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8gb4h4
|
in regards to verbal communication, how long does it take baby animals to comprehend what their older counterparts are communicating?
|
[
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"answer": "Well for humans there's many stages of learning involved in speech and speech comprehension. Babies are prone to mimicking what they see or hear, so seeing the movement of their parents mouths and the noises that come out pushes them to do the same. Obviously their brains are not fully developed so they start with babbling things they hear, then once they are smart enough to associate things with conscious thinking, they'll start calling things by one or two word (doggy, mommy, train, etc.). This is probably around when they start getting the jist of what their parents are saying. As the brain keeps developing they begin understanding the semantics and syntax in language at which point they start becoming more coherent and pretty much fully understand adult human speech. \n\nFor animals though, I'm not sure if verbal communication takes as many steps or priority. While humans do communicate slightly with their faces and body movements, animals rely on this far more. Dogs with their tails, position relative to each other, or facial hints like showing teeth and snarling. But they do also growl or whimper which a puppy probably understands innately, just like how all humans know how to smile even if they're from the opposite sides of the world. Other animals are probably like this too with the exception of higher functioning ones such as certain birds or dolphins who even give each other names. They probably follow the same steps of learning as humans, just simpler and much quicker since their life spans are usually lower than ours. Apes such as orangutans don't exactly speak but they can learn sign language so perhaps their ways of communication are more complex and involve learning stages like ours. But I'd wager that most baby animals are born with an understanding of basic verbal noises that indicate emotions. ",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1404732",
"title": "Vocabulary development",
"section": "Section::::Pragmatic development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Infants use words to communicate early in life and their communication skills develop as they grow older. Communication skills aid in word learning. Infants learn to take turns while communicating with adults. While preschoolers lack precise timing and rely on obvious speaker cues, older children are more precise in their timing and take fewer long pauses. Children get better at initiating and sustaining coherent conversations as they age. Toddlers and preschoolers use strategies such as repeating and recasting their partners' utterances to keep the conversation going. Older children add new relevant information to conversations. Connectives such as \"then\", \"so\", and \"because\" are more frequently used as children get older. When giving and responding to feedback, preschoolers are inconsistent, but around the age of six, children can mark corrections with phrases and head nods to indicate their continued attention. As children continue to age they provide more constructive interpretations back to listeners, which helps prompt conversations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2383086",
"title": "Language development",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Language development is a process starting early in human life. Infants start without knowing a language, yet by 10 months, babies can distinguish speech sounds and engage in babbling. Some research has shown that the earliest learning begins in utero when the fetus starts to recognize the sounds and speech patterns of its mother's voice and differentiate them from other sounds after birth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "193502",
"title": "Toddler",
"section": "Section::::Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Talking is the next milestone of which parents are typically aware. A toddler's first word often occurs around 12 months, but again this is only an average. The child will then continue to steadily add to his or her vocabulary until around the age of 18 months when language increases rapidly. He or she may learn as many as 7–9 new words a day. Around this time, toddlers generally know about 50 words. At 21 months is when toddlers begin to incorporate two word phrases into their vocabulary, such as \"I go\", \"mama give\", and \"baby play\". Before going to sleep they often engage in a monologue called crib talk in which they practice conversational skills. At this age, children are becoming very proficient at conveying their wants and needs to their parents in a verbal fashion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "16415709",
"title": "Phonological development",
"section": "Section::::Prelinguistic development (birth – 1 year).:Perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "Children do not utter their first words until they are about 1 year old, but already at birth they can tell some utterances in their native language from utterances in languages with different prosodic features.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "488083",
"title": "Theory of mind",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 797,
"text": "Pragmatic theories of communication assume that infants must possess an understanding of beliefs and mental states of others to infer the communicative content that proficient language users intend to convey. Since a verbal utterance is often underdetermined, and therefore, it can have different meanings depending on the actual context theory of mind abilities can play a crucial role in understanding the communicative and informative intentions of others and inferring the meaning of words. Some empirical results suggest that even 13-month-old infants have an early capacity for communicative mind-reading that enables them to infer what relevant information is transferred between communicative partners, which implies that human language relies at least partially on theory of mind skills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3223840",
"title": "Oculesics",
"section": "Section::::Nonverbal Communication.:Cultural Impact.:Cultural Differences in Nonverbal Communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
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"text": "While it may take a child a couple of years to speak understandably in a certain language, it is important to remember that the child is also learning the idiosyncrasies of nonverbal communication at the same time. In fact, the first couple of years of a child's life are spent learning most of these nonverbals. The differences between cultures are thus ingrained at the very earliest points of development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "17524",
"title": "Language",
"section": "Section::::Social contexts of use and transmission.:Acquisition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1284,
"text": "First language acquisition proceeds in a fairly regular sequence, though there is a wide degree of variation in the timing of particular stages among normally developing infants. From birth, newborns respond more readily to human speech than to other sounds. Around one month of age, babies appear to be able to distinguish between different speech sounds. Around six months of age, a child will begin babbling, producing the speech sounds or handshapes of the languages used around them. Words appear around the age of 12 to 18 months; the average vocabulary of an eighteen-month-old child is around 50 words. A child's first utterances are holophrases (literally \"whole-sentences\"), utterances that use just one word to communicate some idea. Several months after a child begins producing words, he or she will produce two-word utterances, and within a few more months will begin to produce telegraphic speech, or short sentences that are less grammatically complex than adult speech, but that do show regular syntactic structure. From roughly the age of three to five years, a child's ability to speak or sign is refined to the point that it resembles adult language. Studies published in 2013 have indicated that unborn fetuses are capable of language acquisition to some degree.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
adior7
|
What happens when you magnetize antimatter?
|
[
{
"answer": " > According to Einsteins equation a reaction with 1 gram of antimatter colliding with another gram of regular matter of the same element can create x1335 the energy need to propel the Saturn V Rocket to light speed\n\nThis uses the Newtonian formula for kinetic energy. The correct formula for kinetic energy shows that you cannot propel it to light speed.\n\n > could we somehow create a stable antimatter housing cell out of a ferrite based cell using magnetism\n\nNo. You cannot contain antimatter using a static magnetic field. This is prohibited by Earnshaw's theorem. There are some limited exceptions to the theorem, but it's irrelevant in this context.\n\nAny storage of antimatter would have to be done by active electromagnets that consume energy. [CERN explains this on their site.](_URL_0_)",
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"answer": "1. The quantities produced are extremely small. CERN can produce about `10^12` or `10^13` anti-protons per year. Avogadro number is about `6 * 10^23` so to get 1g of antiprotons you would need about `6 * 10^10` years. 60 billion years! Our sun will be out in less than 5!\n2. CERN has some storage capability even for neutral antimatter (antihydrogen), but the time is still in a matter of minutes.\n3. Anti-iron is surely a thing, but making it would be very hard. Realistically we can get antihydrogen and antihelium. But I think theoretically it is possible to get a `magnetic antimatter`, still this is very far away from our current capabilities. It would require complex nuclear reactions to create such heavy element and I don't think we even have equipment to create the necessary conditions for that.\n4. Antimatter doesn't combust. Annihilation has nothing to do with combustion.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1174047",
"title": "Rock magnetism",
"section": "Section::::Fundamentals.:Types of magnetic order.:Antiferromagnetism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 358,
"text": "Antiferromagnets, like ferrimagnets, have two sublattices with opposing moments, but now the moments are equal in magnitude. If the moments are exactly opposed, the magnet has no remanence. However, the moments can be tilted (spin canting), resulting in a moment nearly at right angles to the moments of the sublattices. Hematite has this kind of magnetism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "142390",
"title": "Antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"end_character": 830,
"text": "By injecting a small amount of antimatter into a subcritical mass of fuel (typically plutonium or uranium) fission of the fuel can be forced. An anti-proton has a negative electric charge just like an electron, and can be captured in a similar way by a positively charged atomic nucleus. The initial configuration, however, is not stable and radiates energy as gamma rays. As a consequence, the anti-proton moves closer and closer to the nucleus until they eventually touch, at which point the anti-proton and a proton are both annihilated. This reaction releases a tremendous amount of energy, of which, some is released as gamma rays and some is transferred as kinetic energy to the nucleus, causing it to explode. The resulting shower of neutrons can cause the surrounding fuel to undergo rapid fission or even nuclear fusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25750252",
"title": "Magnetis",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Magnetis is set in a fantasy industrial environment where various magnets and metallic blocks will stack up. The combination of the magnets, gathered according to their polarity, aligned or not with metallic blocks, allow the player to make a complete line of elements to disappear. It is also possible to get rid of several lines in a row, such as combos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37461",
"title": "State of matter",
"section": "Section::::Non-classical states.:Magnetically ordered.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "An antiferromagnet has two networks of equal and opposite magnetic moments, which cancel each other out so that the net magnetization is zero. For example, in nickel(II) oxide (NiO), half the nickel atoms have moments aligned in one direction and half in the opposite direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37854",
"title": "Antimatter rocket",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Antimatter power generation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "The idea of using antimatter to power an electric space drive has also been proposed. These proposed designs are typically similar to those suggested for nuclear electric rockets. Antimatter annihilations are used to directly or indirectly heat a working fluid, as in a nuclear thermal rocket, but the fluid is used to generate electricity, which is then used to power some form of electric space propulsion system. The resulting system shares many of the characteristics of other charged particle/electric propulsion proposals (typically high specific impulse and low thrust).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37854",
"title": "Antimatter rocket",
"section": "Section::::Difficulties with antimatter rockets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "Another general problem with high powered propulsion is excess heat or waste heat, and as with antimatter-matter annihilation also includes extreme radiation. A proton-antiproton annihilation propulsion system transforms 39% of the propellant mass into an intense high-energy flux of gamma radiation. The gamma rays and the high-energy charged pions will cause heating and radiation damage if they are not shielded against. Unlike neutrons, they will not cause the exposed material to become radioactive by transmutation of the nuclei. The components needing shielding are the crew, the electronics, the cryogenic tankage, and the magnetic coils for magnetically assisted rockets. Two types of shielding are needed: radiation protection and thermal protection (different from Heat shield or thermal insulation).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "142390",
"title": "Antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1475,
"text": "A conceptual design of an antimatter-catalyzed thermonuclear explosive physics package, is one in which the primary mass of plutonium, usually necessary for the ignition in a conventional Teller-Ulam thermonuclear explosion, is replaced by one microgram of antihydrogen. In this theoretical design, the antimatter is helium-cooled and magnetically levitated in the center of the device, in the form of a pellet a tenth of a mm in diameter, a position analogous to the primary fission core in the layer cake/Sloika design). As the antimatter must remain away from ordinary matter until the desired moment of the explosion, the central pellet must be isolated from the surrounding hollow sphere of 100 grams of thermonuclear fuel. During and after the implosive compression by the high explosive lenses, the fusion fuel comes into contact with the antihydrogen. Annihilation reactions, which would start soon after the Penning trap is destroyed, is to provide the energy to begin the nuclear fusion in the thermonuclear fuel. If the chosen degree of compression is high, a device with increased explosive/propulsive effects is obtained, and if it is low, that is, the fuel is not at high density, a considerable number of neutrons will escape the device, and a neutron bomb forms. In both cases the electromagnetic pulse effect and the radioactive fallout are substantially lower than that of a conventional fission or Teller-Ulam device of the same yield, approximately 1 kt.\n",
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"meta": null
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] | null |
frfze9
|
what is the difference between a snowball effect and a domino effect?
|
[
{
"answer": "Just my thoughts...\nDomino effect would create a chain reaction of multiple events.\n\nFor example:\nyou yell at someone, which ruins their day, they then yell at someone, running their day, and so on.\nThe be original action is essentially repeated in a similar manner.\n\nSnowball effect would create a larger reaction with each transaction.\nSimilar example:\nYou yell at someone, which ruins their day, then they yell at 5 people, who each tell at 5 more people, and do on\nThis creates an increasing intensity when compared to the initial action.",
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"answer": "A snowball effect implies exponential growth of the effect. For instance, the corona virus could be said to have a snowball effect because of how it spreads and how it’s affect exacerbates over time in an exponential manner.\n\nWhereas a domino effect implies there will be many things affected, and they will affect each-other in succession, but not necessarily in an exponential fashion. For example during the Vietnam war one justification for the US taking action was that if they didn’t stop the spread of communism in Vietnam it would spread to other neighboring regions and then spread to other regions based on the outcomes of the first spread. More of a linear slope but each phase caused by the previous one.\n\nIn most cases, especially metaphorical, you could prob interchange them and be mostly correct. however, the main difference is the exponentiality of the effect and the path of how the effect travels from one to the next.",
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"answer": "A snowball effect evokes the imagery of a snowball being rolled in snow and gathering more snow as it rolls, so that it grows. It gets bigger. A snowball effect is generally used to describe something that is getting bigger.\n\nBy contrast, a domino effect is about cause and effect. A domino effect means that one thing is triggering another thing, as one domino falling against another dominos causes that domino to fall and when the next domino falls it makes another domino fall. A domino effect describes a series of events, each of which triggers another event.\n\nIn a pandemic both of these phenomenon are happening at the same time. One infection can easily cause another infection, as in the domino effect, and the ease with which infections spread cause a snowball effect.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8286",
"title": "Domino effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"end_character": 722,
"text": "A domino effect or chain reaction is the cumulative effect produced when one event sets off a chain of similar events. The term is best known as a mechanical effect and is used as an analogy to a falling row of dominoes. It typically refers to a linked sequence of events where the time between successive events is relatively small. It can be used literally (an observed series of actual collisions) or metaphorically (causal linkages within systems such as global finance or politics). The term \"domino effect\" is used both to imply that an event is inevitable or highly likely (as it has already started to happen), and conversely to imply that an event is impossible or highly unlikely (the one domino left standing).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "8286",
"title": "Domino effect",
"section": "Section::::Demonstration of the effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "The domino effect can easily be visualized by placing a row of dominoes upright, separated by a small distance. Upon pushing the first domino, the next domino in line will be knocked over, and so on, thus firing a linear chain in which each domino's fall is triggered by the domino immediately preceding it. The effect is the same regardless of the length of the chain. The energy used in this chain reaction is the potential energy of the dominoes due to them being in a metastable state; when the first domino is toppled, the energy transferred by the fall is greater than the energy needed to knock over the following domino, and so on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "19305665",
"title": "Domino Effect (The Blizzards album)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"end_character": 304,
"text": "Domino Effect is the second studio album from The Blizzards, released on 12 September 2008. The first single from the album \"Trust Me, I'm A Doctor\" was released in August 2008, A second single, \"The Reason\" was released in November 2008. The third single, \"Postcards\", was released on 27 February 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146959",
"title": "Snowball effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 384,
"text": "Metaphorically, a snowball effect is a process that starts from an initial state of small significance and builds upon itself, becoming larger (graver, more serious), and also perhaps potentially dangerous or disastrous (a vicious circle), though it might be beneficial instead (a virtuous circle). This is a cliché in cartoons and modern theatrics and it is also used in psychology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5360232",
"title": "The Domino Effect (novel)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 210,
"text": "The Domino Effect is a BBC Books original novel written by David Bishop and based on the long-running British science fiction television series \"Doctor Who\". It features the Eighth Doctor, Fitz, Anji and Trix.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8262",
"title": "Dominoes",
"section": "Section::::Other uses of dominoes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Besides playing games, another use of dominoes is the domino show, which involves standing them on end in long lines so that when the first tile is toppled, it topples the second, which topples the third, etc., resulting in all of the tiles falling. By analogy, the phenomenon of small events causing similar events leading to eventual catastrophe is called the domino effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23673493",
"title": "Interplanetary scintillation",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Scintillation occurs as a result of variations in the refractive index of the medium through which waves are traveling. The solar wind is a plasma, composed primarily of electrons and lone protons, and the variations in the index of refraction are caused by variations in the density of the plasma. Different indices of refraction result in phase changes between waves traveling through different locations, which results in interference. As the waves interfere, both the frequency of the wave and its angular size are broadened, and the intensity varies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
h3pm8
|
Airplanes and passenger weight. Cost difference in flying heavy/light passengers.
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm approving this on a very tentative basis. Please keep the discussion to the science of flight-weight ratios alone and *not* the ethical implications of such a system.",
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"answer": "There is no real way to calculate this without more info. It depends on the plane, where the passenger is in relation to the cg, and how loaded the plane is among other things. Under the right conditions having a heavier person could actually decrease fuel consumption. In any even on larger planes you're talking about hundreds of thousands of pounds at takeoff weight; couple hundred pounds one way or another will be largely negligible. ",
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"answer": "An Airbus A320-200 seats 150 passengers in a two-class configuration and weighs about 42,000 kg empty with a max takeoff weight of 73,500 kg. Let's assume such a plane is about to depart on a long haul flight (i.e. lots of fuel), and is at capacity so that it's near its max takeoff weight. About a third of Americans are obese, so let's assume 50 of those passengers are 136 kg (300 lb) instead of the average 80 kg (176 lb.) That means the excess mass due to flab is 50 \\* (136 - 80) = 2,800 kg, or just 3.8% of the total mass of the plane. That's going to require slightly more fuel, but not so much that it would be worth all the humiliation and extra time it would require to weigh everyone.\n",
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"answer": "I read somewhere that on average, the fuel consumption for a fully loaded 747 on a long haul flight is around 3 kg per person per 100 km. Yes, fat people cost more to transport than skinny ones.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31507233",
"title": "Douglas 2229",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Douglas declines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "By this point the Model 2229 effort had progressed to detail design. The 100-passenger aircraft had settled at about 420,000 lb, heavier than the Boeing 707 while holding 20% fewer passengers. As the operational costs of an aircraft are roughly defined by the aircraft fuel use, a function of weight, divided by the number of passengers, these numbers were not encouraging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8203113",
"title": "Aerostructure",
"section": "Section::::Civilian.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1071,
"text": "Airplanes designed for civilian use are often cheaper than military aircraft. Smaller passenger airplanes are used for short distance, transcontinental transport. It is more cost efficient for airlines and there is less demand for aircraft transportation at these distances as people can, while inconvenient, drive these distances. While bigger airplanes are manufactured for intercontinental transport, so more passengers can be carried at one time, money can be saved on fuel, and airliners do not have to pay as many pilots. Cargo planes are usually built to be bigger than the average jet. They have a lot of space and large dimensions, so they can carry a lot of weight and a large volume of cargo in one trip. They have large wingspans, a very large cargo hold, and a very tall vertical fin. They are not built to accommodate passengers except for the pilots, so the use of the cargo hold is much more efficient. There does not need to be room for seats and food and bathrooms for everybody, so the companies made a design that optimizes the space in the aircraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "14006598",
"title": "Heavy (aeronautics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 500,
"text": "The term heavy is used during radio transmissions between air traffic control and any aircraft which has been assigned a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) rating of or more. Aircraft with a MTOW rating between 7 t and 136 t are considered medium, and aircraft with a MTOW rating less than 7 t are considered light. In the US, the FAA uses a slightly different categorization, adding a block between medium and heavy, labeling aircraft capable of maximum takeoff weights more than and less than as large.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1848261",
"title": "Light-sport aircraft",
"section": "Section::::LSAs in different countries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"end_character": 784,
"text": "For example, in Australia the Civil Aviation Safety Authority defines a light-sport aircraft as a heavier-than-air or lighter-than-air craft, other than a helicopter, with a maximum gross takeoff weight of not more than for lighter-than-air craft; for heavier-than-air craft not intended for operation on water; or for aircraft intended for operation on water. It must have a maximum stall speed of in landing configuration; a maximum of two seats; there is no limit on maximum speed unless it is a glider, which is limited to Vne 135 kn CAS; fixed undercarriage (except for amphibious aircraft, which may have repositionable gear, and gliders, which may have retractable gear); an unpressurized cabin; and a single non-turbine engine driving a propeller if it is a powered aircraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "1254208",
"title": "Laker Airways",
"section": "Section::::New commercial developments.:Cost saving.:Increasing range by introducing weight-saving measures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Alternatively, weight saved as a result of limiting free baggage could be traded for reduced fuel consumption on shorter routes well within the BAC One-Eleven's range by making the aircraft lighter, even with a full load of passengers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "3652787",
"title": "Fuel dumping",
"section": "Section::::Aircraft fuel dump.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Aircraft have two major types of weight limits: the maximum takeoff weight and the maximum structural landing weight, with the maximum structural landing weight almost always being the lower of the two. This allows an aircraft on a normal, routine flight to take off at the higher weight, consume fuel en route, and arrive at a lower weight. There are other variables involving takeoff and landing weights, but they are omitted from this article for the sake of simplicity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215930",
"title": "Supersonic transport",
"section": "Section::::Challenges of supersonic passenger flight.:High costs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Higher fuel costs and lower passenger capacities due to the aerodynamic requirement for a narrow fuselage make SSTs an expensive form of commercial civil transportation compared with subsonic aircraft. For example, the Boeing 747 can carry more than three times as many passengers as Concorde while using approximately the same amount of fuel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
26frj2
|
Where there any proposals to create an African nation in America?
