freeze, with over 90% of its remaining mass assuming a crystalline structure. Eventually, after roughly 1 quadrillion years, the Sun will finally cease to shine altogether, becoming a black dwarf.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27680",
"title": "Supernova",
"section": "Section::::Other impacts.:Effect on Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "A near-Earth supernova is a supernova close enough to the Earth to have noticeable effects on its biosphere. Depending upon the type and energy of the supernova, it could be as far as 3000 light-years away. Gamma rays from a supernova would induce a chemical reaction in the upper atmosphere converting molecular nitrogen into nitrogen oxides, depleting the ozone layer enough to expose the surface to harmful ultraviolet solar radiation. This has been proposed as the cause of the Ordovician–Silurian extinction, which resulted in the death of nearly 60% of the oceanic life on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5j4rfp
|
After Stalin died, were there any measures taken by the Soviet government to avoid someone amassing power on scale like his?
|
[
{
"answer": "follow up question. What, if any, affect did these measures have on Nikita Khrushchev coming to power 3 years after Stalin's death?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Although it is difficult to say whether there were distinct policies in place to prevent the future build-up of power in such a tyrannical fashion, the tone of the government definitely changed. Instead of the government of personality that had prevailed previously, the Soviet government was replaced by a troika of Georgy Malenkov, Lavrentiy Beria, and Vyacheslav Molotov. Between the three of them, they came to more consensus decisions with the Presidium and Supreme Soviet. This post-Stalin government would initiate a campaign of \"peaceful coexistence\" with the West, and cut back on repressive measures. One exeption was the East German Uprising of 1953 after which Beria was charged with treason for his brutal treatment of East German protestors. Eventually, Nikita Khruschev would become Soviet Premier. He initiated a series of \"de-Stalinization\" measures. These measures as he explained in his \"secret speech.\" Khruschev \"condemned Stalin for irrationally deporting entire nationality groups (e.g., the Karachay, Kalmyk, Chechen, Ingush, and Balkar peoples) from their homelands during the war and, after the war, for purging major political leaders in Leningrad (1948–50; see Leningrad Affair) and in Georgia (1952). He also censured Stalin for attempting to launch a new purge (Doctors’ Plot, 1953) shortly before his death and for his policy toward Yugoslavia, which had resulted in a severance of relations between that nation and the Soviet Union (1948).\" None of this sat well with Molotov, a close friend of Stalin and his foreign minister, but Khruschev's words seemed to ring true for the rest of the Presidium. Subsequently, when Khruschev's domestic popularity waned, he would be removed from office peacefully and Leonid Brezhnev would become First Secretary of the Central Committee.\n\nSources:\n\nStalin's Wars by Geoffrey Roberts\n\nMolotov Remembers by Felix Chuev and Vyacheslav Molotov\n\nEncyclopedia Britannica for the exact quote above _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "465971",
"title": "History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)",
"section": "Section::::The Great Purges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "As this process unfolded, Stalin consolidated near-absolute power by destroying the potential opposition. In 1936-38 about three quarters of a million Soviets were executed, and more than a million others were sentenced to lengthy terms in very harsh labour camps. Stalin's Great Terror ravaged the ranks of factory directors and engineers, and removed most of the senior officers in the Army. The pretext was the 1934 assassination of Sergey Kirov (which many suspect Stalin of having planned, although there is no evidence for this). Nearly all the old pre-1918 Bolsheviks were purged. Trotsky was expelled from the party in 1927, exiled to Kazakhstan in 1928, expelled from the USSR in 1929, and assassinated in 1940. Stalin used the purges to politically and physically destroy his other formal rivals (and former allies) accusing Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev of being behind Kirov's assassination and planning to overthrow Stalin. Ultimately, the people arrested were tortured and forced to confess to being spies and saboteurs, and quickly convicted and executed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14115",
"title": "History of Russia",
"section": "Section::::Soviet Union (1922–1991).:Industrialization and collectivization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 162,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 162,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "While the Five-Year Plans were forging ahead, Stalin was establishing his personal power. The NKVD gathered in tens of thousands of Soviet citizens to face arrest, deportation, or execution. Of the six original members of the 1920 Politburo who survived Lenin, all were purged by Stalin. Old Bolsheviks who had been loyal comrades of Lenin, high officers in the Red Army, and directors of industry were liquidated in the Great Purges. Purges in other Soviet republics also helped centralize control in the USSR.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23849734",
"title": "Mass killings under communist regimes",
"section": "Section::::States where mass killings have occurred.:Soviet Union.:Stalin.:Great Purge (Yezhovshchina).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Stalin's attempts to solidify his position as leader of the Soviet Union led to an escalation of detentions and executions, climaxing in 1937–1938 (a period sometimes referred to as the Yezhovshchina, or Yezhov era) and continuing until Stalin's death in 1953. Around 700,000 of these were executed by a gunshot to the back of the head. Others perished from beatings and torture while in \"investigative custody\" and in the Gulag due to starvation, disease, exposure and overwork.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39902968",
"title": "Purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Following Stalin's death in 1953 purges as systematic campaigns of expulsion from the party ended; thereafter, the center's political control was exerted instead mainly through loss of party membership and its attendant nomenklatura privileges, which effectively downgraded one's opportunities in societysee Trade unions in the Soviet Union#Role in the Soviet class system, chekism, and party rule. Recalcitrant cases could be reduced to nonpersons via involuntary commitment to a psychiatric institution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "625864",