|
[
{
"answer": "There were black communities set up by African Americans in the late 1870s-80s, but they weren't protected by the government like Native American reservations.\n\nThe people participating in the communities were called [exodusters](_URL_1_) because of the exodus from the south to states like Kansas. One of the more well known exoduster communities is [Nicodemus, Kansas.](_URL_0_)\n\nAfrican Americans in the south first wanted these communities so they could get away from the persecution of the whites in the south during reconstruction years, where they were still subject to persecution and violence despite their new found freedom.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1911740",
"title": "United States of Africa",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:2009–11 proposals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "The focus for developing the United States of Africa so far has been on building subdivisions of Africa - the proposed East African Federation can be seen as an example of this. Former President of Senegal, Abdoulaye Wade, had indicated that the United States of Africa could exist from as early as 2017. The African Union, by contrast, has set itself the task of building a \"united and integrated\" Africa by 2025. Gaddafi had also indicated that the proposed federation may extend as far west as the Caribbean: Haiti, Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, the Bahamas and other islands featuring a large African diaspora, may be invited to join.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26099317",
"title": "Imari Obadele",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "Richard and Milton adopted the African names Imari and Gaidi Obadele in 1968, and with others, founded the Republic of New Afrika. At the meeting founding the group, they formed a \"government in exile\". Obadele was designated the information minister, and soon published a pamphlet \"War in America\". The organization's stated aim was to carve Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina out of the United States and establish an independent black nation from these five states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52329429",
"title": "March 1968",
"section": "Section::::March 29, 1968 (Friday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 189,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 189,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "BULLET::::- A group of 500 black activists, led by Robert F. Williams, assembled at the black-owned Twenty Grand Motel in Detroit to proclaim their intention to create the Republic of New Africa, an independent black nation located in areas of the southeastern United States that had predominantly black populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11128046",
"title": "History of Raëlism",
"section": "Section::::Recent years.:Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "In 2006, the Raëlian Movement vocally advocated the concept of a \"United States of Africa\" following a more honest and complete \"decolonization\" that would involve the disbanding of corrupt rulerships as a result of Africans returning to their non-Christian ancestors' religious and territorial roots, which existed before colonization by Europeans. However, Raëlians later emphasized that the word \"Africa\" was colonial in origin, so on 28 December, an article in \"Raëlian Contact 325\" suggested a different name: \"The United Kingdoms of Kama\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22342062",
"title": "Makau W. Mutua",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Pan-Africanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "In 1994, Mutua offered up an idea for how to reorganize Africa to construct 15 sustainable states from the 55 semi-viable states that existed at the time. He theorized this new ideal for the organization of Africa as a result of what he believed were the \"consequences of the failed postcolonial state are so destructive that radical solutions must now be contemplated to avert the wholesale destruction of groups of the African people\". Mutua decided that the way in which the new states would be created would be by looking at ethnic similarities, cultural homogeneity, and economic viability. The new states that Mutua theorized included the Republic of Kusini, a new Egypt, Nubia, a new Mali, a new Somalia, a new Congo, a new Ghana, a new Benin, a new Libya, a Sahara state, Kisiwani, a new state made up of a collection of islands, and the current states of Angola and Algeria would remain the same.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1725064",
"title": "Convention People's Party",
"section": "Section::::Pan-Africanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 286,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 286,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "In 1957, there were only eight independent African states. They were Ghana, Ethiopia, Libya, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, Liberia and Sudan. Most of the African continent was yet to be liberated. The last Pan-African Congress had been held in Manchester, England in 1945.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15485742",
"title": "History of the African Union",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Its origin dates back to the First Congress of Independence African States, held in Accra, Ghana, from 15 to 22 April 1958. The conference aimed at forming the Africa Day to mark the liberation movement, each year, regarding the willingness of the African people to free themselves from foreign dictatorship, as well as subsequent attempts to unite Africa, including the Organisation of African Unity (OAU), which was established on 25 May 1963, and the African Economic Community in 1981. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4pjtim
|
someone explain cpu cores to me
|
[
{
"answer": "suppose you are assigned to make sure a big bag of skittles gets eaten. two cores means two people eating, a faster clock speed means each person eats faster.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You seem to have a bit of a misconception about what clock speeds mean. It isn't a measurement of how fast a processor is. 2.7 GHz processor means that it does 2.7 billion cycles per second. If you overclocked your CPU to double the clock speed it would be able to make 2x as many calculations per second. But comparing your 2.7 GHz CPU to another 2.7 GHz CPU does not mean they have the same speed.\n\nBut, if you got an older processor, say a 2.8 GHz Pentium 4 from about 10 years ago, and compared it to your processor. Your processor would blow the old one out of the water. It is much much faster. \n\nNewer machining processes allow them to make smaller and smaller circuits. A new CPU with the same clock speed as an old one can do more calculations because they're able to fit more circuits onto the chip. More circuits = more calculations even if the clock speed is the same. You can't really use a comparison of GHz as a meaningful measure of a processor's performance.\n\nMultiple cores are just different processors. They call them cores because they're built together on the same chip, but they function like multiple unrelated processors.\n\nHaving multiple cores is a bit like having 4 people to do a job instead of one. Adding more people can speed up some jobs, but not others. Imagine you're cooking dinner. You want steak, potatoes, and vegetables. With multiple people, you can have each person cook one of the things. Because you're cooking them simultaneously, you've reduced the time of making dinner by 1/3, in comparison to cooking the steak, then the potatoes, and then the vegetables. This sort of task is one that can be easily multithreaded. Meaning it can be easily divided into multiple tasks that can be given to each processor core. Multithreaded tasks become faster with more cores.\n\nIn contrast some tasks can't be effectively multithreaded. So, instead of dinner, we're making a cake. You need to mix the ingredients, bake the cake, and then ice it. No matter how many people you add to it, you can't make the cake any faster. You cannot divide this into multiple simultaneous tasks. You cannot ice the cake until it's been baked, and you cannot bake the cake until the ingredients have been mixed. The extra people, or CPU core can only wait until the previous step has been finished. Tasks like these gain no speed with extra cores.\n\nTLDR: CPU clock speeds aren't a reliable measure of processor speed. More cores helps multi-tasking, and only speeds up some tasks.\n\nEdit: What's that yellow icon doing there? Also thanks!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The analogy I'm fond of is a kitchen. A processor, like a kitchen, has many parts, each of which needs to be used. A cook in a kitchen may use the fridge then the cutting board and finally the stovetop, for example, while in a CPU you may have a task that needs to use some I/O to the hard drive, then some operations on the ALU while sending data back and forth to memory, and finally some data transfer to a PCI slot where a graphics card is sitting.\n\nHaving two cores is a lot like having two kitchens in a house: if you're cooking a ton of small things and you've thought ahead to bring your friend over then you can get twice as many, say, cupcakes produced in a short period of time. However, it's not going to make it possible to carry out an 8 hours slow cooker recipe in 4 hours—\"9 women can't make a baby in 1 month.\" \n\nNote that it takes some effort to convince your friend to come over and help you cook and if you don't put in that effort then it doesn't matter how many small, independent parts you can break your task into—if you've only planned for one cook then it's all up to them. This echos the fact that most software is not written to really take advantage of having lots of cores. At best having lots of cores will let you run several things at once without them getting in each others' way. This is why for real-world programs it's usually a bad idea to look at a 2-core CPU clocked at 2 GHz and think \"this is a 4 GHz processor.\" (aside: GHz is also a *terrible* way to measure CPU performance. It's like measuring how powerful a sports car is by looking at the RPM of the engine instead of something more meaningful like horsepower or top speed. If you want a slightly less terrible metric, look at FLOPS or at synthetic benchmarks. Even better would be to look at the performance of the CPU in systems doing whatever you're buying a computer to do).\n\nThen you can look at things like \"simultaneous multithreading,\" which Intel calls \"hyperthreading.\" When you look at the kitchen you see that a cook is only using one part of the kitchen at once, so you decide that you'll throw another cook in the same kitchen. This takes a bit of coordination, but once you get that in place you can have two cooks working side-by-side and nearly double the throughput from one kitchen! This runs into problems when both cooks are wanting to use the same part of the kitchen, though: if you want to bake a ton of cupcakes where the bottleneck on how fast you make them is the time they spend in the oven then it doesn't matter how many cooks you have. One cook can make sure the oven is constantly running at full capacity, so what you really need is more ovens. A hyperthreaded processor will not perform significantly better than the same processor with hyperthreading disabled when the task is heavily weighted towards one part of the chip (e.g. doing math with non-whole numbers).\n\nThat brings up AMD's solution to the \"two cooks in the kitchen\" problem: they put two cooks in a kitchen, then they note that \"cooking cupcakes en masse and other baking operations are the most likely thing that will bog the kitchen down,\" so they put in a second oven as well (aside: I'm simplifying, and I'm a bit out of date with AMD's architecture). This kitchen configuration will perform nearly as well as two full kitchens when baking cupcakes, but when making stews it'll perform about like a single kitchen. This presents AMD with a marketing challenge: what do they sell this chip as? Their solution is the obvious one, and I really can't fault them for it: they pick the higher number, then they define \"kitchen\" as \"an oven with a cook to run it\" (or \"an integer ALU\"). After all, there are lots of houses (chips) that have several cores (kitchens) that all share a wine cellar (hard drive interface), so sharing resources that are in less demand is an established chip design.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've worked with computers for about 17 years and this is how I've always explained it to people. \n\nThink of your computer like an office cubicle. The processor is like the guy sitting at the desk doing \"work\". The ghz rating you see is how fast he can work and the cores are essentially how many people working at that desk. Ram is like the surface area of the desk. The more ram the more workspace available at any given point. The hard drive is like a file cabinet within the cubicle the larger the hard drive the larger the file cabinet. \n\nWhen you get into multithreaded vs single threaded applications, a single threaded application can only have one worker on it at a time. A multithreaded application would split it in smaller tasks with each worker doing a fraction of the whole. \n\nOn a typical computer you may have worker (core) 1 doing work related to Windows while worker (core) 2 is doing work related to your browser. And workers (cores) 3 and 4 are busy on reddit because they have nothing to do at the current moment. As you run more processes they become distributed to the various workers. \n\nYes I understand this is not 100% accurate but for the purposes of allowing the average person to understand I've always found it clicks. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Clock speed is not a good way to measure performance. It's like comparing two cars by how many RPM's the engine can do . It means something, but not anything that important.\n\nThe best measurement (and I wish it would get used) is GFLOPS, which is how how many billions of floating point operations per second the processor can do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If cpus are horses. Multi processor is like several horse drawn carriages driving side by side.\n\nMulti core is having all the horses on a single carriage. It does the same work, but looks different.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1191182",
"title": "Emotion Engine",
"section": "Section::::Description.:CPU core.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1199,
"text": "The CPU core is a two-way superscalar in-order RISC processor. Based on the MIPS R5900, it implements the MIPS-III instruction set architecture (ISA) and much of MIPS-IV, in addition to a custom instruction set developed by Sony which operated on 128-bit wide groups of either 32-bit, 16-bit, or 8-bit integers in single instruction multiple data (SIMD) fashion (i.e. four 32-bit integers could be added to four others using a single instruction). Instructions defined include: add, subtract, multiply, divide, min/max, shift, logical, leading-zero count, 128-bit load/store and 256-bit to 128-bit funnel shift in addition to some not described by Sony for competitive reasons. Contrary to some misconceptions, these SIMD capabilities did not amount to the processor being \"128-bit\", as neither the memory addresses nor the integers themselves were 128-bit, only the shared SIMD/integer registers. For comparison, 128-bit wide registers and SIMD instructions had been present in the 32-bit x86 architecture since 1999, with the introduction of SSE. However the internal data paths were 128bit wide, and its processors were capable of operating on 4x32bit quantities in parallel in single registers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46686994",
"title": "Zen (microarchitecture)",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "BULLET::::- A fundamental building block for all Zen-based CPUs is the \"Core Complex\" (CCX) consisting of four cores and their associated caches. Processors with more than four cores consist of multiple CCXs connected by Infinity Fabric.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39616242",
"title": "PlayStation 4 technical specifications",
"section": "Section::::Processors and memory.:APU.:Central processing units.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "The central processing unit (CPU) consists of two x86-64 quad-core modules for a total of eight cores, which are based on the Jaguar CPU architecture from AMD. Each core has 32 kB L1 instruction and data caches, with one shared 2 MB L2 cache per four core module. The CPU's base clock speed is said to be 1.6 GHz. That produces a theoretical peak performance of 102.4 SP GFLOPS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57143357",
"title": "Glossary of computer science",
"section": "Section::::C.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "BULLET::::- Central processing unit – (CPU) is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logic, controlling and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions. The computer industry has used the term \"central processing unit\" at least since the early 1960s. Traditionally, the term \"CPU\" refers to a processor, more specifically to its processing unit and control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external components such as main memory and I/O circuitry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5300",
"title": "Computer data storage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "In the Von Neumann architecture, the CPU consists of two main parts: The control unit and the arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The former controls the flow of data between the CPU and memory, while the latter performs arithmetic and logical operations on data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9506857",
"title": "History of general-purpose CPUs",
"section": "Section::::1990 to today: Looking forward.:Multi-core.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "Multi-core CPUs are typically multiple CPU cores on the same die, connected to each other via a shared L2 or L3 cache, an on-die bus, or an on-die crossbar switch. All the CPU cores on the die share interconnect components with which to interface to other processors and the rest of the system. These components may include a front side bus interface, a memory controller to interface with dynamic random access memory (DRAM), a cache coherent link to other processors, and a non-coherent link to the southbridge and I/O devices. The terms \"multi-core\" and \"microprocessor unit\" (MPU) have come into general use for one die having multiple CPU cores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3130",
"title": "Advanced Power Management",
"section": "Section::::CPU.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "The CPU core (defined in APM as the CPU clock, cache, system bus and system timers) is treated specially in APM, as it is the last device to be powered down, and the first device to be powered back up. The CPU core is always controlled through the APM BIOS (there is no option to control it through a driver). Drivers can use APM function calls to notify the BIOS about CPU usage, but it is up to the BIOS to act on this information; a driver cannot directly tell the CPU to go into a power saving state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a56vh4
|
why is crying a natural response to both extreme sadness and extreme happiness, but not so much for anything in between?
|
[
{
"answer": "Crying is a response to extreme emotion- I’ve seen people cry from being scared, angry (kind of the same thing) etc. it’s a natural way to release those pent up emotions. You wouldn’t need to cry over something mild happening, like say, your food order being late, unless you already had a bunch of unexpressed emotions that were piled on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "tears are a stress dump. they are full of stress hormones, so when you build up a lot tears are an easy way to dump them ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's also a response to extreme pain and extreme anger and extreme fear. I think it's just a response to extreme *emotion*.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tears from an emotional response actually are releasing the hormones that are causing that emotion. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nTears from a physical response (like breaking your leg) are closer to sweat. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nIt's almost like those fancy soda machines with one nozzle but still dispenses different flavors. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Crying is a response to stress. Intense emotions are very stressful. Being exhausted is another reason a person can cry. Despair can make you cry as well. Crying has less to do with emotions and more with physical reactions like pain and stress.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not so much for anything in between he asks. You have not met my girlfriend and our daughter. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What about being touched by something you see that is not an ‘extreme’ emotion either way. Ex: seeing someone overachieve their own expectations of themselves always gets me. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What about being touched by something you see that is not an ‘extreme’ emotion either way. Ex: seeing someone overachieve their own expectations of themselves always gets me. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Anyone got an explanation on simultaneous laugh/crying?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your body has evolved to stay at an equilibrium. Any strong emotions cause a chemical upheaval within the body, like adrenaline when you're angry or dopamine when you're excited. However, even if it's a good emotion, your body is constantly working to stay in balance. So the emotion causes a physical response intended to reset the neurochemical balance within the body. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17389946",
"title": "Crying",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "The question of the function or origin of emotional tears remains open. Theories range from the simple, such as response to inflicted pain, to the more complex, including nonverbal communication in order to elicit altruistic helping behavior from others. Some have also claimed that crying can serve several biochemical purposes, such as relieving stress and clearance of the eyes. Crying is believed to be an outlet or a result of a burst of intense emotional sensations, such as agony, surprise or joy. This theory could explain why people cry during cheerful events, as well as very painful events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17389946",
"title": "Crying",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "William H. Frey II, a biochemist at the University of Minnesota, proposed that people feel \"better\" after crying due to the elimination of hormones associated with stress, specifically adrenocorticotropic hormone. This, paired with increased mucosal secretion during crying, could lead to a theory that crying is a mechanism developed in humans to dispose of this stress hormone when levels grow too high. However, tears have a limited ability to eliminate chemicals, reducing the likelihood of this theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3941742",
"title": "Pseudobulbar affect",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Depression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 958,
"text": "In depression and grief syndromes, crying is typically a sign of sadness, whereas the pathological displays of crying which occur in PBA are often in contrast to the underlying mood, or greatly in excess of the mood or eliciting stimulus. In addition, a key to differentiating depression from PBA is duration: PBA episodes are sudden, occurring in a brief episodic manner, while crying in depression is a more sustained presentation and closely relates to the underlying mood state. The level of control that one has over the crying episodes in PBA is minimal or nonexistent, whereas for those suffering from depression, the emotional expression (typically crying) can be modulated by the situation. Similarly, the trigger for episodes of crying in patients with PBA may be nonspecific, minimal or inappropriate to the situation, but in depression the stimulus is specific to the mood-related condition. These differences are outlined in the adjacent Table.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17389946",
"title": "Crying",
"section": "Section::::Categorizing dimensions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Temporal perspective explains crying slightly differently. In temporal perspective, sorrowful crying is due to looking to the past with regret or to the future with dread. This illustrated crying as a result of losing someone and regretting not spending more time with them or being nervous about an upcoming event. Crying as a result of happiness would then be a response to a moment as if it is eternal; the person is frozen in a blissful, immortalized present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143803",
"title": "Tears",
"section": "Section::::Social aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 884,
"text": "In nearly all cultures, crying is associated with tears trickling down the cheeks and accompanied by characteristic sobbing sounds. Emotional triggers are most often sadness and grief but crying can also be triggered by anger, happiness, fear, laughter or humor, frustration, remorse, or other strong, intense emotions. Crying is often associated with babies and children. Some cultures consider crying to be undignified and infantile, casting aspersions on those who cry publicly, except if it is due to the death of a close friend or relative. In most Western cultures, it is more socially acceptable for women and children to cry than men, reflecting masculine sex-role stereotypes. In some Latin regions, crying among men is more acceptable. There is evidence for an interpersonal function of crying as tears express a need for help and foster willingness to help in an observer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234796",
"title": "Sadness",
"section": "Section::::Childhood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Sadness is a common experience in childhood. Some families may have a (conscious or unconscious) rule that sadness is \"not allowed\", but Robin Skynner has suggested that this may cause problems, arguing that with sadness \"screened off\", people can become shallow and manic. Pediatrician T. Berry Brazelton suggests that acknowledging sadness can make it easier for families to address more serious emotional problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17389946",
"title": "Crying",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Emotional tears have also been put into an evolutionary context. One study proposes that crying, by blurring vision, can handicap aggressive or defensive actions, and may function as a reliable signal of appeasement, need, or attachment. Oren Hasson, an evolutionary psychologist in the zoology department at Tel Aviv University believes that crying shows vulnerability and submission to an attacker, solicits sympathy and aid from bystanders, and signals shared emotional attachments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
63vd10
|
What's the difference between formulas, algorithms and equations?
|
[
{
"answer": "An equation always has an \"equal\" sign in the middle, and declares that the two things on either side of it are equal.\n\nA formula is a type of equation.\n\nAn algorithm is a defined series of instructions...a recipe or procedure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To be more specific about the formula thing, they are equations with a defined purpose. y = x is an equation, but it isn't very meaningful in terms of practicality. A formula is an equation with variables that express known quantities that you can use to calculate unknowns. For example, knowing a given quadratic equation ax^2 + bx + c = 0, you can use the quadratic formula with the known a, b, and c, values to find the roots of the equation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "164040",
"title": "Formula",
"section": "Section::::In computing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "In computing, a formula typically describes a calculation, such as addition, to be performed on one or more variables. A formula is often implicitly provided in the form of a computer instruction such as.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "373299",
"title": "Language of mathematics",
"section": "Section::::The grammar of mathematics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "The mathematical notation used for formulas has its own grammar, not dependent on a specific natural language, but shared internationally by mathematicians regardless of their mother tongues. This includes the conventions that the formulas are written predominantly left to right, even when the writing system of the substrate language is right-to-left, and that the Latin alphabet is commonly used for simple variables and parameters. A formula such as\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16260460",
"title": "HP 35s",
"section": "Section::::Feature details.:Programming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Equations may be embedded in programs, as a single program step. The calculator's settings include a numbered flag which specifies whether equations in programs are to be evaluated or displayed at run time. Since an equation can contain any sequence of characters, it may be composed as a message to be displayed. After displaying a message, the program either stops until is pressed, or if a (pause) instruction follows the message then it pauses for one second before continuing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9710",
"title": "Elementary algebra",
"section": "Section::::Concepts.:Equations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "An equation is the claim that two expressions have the same value and are equal. Some equations are true for all values of the involved variables (such as formula_40); such equations are called identities. Conditional equations are true for only some values of the involved variables, e.g. formula_41 is true only for formula_42 and formula_43. The values of the variables which make the equation true are the solutions of the equation and can be found through equation solving.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164040",
"title": "Formula",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "In mathematics, a formula is an entity constructed using the symbols and formation rules of a given logical language. For example, determining the volume of a sphere requires a significant amount of integral calculus or its geometrical analogue, the method of exhaustion; but, having done this once in terms of some parameter (the radius for example), mathematicians have produced a formula to describe the volume:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1775329",
"title": "Elementary mathematics",
"section": "Section::::Strands of Elementary Mathematics.:Equations and formulas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "A formula is an entity constructed using the symbols and formation rules of a given logical language. For example, determining the volume of a sphere requires a significant amount of integral calculus or its geometrical analogue, the method of exhaustion; but, having done this once in terms of some parameter (the radius for example), mathematicians have produced a formula to describe the volume: This particular formula is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23000",
"title": "Polynomial",
"section": "Section::::Equations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "In elementary algebra, methods such as the quadratic formula are taught for solving all first degree and second degree polynomial equations in one variable. There are also formulas for the cubic and quartic equations. For higher degrees, the Abel–Ruffini theorem asserts that there can not exist a general formula in radicals. However, root-finding algorithms may be used to find numerical approximations of the roots of a polynomial expression of any degree.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6d9gbp
|
Were ancient Greek statues really coloured like this?
|
[
{
"answer": "There was a good discussion about the specifics of the color recreations on the sub a few weeks back; you can read it [here](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "321956",
"title": "List of common misconceptions",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "BULLET::::- Ancient Greek sculptures were originally painted bright colors; they only appear white today because the original pigments have deteriorated. Some well-preserved statues still bear traces of their original coloration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1797078",
"title": "Ancient Greek sculpture",
"section": "Section::::Painting of sculpture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Ancient Greek sculptures were originally painted bright colors; they only appear white today because the original pigments have deteriorated. References to painted sculptures are found throughout classical literature, including in Euripides's \"Helen\" in which the eponymous character laments, \"If only I could shed my beauty and assume an uglier aspect/The way you would wipe color off a statue.\" Some well-preserved statues still bear traces of their original coloration and archaeologists can reconstruct what they would have originally looked like.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "153169",
"title": "Statue",
"section": "Section::::Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1031,
"text": "Ancient statues often survive showing the bare surface of the material of which they are made. For example, many people associate Greek classical art with white marble sculpture, but there is evidence that many statues were painted in bright colors. Most of the color has weathered off over time; small remnants were removed during cleaning; in some cases small traces remained which could be identified. A travelling exhibition of 20 coloured replicas of Greek and Roman works, alongside 35 original statues and reliefs, was held in Europe and the United States in 2008: Gods in Color: Painted Sculpture of Classical Antiquity. Details such as whether the paint was applied in one or two coats, how finely the pigments were ground, or exactly which binding medium would have been used in each case—all elements that would affect the appearance of a finished piece—are not known. Richter goes so far as to say of classical Greek sculpture, \"All stone sculpture, whether limestone or marble, was painted, either wholly or in part.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8852546",
"title": "Kore (sculpture)",
"section": "Section::::Polychromy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "It is important for those who study korai and other ancient Greek art to understand that many of the works were once colored. There is an aesthetic preconception that the sculptures were pure white marble. The marble is only the skeleton of the sculpture, not the complete piece. Ignoring the polychrome of a sculpture will only show half of the context behind it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3325929",
"title": "Classical sculpture",
"section": "Section::::Colour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 882,
"text": "Ancient statues and bas-reliefs survive showing the bare surface of the material of which they are made, and people generally associate classical art with white marble sculpture. But there is evidence that many statues were painted in bright colours. Most of the colour was weathered off over time; small remnants were removed during cleaning; in some cases small traces remained which could be identified. A travelling exhibition of 20 coloured replicas of Greek and Roman works, alongside 35 original statues and reliefs, was held in Europe and the United States in 2008: Gods in Color: Painted Sculpture of Classical Antiquity. Details such as whether the paint was applied in one or two coats, how finely the pigments were ground, or exactly which binding medium would have been used in each case—all elements that would affect the appearance of a finished piece—are not known.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42869687",
"title": "Ancient Greek art",
"section": "Section::::Painting.:Polychromy: painting on statuary and architecture.:Sculpture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Most Greek sculptures were painted in strong and bright colors; this is called \"polychromy\". The paint was frequently limited to parts depicting clothing, hair, and so on, with the skin left in the natural color of the stone or bronze, but it could also cover sculptures in their totality; female skin in marble tended to be uncoloured, while male skin might be a light brown. The painting of Greek sculpture should not merely be seen as an enhancement of their sculpted form, but has the characteristics of a distinct style of art.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "274099",
"title": "Ancient Greek religion",
"section": "Section::::Sanctuaries and temples.:Cult images.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Many of the Greek statues well known from Roman marble copies were originally temple cult images, which in some cases, such as the Apollo Barberini, can be credibly identified. A very few actual originals survive, for example, the bronze Piraeus Athena ( high, including a helmet). The image stood on a base, from the 5th century often carved with reliefs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6ez12q
|
how can wal-mart sell so many items for cheaper than other big box store prices?
|
[
{
"answer": "I remember watching a video, that by selling it at a lower price they can make up the lost profits by selling more and buying/selling in bulk.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "let's say your local hardware store buys 50 hammers to stock their shelves with/expect to sell for the year. They purchase them at $5 each, so they have to sell them at $10 each to make a profit. Walmart buys 5 million hammers for a million dollars, costing 20¢ each. When they're that cheap, they can make a profit selling them at pretty much any price they want. Since they have so many, and the name of the game is getting customers out of other stores and into your store, they don't mind selling them 20% cheaper than the competition because it's still 4000% profit for them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In a store like Wal-Mart the goal isn't to make money on every product sold. They can sell some products at a loss, and make up the loss on the other 25 items you pick up on your way through the store. You maybe bought a shirt that Wal-Mart took a $0.75 loss on, but they made $0.25 on the sweatshirt, $0.50 on the socks, and $0.25 on the candy bar/energy drink you bought. They come out on top, but you feel good because you \"got them\" with a cheap shirt.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wal-Mart is notorious for selling lower quality versions of similar products at other stores. They have other angles, but above all, keep an eye on the quality at Wal-Mart, it is noticeably less than other stores.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On top of the product profits, Wal-mart is notoriously anti-union and when you keep unions out of the mix, you can keep benefits and wages to a minimum.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is all about quantity bought and sold. When they buy from a company like Kraft they buy whole sale (like 100 million boxes of mac n' cheese via contract) When you buy that much of a product or contract that much that company can afford to charge way less per box and places like Walmart do the same, undercutting the competitors and still gaining profits. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Several people have already mentioned that due to Walmarts size they have a lot of purchasing power. They can buy items for cheaper due to large orders and sell for cheaper due to the high volume of sales.\n\nHowever Walmart wasn't always the massive retailer it is today. On its way to the top WalMart had other ways to cut costs.\n\nWalmart cut costs by being so well run. Walmart has some of the best supply chain systems out there. Example: Read about Walmart's use of cross docking. \n\nThere are study after study about Walmarts efficient supply chain.\n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33589",
"title": "Walmart",
"section": "Section::::Corporate affairs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Unlike many other retailers, Walmart does not charge [[slotting fee]]s to suppliers for their products to appear in the store. Instead, it focuses on selling more-popular products and provides incentives for store managers to drop unpopular products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33589",
"title": "Walmart",
"section": "Section::::Operating divisions.:Walmart U.S..:Walmart Neighborhood Market.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Products at Walmart Neighborhood Market stores carry the same prices as those at Walmart's larger supercenters. A Moody's analyst said the wider company's pricing structure gives the chain of grocery stores a \"competitive advantage\" over competitors Whole Foods, Kroger and Trader Joe's.Walmart contributed around 14.5% of the entire quantity of food purchased in the USA during 2016. This figure was more than double the contribution from their closest competitor Kroger. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54493771",
"title": "Asian Immigrants and the Economy of Spain",
"section": "Section::::Chinos.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "These stores—small corner shops—sell a wide assortment of goods, ranging anywhere from “school supplies, toys, games, electronics, kitchen stuff, shoes, purses, picture frames, fabric, yarn, lightbulbs, glue, hair ties, umbrellas, maps, etc,” all at very reasonable prices. They are often compared to “dollar stores” that exist in the United States, less so because everything's a dollar, or a euro—it's not—but more so because they sell all types of items in one place. In fact, according to a blog writer for the blog, “Get Behind the Muse”:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1046514",
"title": "Criticism of Walmart",
"section": "Section::::Poorly run and understaffed stores.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "An April 3, 2013 \"The New York Times\" article cites \"Supermarket News\" that Walmart's grocery prices are usually about 15 percent cheaper than competitors. At the start of 2007, the company had an average of 338 employees for each Walmart and Sam's Club store in the United States, and by April 2013, this had reduced to an average of 281 employees per store. Terrie Ellerbee, associate editor of grocery publication \"The Shelby Report\", traced the problem to 2010 when Walmart reduced the number of different merchandise items carried in an attempt to make stores less cluttered. Customers did not like this change, and Walmart added the merchandise back, but did not add employees back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1046514",
"title": "Criticism of Walmart",
"section": "Section::::Imports and globalization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "As a large customer to most of its vendors, Walmart openly uses its bargaining power to bring lower prices to attract its customers. The company negotiates lower prices from vendors. For certain basic products, Walmart \"has a clear policy\" that prices go down from year to year. If a vendor does not keep prices competitive with other suppliers, they risk having their brand removed from Walmart's shelves in favor of a lower-priced competitor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18581242",
"title": "Target Corporation",
"section": "Section::::Corporate identity.:Differentiation from competitors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "In October 2008, Target announced plans to fight the perception that their products are more expensive than those of other discount retailers. It added perishables to their inventory, cut back on discretionary items, and spent three-quarters of their marketing budget on advertising that emphasizes value and includes actual prices of items featured in ads. Target also planned to slow its expansion from about 100 stores a year down to 70 stores a year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "446056",
"title": "Costco",
"section": "Section::::Sales model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "A typical Costco warehouse carries only 4,000 distinct products, while a typical Walmart Supercenter carries approximately 140,000 products. Costco does not carry multiple brands or varieties when the item is essentially the same, except when it has a house brand to sell, generally under the Kirkland Signature label. This results in a high volume of sales for the brand in question, allowing them to negotiate further reductions in price and marketing costs. If Costco feels the wholesale price of any individual product is too high, they will refuse to stock the product. For example, in November 2009, Costco announced that it would stop selling Coca-Cola products, because the soft-drink maker refused to lower its wholesale prices. Costco resumed selling Coca-Cola products the following month. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vr3l9
|
How different would the star constellation be around Alpha Centauri? Would we share any of the same noticeable constellations?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are 2 small constellations that lie almost directly opposite Alpha Centauri. They are [Triangulum](_URL_1_) and [Aries](_URL_3_).\n\nThe two nearest stars in these constellations are [Teegardens](_URL_2_) and [TZ Arietis](_URL_0_) which can only be seen with very large telescopes. All the other stars are further than 10 parsecs and wouldn't look much different from a further 1.34 parsecs.\n\nThe shape of both these constellations would be very similar to their shape as seen from Earth, although they would be slightly dimmer because they would be a bit further away. Sol would also be close to them and may even be an additional star in the constellation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even as most of the \"constellation stars\", ie. the one's visible with the naked eye, tend to be relatively close(*) to Sol, they're still, generally, tens, hundreds and even thousands of lightyears away. So, most of the stars' apparent positions would shift relatively little by the meager 4 ly jump from Sun to Alpha Centauri. You could probably identify most constellations, although you'd maybe have to mentally erase or move a star or two per constellation. I've heard that viewed from over there, our Sun would be a bright star in what we know as the constellation Cassiopeia.\n\nIt should be straightforward to map the Alphacentaurian night sky, with the Tycho catalog for example. Somone's probably done that very thing, although I didn't find it ... \n\nAs for extragalactic objects (like in your linked image), we wouldn't be seeing basically anything new.\n\n(*) All of the 4000, or so, visible to the naked eye, lie within a 4000-or-so-lightyear radius from us; compare that with 25000 y (or so!) to the centre of the Milky Way.\n\nTL;DR; the view of the cosmos is largely similar (and even the same) from Sun and Alpha Centauri\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Follow up. What would the sky look like if we were not in a galaxy, say drifting in intergalactic space? Would we still see stars, or would the visible object be more larger scale?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most of the constellations would be nearly the same, but a few of the nearby stars would be out of place. For example, Sirius would be right next to Betelgeuse, and Cassiopeia would have a new first magnitude star (the Sun).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1979",
"title": "Alpha Centauri",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "Alpha Centauri A and B are Sun-like stars (Class G and K), and together they form the binary star Alpha Centauri AB. To the naked eye, the two main components appear to be a single star with an apparent magnitude of −0.27, forming the brightest star in the southern constellation of Centaurus and the third-brightest in the night sky, outshone only by Sirius and Canopus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "602678",
"title": "Extraterrestrial skies",
"section": "Section::::Extrasolar planets.:View from nearby stars (0 – 10 ly).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "If the Sun were to be observed from the Alpha Centauri system, the nearest star system to ours, it would appear to be a 0.46 magnitude star in the constellation Cassiopeia, and would create a \"/W\" shape instead of the \"W\" as seen from Earth. Due to the proximity of the Alpha Centauri system, the constellations would, for the most part, appear similar. However, there are some notable differences with the position of other nearby stars; for example, Sirius would appear about one degree from the star Betelgeuse in the constellation Orion. Also, Procyon would appear in the constellation Gemini, about 13 degrees below Pollux.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4199",
"title": "Bayer designation",
"section": "Section::::Order by magnitude class.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Of the 88 modern constellations, there are at least 30 in which \"Alpha\" is not the brightest star, and four of those lack an alpha star altogether. The constellations with no alpha-designated star include Vela and Puppis – both formerly part of Argo Navis, whose Greek-letter stars were split between three constellations. α Arg is Canopus and was moved to the modern constellation Carina.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6234266",
"title": "Alpha Centauri in fiction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "Alpha Centauri, a double star system with the binary designation Alpha Centauri AB, is the brightest visible object in the southern constellation Centaurus. Its component stars are Alpha Centauri A (the primary—somewhat larger and brighter than the Sun) and Alpha Centauri B (the secondary—slightly smaller and dimmer). These stars are of spectral classes G2V (as is the Sun) and K1V, respectively; in the former case there is an obvious model and potential for planets capable of supporting complex biospheres, and in the latter, as it turns out, an even stronger probability of a stable habitable zone that is well suited for life. (Proxima Centauri—a late-discovered red dwarf, and the closest known star to the Solar System) appears to be gravitationally bound to the AB system although at a considerable distance. The collection of three stars together is called Alpha Centauri AB-C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1979",
"title": "Alpha Centauri",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Alpha Centauri (Latinized from α Centauri, abbreviated Alpha Cen or α Cen) is the closest star system and closest planetary system to the Solar System at 4.37 light-years (1.34 parsec) from the Sun. It is a triple star system, consisting of three stars: α Centauri A (officially Rigil Kentaurus), α Centauri B (officially Toliman), and α Centauri C (officially Proxima Centauri).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30659",
"title": "Triangulum",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "Three stars make up the long narrow triangle that gives the constellation its name. The brightest member is the white giant star Beta Trianguli of apparent magnitude 3.00, lying 127 light-years distant from Earth. It is actually a spectroscopic binary system; the primary is a white star of spectral type A5IV with 3.5 times the mass of our sun that is beginning to expand and evolve off the main sequence. The secondary is poorly known, but calculated to be a yellow-white F-type main-sequence star around 1.4 solar masses. The two orbit around a common centre of gravity every 31 days, and are surrounded by a ring of dust that extends from 50 to 400 AU away from the stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6234266",
"title": "Alpha Centauri in fiction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "As one of the brightest stars in Earth's night sky, and the closest-known star system to the Sun, the Alpha Centauri system plays an important role in many fictional works of literature, popular culture, television, and film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9gzodh
|
Regional Differences in US Soldiers' Placements during WWII? Regional Differences in War Coverage?
|
[
{
"answer": "For the U.S. Army, generally no, [as I've elaborated on before](_URL_6_), although there were a few interesting exceptions. \n\nOne circumstance that could have large numbers of men from the same area fighting together in the same unit in the same theater was if they were members of the National Guard. I wrote previously about the origins of the National Guard [here](_URL_2_); \n\n > The [Militia Act of 1903](_URL_0_) established the **National Guard of each State**, or the organized militia, and the reserve militia. When the National Guard of each state was formed into units, they would need to be organized along the lines of units of the Regular Army and submit themselves to the federal government if they wanted to receive funding. The Militia Act also set the number of yearly exercises, and codified the circumstances under which the National Guard of each state could be federalized; by the president, and for a maximum period of nine months and not outside the United States. In [1908](_URL_1_), the Militia Act was amended to allow the president to set the term limit for federal service as he saw fit, and allow the National Guard to serve outside the United States. \n\n...\n\n > Exactly how the National Guard fit into the structure of the Army in war was not really considered until the [National Defense Act of 1916](_URL_7_). The act provided that the **Army of the United States** would consist of the **Regular Army**, the **Volunteer Army**, the **Officers' Reserve Corps**, the **Enlisted Reserve Corps**, the **National Guard while in the service of the United States**, and **such other land forces as are now or may hereafter be authorized by law**. The act said that members of the National Guard, when called into the service of the United States, would lose their militia status and become members of the Volunteer Army. The organization of the National Guard was also modified; the president had the sole responsibility to delegate the types of units and number of men for each state, rather than the states themselves. The Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) was also established.\n\n > The [1920](_URL_3_) amendments to the National Defense Act of 1916 provided that the **Army of the United States** would consist of the **Regular Army**, the **National Guard while in the service of the United States**, and the **Organized Reserve Corps**, which included the **Officers' Reserve Corps** and the **Enlisted Reserve Corps**.\n\n > In [1933](_URL_4_), another amendment to the Act established the **National Guard of the United States** as a legal entity, and provided that federally recognized National Guard men and officers of each state take a dual oath, and be considered members of the Army of the United States at all times. Officer commissions into the NGUS were technically considered reserve commissions under the amendment. This established the National Guard as the federal reserve component we know today. You will notice that the 1920 amendments to the National Defense Act got rid of the “Volunteer Army.” Its equivalent, first codified in [1940](_URL_8_), was that any enlistments into the Army during a time of national emergency or war as declared by Congress would just be in the “Army of the United States,” and would be for the duration of the emergency or war plus six months. Later, in [1941](_URL_5_), the status of personnel who were drafted into the Army under the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 was clarified.\n\nNational Guard units were state-based, with the major units being infantry divisions;\n\nDivision|Allotted states|Campaign participation credit\n:--|:--|:--\n26th|Massachusetts|Northern France, Rhineland, Ardennes-Alsace, Central Europe\n27th|New York|Elements participated in various campaigns in the Pacific, but not the entire division\n28th|Pennsylvania|Normandy, Northern France, Rhineland, Ardennes-Alsace, Central Europe\n29th|Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Washington, D.C.|Normandy, Northern France, Rhineland, Central Europe\n30th|Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee|Normandy, Northern France, Rhineland, Ardennes-Alsace, Central Europe\n31st|Alabama, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi|New Guinea, Southern Philippines\n32nd|Michigan, Wisconsin|New Guinea, Southern Philippines, Luzon\n33rd|Illinois|New Guinea, Luzon\n34th|Iowa, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota|Tunisia, Naples-Foggia, Rome-Arno, North Apennines, Po Valley\n35th|Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska|Normandy, Northern France, Rhineland, Ardennes-Alsace, Central Europe\n36th|Texas|Naples-Foggia, Rome-Arno, Southern France, Rhineland, Ardennes-Alsace, Central Europe\n37th|Ohio|Northern Solomons, Luzon\n38th|Indiana, Kentucky. West Virginia|New Guinea, Southern Philippines, Luzon\n40th|California, Nevada, Utah|Bismarck Archipelago, Southern Philippines, Luzon\n41st|Idaho, Montana, Oregon, Washington, Wyoming|Papua, New Guinea, Southern Philippines\n43rd|Connecticut, Maine, Rhode Island, Vermont|New Guinea, Northern Solomons, Luzon\n44th|Delaware, New Jersey, New York|Northern France, Rhineland, Central Europe\n45th|Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Oklahoma|Sicily, Naples-Foggia, Anzio, Rome-Arno, Southern France, Rhineland, Ardennes-Alsace, Central Europe",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3600907",
"title": "141st Signal Battalion (United States)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "The official history of the United States Army in World War II says of the unit during this period, \"This unit was undoubtedly one of the best signal outfits in the Army…. The service provided by this crack unit suggested how effective communications could be in the hands of experienced troops.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13313759",
"title": "Individual augmentee",
"section": "Section::::Historical use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "After the September 11, 2001 attacks, and especially after the U.S. invasion of Iraq, Individual Augmentee assignments increased dramatically. Initially, most of these assignments included Navy or Air Force personnel assigned to Army units to fill specialized roles that the Army had either trouble filling or had limited expertise in. Some of these personnel were already combat trained by virtue of their existing skills, while others went into combat zones in Afghanistan and Iraq with little or no combat training. As a result, a formal program soon developed that ensured a minimum level of training for all members deploying to combat zones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22831731",
"title": "Lisgoole Abbey",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th–20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "During the Second World War, American army divisions used this area as a base. These units included the 109th Medical Battalion (34th Infantry Division) in 1942 and the 8th Medical Battalion (minus Companies A and B) (8th Infantry Division) from 16 December 1943 to 1944.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21001269",
"title": "History of the United States Army",
"section": "Section::::Twentieth century.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "The Army fought World War II with more flexible divisions, consisting of three infantry regiments of three infantry battalions each. From the point of view of soldiers, most of their time was spent in training in the United States, with large numbers going overseas in 1944.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3796919",
"title": "Royal Army Educational Corps",
"section": "Section::::History.:Second World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "The Second World War saw the normal work of the corps radically change. The need for both physically and mentally competent troops resulted in an increased workload for the Army Education Centres. The AEC began to operate in a variety of different theatres and locations throughout the war, including the unexpected task of sending news-sheet teams with the D-Day landings. Recruits saw training time double, with education being conducted in hospitals, prisons and displaced persons camps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4978283",
"title": "George Montague Harper",
"section": "Section::::Military Operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "When Deputy Director of Military Operations, Colonel Harper minuted (1 October 1913) that in the event of war corps should simply be “post boxes” to relay the decisions of GHQ to divisions – this view would gradually be revised in the course of the war, and by the latter part of World War One experienced corps commanders were taking on more and more autonomy over operations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26379464",
"title": "1944 Nebraska Cornhuskers football team",
"section": "Section::::Before the season.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "World War II was dragging on, with the United States now in its third year since being drawn into the conflict. College sports programs across the nation were shorthanded with so many young men enlisting into the armed forces, while all of the \"service teams\" that had entered the college football landscape, fielded by the branches of the armed forces, had the advantage of adding former players to their rosters. This gave the service teams the ability to concentrate the best former players into their programs, and at the end of 1944, service teams made up half of all of the ranked teams. It was in this environment of upheaval and disparity that a struggling Nebraska football team that had never previously suffered consecutive losing seasons was now returning from three losing campaigns in a row. Head coach Lewandowski was back for his second year, while also serving as Nebraska's athletic director, to see if he could reverse the fortunes of the Cornhusker football squad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a59fzo
|
Why on Wikipedia list of top WW2 Ace pilots are above 50 almost only marks only German Luftwaffe pilots?