"title": "Soviet (council)",
"section": "Section::::Russian Revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "The Bolsheviks promised the workers a government run by workers' councils to overthrow the bourgeoisie's main government body - the Provisional Government. In October 1917, the provisional government was overthrown, giving all power to the Soviets. John Reed, an American eyewitness to the October Revolution, wrote, \"Until February 1918 anybody could vote for delegates to the Soviets.\" Even had the bourgeoisie organised and demanded representation in the Soviets, they would have been given it. For example, during the regime of the Provisional Government there was bourgeois representation in the Petrograd Soviet – a delegate of the Union of Professional Men which comprised doctors, lawyers, teachers, etc. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1658265",
"title": "Provisional Siberian Government (Vladivostok)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "The seizure of power by the Bolshevik Party in Petrograd in the Russian Revolution of November 1917 was followed by the dispersal of the Russian Constituent Assembly early in the morning of January 19, 1918 , a body which had been dominated by the elected representatives of the Party of Socialists-Revolutionaries (PSR), headed by Victor Chernov. This usurpation of authority by the Council of People's Commissars and the 2nd All-Russian Congress of Soviets did not spell the end of opposition to the Bolshevik regime, however.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56610535",
"title": "Gun control in the Soviet Union",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "During the Russian Civil War, the Soviet government allowed a variety of small arms and bladed weapons. Afterwards, the government made immediate alternations for those to whom it did not rely. The government had made it a point to \"arm the working people\" in the Declaration of the Rights of Working and Exploited People in January 1918. The December decree of the CPC of 1918, \"On the surrender of weapons\", ordered people to surrender any firearms, swords, bayonets and bombs, regardless of the degree of serviceability. The penalty for not doing so was ten years' imprisonment. Members of the Communist Party were allowed to have a single weapon (a pistol or a rifle) and possession of the weapon was recorded in the party membership book. The assassination of Stalin's ally Sergey Kirov by Leonid Nikolaev in 1934 was possible because of this, as Nikolaev was allowed to have a revolver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vuj4x
|
If childbirth is one of the most painful experiences one can go through, how come it does not render the person unconscious as when having other forms of pain inflicted?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is r/askscience. Anecdotes, speculation, and off-topic posts are removed. Please mind the guidelines, and remember to include citations/sources when possible. Thanks!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Apart from folklore and cultural bias, what evidence is there to suggest that childbirth is actually 'one of the most painful experiences one can go through'?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nApparently there are changes in a pregnant woman's biochemestry-blah-blub shortly before the actual childbirth, making the pain more bearable. I'm sure someone with real qualification can tell you more about this, but you really only need to google something like \"pregnancy pain threshold\" or similar stuff and you'll find basic information relatively quickly.",
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},
{
"answer": "I would point out that if you pass out you aren't \"going through\" the pain. \n\nAlso, \"The most painful experience you can go through,\" isn't really quantifiable enough to give a solid scientific answer. Comparing different levels of pain requires knowing the pain threshold of each individual. \n\nI can tell you some women DO occasionally pass out from giving birth. This used to happen a lot before the advent of modern medicine, when labor would drag on for days, but with the introduction of labor hastening drugs, usually the cause stems from Preeclampsia or some other unforeseeable complication. \n\nMore information on Preeclampsia can be found here: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The pain from labor is mostly the visceral pain of a hollow viscus (the utureus) contracting against it's contents that are not moving out (the fetus). This pain is carried by different nerve fibers to different parts of your brain, than the somatic pain of, say, your finger being hit by a hammer. It's more akin to a small bowel obstruction or an impacted gallstone.\n\nAt least until the delivery when the perineum and vagina can tear.\n\nAlso I'm no expert but I'm not sure how real \"passing out from pain\" really is, or what might cause it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most doctors and physiologists consider pain to be an activating stimulus rather than something that causes you to lose consciousness. For example, when patients are undergoing an operation it is often necessary to increase the amount of anesthetic they are receiving once the surgeon begins to cut the patient. Even though the patient was fully anesthetized before the cutting began, the pain of being cut activates their sympathetic and central nervous system and causes vital sign changes and occasionally limb movement. This OR observation is consistent with the fact that the intense pain of childbirth does not cause depressed consciousness, but actually the opposite. Thinking from an evolutionary point of view, increased sympathetic tone (i.e. increased awareness, heart rate, blood pressure, and pupillary dilatation) would be a very advantageous response to pain in many situations (such as when an animal is attempting to eat you). You can also verify this at home by providing painful stimulus to someone who is asleep and noting how their level of alertness changes afterwards.