|
[
{
"answer": "1. ***Luftwaffe*** **personnel policy** \\- The Germans tended to keep pilots in combat for as long as possible. In general, German *jadgflieger* only stopped flying combat missions if they were killed (Walter Nowotny), badly wounded (Günther Specht, although he eventually returned to service), captured (Ulrich Steinhilper), or promoted (Adolf Galland). By contrast, leading Allied pilots were often promoted to non-flying jobs leading operational units, put on staff duties, or sent to help train up new pilots. Battle of Britain ace \"Sailor\" Malan became Biggin Hill's station commander in 1942, which limited his ability to fly on operations. U.S. Navy ace \"Jimmy\" Thach, the inventor of the famous \"Thach Weave\" maneuver, was transferred to training and staff duties after he'd scored only six kills. \n2. **Length of time in combat** \\- Virtually every high-scoring German ace flew their first missions over Poland in 1939 or France and Belgium in 1940. Some pilots, like Adolf Galland (96 kills) and Werner Mölders (102-108 kills) had flown with the Condor Legion in the 1930s. Mölders, for example, already had valuable combat experience and several kill claims from the Spanish Civil War before WWII even began. By contrast, Soviet pilots didn't enter combat until June 1941. It wasn't until 1943 that USAAF operations in the ETO began to kick into high gear. And it wasn't until mid-1942 that the USAAF and USN were able to really contest the Japanese in earnest. In short, German pilots had a head start over the pilots of nearly every other Allied nation, with the exception of the RAF. According to Trevor Constable and Raymond Toliver: \"One American pilot with 254 missions actually fired his guns at an airborne target only 83 times, and this may well be the best record of any American pilot. In gaining his 352 aerial victories, which establish him as the leading fighter ace of the world and of all time, Major Erich Hartmann flew 1,425 missions. Many times Hartmann flew from two to seven missions a day ... He was involved in more than 800 actual aerial combats.\" They go on to point out that the ***average*** German pilot flew around 1,000 to 2,000 combat missions. Meanwhile, the most active Allied fighter pilots flew only from 250 to 400 sorties.\n3. **Quality of the opposition** \\- I don't want to give an unfair impression of the Soviet Air Forces, but I think it's fair to say they weren't ready for war in 1941. The VVS operated a large number of obsolete aircraft like the I-153 biplane and the I-16, with its open-cockpit. Other early-war aircraft like the LaGG-3 also had serious issues (poor build quality, underpowered, etc.). The Germans were able to destroy nearly 4,000 Soviet planes in the air and on the ground during the opening week of Operation Barbarossa. By 1943, the Soviet Air Forces were a much more formidable opponent and by late 1944, they could serious contest air superiority on the Eastern Front. But in 1941-1942, German pilots had a real chance to run up the score against the Soviets. You can make a similar case that the Gloster Gladiators and Hawker Hurricanes of the RAF offered similarly-vulnerable targets for German pilots in North Africa during 1941.\n4. **Number of opportunities** \\- By 1943 and 1944, the *Luftwaffe* was getting increasingly outnumbered in the skies. That meant relatively few chances for Allied pilots to get kills and that those kills would get spread out over a larger number of pilots. It also meant the reverse for the top German pilots, who had a target-rich environment with lots of chances to get kills. Gunther Rall mentions this in his veryz-enlightening interview here: _URL_0_\n5. **Lying,** **over-claiming, and wishful thinking** \\- I don't want to single German pilots out too heavily for this one, since aircrew on both sides often wildly-inflated kill claims. Part of this is a product of the confusion and stress of combat. By comparing kill claims to actual loss records, it's cleae pilots often counted damaged planes as \"destroyed\" or double-counted another pilot's kill. For example, on September 15th, 1941, JG27 claimed 20 kills against RAF and RAAF aircraft over North Africa. However, Christopher Shore, who has written extensively on the air war in the desert, has found that Allied records only report 5 losses on that date. In other words, JG27 had a 3:1 bogus claim to real claim ratio. This is one reason why gun camera footage of a plane exploding or a pilot bailing out was so helpful in verifying a kill claim. \n6. **German \"one pilot, one kill\" accounting rules** - *Luftwaffe* kill counting gave only one pilot credit for each destroyed aircraft. It's not hard to imagine how this \"one pilot, one kill\" system advantaged higher-ranked veteran pilots over more junior fliers. By contrast, the Commonwealth and American kill systems allowed for fractional kills credits. Credit for one victory could be split between multiple pilots. This is why RAAF ace Cive Caldwell has 28.5 victories and Mustang ace George Preddy has the even-odder score of 26.83 victories.\n7. **American claims given more post-war official scrutiny.** - In the 1950s, American kill claims were evaluated by the USAF's Fighter Victory Credits Board. This Board used information only available after the war (ex. German loss records) to reevaluate American wartime kill claims. This was followed by another board in 1978. In 1945, Mustang ace George Preddy had 27.5 kills. After the 1950s Board, he was credited with only 25.83 kills. And after the 1978 Board, he had 26.83 kills. To my knowledge, the *Bundswehr* has never subjected WWII German kill claims to the same level of post-war scrutiny. \n & #x200B;",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24239523",
"title": "Messerschmitt Bf 109 operational history",
"section": "Section::::Combat service with the Luftwaffe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Among many of the combatants, ace status was granted to a pilot who scored five or more kills. Applying this to \"Luftwaffe\" fighter pilots and their records shows more than 2,500 German pilots were aces. However, the Germans did not use this benchmark; instead they awarded the title of \"Experte\" to a fighter pilot who not only demonstrated high skill in combat but also exemplified the best in personal character.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2313567",
"title": "List of World War II aces from Germany",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "This is a list of fighter aces in World War II from Germany. A flying ace or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down five or more enemy aircraft during aerial combat. It is relatively certain that 2,500 German fighter pilots attained ace status, having achieved at least 5 aerial victories. This article lists 890 (updated as of October 2017) of these aces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31571340",
"title": "Aerial victory standards of World War I",
"section": "Section::::The Central Powers of World War I.:Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 1313,
"text": "The Germans did not use the term 'ace' but referred to German pilots who had achieved 10 kills as \"Kanone\" (\"big gun\") and publicized their names and scores, for the benefit of civilian morale – this term is not known to have come into use \"before\" May 1916, however, as when a pilot before that time achieved a total of four confirmed victories, they were most likely to start being cited in official Army communiqués. As mentioned previously, the German military's verification methods for scoring a \"confirmed\" aerial victory were rigorous, and became more so later in the war. By 1916, as the dedicated \"Jasta\" fighter squadrons were forming within the newly named \"Luftstreitkräfte\" in October of 1916, every victory had to be claimed in a combat report to his commanding officer. The report was passed up the chain of command for evaluation. Downed enemy aircraft that landed behind the German lines of trenchwork were easily confirmed. Those that fell behind enemy lines had to be verified by a German observer. All victories were credited to a single specific pilot. In case of insoluble disagreement over a given victim, the victory would be credited to a unit, but not to an individual. The sole exception to this was the awarding of a victory each to the pilot and observer of a successful two-seater.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10571884",
"title": "Max-Hellmuth Ostermann",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Max-Hellmuth Ostermann (11 December 1917 – 9 August 1942) was a \"Luftwaffe\" fighter ace during World War II. A flying ace or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down five or more enemy aircraft during aerial combat. He is credited with 102 enemy aircraft shot down claimed in over 300 combat missions. The majority of his victories were claimed over the Eastern Front with eight claims over the Western Front and one over Belgrade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47291764",
"title": "Wolfgang Thimmig",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Wolfgang Thimmig (October 4, 1912—November 6, 1976) was a German Luftwaffe night fighter ace during World War II. By the end of the war he had achieved 24 aerial victories, reached the rank of Oberstleutnant, and was Geschwaderkommodore for NJG 2, having previously been the Kommodore for NJG 4.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1160161",
"title": "Operation Bodenplatte",
"section": "Section::::Battle.:Asch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "Several pilots made \"Ace\" status that day. No P-51s were lost; two were damaged and one was damaged on the ground. The 336th Fighter Group lost one P-47. The 366th was credited with eight enemy aircraft, and AAA claimed seven more. However, overclaiming is likely. \"Luftwaffe\" records indicate JG 11 lost 28 fighters. Four German pilots (two wounded) made it back to German-held territory, while four were captured and the remaining twenty were killed. Some 24 of the Bf 109s and Fw 190s lost were lost over enemy lines. German ace Günther Specht was among those German pilots killed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21078598",
"title": "Max Näther",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Leutnant Max Näther (24 August 1899 – 8 January 1919) Royal House Order of Hohenzollern, Iron Cross, was a German World War I ace fighter pilot noted for the destruction of ten enemy observation balloons and sixteen aircraft. He was probably the youngest German ace in World War I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
893qoy
|
why do so many ant hills show up after it's been raining?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ant hills are usually caused by ants dumping debris out of the holes that lead into their home complexes. After a rain, a lot of dirt and debris has fallen off the walls and into the holes, and has to be removed. So the ants take all that out and dumps it into the area around the holes, making a hill.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1056536",
"title": "Ant colony",
"section": "Section::::Excavation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "Ant hill art is a growing collecting hobby. It involves pouring molten metal (typically non-toxic zinc or aluminum), plaster or cement down an ant colony mound acting as a mold and upon hardening, one excavates the resulting structure. In some cases, this involves a great deal of digging. The casts are often used for research and education purposes but many are simply given or sold to natural history museums or sold as folk art or as souvenirs. Usually, the hills are chosen after the ants have abandoned as to not kill any ants; however in the Southeast United States, pouring into an active colony of invasive fire ants is a novel way to eliminate them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3723097",
"title": "Puddle",
"section": "Section::::Natural puddles and wildlife.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Puddles in natural landscapes and habitats, when not resulting from precipitation, can indicate the presence of a seep or spring. Small seasonal riparian plants, grasses, and wildflowers can germinate with the ephemeral \"head start\" of moisture provided by a puddle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38118917",
"title": "Brown Willy",
"section": "Section::::Environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The hill is known for a meteorological phenomenon known as the Brown Willy effect, in which heavy rainfall develops over high ground and then travels downwind for a long distance. The effect produces heavy localised rain which can cause disastrous flash flooding such as the Boscastle flood of 2004. In another case when the effect was manifested, a continuous line of showers developed on 27 March 2006 stretching 145 miles from Brown Willy to Oxfordshire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13192981",
"title": "Tabernas Desert",
"section": "Section::::Geology and biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "The little rainfall that occurs is usually torrential, so that the ground, consisting of marls and sandstone with little vegetation, is unable to retain moisture. Instead, the rain causes erosion, forming the characteristic landscape of badlands. Arroyos formed by torrential rain harbor the scarce vegetation and fauna such as swifts, hedgehogs, jackdaws, pin-tailed sandgrouses, blue rock thrushes, stone curlews, trumpeter finches, and crested larks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1382306",
"title": "Red harvester ant",
"section": "Section::::Colonization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "The mounds are typically flat and broad, high, and in diameter. Even larger denuded areas have been reported, on the order of . Three to eight trails typically lead away from the mound, like \"arms\". These trails are used by ants to collect and bring food back to the mound. \"Scout\" ants are the first ones out of the mound every morning. They seek food, and mark their path as they return to the mound to alert the worker ants. The worker ants follow the scent trail and collect the food. Other worker ants clean, extend, and generally tend to the mound, the queen, and the . All the ants in the colonies are females apart from the winged males produced in the breeding season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3328127",
"title": "Broga",
"section": "Section::::Geography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The hill, approximately 400m in altitude, is notable for its unique appearance as it is rather devoid of trees, which is an uncommon sight amongst the tropical rainforests surrounding the region. Remnants of burnt out tree trunks indicate that the area may have been ravaged by a forest fire and the trees did not regrow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44183913",
"title": "Southern Black Forest Nature Park",
"section": "Section::::Bogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Most clouds come from the west where they pass the broad lowlands of the Upper Rhine Plain and then have to rise when they reach the Black Forest mountains. Therefore, it rains frequently in the west and in the High Black Forest. Consequently, this is also the area where many bogs could be found in depressions. However, due to age-long drainage and peat extraction, their number has been reduced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
37syyb
|
when looking at laptops, is the mah the capacity of the battery? is it multiplied by how many cells there are?
|
[
{
"answer": "The thing that matters is watt hours. That is amp hours times nominal voltage. Assuming the batteries are of the same chemistry, thus each cell has the same voltage, yes, it's proportional to the number of cells. So the 6 cell 4.4 stores almost twice as much energy as the 3 cell 4.6.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The mah is total rated stored capacity. But it doesn't mean thats how much is available to deliver. You can typically say bigger is better. But sometimes one battery with bigger capacity cell will not deliver as much juice as another battery that uses a different type of cell that has a smaller stored capacity.\n\n\nImagine cell is a gallon jug of milk. Pour it out and you'll end up with not quite a gallon of milk cause some sticks to the walls. Now imagine you have 100 snack bottles of milk that should total up to 1 gallon capacity. Pour all of those out, probably end up with less milk than the 1 gallon jug",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, it is the total capacity of the battery. All cells aren't created equally (AAA's and D's are both a single cell), so sometimes a battery with fewer larger cells can outperform a battery with more smaller cells.\n\nKeep in mind the capacity of the battery doesn't relate as much to battery life as you might think. Ultrabooks and laptops that use the intel -U processors, have integrated graphics cards, and aren't touch-screen tend to use considerably less power, and can last longer with less battery. \n\nUnless you're comparing two different battery options on the same exact laptop, completely ignore the battery capacity. Look at either the manufacturer's estimated battery life (useful for comparing different laptops from the same manufacturer), or find an independent review site (there are a ton of great choices) that measures battery life.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11778236",
"title": "OLPC XO",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "The laptop design specification goals are consumption of about 2 W of power during normal use, far less than the 10 W to 45 W of conventional laptops. With build 656, power consumption is between 5 and 8 watts measured on G1G1 laptop. Future software builds are expected to meet the 2-watt target.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13361722",
"title": "PowerTOP",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "It is most effective on laptop computers. Laptops are specifically designed to allow power use to be both monitored and controlled. In particular, many laptop computers can measure the rate of battery use (when not connected to mains power). PowerTOP uses this feature to estimate power usage in Watts and battery life. This provides immediate feedback on changes made e.g. disabling wireless networking when not used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36937821",
"title": "HP Envy",
"section": "Section::::Notebook models.:Discontinued models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "The slice battery adds about 1.5 inches to the laptop's height and 680 g of weight. However, it more than doubles the battery life. The AC adapter is also of considerable size since it must power the laptop and charge both batteries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "198584",
"title": "Laptop",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Battery and power supply.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "2016-era laptops use lithium ion batteries, with some thinner models using the flatter lithium polymer technology. These two technologies have largely replaced the older nickel metal-hydride batteries. Battery life is highly variable by model and workload and can range from one hour to nearly a day. A battery's performance gradually decreases over time; substantial reduction in capacity is typically evident after one to three years of regular use, depending on the charging and discharging pattern and the design of the battery. Innovations in laptops and batteries have seen situations in which the battery can provide up to 24 hours of continued operation, assuming average power consumption levels. An example is the HP EliteBook 6930p when used with its ultra-capacity battery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32376817",
"title": "ThinkPad W series",
"section": "Section::::Models.:W700.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "The laptop featured up to a 2.53GHz Intel Core 2 Extreme QX9300 CPU, up to 8GB of DDR3 RAM (two slots), either an (MXM-mounted) NVIDIA Quadro FX 2700M or FX 3700M with up to 1GB video RAM, and a TN LCD display with a resolution of or .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29440258",
"title": "Sony Vaio E series",
"section": "Section::::Intel laptops.:EB Series.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "The EB series was launched in February 2010, and features a 15.5\" 1366x768 or 1920x1080 LED-backlit screen, up to 640GB hard drive, Intel GMA, ATI Mobility Radeon 5470 or 5650 GPU. The laptop weighs 5.95 lbs and has 2.5 hours battery life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218382",
"title": "TI MSP430",
"section": "Section::::MSP430 generations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "In the following list, it helps to think of the typical 200 mA·Hr capacity of a CR2032 lithium coin cell as 200,000 μA·Hr, or 22.8 μA·year. Thus, considering only the CPU draw, such a battery could supply a 0.7 μA current draw for 32 years. (In reality, battery self-discharge would reduce this number.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8k8jsr
|
how was the world able to work together to ban cfcs and protect the ozone layer, but aren't making those same enviornmental gains now?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not an expert by any means, but CFCs in aerosol cans and the like are easily and cheaply replaced by other gases. Carbon emissions are the main cause of climate change and those are caused by fossil fuel consumption. The oil, gas, and coal industry has a much more powerful lobby in governments, and hydrocarbons are a lot harder to replace in energy generation and manufacturing",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Ozone hole had a specific cause (or at least a pretty specific solution... stop using CFC's as propellants). There are other ways to make products that had been reliant on CFC's. Spray Cans could still have propellants, just not CFC's. They moved to propane, nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide.\n\nThe big hurdle in the environment right now is carbon (and methane). Fixing this has no simple substitution solution. The entire energy generation methodology for the planet has to be redone. The prevalence on fossil fuels hits everything, not just products with propellants.\n\nScale is the problem, on top of huge government opposition to getting away from fossil fuels. Lack of political will would be another way to put it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2057915",
"title": "Ronald Bailey",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "In his 1993 book, \"Ecoscam\", Bailey wrote, \"Despite a great deal of continuing scientific uncertainty, it appears that CFCs do contribute to the creation of the Antarctic ozone hole and perhaps a tiny amount of global ozone depletion. ... [I]t makes sense to phase out the use of CFCs.\" When \"Science\" reported in July 2016 that the ozone layer was restoring itself after CFCs were banned, Bailey wrote, \"Since atmospheric pollution presents significant barriers to assigning property rights, I concluded that the international treaty banning CFCs was the appropriate response.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2110335",
"title": "Orient Overseas Container Line",
"section": "Section::::Environmental Considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "In 1992, five years in advance of the Montreal Protocol, an international treaty designed to protect the Earth's ozone layer, OOCL changed the design of its refrigerated container machinery in order to eliminate the use of CFCs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9250176",
"title": "Environmental Investigation Agency",
"section": "Section::::Areas of work.:Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Montreal Protocol: Agreed in 1987 with a pressing mission to regulate the chemicals directly destroying Earth’s ozone layer and celebrated as the world’s most successful environmental treaty. EIA was instrumental in proposing and then making the case that the Protocol, which so ably removed chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), was the best mechanism by which to phase out the harmful hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) which have come to replace CFCs. This work resulted in the Kigali Amendment on HFCs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25271012",
"title": "Environmental governance",
"section": "Section::::Environmental governance issues.:Ozone layer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "On 16 September 1987 the United Nations General Assembly signed the Montreal Protocol to address the declining ozone layer. Since that time, the use of chlorofluorocarbons (industrial refrigerants and aerosols) and farming fungicides such as methyl bromide has mostly been eliminated, although other damaging gases are still in use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4937086",
"title": "Global commons",
"section": "Section::::Management of the global commons.:Atmosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "The 1979 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, or CLRTAP, is an early international effort to protect and gradually reduce and prevent air pollution. It is implemented by the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP), directed by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, or Montreal Protocol (a protocol to the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer), is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production of numerous substances believed to be responsible for ozone depletion. The treaty was opened for signature on 16 September 1987, and entered into force on 1 January 1989.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54910",
"title": "Chlorofluorocarbon",
"section": "Section::::History.:Regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "By 1987, in response to a dramatic seasonal depletion of the ozone layer over Antarctica, diplomats in Montreal forged a treaty, the Montreal Protocol, which called for drastic reductions in the production of CFCs. On 2 March 1989, 12 European Community nations agreed to ban the production of all CFCs by the end of the century. In 1990, diplomats met in London and voted to significantly strengthen the Montreal Protocol by calling for a complete elimination of CFCs by the year 2000. By the year 2010, CFCs should have been completely eliminated from developing countries as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1564855",
"title": "Environmental Defense Fund",
"section": "Section::::Key accomplishments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1987 - Played a key role in the treaty to phase out the use of CFCs, chemicals that many researchers believe damage the Earth's ozone layer, although CFC-22 was continued to be allowed, renamed H-CFC-22 to avoid banning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
29wdou
|
why do many businesses, especially those with long term aspirations lease vs buy their buildings?
|
[
{
"answer": "I am no expert, but I will say it's because they are not in the commercial real estate business. If I have an IT business, I want to focus on that business alone, not also worry about maintaining a building. Plus, it's easier to grow or shrink if you are renting.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lease payments are deductible business expenses. Leasing property or equipment reduces a company's taxable income dollar-for-dollar.\n\nA building owned by the company is an asset. Depreciation reduces taxable income, as well as does interest on loans taken to acquire business assets, but in general leasing is the better option for tax purposes.\n\nOf course, there is less risk involved with leasing than with ownership. Ask anyone who has moved to a new house while being unable to sell the old one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lots of reasons, some of them very similar to why an individual would rent vs buying. \n- Don't have enough capital/credit\n- Not sure where they'll be in 10-30 years\n- Leasing usually requires less of your cash flow\n\nAnd a biggie, is that they may just feel that putting the capital to use by reinvesting in their company would be a better investment than the investment of real estate. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I ill (start to) answer your question, with a question: Why would you buy a building, if you have long term growth aspirations?\n\nLet's say you've got a new start up retail business, and you have the choice of buying or leasing, a 1000 sq ft space, you can sign a least for 15 years, or take a mortgage on it for 5 (probably not real, the mortgage would almost definitely be a longer time but for illustration I'm going to go with the same time range). The lease will cost you less (because the holder of the property will still own the building when the lease expires, so they don't need to get full value from you for it), you won't have as many expenses for repairs and what not, and at the end of the 5 years, if you've grown enough, you can get a new place.\n\nIf you buy: the mortgage will cost you more (you're buying the building, and the land), and you'll be responsible for repairs. At the end of 5 years, you own the building, thats \"ok\", if you haven't grown (wasn't your goal when you were buying it!) but if you've grown, and you're ready to upgrade, you're now responsible for re-selling the building you have (or maybe you'll grow by adding a new store, in which case, I suppose owning would be ok too but we'll assume you're expanding into a larger place) So, now, depending on what market prices have done, your lot may have less value than it did when you bought it, other areas where you're looking to expand into might've gone up, and you could be maintaining two buildings while you try to sell.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Businesses lease instead of buy because of the depreciation tax laws. When they lease its a 100% deduction in taxes and when someonbe buys, over the years, less is estimated in deductions (or can be evenly divided over a certain period of years still resulting in less percentage of taxable deductions)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. It keeps money from being tied up in non productive uses. (The company only has to pay smaller monthly lease payments vs. a large lump sum)\n\n2. Tax deductibility: it is a current business expense and comes off this years income. With owned property it is more complicated.\n\n3. Reduces risk: generally lease terms are shorter allowing for more flexibility. Also there isn't as much of a chance of the underlying propertys value declining.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In almost all realms of commerce, participants understand that there are unique pros & cons to both renting and owning stuff (real estate, equipment, anything). Participants seek to make good decisions, balancing those pros & cons to buy when it makes sense, or rent/lease when it makes sense.\n\nThere is one exception. Due to 80 years of government proselytizing, vast swaths of North American culture believe that there is only one correct way to provide housing, for all types of people and all types of lifestyles: buy.\n\nIf the most hard nosed commercial enterprises, focussed on ensuring they are profitable, do the math and decide renting/leasing is often a good option, then the real question would be, why do governments encourage home ownership and why do people go along with it?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1056691",
"title": "Lease purchase contract",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Lease-purchase contract agreements are open source in nature and flexible to the needs of the tenant/buyer and landlord/seller. Lease-purchase contracts are popular with tenant/buyers who have poor credit scores, lower savings for down payments, or people who are moving from one city to another but are pending a sale on their previous home. They are great for sellers who are having difficulty securing tenants for their properties, which can be common when a house is for sale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2264838",
"title": "Urban Renewal Authority",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Expropriation of commercial tenants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "Commercial tenants sometimes have a different view towards urban renewal as low-cost premises are getting hard to find. Affordable commercial space is not always available in newly developed commercial buildings. Even owner-operators of commercial premises are unable to relocate in the same district because the compensation they get from the Urban Renewal Authority does not always match the purchase price of similar-sized properties in the same district. It was proposed, therefore, that options should be made available to owners or tenants so that they can choose between physical relocation by developers, cash compensation to allow them buy or rent elsewhere, or wind up their businesses altogether.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48557243",
"title": "Retail leasing",
"section": "Section::::Commercial lease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "A commercial lease is meant to be an Agreement between the Owner of that property and the Person looking to initiate some sort of Businesses on that land. A retail lease is a kind of commercial lease in premises that are wholly or predominantly used for retail shop businesses. These leases attract additional protections under the law, so it is important to choose what type of lease the business is entering into. Leasing lawyers are specialists in the field of leasing and may be consulted for legal advice when entering a lease. Owning commercial property also means a company has to manage it as well and a business may not be prepared to do that. Newer businesses usually require to pick commercial leasing over property possession as they often do not have the funds flow necessary to buy adequate business space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4310188",
"title": "Lease-option",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for using a lease option.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "A lease-option allows the seller to sell a property that they may not have otherwise been able to sell. In many cases a seller can net more money when offering terms to a buyer. Sellers can often avoid paying a Realtor fee by using a lease-option agreement (as they have already found the buyer themselves).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10499110",
"title": "Association law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Real estate developers often choose to maximize residential construction to clusters of residences within real property parcels. Many people purchase their residence within an association for reasons such as location along beaches and other areas, amenities, uniformity of appearance and other particular benefits or reasons. Associations are registered by the developer of the community as a not-for-profit corporation, which form of corporation is also governed by particular statutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "635681",
"title": "Lease",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "A lease is a contractual arrangement calling for the lessee (user) to pay the lessor (owner) for use of an asset. Property, buildings and vehicles are common assets that are leased. Industrial or business equipment is also leased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4386747",
"title": "Slumlord",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Traditionally, real estate is seen as a long-term investment to most buyers. Especially in the developed world, most landlords will properly maintain their properties even when doing so proves costly in the short term, in order to attract higher rents and more desirable tenants in the long run. A well-maintained property is worth more to potential buyers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1w7183
|
why do we as humans, classify things that we perceive are beautiful, elegant, graceful etc. and other things are abhorrent, loathsome, repulsive etc.
|
[
{
"answer": "I think that this originally comes from instinctual knowledge about how things look. We are predisposed to like flowing water and healthy green plants and to dislike rotting things and dark places basically anything that could have caused us harm. Everything else is just an extension of this and the things we have seen and learned to like or dislike based on experiences. This is all just speculation but I don't think your going to get an answer for this that isn't.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\nInteresting explanation for our classification of things that are 'cute'.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a society of intelligent creatures, it is useful to classify all things that effect us. Words like these are useful to descibe things that evoke emotions. And emotions are definitely part of the human experience.\n\nWhen we are taught these words, we are given examples of each. Even if one's initial feeling is at odds with the accepted definitions, it is certainly easier to accept the definitions as given than to argue against them -- especially when one is young, powerless and inarticulate. Unless one is particularly strong-willed, eventually the majority view is adopted. I believe that, unfortunately, this is a factor in how bigotry is perpetuated.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10568255",
"title": "Understanding (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "BULLET::::5. \"Beauty\": The collective knowledge of philosophers and mathematicians of the past, as well as modern day artists, scientists, models and musicians form the basis for considering what people find beautiful and why.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4431",
"title": "Beauty",
"section": "Section::::Human beauty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The characterization of a person as “beautiful”, whether on an individual basis or by community consensus, is often based on some combination of \"inner beauty\", which includes psychological factors such as personality, intelligence, grace, politeness, charisma, integrity, congruence and elegance, and \"outer beauty\" (i.e. physical attractiveness) which includes physical attributes which are valued on an aesthetic basis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3376041",
"title": "History of aesthetics before the 20th century",
"section": "Section::::Cultural history before the 20th century.:Western aesthetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "For Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten aesthetics is the science of the sense experiences, a younger sister of logic, and beauty is thus the most perfect kind of knowledge that sense experience can have. For Immanuel Kant the aesthetic experience of beauty is a judgment of a subjective but similar human truth, since all people should agree that \"this rose is beautiful\" if it in fact is. However, beauty cannot be reduced to any more basic set of features. For Friedrich Schiller aesthetic appreciation of beauty is the most perfect reconciliation of the sensual and rational parts of human nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "886036",
"title": "Ethical intuitionism",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.:Existence of objective moral values.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Many people think that beauty is subjective, that it is \"in the eye of the beholder.\" They would claim there are really no objective facts about what is and is not beautiful, only facts about what people prefer. Because of the close analogies between the moral and the aesthetic sense, parity of reasoning suggests that we should see the difference between right and wrong as also being merely in the eye of the beholder. Though ethical intuitionists insist on the analogy, they equally insist that the facts about right and wrong are perfectly objective. How can they have it both ways?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4431",
"title": "Beauty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Beauty is the ascription of a property or characteristic to an animal, idea, object, person or place that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure or satisfaction. Beauty is studied as part of aesthetics, culture, social psychology, philosophy and sociology. An \"ideal beauty\" is an entity which is admired, or possesses features widely attributed to beauty in a particular culture, for perfection. Ugliness is the opposite of beauty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55080525",
"title": "African-American beauty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Beauty is a perceived characteristic of an animal, idea, object, person or place that provides a perceptual experience of pleasure or satisfaction. Many people define beauty as something that is subjective, being that it is in the \"eye of the beholder\" to see what he or she thinks is actually beautiful. This \"eye\" is seen in many different cultures with each having a different preference. This subjective can be seen throughout history, especially in the African-American community. With the presence of oppression in the past, African-American cultural beauty has bend mended and redefined in many ways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4431",
"title": "Beauty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "The experience of \"beauty\" often involves an interpretation of some entity as being in balance and harmony with nature, which may lead to feelings of attraction and emotional well-being. Because this can be a subjective experience, it is often said that \"beauty is in the eye of the beholder.\" Often, given the observation that empirical observations of things that are considered beautiful often align among groups in consensus, beauty has been stated to have levels of objectivity and partial subjectivity which are not fully subjective in their aesthetic judgement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
g1e3ku
|
where does the flu go?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's still there. The number of infected people just go down because people aren't stuck inside together, so it doesn't get passed as easily. But once it gets colder and people stay inside together, one infected person can infect more people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "532906",
"title": "Orthomyxoviridae",
"section": "Section::::Replication cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "Typically, influenza is transmitted from infected mammals through the air by coughs or sneezes, creating aerosols containing the virus, and from infected birds through their droppings. Influenza can also be transmitted by saliva, nasal secretions, feces and blood. Infections occur through contact with these bodily fluids or with contaminated surfaces. Out of a host, flu viruses can remain infectious for about one week at human body temperature, over 30 days at , and indefinitely at very low temperatures (such as lakes in northeast Siberia). They can be inactivated easily by disinfectants and detergents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2888063",
"title": "Influenza pandemic",
"section": "Section::::Influenza.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "Typically, influenza is transmitted from infected mammals through the air by coughs or sneezes, creating aerosols containing the virus, and from infected birds through their droppings. Influenza can also be transmitted by saliva, nasal secretions, feces and blood. Healthy individuals can become infected if they breathe in a virus-laden aerosol directly, or if they touch their eyes, nose or mouth after touching any of the aforementioned bodily fluids (or surfaces contaminated with those fluids). Flu viruses can remain infectious for about one week at human body temperature, over 30 days at 0 °C (32 °F), and indefinitely at very low temperatures (such as lakes in northeast Siberia). Most influenza strains can be inactivated easily by disinfectants and detergents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19572217",
"title": "Influenza",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "Influenza, commonly known as the flu, is an infectious disease caused by an influenza virus. Symptoms can be mild to severe. The most common symptoms include: high fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pains, headache, coughing, sneezing, and feeling tired. These symptoms typically begin two days after exposure to the virus and most last less than a week. The cough, however, may last for more than two weeks. In children, there may be diarrhea and vomiting, but these are not common in adults. Diarrhea and vomiting occur more commonly in gastroenteritis, which is an unrelated disease and sometimes inaccurately referred to as \"stomach flu\" or the \"24-hour flu\". Complications of influenza may include viral pneumonia, secondary bacterial pneumonia, sinus infections, and worsening of previous health problems such as asthma or heart failure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3344863",
"title": "Childhood immunizations in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Influenza.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 218,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 218,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Influenza is caused by the influenza virus, it is a contagious disease that spreads around the United States every winter, usually between October and May. Anyone can get the flu, but the risk is highest among children and each year thousands of people die from the flu and many more are hospitalized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24104011",
"title": "Influenza prevention",
"section": "Section::::Mode Of Transmission in Influenza.:Novel H1N1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "The American Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) agrees that the \"spread of novel H1N1 virus is thought to occur in the same way that seasonal flu spreads. Flu viruses are spread mainly from person to person through coughing or sneezing by people with influenza.\" The CDC also says that a person may become infected if he or she touches something with flu viruses on it \"and then touches his or her eyes, nose, or mouth.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2859941",
"title": "Flu season",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Flu season is an annually recurring time period characterized by the prevalence of outbreaks of influenza (flu). The season occurs during the cold half of the year in each hemisphere. Influenza activity can sometimes be predicted and even tracked geographically. While the beginning of major flu activity in each season varies by location, in any specific location these minor epidemics usually take about 3 weeks to peak, and another 3 weeks to significantly diminish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23021790",
"title": "2009 flu pandemic in Argentina",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "The influenza A virus subtype H1N1 (initially known as swine influenza virus or as new flu) arrived in Argentina in late April 2009, through air traffic contact with endemic areas, especially Mexico and the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fdcm3
|
why do i pass out when i see my own bloody injuries?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yeah, what we're disgusted/shocked at is generally not in our control. It's not a voluntary response, where we look at something and consciously think, \"OH GOSH that is so gross I'm gonna pass out.\" It's really our subconsciousness' decision.\n\nSince your sister also does this, it might be [vasovagal syncope.](_URL_2_) Just because it has a fancy medical name doesn't mean it's \"serious,\" but it does mean it is studied and recognized as a \"disorder.\" If it really worries you, you can go see a psychologist / psychiatrist and they can help you diagnose it and choose a treatment (please see a professional and don't just take the advice of me, some medical student on the internet). Treatment can be pharmacological or behavioral, i.e. you can take drugs or you can just avoid the trigger or train your brain to stop reacting so severely to the sight of blood. Also, staying well hydrated can help, especially if you know you're about to be in a situation that will expose you to blood.\n\nEDIT: Just realized I never really answered your question. Here's the WHY:\n\nSo like I said: we really don't choose what shocks us. So what chooses? There's a part of your brain stem called the [solitary nucleus](_URL_1_) that decides. What it does is it triggers a massive drop in heart rate and opens up your arteries wide, and thus drops your blood pressure. That means less blood reaches your brain, and when that happens, you pass out (makes sense, right? If your brain isn't getting enough blood, it says, \"Get horizontal, you stupid body\" and we pass out. Simple yet practical.) So why have we evolved this way? Maybe it was so that, if we saw our own blood, we would drop our blood pressure so that less would be squirting out of us. Maybe it was so that we would play possum and whatever was attacking us would think we're dead. Who knows? \n\n[This is a pretty good article on vasovagal syncope, and worth a read.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33075673",
"title": "Bill Copeland (poet)",
"section": "Section::::Interviews.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Not only does this interview depict the agony of having to watch ones fellow soldiers being slaughtered, but also how it feels to be personally brutalized. The fire had burned my clothes and I was lying there mostly naked with burns all over my body. There was no bleeding or pain, which had to be a blessing at the time, but my left leg was shattered. I knew I was in trouble when I looked at it. I remember thinking, \"What a mess it was in\". -Corporal Theodore Suroweic\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48258204",
"title": "Strangulation (domestic violence)",
"section": "Section::::Outcomes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "Victims may have internal injuries, such as laryngo-tracheal injuries, digestive tract injuries, vascular injuries, neurological system injuries and orthopedic injuries. Clinical symptoms of these internal injuries may include neck and sore-throat pain, voice changes (hoarse or raspy voice or the inability to speak), coughing, swallowing abnormalities, and changes in mental status, consciousness and behavior. Neurological symptoms may include vision changes, dimming, blurring, decrease of peripheral vision and seeing \"stars\" or \"flashing lights.\" Post-anoxic encephalopathy, psychosis, seizures, amnesia, cerebrovascular accident and progressive dementia may be indicative of neuropsychiatric effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10351613",
"title": "Christopher Tookey",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Tookey also witnessed a man bleed to death from a stabbing in 1997, and his reaction troubled him: \"It has brought home to me that I have seen so much violence on screen (the latest film is \"Crash\") that I have become desensitised. Talking with the others on the street, I was noticeably less affected by the sight of this guy bleeding to death. After the killing, a number of people had nightmares. Shouldn't I have? It was my lack of reaction that was so chilling.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "500892",
"title": "Hypovolemia",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "There should be considered possible mechanisms of injury that may have caused internal bleeding, such as ruptured or bruised internal organs. If trained to do so and if the situation permits, there should be conducted a secondary survey and checked the chest and abdomen for pain, deformity, guarding, discoloration or swelling. Bleeding into the abdominal cavity can cause the classical bruising patterns of Grey Turner's sign (bruising along the sides) or Cullen's sign (around the navel).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3185593",
"title": "Splenic injury",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "In minor injuries with little bleeding, there may be abdominal pain, tenderness in the epigastrium and pain in the left flank. Often there is a sharp pain in the left shoulder, known as Kehr's sign. In larger injuries with more extensive bleeding, signs of hypovolemic shock are most prominent. This might include a rapid pulse, low blood pressure, rapid breathing, paleness, and anxiety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28081454",
"title": "Dueling scar",
"section": "Section::::Nature of the scars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "The wounds were generally not that serious, \"wounds causing, as a rule, but temporary inconvenience and leaving in their traces a perpetual witness of a fight well fought. The hurts, save when inflicted in the nose, lip or ear, are not even necessarily painful, and unless the injured man indulges too freely in drink, causing them to swell and get red, very bad scars can be avoided. The swords used are so razor-like that they cut without bruising, so that the lips of the wounds can be closely pressed, leaving no great disfigurement, such, for examples, as is brought about by the loss of an ear.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "474740",
"title": "Wound Man",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "The Wound Man illustrates various injuries that a person might receive through war, accident, or disease: cuts and bruises from multiple weapons, rashes and pustules, thorn scratches, and the bites of poisonous animals. The figure also includes some schematic anatomical outlines of several organs within his unusual, transparent abdomen. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4k0a1e
|
the new rules regarding overtime pay announced by the department of labor
|
[
{
"answer": "An individual has to pass two tests to be considered exempt. \n\n1. They have to perform certain types of duties at work \n2. They had to be paid a minimum of $23,600 per year\n\nIf they met both tests they were \"exempt\" from the fair labor standards act, which means they did not have to be paid overtime. They could be paid a set amount of money and work however many hours were needed. \n\nThe salary minimum is being raised to $47,476. That means if someone was exempt, but makes less than the new salary, they either a). Need to have their salary increased to at least $47,476 OR b) they now have to be paid overtime (time and a half) for any time worked over 40 hours per week. \n\nEdit: fixed autocorrect. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Curious thought . . . I'm a teacher, and like most in my profession, put in WAY more than 40 hours per week during the school year and it'll be years before I make anywhere close to $47,000. Will this rule change affect public school teachers? If so, that's good for teachers, but will be super disruptive to state and district budgets. Which, would kinda make me smile despite the pain it would bring . . .",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is big! Are there any exceptions or loopholes that businesses will exploit that will make this law meaningless? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46963607",
"title": "Associated Equipment Distributors",
"section": "Section::::Regulatory issues.:Overtime pay for salaried employees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "The U.S. Department of Labor changed overtime pay rules on May 18, 2016. The process began in 2014 when President Obama signed a Presidential Memorandum that directed the Department of Labor to update regulations that affect white collar workers who fall under minimum wage and overtime protections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10546322",
"title": "Anderson v. Mt. Clemens Pottery Co.",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "The United States Congress passed the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) in 1938. Section 7(a) of the Act defined working time, and required employers to pay overtime wages under certain circumstances. Section 11(c) of the Act requires employers to keep accurate records regarding time on the job. Section 16(b) of the Act enables employees to sue to recover lost wages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "341254",
"title": "Overtime",
"section": "Section::::Overtime laws by jurisdiction.:United States.:Federal overtime law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "In the United States the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 applies to employees in industries engaged in or producing goods for interstate commerce. The FLSA establishes a standard work week of 40 hours for certain kinds of workers, and mandates payment for overtime hours to those workers of one and one-half times the workers' normal rate of pay for any time worked above 40 hours. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "561380",
"title": "New Frontier",
"section": "Section::::Legislation and programs.:Labor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Contract Work Hours and Safety Standards Act (1962) established \"standards for hours, overtime compensation, and safety for employees working on federal and federally funded contracts and subcontracts\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19283833",
"title": "Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA) is a United States labor law that creates the right to a minimum wage, and \"time-and-a-half\" overtime pay when people work over forty hours a week. It also prohibits most employment of minors in \"oppressive child labor\". It applies to employees engaged in interstate commerce or employed by an enterprise engaged in commerce or in the production of goods for commerce, unless the employer can claim an exemption from coverage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14171256",
"title": "2007 Broadway stagehand strike",
"section": "Section::::Events.:Contract issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "BULLET::::- Overtime: The existing contract stated that if any stagehand is required to work overtime during a load-in, all workers must stay and be paid overtime. The producers proposed loosening the rule so that producers determined how many stagehands would stay and earn overtime. The union agreed to discuss modifying the contract, but only if the League agreed to strengthen other parts of the contract.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "638394",
"title": "Pat Tiberi",
"section": "Section::::U.S. House of Representatives.:Policy positions.:Labor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Tiberi voted to eliminate rules in the Fair Labor Standards Act that required time-and-a-half compensation for working overtime. The legislation allows employers to instead compensate overtime work with time off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
lvl0p
|
Your Finger is Pricked by a HIV Infected Needle- Can You Amputate To Save Yourself?