\n\nThe perception that pain causes people to go unconscious is probably based on two separate physiologic processes. The more severe of the two is called shock. Shock is a pathologic state where the cardiovascular system can no longer provide adequate perfusion to vital organs, particularly the brain. Shock has multiple causes but the one most pertinent to this question is hypovolemic shock secondary to trauma and blood loss. This occurs when there is simply not enough blood in the body. Once enough blood is lost, the brain becomes hypoxic, conciousness becomes depressed, and the patient will shortly thereafter die. Someone witnessing this process might incorrectly assume that the pain associated with this person's injuries is causing them to go unconscious. Another more benign explanation for the perception that pain causes unconsciousness is something called vasovagal syncope. This is stimulation of the vagus nerve, which activates the parasympathetic nervous system resulting in hypotension, bradycardia (slow heart rate), and possibly temporary hypoperfusion of the brain. The vagal nerve can be stimulated in many ways. Common causes are the sight of blood or other disturbing sights, extreme emotional duress, and straining during a bowel movement. It is common for someone who is hurt to look at their injury and have a resulting episode of vasovagal syncope, which to an observer might be attributed to pain.\n\n_URL_0_\n_URL_2_\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Being rendered unconscious seems to not be directly related to the level of pain. Two of the most physically painful things humans can endure, as [described in this thread](_URL_0_) did not render people unconscious.\n\nOne person who experienced Irukandji syndrome said \"It's like when you're in labor, having a baby, and you've reached the peak of a contraction—that absolute peak—and you feel like you just can't do it anymore. That's the minimum that [Irukandji] pain is at, and it just builds from there.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "788091",
"title": "Psychological trauma",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Situational trauma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "There is also a distinction between trauma induced by recent situations and long-term trauma which may have been buried in the unconscious from past situations such as childhood abuse. Trauma is sometimes overcome through healing; in some cases this can be achieved by recreating or revisiting the origin of the trauma under more psychologically safe circumstances, such as with a therapist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34488964",
"title": "Childbirth-related posttraumatic stress disorder",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Emotional difficulties in coping with the pain of childbirth can also cause psychological trauma. Lack of support, or insufficient coping strategies to deal with the pain are examples of situations that can cause psychological trauma. However, even normal birth can be traumatic, and thus PTSD is diagnosed based on symptoms of the mother and not whether or not there were complications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40748985",
"title": "Limbic imprint",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1122,
"text": "Trauma is a form of damage to either the mind or body that results from a distressing event. Traumatic experiences can occur in utero, during birth, and/or after birth. Trauma experienced in utero includes maternal smoking, alcohol or drug use during pregnancy; exposure to toxins such as methylmercury; and even exposure to maternal psycho-social stress. Trauma in utero increases the risk of neurodevelopmental delays and disorders causing a long-term effect on limbic imprinting such as difficulty regulating and processing emotions. Trauma experienced during birth includes the use of interventions during labor such as obstetrical forceps or vacuum extraction, cesarean section, or exposure to medicines used to relieve maternal pain or induce labor. These experiences can cause both physical and psychological harm to the baby that also affects the limbic imprinting process. Finally, trauma experienced after birth can include malnutrition; neglect, physical, emotional, or sexual abuse; and lack of a safe or healthy environment. Traumatic experiences after birth also have long-term effects on limbic imprinting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54747586",
"title": "Abuse during childbirth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Abuse during childbirth (or obstetric violence) is the neglect, physical abuse and lack of respect during childbirth. This treatment is regarded as a violation of the woman's rights. It also has the effect of preventing women from seeking pre-natal care and using other health care services. Abuse during childbirth is one form of violence against women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54565031",
"title": "Pain management during childbirth",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Preparation for childbirth can effect the amount of pain experienced during childbirth. It is possible to take a childbirth class, consult with those managing the pregnancy, and writing down questions can assist in getting the information that a woman needs to help manage pain. Simple interaction with friends and family can alleviate concerns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "509678",
"title": "Repressed memory",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Another possibility is that traumatic events are pushed out of consciousness until a later events elicits or triggers a psychological response. A high percentage of female psychiatric in-patients, and outpatients have reported experiencing histories of childhood sexual abuse. Other clinical studies have concluded that patients who experienced incestuous abuse reported higher suicide attempts and negative identity formation as well as more disturbances in interpersonal relationships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83449",
"title": "Childbirth",
"section": "Section::::Complications.:Maternal complications.:Psychological complications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "lack of social support following childbirth, and others. Examples of symptoms include intrusive symptoms, flashbacks and nightmares, as well as symptoms of avoidance (including amnesia for the whole or parts of the event), problems in developing a mother-child attachment, and others similar to those commonly experienced in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Many women who are experiencing symptoms of PTSD after childbirth are misdiagnosed with postpartum depression or adjustment disorders. These diagnoses can lead to inadequate treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5nh6o9
|
what does it mean for a language to be recursive?