|
[
{
"answer": "[It takes about 1 minute](_URL_0_) for blood to circulate through the body and back to the heart, which is too fast for amputation to be an effective option, unless it's done immediately in one clean slice, which isn't likely to happen unless you just happen to have surgically sharp tools lying around.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No.\n\nThis kind of thing happens to nurses and other medical workers more often than you would think.\n\nFirst, the chances of getting HIV from this type of exposure are pretty low. It isn't like sharing a needle for intravenous drug use where blood is actually drawn up into the syringe.\n\nSecond, if there is a known exposure to HIV, the person is put on an anti-viral regimen that lasts for like a month.\n\nOdds of contracting HIV in this manner are well below the threshold where limb amputation would be a reasonable course of action.\n\nedit: _URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The odds of becoming infected with any bloodborne pathogen through a passing needle stick is pretty low.\n\nThe average risk of HIV infection after a needlestick or cut exposure to HIV-infected blood is 0.3%, or about 1 in 300. Being exposed through the mouth, nose, or eyes is even less at 0.1%, or about 1 in 1,000.\n\nNow, assuming you were pricked with an HIV infected needle, the odds of being infected with the virus are extremely low. To be safe, however, you might start antiretroviral therapy for a month or so. Cutting off your extremity would be useless and counterproductive. PEP (postexposure prophylaxis) has been shown to be effective at reducing the chance of HIV transmission. They're pretty strong drugs with some serious side-effects so not everyone is considered an ideal candidate. Still, it's the recommended course of action for occupational exposures to HIV.\n\nTo sum up, please don't amputate. Won't do a damn a thing.\n\nSource: _URL_0_\n\nedit: typo.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[It takes about 1 minute](_URL_0_) for blood to circulate through the body and back to the heart, which is too fast for amputation to be an effective option, unless it's done immediately in one clean slice, which isn't likely to happen unless you just happen to have surgically sharp tools lying around.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No.\n\nThis kind of thing happens to nurses and other medical workers more often than you would think.\n\nFirst, the chances of getting HIV from this type of exposure are pretty low. It isn't like sharing a needle for intravenous drug use where blood is actually drawn up into the syringe.\n\nSecond, if there is a known exposure to HIV, the person is put on an anti-viral regimen that lasts for like a month.\n\nOdds of contracting HIV in this manner are well below the threshold where limb amputation would be a reasonable course of action.\n\nedit: _URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The odds of becoming infected with any bloodborne pathogen through a passing needle stick is pretty low.\n\nThe average risk of HIV infection after a needlestick or cut exposure to HIV-infected blood is 0.3%, or about 1 in 300. Being exposed through the mouth, nose, or eyes is even less at 0.1%, or about 1 in 1,000.\n\nNow, assuming you were pricked with an HIV infected needle, the odds of being infected with the virus are extremely low. To be safe, however, you might start antiretroviral therapy for a month or so. Cutting off your extremity would be useless and counterproductive. PEP (postexposure prophylaxis) has been shown to be effective at reducing the chance of HIV transmission. They're pretty strong drugs with some serious side-effects so not everyone is considered an ideal candidate. Still, it's the recommended course of action for occupational exposures to HIV.\n\nTo sum up, please don't amputate. Won't do a damn a thing.\n\nSource: _URL_0_\n\nedit: typo.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "373100",
"title": "Needle sharing",
"section": "Section::::Infections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "A simple prick or accidentally touching a used infected needle can put someone at risk of acquiring Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, or HIV. Hepatitis B is the easiest to contract, followed by Hepatitis C, followed by HIV from discarded needles. Almost 50% of people who participate in IVDU have Hepatitis C. Not only are blood borne diseases passed via needle sharing, but so are bacterial infections that can ultimately cause sepsis. Additionally, improper disposal of hospital needles can expose drug resistant organisms to the outside environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2148428",
"title": "Fear of needles",
"section": "Section::::Vicarious.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Whilst witnessing procedures involving needles it is possible for the phobic to suffer the symptoms of a needle phobic attack without actually being injected. Prompted by the sight of the injection the phobic may exhibit the normal symptoms of vasovagal syncope and fainting or collapse is common. While the cause of this is not known, it may be due to the phobic imagining the procedure being performed on themselves. Recent neuroscience research shows that feeling a pin prick sensation and watching someone else's hand get pricked by a pin activate the same part of the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19125563",
"title": "Parasuta dwyeri",
"section": "Section::::Defense mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "... bitten on the finger by a \"Suta dwyeri\" once. The bite did not hurt at all. But little did I know he had left his fang in my finger. A couple of days later it got a tiny bit infected and hurt for a couple of days ... nothing major though.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3160300",
"title": "Needlestick injury",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1146,
"text": "A needlestick injury is the penetration of the skin by a hypodermic needle or other sharp object, which has been in contact with blood, tissue or other body fluids before the exposure. Even though the acute physiological effects of a needlestick injury are generally negligible, these injuries can lead to transmission of blood-borne diseases, placing those exposed at increased risk of contracting infectious diseases, such as hepatitis B (HBV), hepatitis C (HCV), and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Among healthcare workers and laboratory personnel worldwide, more than 25 blood-borne virus infections have been reported to have been caused by needlestick injuries. In addition to needlestick injuries, transmission of these viruses can also occur as a result of contamination of the mucous membranes, such as those of the eyes, with blood or body fluids, but needlestick injuries make up more than 80% of all percutaneous exposure incidents in the United States. Various other occupations are also at increased risk of needlestick injury, including law enforcement, laborers, tattoo artists, food preparers, and agricultural workers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "732148",
"title": "Dupuytren's contracture",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Less invasive treatments.:Percutaneous needle fasciotomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Needle aponeurotomy is a minimally-invasive technique where the cords are weakened through the insertion and manipulation of a small needle. The cord is sectioned at as many levels as possible in the palm and fingers, depending on the location and extent of the disease, using a 25-gauge needle mounted on a 10 ml syringe. Once weakened, the offending cords can be snapped by putting tension on the finger(s) and pulling the finger(s) straight. After the treatment a small dressing is applied for 24 hours, after which people are able to use their hands normally. No splints or physiotherapy are given.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "342304",
"title": "Lumbar puncture",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Contact between the side of the lumbar puncture needle and a spinal nerve root can result in anomalous sensations (paresthesia) in a leg during the procedure; this is harmless and people can be warned about it in advance to minimize their anxiety if it should occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37631439",
"title": "Pain stimulus",
"section": "Section::::Peripheral stimuli.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Peripheral stimuli are generally applied to the limbs, and a common technique is squeezing the lunula area of the finger or toe nail, often with an adjunct such as a pen. Like the sternal rub, though, this can cause bruising, and is recommended against, in favour of squeezing the side of the finger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3jleuc
|
Does the universe really look like a brain cell?
|
[
{
"answer": "First it should be pointed out that this is not a picture of the universe. This is picture of a dark matter simulation. That being said, if you choose the right scale, on the right simulation, and choose the right colour scheme to compare with, then they do look similar. I can't say much as to the validity of what a brain cell looks like, though.\n\nThere should, however, be no link made between the similarities of these photos. It is a selective coincidence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the same sense that cobwebs look like a brain cell",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9638200",
"title": "Boltzmann brain",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "The Boltzmann brain argument suggests that it is more likely for a single brain to spontaneously and briefly form in a void (complete with a false memory of having existed in our universe) than it is for our universe to have come about in the way modern science thinks it actually did. It is a reductio ad absurdum response to Ludwig Boltzmann's early explanation for the low-entropy state of our universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1379832",
"title": "A Universe of Consciousness",
"section": "Section::::Precis.:The Dynamic Core Hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "At any given time, only a small subset of the neuronal groups in the brain are contributing directly to consciousness and this cluster is called a \"dynamic core\". It represents a single point of view and each different state of consciousness corresponds to a different subset. Some dissociative disorders such as schizophrenia may result in the formation of multiple cores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37284",
"title": "Brain tumor",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Brain matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "The brains of humans and other vertebrates are composed of very soft tissue and have a gelatin-like texture. Living brain tissue has a pink tint in color on the outside (gray matter), and nearly complete white on the inside (white matter), with subtle variations in color. The three largest divisions of the brain are: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11080148",
"title": "Growing Up in the Universe",
"section": "Section::::Parts.:Part 5: The Genesis of Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "He then goes on the show that the brain uses models to describe the universe by looking at how the brain interprets various optical illusions, such as the hollow-face illusion using a rotating hollow mask of Charlie Chaplin, the \"impossible\" geometry of a Penrose triangle, the shifting interpretations of the Necker cube and the ability of humans to find faces in random shapes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20711147",
"title": "Brian's Brain",
"section": "Section::::Rules.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Brian's Brain consists of an infinite two-dimensional grid of cells, but unlike Seeds, each cell may be in one of three states: on, dying, or off. Each cell is considered to have eight neighbors (the Moore neighborhood), as in Seeds and Conway's Game of Life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "655270",
"title": "Brain Cell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Brain Cell is an art experiment in the vein of networked mail art, where a network expands from A, copied, forwarded and even returned to the originator. This produces a series of cybernetic cells, which can interact in a non-linear order. Brain Cell enlisted over 6,000 contributors from 80 nations between 1985 and 2002.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20211596",
"title": "Ten percent of the brain myth",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "Although parts of the brain have broadly understood functions, many mysteries remain about how brain cells (i.e., neurons and glia) work together to produce complex behaviors and disorders. Perhaps the broadest, most mysterious question is how diverse regions of the brain collaborate to form conscious experiences. So far, there is no evidence that there is one site for consciousness, which leads experts to believe that it is truly a collective neural effort. Therefore, as with James's idea that humans have untapped cognitive potential, it may be that a large number of questions about the brain have not been fully answered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
36afsa
|
Why can't some tissues like ligaments regenerate?
|
[
{
"answer": "In order for parts of the human body to regenerate, stem cells have to be present that can differentiate into the damaged tissue. You might be familiar with the fact that your skin is continuously being replaced as old cells are sloughed off and replaced with new ones. This occurs because epithelial stem cells are present to replace old cells upon differentiation. Now the issue with stem cells is in what tissues they can differentiate into. Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent, meaning that they can differentiate into all embryonic tissue types. Adult stem cells, though, are at best multipotent, meaning they can differentiate into several tissues, but not all of them. So adult stem cells are highly limited in what they're ability to regenerate. The reason that some species (e.g. starfish) can regenerate entire limbs is that they maintain a supply of pluripotent stem cells. Since human stem cells lose potency, they lose the ability to regenerate all types of tissues. Why humans lose stem cell potency is still up for debate, but the gist is that we simply don't have the proper stem cells to do it.\nSource: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17874",
"title": "Ligament",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "Ligaments are similar to tendons and fasciae as they are all made of connective tissue. The differences in them are in the connections that they make: ligaments connect one bone to another bone, tendons connect muscle to bone, and fasciae connect muscles to other muscles. These are all found in the skeletal system of the human body. Ligaments cannot usually be regenerated naturally; however, there are periodontal ligament stem cells located near the periodontal ligament which are involved in the adult regeneration of periodontal ligament.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5300182",
"title": "Flexibility (anatomy)",
"section": "Section::::Anatomical Elements of Flexibility.:Ligaments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Ligaments are composed of two different tissues: white and yellow. The white fibrous tissues are not stretchy, but are extremely strong so that even if the bone were fractured the tissue would remain in place. The white tissue allows subjective freedom of movement. The yellow elastic tissue can be stretched considerably while returning to its original length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3398691",
"title": "Chondroblast",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "However, regeneration is still too slow for patient care to effectively rely on this mechanism of repair. Part of this inability to regenerate quickly from injury results from the relative avascular nature of cartilage as compared to other connective tissues of the human body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5596320",
"title": "Equine anatomy",
"section": "Section::::Ligaments and tendons.:Ligaments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Ligaments attach bone to bone or bone to tendon, and are vital in stabilizing joints as well as supporting structures. They are made up of fibrous material that is generally quite strong. Due to their relatively poor blood supply, ligament injuries generally take a long time to heal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51778319",
"title": "Scar free healing",
"section": "Section::::Scar free healing in nature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1935,
"text": "Unlike the limited regeneration seen in adult humans, many animal groups possess an ability to completely regenerate damaged tissue. Full limb regeneration is seen both in invertebrates (e.g. starfish and flatworms which can regenerate fully functioning appendages) and some vertebrates, however in the latter this is almost always confined to the immature members of the species: an example being tadpoles which can regrow their tails and various other body parts, an ability not seen in the mature frogs. The exception to this is the much studied urodele species' of amphibians, also known as salamanders, which carry their ability of complete regeneration into adulthood. These vertebrates possess an exceptional ability to allow regeneration of entire limbs and their tails (as well as a multitude of their internal organs as well, including their spinal cord) through a process known as blastema formation. This involves covering of the wound by a layer of epithelial cells known as the wound cap and subsequent innervation of this area with nerves that give off signals that revert local differentiated cells (such as muscle, cartilage and connective tissue) back to their undifferentiated cell lineage also known as mesenchymal cells. It is this area that is known as the blastema which has the potential to differentiate and proliferate once again allowing regrowth of the limb similar to how it occurs during development. In wound-healing in urodeles it is the quick response of anti-inflammatory macrophages which have been shown to be key to their regeneration capabilities. In one study, it was found that limbs would not regenerate in those urodeles with depleted macrophages and instead would scar with permanent loss of functionality. Knowing how regeneration occurs in animals such as these may have great implications for how wound-healing is tackled in medicine and research has been aimed at this area, as a result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "514458",
"title": "Wound healing",
"section": "Section::::Research and development.:Wound repair versus regeneration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "\"True tissue regeneration\" or \"complete regeneration\", refers to the replacement of lost/damaged tissue with an ‘exact’ copy, such that both morphology and functionality are completely restored. Though after injury mammals can completely regenerate spontaneously, they usually do not completely regenerate. An example of a tissue regenerating completely after an interruption of morphology is the endometrium; the endometrium after the process of breakdown via the menstruation cycle heals with complete regeneration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "653348",
"title": "Human musculoskeletal system",
"section": "Section::::The different muscles.:Joints, ligaments and bursae.:Ligaments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "A ligament is a small band of dense, white, fibrous elastic tissue. Ligaments connect the ends of bones together in order to form a joint. Most ligaments limit dislocation, or prevent certain movements that may cause breaks. Since they are only elastic they increasingly lengthen when under pressure. When this occurs the ligament may be susceptible to break resulting in an unstable joint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17l789
|
what is reddit?
|
[
{
"answer": "Reddit is like a forum, except anybody can create their own sub-forums (or \"sub-reddits\") within it if they'd like. Some of the most popular threads in the most popular sub-forums are aggregated and displayed on the front page by default. (The word \"aggregate\" simply means \"to gather together\"). However, you can create your own account and then subscribe or unsubscribe to any of these sub-forums as you wish and those subscriptions will change what appears on YOUR front page. So if you sign up and un-subscribe from r/athiesm, then you will no longer see any posts from that sub-reddit appear on the front page while you are logged in. There are thousands of sub-forums to choose from.\n\nBeyond the ability for anybody to create their own sub-forum anybody can also post new threads within any of these sub-forums. These threads can either start off with a text post, just like in an ordinary forum where someone posts a few words or paragraphs and people reply with their own comments, or they can start a thread with a link directly to some website or picture, etc. and people will reply with comments to that. All threads posted can be up-voted or down-voted. The comments that people respond with can also be up-voted and down-voted by anybody who happens across the thread and feels compelled to vote.\n\nThreads and comments can be sorted by the ratio between their upvotes and downvotes or by their age (see: best, top, hot, controversial, newest and oldest). Upvotes/downvotes accrue into a users \"karma\" score and so there is an artificial incentive for users to post positive or useful threads or comments because you get karma points as a result. Sometimes you'll even get \"Reddit Gold\" from people as a gift.\n\nThat's about it. There are exceptions; it is possible to have private sub-forums where only invited users are allowed access. It's also possible for public sub-forums admins/moderators to ban abusive users from their sub-forum.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::Site overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Reddit is a website comprising user-generated content—including photos, videos, links, and text-based posts—and discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name \"Reddit\" is a play-on-words with the phrase \"read it\", i.e., \"I read it on Reddit.\" , there are approximately 330 million Reddit users, called \"redditors\". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as \"subreddits\", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Reddit (, stylized in its logo as reddit) is an American social news aggregation, web content rating, and discussion website. Registered members submit content to the site such as links, text posts, and images, which are then voted up or down by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called \"subreddits\", which cover a variety of topics including news, science, movies, video games, music, books, fitness, food, and image-sharing. Submissions with more up-votes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough up-votes, ultimately on the site's front page. Despite strict rules prohibiting harassment, Reddit's administrators spend considerable resources on moderating the site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46791871",
"title": "Timeline of Reddit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "This is a timeline of Reddit, an entertainment, social networking, and news website where registered community members can submit content, such as text posts or direct links, making it essentially an online bulletin board system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::Site overview.:Subreddits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Discussions on Reddit are organized into user-created areas of interest called \"subreddits\". There are about 138,000 active subreddits among a total of 1.2 million, as of July 2018. Subreddit names begin with \"r/\". For instance, r/science is a community devoted to discussing scientific topics and r/television is a community devoted to discussing TV shows. Meanwhile, r/popular features top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all does not filter topics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::Site overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "As a network of communities, Reddit's core content consists of posts from its users. Users can comment on others' posts to continue the conversation. A key feature to Reddit is that users can cast positive or negative votes, called upvotes and downvotes, for each post and comment on the site. The number of upvotes or downvotes determines the posts' visibility on the site, so the most popular content is displayed to the most people. Users can also earn \"karma\" for their posts and comments, which reflects the user's standing within the community and their contributions to Reddit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::Site overview.:Other features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "In 2017, Reddit developed its own real-time chat software for the site. While some established subreddits have used third-party software to chat about their communities, the company built chat functions that it hopes will become an integral part of Reddit. Individual chat rooms were rolled out in 2017 and community chat rooms for members of a given subreddit were rolled out in 2018.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "961853",
"title": "Newsreader (Usenet)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "A newsreader is an application program that reads articles on Usenet (a distributed discussion system, which groups its content into a hierarchy of subject-related newsgroups, each of which contains multiple threads or discussions). Newsreaders act as clients which connect to a news server, via the Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP), to download articles and post new articles. In addition to text-based articles, Usenet is increasingly used to distribute binary files, generally in dedicated \"binaries\" newsgroups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lyrd3
|
How does the chemical composition of air influences our behaviour?
|
[
{
"answer": " > Q What happens to human behaviour when the current balance of the global chemical composition of air is changed?\n\nThat's a very vague question. Temporary low oxygen enviornments over a few weeks can boost red blood cell count which can benefit athletes in training. High oxygen environments can benefit people, but there is a danger of [Oxygen toxicity](_URL_1_) if the concentration is too high.\n\nObviously if oxygen concentration is too low it will kill you. And certain gases such as Carbon Monoxide can [displace oxygen](_URL_2_): \" CO is breathed in, it attaches to hemoglobin, the molecule that normally carries oxygen in the blood. As more CO is breathed in, more CO attaches to hemoglobin and less oxygen can be delivered throughout the body. This lack of oxygen results in the symptoms associated with CO poisoning.\". And there are other gases which would also act as poisons.\n\n > Q What would happen if it would have more of a certain gas which is known to change human behaviour, for example: nitrous oxide.\n\nA \"[Nitrous oxide](_URL_0_) (N2O) has been used for well over 150 years in clinical dentistry for its analgesic and anxiolytic properties. This small and simple inorganic chemical molecule has indisputable effects of analgesia, anxiolysis, and anesthesia that are of great clinical interest.\"\n\n > Q Could we change the chemical composition of air to improve quality of life. For example; make human beings more peaceful, more effective, less susceptible to diseases or to have longer lives?\n\nA We can certainly use low oxygen environments to allow athletes to grow more red blood cells:\n\n > \"Athletes can also take advantage of altitude acclimatization to increase their performance. The same changes that help the body cope with high altitude increase performance back at sea level.\" [Source](_URL_3_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We can talk knowledgeably about the long-term effects of more or less oxygen in blood, as that changes with altitude, and it definitely influences behavior. Low enough blood oxygen leads to fatigue, constipation, stroke and heart attack, for example, though you'll acclimate somewhat over time if you're under 8000 feet. The atmosphere still has 20.9% oxygen at these heights, but part of what drives it into blood is atmospheric pressure, which decreases as you climb above sea level, with the net effect of lower blood oxygen. \n\nPeople that, for whatever reason (like emphysema or asthma, for example), have difficulty oxygenating their blood can experience giddiness when they start breathing treatments, but for most people, this is negligible, so it doesn't really make sense to say we're \"high\" on air. Anecdotally, people that live in heavily poluted cities will talk about \"gaining energy\" or feeling livelier when they vacation in the country, and this can at least be sometimes attributed to less CO in the air they're breathing. Basically, this shows air quality can influence behavior, and less fatigue rapidly becomes the new normal. \n\nMost of the gases we know have human effects have *negative* effects, or at least effects we wouldn't want to see put into constant exposure. All of the gas anesthetics have biological trade-offs, they're hard on the liver and brain, and cause production of really toxic exhaled waste products.\n\nI don't know of any substance that only causes improvement, regardless of physical state (solid, liquid, or gas). Everything I can think of has trade-offs associated with them. Regardless, we can still think about it as a hypothetical, and say that, rather than changing the absolute composition of air permanently, temporary changes in room environment could be enacted for a positive effect, like, say, theoretically increasing the oxygen levels inside an elementary school that was located in a badly polluted city. Higher oxygen, at temporary intervals, can help fight disease (particularly in people with poor circulation or bad oxygenation ability) and decrease fatigue/bad mood/etc.. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7320978",
"title": "Air sensitivity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Air sensitivity is a term used, particularly in chemistry, to denote the reactivity of chemical compounds with some constituent of air. Most often, reactions occur with atmospheric oxygen (O) or water vapor (HO), although reactions with the other constituents of air such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO), and nitrogen (N) are also possible. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "706999",
"title": "Atmospheric chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Methodology.:Observation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1244,
"text": "Observations of atmospheric chemistry are essential to our understanding. Routine observations of chemical composition tell us about changes in atmospheric composition over time. One important example of this is the Keeling Curve - a series of measurements from 1958 to today which show a steady rise in of the concentration of carbon dioxide (see also ongoing measurements of atmospheric CO). Observations of atmospheric chemistry are made in observatories such as that on Mauna Loa and on mobile platforms such as aircraft (e.g. the UK's Facility for Airborne Atmospheric Measurements), ships and balloons. Observations of atmospheric composition are increasingly made by satellites with important instruments such as GOME and MOPITT giving a global picture of air pollution and chemistry. Surface observations have the advantage that they provide long term records at high time resolution but are limited in the vertical and horizontal space they provide observations from. Some surface based instruments e.g. LIDAR can provide concentration profiles of chemical compounds and aerosol but are still restricted in the horizontal region they can cover. Many observations are available on line in Atmospheric Chemistry Observational Databases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "706999",
"title": "Atmospheric chemistry",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "In the 20th century atmospheric science moved on from studying the composition of air to a consideration of how the concentrations of trace gases in the atmosphere have changed over time and the chemical processes which create and destroy compounds in the air. Two particularly important examples of this were the explanation by Sydney Chapman and Gordon Dobson of how the ozone layer is created and maintained, and the explanation of photochemical smog by Arie Jan Haagen-Smit. Further studies on ozone issues led to the 1995 Nobel Prize in Chemistry award shared between Paul Crutzen, Mario Molina and Frank Sherwood Rowland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164633",
"title": "Atmospheric science",
"section": "Section::::Atmospheric chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "The composition and chemistry of the atmosphere is of importance for several reasons, but primarily because of the interactions between the atmosphere and living organisms. The composition of the Earth's atmosphere has been changed by human activity and some of these changes are harmful to human health, crops and ecosystems. Examples of problems which have been addressed by atmospheric chemistry include acid rain, photochemical smog and global warming. Atmospheric chemistry seeks to understand the causes of these problems, and by obtaining a theoretical understanding of them, allow possible solutions to be tested and the effects of changes in government policy evaluated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15774067",
"title": "Synaptic noise",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Chemical sensing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Chemical sensing, such as that of taste and smell which rely on an external chemical stimulus, is affected by thermodynamics. Chemical molecules arrive at the appropriate receptor at random times based on the rate of diffusion of these particles. Also, receptors can't perfectly count the number of signaling molecules that pass through. These two factors are additional causes of synaptic noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183324",
"title": "Thermodynamic activity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The difference between activity and other measures of composition arises because molecules in non-ideal gases or solutions interact with each other, either to attract or to repel each other. The activity of an ion is particularly influenced by its surroundings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13090984",
"title": "Pneumatic chemistry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "In the eighteenth century, as the field of chemistry was evolving from alchemy, a field of the natural philosophy was created around the idea of air as a reagent. Before this, air was primarily considered a static substance that would not react and simply existed. However, as Lavoisier and several other pneumatic chemists would insist, the air was indeed dynamic, and would not only be influenced by combusted material, but would also influence the properties of different substances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1p4atg
|
the differences and similarities between anarchy and communism
|
[
{
"answer": "Anarchy is an ideology which asserts that there is no need for a government for a peaceful and ideal community.\nOn the other hand communism requires a government. And the key idea behind communism is to make all citizen equal.(This is the duty of the government) For example all of them will have a house but the houses will be all the same and just as comfortable as avarage; not more. \nAnarchy does not mention the way that people should live so that one is not actually a comparison but a difference.\nI hope this helped.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "No, they aren't the same thing at all.\n\nAnarchy describes multiple political systems, though most people use the term in the pejorative (i.e. Anarchy is bad). Anarchy as a political system eliminates a concept of \"state\" or centralized form of government and instead control over any particular area is reverted to the lowest elemental level that can maintain control. This could be that you run your house because you are the strongest person in your house, or you could be like Master-blaster and run all of barter town. Think of it the way Native Americans operated, in tribes. The tribes deferred governance to the wisest in the tribe or the strongest (sometimes both). Now take one member of the tribe, and send them off on their own to do as they please. That's anarchy.\n\nCommunism embraces the concept of \"the state,\" and posits that everyone is the state, and that everyone should work together (communally) for the benefit of the greater good, the state, that is us/them. This means that \"the state\" may need you to work on a farm or in a kitchen, despite your desire to want to work in a shipyard or as a professional cat trainer. The state has needs and it is your duty to serve the state's needs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5773736",
"title": "Issues in anarchism",
"section": "Section::::Relations with the left.:Communism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 3181,
"text": "While communism is proposed as a form of social and economic organisation by many anarchists, other anarchists consider it a danger to the liberty and free development of the individual. Most schools of anarchism have recognized a distinction between libertarian and authoritarian forms of communism. Pierre-Joseph Proudhon said of communism that \"whether of the utopian or the Marxist variety, that it destroyed freedom by taking away from the individual control over his means of production\", adding: \"Communism is exploitation of the strong by the weak\". Mikhail Bakunin stated: \"I hate Communism because it is the negation of liberty and because for me humanity is unthinkable without liberty. I am not a Communist, because Communism concentrates and swallows up in itself for the benefit of the State all the forces of society, because it inevitably leads to the concentration of property in the hands of the State\". However, Bakunin was speaking of authoritarian and statist forms of communism and socialism (see also state capitalism and its origins and early uses of the term) as verified by the last line which mentions state property—anarcho-communists explicitly reject state property and authority, especially centralized authority—and famously proclaimed: \"We are convinced that freedom without Socialism is privilege and injustice, and that Socialism without freedom is slavery and brutality\". Even American individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker, who insisted on the voluntary nature of all association and opposed communism along with majority rule, organized religion and the institution of marriage due to their compulsory nature, argued: \"Whoever denies private property is of necessity an Archist. This excludes from Anarchism all believers in compulsory Communism. As for the believers in voluntary Communism (of whom there are precious few), they are of necessity believers in the liberty to hold private property, for to pool one's possessions with those of others is nothing more or less than an exercise of proprietorship\". Karl Marx's communist society is actually based on free association which he called a community of freely associated individuals. Marx's communist society is one in which \"the full and free development of every individual forms the ruling principle\" and \"the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all\". Hence, Marx justified the forms of equality he did advocate such as the communal ownership and control of the economy on the grounds that they led to human freedom and human development, arguing that \"the realm of freedom actually begins only where labor which is determined by necessity and mundane considerations ceases; thus in the very nature of things it lies beyond the sphere of actual material production. According to Allen Woods, a communist society is one that has transcended class antagonisms and \"would not be one in which some truly universal interest at last reigns, to which individual interests must be sacrificed. It would instead be a society in which individuals freely act as the truly human individuals they are\", making Marx's communist society radically individualistic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12",
"title": "Anarchism",
"section": "Section::::Anarchist schools of thought.:Classical.:Anarcho-communism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Anarcho-communism, also known as anarchist-communism, communist anarchism and libertarian communism, is a theory of anarchism that advocates abolition of the state, markets, money, private property (while retaining respect for personal property) and capitalism in favour of common ownership of the means of production, direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations and workers' councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: \"From each according to his ability, to each according to his need\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1626410",
"title": "Michel Henry",
"section": "Section::::Consequences of Henry's philosophy.:On the problems of society.:From Communism to Capitalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1156,
"text": "Communism and Capitalism are for Michel Henry two faces of the one death, which consists in the negation of life. Communism eliminates individual life in favour of universal abstractions like society, people, history or social classes. The dogmatism of Marxism is a form of fascism, i.e. a doctrine which originates in the degradation of the individual whose elimination is considered as legitimate, whereas capitalism substitutes economic entities such as money, profit or interest for the real needs of life. Capitalism however recognizes life as a source of value, wages being the objective representation of real subjective and living work. But capitalism progressively gives way to the exclusion of subjectivity by modern technology, which replaces living work by automated technological processes, eliminating at one stroke the power of creating value and ultimately value itself: possessions are produced in abundance, but unemployment increases and there is a continual shortage of money to buy them. These themes are developed in \"Du communisme au capitalisme, théorie d’une catastrophe\" (\"From Communism to Capitalism, Theory of a Catastrophe\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17865",
"title": "Anarcho-communism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 979,
"text": "Anarcho-communism, also referred to as anarchist communism, communist anarchism, free communism and libertarian communism, is a political philosophy and anarchist school of thought which advocates the abolition of the state, capitalism, wage labour and private property (while retaining respect for personal property, along with collectively-owned items, goods and services) in favor of common ownership of the means of production, direct democracy, and a horizontal network of workers' councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: \"From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs\". Some forms of anarcho-communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are strongly influenced by egoism and radical individualism, believing anarcho-communism to be the best social system for the realization of individual freedom. Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39353100",
"title": "Social anarchism",
"section": "Section::::Historical currents.:Anarcho-communism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1285,
"text": "Anarcho-communism (also known as anarchist communism, communist anarchism and libertarian communism, among others) is a theory of anarchism that advocates the abolition of the state, markets, money, capitalism and private property. Politically, anarcho-communists advocate replacing the nation-state and representative government with a voluntary confederation of free communes (self-governing municipalities), with the commune replacing the nation as the core unit of social-political administration. Economically, anarcho-communists believe in converting private property into the commons or public goods while retaining respect for personal property. In practice, this means common ownership of the means of production, direct democracy with production organised through a horizontal network of voluntary associations and consumption based on the guiding principle: \"From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs\". Some forms of anarcho-communism such as insurrectionary anarchism are strongly influenced by egoism and radical individualism, believing anarcho-communism is the best social system for the realization of individual freedom. Most anarcho-communists view anarcho-communism as a way of reconciling the opposition between the individual and society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2496310",
"title": "Left-libertarianism",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.:Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Left-libertarians like social and individualist anarchists, libertarian Marxists and left-wing market anarchists argue in favor of libertarian socialist theories such as communism, mutualism and syndicalism. Daniel Guérin writes that \"anarchism is really a synonym for socialism. The anarchist is primarily a socialist whose aim is to abolish the exploitation of man by man. Anarchism is only one of the streams of socialist thought, that stream whose main components are concern for liberty and haste to abolish the State\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3225498",
"title": "Libertarianism",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.:Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Left-libertarians, including social and individualist anarchists, libertarian Marxists and left-wing market anarchists, argue in favor of anarchist and libertarian socialist economic theories such as communism, syndicalism and mutualism. Daniel Guérin writes that \"anarchism is really a synonym for socialism. The anarchist is primarily a socialist whose aim is to abolish the exploitation of man by man. Anarchism is only one of the streams of socialist thought, that stream whose main components are concern for liberty and haste to abolish the State\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
afl8u9
|
In the human heart, why are the atria and ventricles of the same side separated from each other? Couldn't there just be a right chamber that pumps blood to the lungs and a left chamber that pumps blood around the body?
|
[
{
"answer": "It would be possible to make a heart that relies completely on passive filling in humans, but we have evolved from animals in which atria contribute much more than in our heart.\n\n\nIn mammals and humans, the atria play a relatively small role, when they contract they contribute ~10-30% to ventricular filling. In an otherwise healthy person, you can knock out atrial contraction (For example, in atrial fibrillation), and there is no change in cardiac output. For some people who already have poor heart function, the loss of that extra filling can be the difference between hanging in there and decompensating.\n\n\nEvolutionarily atria were more important. In fish, for example, which have a 2-chambered heart, the atrium is comparatively much larger, and its contraction contributes much more to cardiac output. Frogs have a 3-chambered heart with 2 atria and one ventricle and similarly atrial contraction is important for maintaining cardiac output.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2525843",
"title": "Cardiac cycle",
"section": "Section::::The cardiac cycle and Wiggers diagram.:Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "The heart is a four-chambered organ consisting of right and left halves, called the right heart and the left heart. The upper two chambers, the left and right atria, are entry points \"into\" the heart for blood-flow returning from the circulatory system, while the two lower chambers, the left and right ventricles, perform the contractions that eject the blood \"from\" the heart to flow through the circulatory system. Circulation is split into pulmonary circulation—during which the right ventricle pumps oxygen-depleted blood to the lungs through the pulmonary trunk and arteries; or the systemic circulation—in which the left ventricle pumps/ejects newly oxygenated blood throughout the body via the aorta and all other arteries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "262572",
"title": "Ventricle (heart)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "In a four-chambered heart, such as that in humans, there are two ventricles that operate in a double circulatory system: the right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary circulation to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps blood into the systemic circulation through the aorta.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1317242",
"title": "Atrium (heart)",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "The right atrium and right ventricle are often referred to as the \"right heart\"; similarly, the left atrium and left ventricle are often referred to as the \"left heart\". The atria do not have valves at their inlets, and as a result, a venous pulsation is normal and can be detected in the jugular vein as the jugular venous pressure. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1317242",
"title": "Atrium (heart)",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Humans have a four-chambered heart consisting of the right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, and left ventricle. The atria are the two upper chambers. The right atrium receives and holds deoxygenated blood from the superior vena cava, inferior vena cava, anterior cardiac veins and smallest cardiac veins and the coronary sinus, which it then sends down to the right ventricle (through the tricuspid valve), which in turn sends it to the pulmonary artery for pulmonary circulation. The left atrium receives the oxygenated blood from the left and right pulmonary veins, which it pumps to the left ventricle (through the mitral valve) for pumping out through the aorta for systemic circulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5478198",
"title": "Atrioventricular canal",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "In a normal healthy heart there are four chambers. This consists of right and left atria, and right and left ventricles. The right atrium and right ventricle function to pump blood to the lungs while the left atrium and left ventricle pump blood to the rest of the body. There are valves in place that inhibit back-flow between these chambers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48530",
"title": "Blood vessel",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Blood flow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "The circulatory system uses the channel of blood vessels to deliver blood to all parts of the body. This is a result of the left and right side of the heart working together to allow blood to flow continuously to the lungs and other parts of the body. Oxygen-poor blood enters the right side of the heart through two large veins. Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs enters through the pulmonary veins on the left side of the heart into the aorta and then reaches the rest of the body. The capillaries are responsible for allowing the blood to receive oxygen through tiny air sacs in the lungs. This is also the site where carbon dioxide exits the blood. This all occurs in the lungs where blood is oxygenated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25700707",
"title": "E/A ratio",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The heart is a biological pump designed to move blood through the brain and body. It has four chambers: two \"upper\" chambers called the atria, and two \"lower\" chambers called the ventricles. Anatomically, the atria are more posterior to the ventricles, but for ease of understanding, are often drawn \"above\" them. The atria are separated from the ventricles beneath by the atrioventricular valves, which open to allow blood into the ventricles and close when ventricular pressure exceeds atrial pressure. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
al85zo
|
why do people that aren't normally suicidal, randomly have the urge or thought to drive into oncoming traffic or other ways to die?
|
[
{
"answer": "They are called intrusive thoughts. They are normal, automatic and can't be controlled. We don't really know why people have them. Their isn't usually a deeper meaning to them and in fact, and the fact that people don't want to act on them and find them disturbing means they aren't subconscious desires. Studies have found that nearly everybody has them and for most people, they are just a minor annoyance or quirk.\n\nThey can become more of a problem if people have underlying mental health disorders, they can be more distressing and harder to dismiss and cause a lot more anxiety. However, they are not exclusive to mental health problems, they are just more of a problem for people with mental health problems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The feeling you're describing is called as L’appel du Vide or the high place phenomenon.\n\nThe speculation is that when you see somthing like oncoming traffic, you veer away or step back as an instinct, a survival response. But your conscious brain, constructs a rational explanation for the instinct. \"I must have wanted to drive into that traffic.\" This post hoc explanation revises your understanding of the situation, implanting intent or motive where none existed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1232575",
"title": "Suicide methods",
"section": "Section::::Vehicular impact.:Car.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Some suicides are the result of intended car crashes. This especially applies to single-occupant, single-vehicle accidents, \"because of the frequency of its use, the generally accepted inherent hazards of driving, and the fact that it offers the individual an opportunity to imperil or end his life without consciously confronting himself with his suicidal intent.\" There is always the risk that a car accident will affect other road users; for example, a car that brakes abruptly or swerves to avoid a suicidal pedestrian may collide with something else on the road.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61840",
"title": "Timothy Findley",
"section": "Section::::Quotations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"When we have stopped killing animals as though they were so much refuse, we will stop killing one another. But the highways show our indifference to death, so long as it is someone else's. It is an attitude of the human mind I do not grasp. I have no point of connection with it. People drive in such a way that you think they do not believe in death. Their own lives are their business, but my life is not their business. I cannot refrain from terrific anger when I am threatened so casually by strangers on a public road.\" - from 1965 journal, at p. 16 of .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35569819",
"title": "Driving phobia",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "People with a fear of driving may experience trembling, sweating, accelerated pulse, loss of sense of reality, and thoughts of losing control while driving, even in situations that are reasonably safe. This fear will cause many to avoid driving, create excuses to not drive, or even refuse to get a driver's license for years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35569819",
"title": "Driving phobia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "BULLET::::2. The second most common form is driving phobia as a specific phobia. Because driving does involve some danger and the possibility of a collision, there does exist some fear or caution in many rational people. However, for some the fear of crashing, losing control of the car, being criticized or being in a dangerous situation will cause panic. It is not that uncommon for new drivers to have driving anxiety as they first learn to drive, especially for young adults who may be affected by their well-meaning parents or guardians who try to teach them, but lose their composure and make the new driver more anxious and on edge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15973371",
"title": "Suicidal person",
"section": "Section::::Recognizing a suicidal person.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "A suicidal person may exhibit certain behaviors. A person who has a preoccupation with death, talks excessively about suicide, or becomes socially withdrawn may be contemplating suicide. Other behaviors in suicidal people include reckless behaviors (such as increased drug and alcohol use, or taking unnecessary risks like dangerous driving), unexpected or unusual farewells to family and friends, and seeking out means to kill themselves (such as acquiring pills, guns, or other lethal objects).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "791114",
"title": "Cause of death",
"section": "Section::::Death caused by emotional state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1264,
"text": "There are also popular notions that someone can be \"scared to death\" or die of loneliness or heartbreak. Experiencing fear, extreme stress, or both can cause changes in the body that can, in turn, lead to death. For example, it is possible that overstimulation of the Vagus nerve—which decreases heart rate in a mechanism related to the behavior of apparent death (also known as \"playing dead\" and \"playing possum\")—is the cause of documented cases of psychogenic death. The flight or fight response to fear or stress has the opposite effect, increasing heart rate through stress hormones, and can cause cardiovascular problems (especially in those with pre-existing conditions). This is the proposed mechanism for the observed increase in the death rate due to cardiac arrest after widely experienced acutely stressful events such as terrorism, military attacks, and natural disasters (even among those who are not in the affected area) and for documented deaths in muggings and other frightening events which caused no traumatic physical harm. The proximal medical cause of death in these cases is likely to be recorded as cardiac failure or vagal inhibition (which also has other potential causes such as blows to certain parts of the body and nerve injuries).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158478",
"title": "Pedestrian crossing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "\"Could you do something to help the pedestrian to recover the old margin of safety on our common streets and roads? It is heartrending to read of the fearful deaths taking place. If a pedestrian now has even one hesitation or failure the chance of escape from a dreadful death is now much less than when all vehicles were much slower. There is, too, in the motor traffic an evident desire not to slow down before the last moment. It is surely a scandal that on the common ways there should be undue apprehension in the minds of the weakest users of them. While the streets and roads are for all, of necessity the pedestrians, and the feeblest of these, should receive the supreme consideration.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
504v9y
|
I'm the head of a Roman family during the height of the Imperial Period and the Tax Collector asks for the taxes, and I refuse for one reason or another. What happens next?