|
[
{
"answer": "An example in English:\n\nI rode the bus which almost ran out of gas with my friend who has never been to Europe which is a continent.\n\nWith brackets inserted to show recursive structure:\n\nI rode the bus [ which almost ran out of gas ] with my friend [ who has never been to Europe [ which is a continent. ] ]\n\nThe recursive parts can be removed and it's still a valid sentence. Each recursive part too is a complete thought. The sentence is just a compilation of the following:\n\nI rode the bus with my friend.\nThe bus almost ran out of gas.\nMy friend has never been to Europe.\nEurope is a continent.\n\nWe could go into further detail about continents etc. ad infinitum. A sentence can be composed of other sentences. This is what is meant by recursion in natural languages. Formal languages are similar.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18020716",
"title": "Formal grammar",
"section": "Section::::The Chomsky hierarchy.:Recursive grammars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "A recursive grammar is a grammar that contains production rules that are recursive. For example, a grammar for a context-free language is left-recursive if there exists a non-terminal symbol \"A\" that can be put through the production rules to produce a string with \"A\" as the leftmost symbol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25407",
"title": "Recursion",
"section": "Section::::In language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "Recursion plays a crucial role not only in syntax, but also in natural language semantics. The word \"and\", for example, can be construed as a function that can apply to sentence meanings to create new sentences, and likewise for noun phrase meanings, verb phrase meanings, and others. It can also apply to intransitive verbs, transitive verbs, or ditransitive verbs. In order to provide a single denotation for it that is suitably flexible, \"and\" is typically defined so that it can take any of these different types of meanings as arguments. This can be done by defining it for a simple case in which it combines sentences, and then defining the other cases recursively in terms of the simple one. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23290990",
"title": "Recursive language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "In mathematics, logic and computer science, a formal language (a set of finite sequences of symbols taken from a fixed alphabet) is called recursive if it is a recursive subset of the set of all possible finite sequences over the alphabet of the language. Equivalently, a formal language is recursive if there exists a total Turing machine (a Turing machine that halts for every given input) that, when given a finite sequence of symbols as input, accepts it if it belongs to the language and rejects it otherwise. Recursive languages are also called decidable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25407",
"title": "Recursion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Recursion (adjective: \"recursive\") occurs when a thing is defined in terms of itself or of its type. Recursion is used in a variety of disciplines ranging from linguistics to logic. The most common application of recursion is in mathematics and computer science, where a function being defined is applied within its own definition. While this apparently defines an infinite number of instances (function values), it is often done in such a way that no loop or infinite chain of references can occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4044867",
"title": "Recursion (computer science)",
"section": "Section::::Recursive functions and algorithms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "A recursive function definition has one or more \"base cases\", meaning input(s) for which the function produces a result trivially (without recurring), and one or more \"recursive cases\", meaning input(s) for which the program recurs (calls itself). For example, the factorial function can be defined recursively by the equations and, for all , . Neither equation by itself constitutes a complete definition; the first is the base case, and the second is the recursive case. Because the base case breaks the chain of recursion, it is sometimes also called the \"terminating case\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23290990",
"title": "Recursive language",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "BULLET::::2. A recursive language is a formal language for which there exists a Turing machine that, when presented with any finite input string, halts and accepts if the string is in the language, and halts and rejects otherwise. The Turing machine always halts: it is known as a decider and is said to \"decide\" the recursive language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1625633",
"title": "Deontic modality",
"section": "Section::::Realisation in speech.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "However, many languages (like English) have additional ways to express deontic modality, like modal verbs (\"I \"shall\" help you.\") and other verbs (\"I \"hope\" to come soon.\"), as well as adverbials (\"hopefully\") and other constructions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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