|
[
{
"answer": "The head of a *Roman* family? Or a provincial? A Roman wouldn't have had to pay taxes, Roman citizens were exempt from all taxes except the vectigals, a broad class of duties levied generally on trade. Most Roman citizens would not have paid any taxes at all, except for those few who engaged in some sort of merchant trade and therefore needed to pay vectigal duties. Other than that the only real tax that most Roman citizens paid was the inheritance tax, a subset of the vectigals, which was paid only by a relatively few and only once, when inheritance was passed on--failure to pay the inheritance tax was a big deal, it would get the emperor breathing down your neck. It really depends on what you're looking for--the answer to the question as you've phrased it is that our hypothetical *pater familias* (what constitutes the height of the Imperial Period exactly?) probably wouldn't pay anything",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1273",
"title": "Augustus",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Revenue reforms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "The measures of taxation in the reign of Augustus were determined by population census, with fixed quotas for each province. Citizens of Rome and Italy paid indirect taxes, while direct taxes were exacted from the provinces. Indirect taxes included a 4% tax on the price of slaves, a 1% tax on goods sold at auction, and a 5% tax on the inheritance of estates valued at over 100,000 sesterces by persons other than the next of kin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12468311",
"title": "Peregrinus (Roman)",
"section": "Section::::Enfranchisement.:Constitutio Antoniniana (212 AD).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "But these taxes would probably have been outweighed by the loss of the annual poll tax previously paid by \"peregrini\", from which as Roman citizens they would now be exempt. It seems unlikely that the imperial government could have foregone this revenue: it is therefore almost certain that the Antonine decree was accompanied by a further decree ending Roman citizens' exemption from direct taxes. In any case, citizens were certainly paying the poll tax in the time of Emperor Diocletian (r. 282–305).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11881331",
"title": "Bruchweiler",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Taxes and services were a hefty burden in the Middle Ages on the inhabitants. As well as the \"Besthaupt\" (“best head”, that is, head of cattle), the payment from a serf's estate upon his death to the Wildenburg of his best head of cattle, there were also the \"Schatzung\" (a direct tax), the \"Bede\" (ground rent), endless tithes and compulsory labour for the lord.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24547",
"title": "Poll tax",
"section": "Section::::Roman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "The ancient Romans imposed a \"tributum capitis\" (poll tax) as one of the principal direct taxes on the peoples of the Roman provinces (\"Digest\" 50, tit.15). In the Republican period, poll taxes were principally collected by private tax farmers (\"publicani\"), but from the time of Emperor Augustus, the collections were gradually transferred to magistrates and the senates of provincial cities. The Roman census was conducted periodically in the provinces to draw up and update the poll tax register.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50845",
"title": "Income tax",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "In the early days of the Roman Republic, public taxes consisted of modest assessments on owned wealth and property. The tax rate under normal circumstances was 1% and sometimes would climb as high as 3% in situations such as war. These modest taxes were levied against land, homes and other real estate, slaves, animals, personal items and monetary wealth. The more a person had in property, the more tax they paid. Taxes were collected from individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8580",
"title": "Diocletian",
"section": "Section::::Reforms.:Economic.:Taxation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Diocletian's edicts emphasized the common liability of all taxpayers. Public records of all taxes were made public. The position of \"decurion\", member of the city council, had been an honor sought by wealthy aristocrats and the middle classes who displayed their wealth by paying for city amenities and public works. Decurions were made liable for any shortfall in the amount of tax collected. Many tried to find ways to escape the obligation. By 300, civilians across the empire complained that there were more tax collectors than there were people to pay taxes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5824627",
"title": "Inheritance tax",
"section": "Section::::Historical.:Ancient Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 944,
"text": "No inheritance tax was recorded for the Roman Republic, despite abundant evidence for testamentary law. The \"vicesima hereditatium\" (\"twentieth of inheritance\") was levied by Rome's first emperor, Augustus, in the last decade of his reign. The 5% tax applied only to inheritances received through a will, and close relatives were exempt from paying it, including the deceased's grandparents, parents, children, grandchildren, and siblings. The question of whether a spouse was exempt was complicated—from the late Republic on, husbands and wives kept their own property scrupulously separate, since a Roman woman remained part of her birth family and not under the legal control of her husband. Roman social values on marital devotion probably exempted a spouse. Estates below a certain value were also exempt from the tax, according to one source, but other evidence indicates that this was only the case in the early years of Trajan's reign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5w3kai
|
How do scientists know what planets look like, what they're made out of, whether it could sustain life etc. They're millions of light years away and they don't see much detail, right? And what do scientists see when they see into telescopes like the Hubble. Do they just see a round ball or more?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, first off, we don't know of any exoplanets that are millions of light years away. That's MUCH too far to be able to spot planets.\n\n[Here's a list of known exoplanets.](_URL_0_) The farthest one is 8500 parsecs, which is about 27,700 light years. Still a pretty good distance, but barely 1/4 of the way across our own galaxy.\n\nThe list also includes the detection method for each exoplanet. There are several ways we detect them, the most common of which is called a transit. This occurs when the planet passes directly between us and it's star, causing the star to appear to dim. Based on the timing and amount of dimming, and with some other information like watching for the star to 'wobble' as the planet orbits, we can form an estimate of some information about the planet, such as it's size and orbital period.\n\nOnce we know the size and distance to the star, we can make an educated guess on it's composition. \n\nIf it's closer to it's star than Mercury is to the sun and has a mass 5x that of Jupiter's, then we can be pretty sure it's a large and very hot gas giant and not a likely location to find life. If the planet is roughly earth-sized and within it's star's habitable zone, the region where liquid water is likely to occur, that's when we get interested and start talking about life possibly existing there.\n\nVery few exoplanets can be directly imaged, and most of those are very young planets that haven't cooled yet so still glow with infrared light. Being very large and far from their star (outside the habitable zone) helps as well, the smallest yet found is still almost twice the mass of Jupiter. As a result, none of these planets are considered likely candidates to find life on. \n\n[Here's a wiki page with a list of directly imaged planets and an animated image](_URL_1_) of the HR 8799 system which has 4 visible exoplanets.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2787",
"title": "Astrobiology",
"section": "Section::::Methodology.:Elements of astrobiology.:Astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "The goal of these missions is not only to detect Earth-sized planets, but also to directly detect light from the planet so that it may be studied spectroscopically. By examining planetary spectra, it would be possible to determine the basic composition of an extrasolar planet's atmosphere and/or surface. Given this knowledge, it may be possible to assess the likelihood of life being found on that planet. A NASA research group, the Virtual Planet Laboratory, is using computer modeling to generate a wide variety of virtual planets to see what they would look like if viewed by TPF or Darwin. It is hoped that once these missions come online, their spectra can be cross-checked with these virtual planetary spectra for features that might indicate the presence of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15032003",
"title": "Exoplanetology",
"section": "Section::::Orbital parameters.:Distance from star and orbital period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "Most planets that have been discovered are within a couple of AU from their host star because the most used methods (radial-velocity and transit) require observation of several orbits to confirm that the planet exists and there has only been enough time since these methods were first used to cover small separations. Some planets with larger orbits have been discovered by direct imaging but there is a middle range of distances, roughly equivalent to the Solar System's gas giant region, which is largely unexplored. Direct imaging equipment for exploring that region was installed on two large telescopes that began operation in 2014, e.g. Gemini Planet Imager and VLT-SPHERE. The microlensing method has detected a few planets in the 1–10 AU range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "849815",
"title": "Kepler space telescope",
"section": "Section::::Planet finding process.:Confirming planet candidates.:Through validation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "If a planet cannot be detected through at least one of the other detection methods, it can be confirmed by determining if the possibility of a Kepler candidate being a real planet is significantly larger than any false-positive scenarios combined. One of the first methods was to see if other telescopes can see the transit as well. The first planet confirmed through this method was Kepler-22b which was also observed with a Spitzer space telescope in addition to analyzing any other false-positive possibilities. Such confirmation is costly, as small planets can generally be detected only with space telescopes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152628",
"title": "Overwhelmingly Large Telescope",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "It has been estimated that a telescope with a diameter of 80 meters would be able to spectroscopically analyse Earth-size planets around the forty nearest sun-like stars. As such, this telescope could help in the exploration of exoplanets and extraterrestrial life (because the spectrum from the planets could reveal the presence of molecules indicative of life).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37502310",
"title": "Mirror Earth",
"section": "Section::::Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Lemonick describes the diverse methods with which astronomers work to try to find Earth-like planets. Some evaluate images of clumps of stars, tens of thousands of them together, in order to pick up slight reductions in brightness caused by planets passing in front of their host stars, some examine individual stars for planetary gravitation influences, and others focus on stars considerably smaller than the Earth's sun to pick up more easily detectable planetary information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9763",
"title": "Exoplanet",
"section": "Section::::Formation and evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "The planets of the Solar System can only be observed in their current state, but observations of different planetary systems of varying ages allows us to observe planets at different stages of evolution. Available observations range from young proto-planetary disks where planets are still forming to planetary systems of over 10 Gyr old. When planets form in a gaseous protoplanetary disk, they accrete hydrogen/helium envelopes. These envelopes cool and contract over time and, depending on the mass of the planet, some or all of the hydrogen/helium is eventually lost to space. This means that even terrestrial planets may start off with large radii if they form early enough. An example is Kepler-51b which has only about twice the mass of Earth but is almost the size of Saturn which is a hundred times the mass of Earth. Kepler-51b is quite young at a few hundred million years old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57179978",
"title": "NASA's Eyes",
"section": "Section::::Eyes on the Exoplanets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Based on data from the NASA exoplanet archive, Eyes on the Exoplanet enables uses to zoom in on more than 1000 planets orbiting distant stars. Exoplanets can be filtered by relevant criteria such as Earth-sized, large rocky planets, gas giants, etc. Distances to these planets are expressed in travel time by car, plane, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2cotft
|
"It ain't over til the Fat Lady Sings"
|
[
{
"answer": "This quote is supposed to be about Brunhilde singing her final aria at the end of Gotterdammerung, which is the last opera in the Ring Cycle (four total operas) and is about 6 hours long. (!!!) Brunhilde is often a larger woman, and her [traditional costume has her in a chestplate and a winged hat](_URL_0_) - she's actually the source of that hoary old image of opera singers. \n\nThe phrase is very modern, a lot of it has to do with Wagner's domination of the opera canon in the 20th century, as well as his domination of what people think opera is in American popular culture. Baroque operas and early classical operas typically ended with a chorus, not an aria, so the phrase couldn't come from that time. Some late classical/Romantic operas have soprano aria finishes, but it's not really common enough to get you the phrase \"it ain't over till the fat lady sings.\" Fair amount of opera singers have always been fat though, I'll give you that one! :) But they just don't *always* finish operas, not even close. \n\nWagner's operas inspire some funny quotes though. Here's a few:\n\n\"The opera started at 8pm. At midnight I looked down at my watch. It said 8:15.\" -- attributed to Billy Wilder, but dubious. \n\n\"After the last notes of Gotterdammerung I felt as though I had been let out of prison.\" -- alleged to Tchaikovsky\n\n\"Monsieur Wagner has good moments, but awful quarters of an hour!\" -- Rossini \n\n\"In the evening we went to see Tristan und Isolde. That was the most disgusting thing I have ever seen or heard in my life. To be forced to see and hear such crazy lovemaking the whole evening, in which every feeling of decency is violated and by which not just the public but even musicians seem to be enchanted - that is the saddest thing I have experienced in my entire artistic life. I remained to the end since I wanted to hear the whole thing. During the entire second act the two of them sleep and sing; through the entire last act -- for fully forty minutes -- Tristan dies. They call that dramatic!!!\" -- Clara Schumann (this one is not dubious at all!) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30865440",
"title": "Before the Game",
"section": "Section::::Former segments.:Until the Fat Lady Sings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "When the show started there was a segment called \"The Game's Not Over Until the Fat Lady Sings\", where an overweight lady would go to a game and sing when she thought that the game was over. This segment was scrapped due to the fat lady being fired for singing after the siren had gone. The part of the fat lady was played by Pauline Smith (née Henderson).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63594",
"title": "Joan Kirner",
"section": "Section::::Premiership.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "The \"fat lady\" was in reference to Kirner being overweight. Bolger refused to apologized for this remark citing that he himself was overweight and did not want to make \"an international incident\" out of it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10806588",
"title": "David Taylor (rugby league)",
"section": "Section::::Playing career.:Central Queensland Capras.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "On 13 August 2018, television personality Erin Molan was slammed by fans and the media for fat shaming Taylor during a segment on the Sunday Footy Show. Molan was forced to apologize to Taylor the following day taking to Twitter to say “(I’m) absolutely appalled by this,” she wrote. “Unreservedly apologise on behalf of the show to Dave Taylor. The panel were expecting the vision to show a gun try or a big hit as our gutsy play. There was no malice or intent to offend but that doesn’t matter. We are sorry\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29938150",
"title": "Alive (Nitty Gritty Dirt Band album)",
"section": "Section::::About The Songs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Fat Boys (Can Make It In Santa Monica) is a silly song written by band members Jeff Hanna and Chris Darrow. They both sing and play acoustic guitar. The lyric implies that the girls in Santa Monica are not picky. The title is given as Fat Boys (\"Can't\" Make It In Santa Monica) on a British CD release.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25556414",
"title": "Fat Girl (composition)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "\"Fat Girl\" is a jazz composition by trumpet player Fats Navarro. It was first recorded by Navarro and his band in 1946. The tune's only vocals is the line \"fat girl fat girl\" which is announced at the beginning and end of the tune. The reason for the title may be because Fats Navarro's nickname was \"fat girl\" due to his weight, but it may have referred to an actually fat woman.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2314144",
"title": "Dick Motta",
"section": "Section::::NBA coaching career.:\"The opera isn't over 'til the fat lady sings!\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Motta is sometimes erroneously credited with coining the celebrated phrase: \"The opera ain't over 'til the fat lady sings.\" In fact, the first recorded use of the phrase was by Texas Tech sports information director Ralph Carpenter, as reported in the \"Dallas Morning News\" on 10 March 1976.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4853916",
"title": "It ain't over till the fat lady sings",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "It ain't over till (\"or\" until) the fat lady sings is a colloquialism which is often used as a proverb. It means that one should not presume to know the outcome of an event which is still in progress. More specifically, the phrase is used when a situation is (or appears to be) nearing its conclusion. It cautions against assuming that the current state of an event is irreversible and clearly determines how or when the event will end. The phrase is most commonly used in association with organized competitions, particularly sports. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1wswg8
|
why when i zoom out on ascii art it changes color?
|
[
{
"answer": "Text scaling gets weird when individual characters get really small - near the pixel size or smaller.\n\nWhen dealing with modern digital LCD displays and modern operating systems, you're starting to look at [sub-pixel rendering](_URL_0_) of text (just looking at the pictures in that article will probably answer your question for you).\n\nTangentially related, the old Atari 8-bit PCs (the 400 and the 800) had the same sort of issues when displaying on regular CRT screens. [Here's an example](_URL_1_) of them drawing 'white' lines in high-resolution mode.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is causes by [subpixel renering](_URL_0_). Note your monitor can only display red green and blue. Each of this component can have a saturation (mostly 0-255) 0 means off. A completely black pixels conssits of 3 off RGB pixels.\nText gets usally antialiased. Borders between black and white are faded to look more round. Most displays structure is RGB RGB RGBA over and over. To display an gradient of black to white you whould need each time 3 pixels with exacly the same saturation. \n\nZooming out means the mapping of the text needs to be done in less space than previously. If you zom out enough to get to the crititcal point where a dot shoudl be displayed in less than 1 real pixel (3subpixel) this rasterisation goes wrong. Your summetric structure of the monitor leads to the result only one of this subpixels is illuminated.\n\nUsally characters have different widths which whould not lead to this worst case, but the \"monospace\" forces your browser to take exactly the same amount of space for each character.\n\ntldr. mapping text less than 1 real pixel on an RGB monitor leads to the effect one of these subpixels is illuminated more than the others",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36147584",
"title": "Colors! 3D",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1053,
"text": "\"Colors! 3D\" allows users to draw on five layers, each on their own stereoscopic 3D plane. Drawing is done on the bottom screen while the top screen displays the painting in 3D. While drawing, players can use the various controls on the Nintendo 3DS to change layers, zoom and pan, and alter the pressure of their brush. Pressing the L button allows users to access a menu where they can change brush type, size and opacity, modify the layers, use the camera to provide reference and more. When the user is finished with their painting, they can export it to the SD card for viewing in the Nintendo 3DS Camera application. Users can also upload their finished creations to an online gallery, which can be viewed either on the 3DS or on the official website. Gallery features include use of hashtags, and the ability to follow artists and post comments. Each painting also features a replay feature that allows viewers to see how it was drawn. The application also features local multiplayer, allowing several people to work cooperatively on a painting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "996295",
"title": "Duotone",
"section": "Section::::Modern use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Due to recent advances in technology, duotones, tritones, and quadtones can be easily created using image manipulation programs. Duotone color mode in Adobe Photoshop computes the highlights and middle tones of a monochrome (grayscale or black-and-white) image in one color, and allows the user to choose any color ink as the second color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15546770",
"title": "List of software palettes",
"section": "Section::::RGB arrangements.:8-8-4 levels RGB.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "This RGB software palette occupies the full 8-bit range of possible palette entries, so there is no room for other fixed colors. Software using this palette must draw their user interface elements with the same colors used to show pictures. Also again, it does not provide true grays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "867230",
"title": "ArtRage",
"section": "Section::::Traditional media simulation and tools.:Tools and features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "ArtRage offers a realistic colour blending option as well as standard digital RGB based blending. It is turned off by default as it is memory intensive but can be turned on from the Tools menu. The most noticeable effect is that green is produced when yellow and blue are mixed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54826312",
"title": "Game of Thrones Tapestry",
"section": "Section::::Loom setup and programming.:CAD design and colour palettes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "The illustrators' artwork is converted into a weave file by first defining the colours within the 4 colour palettes. The weave uses 3 weft colours throughout the piece, and this is split into colour palette in the following way:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "289407",
"title": "Computer art scene",
"section": "Section::::Evolving technology.:Online.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Eventually, text artists began incorporating this new level of flexibility to the existing medium of ASCII art by adding color to their text-based art, or animating their art by manipulating the cursor control codes. This is what is commonly referred to today as \"ANSI art\" that is used in many scene nfos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1884",
"title": "ASCII art",
"section": "Section::::Creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "ASCII art may be created from an existing digital image using an ASCII art converter, an online tool or a software application, that automatically converts an image into ASCII art, using vector quantization. Typically, this is done by sampling the image down to grayscale with less than 8-bit precision, so that each value corresponds to different ASCII character.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
23f36b
|
Question Regarding Radar Fire Control in WWII
|
[
{
"answer": "Some Japanese vessels, like the new Akizuki class as well as larger capital ships like the Kongo, Haruna, Yamato, and more, were equipped with a surface-surface radar (Type 22) that could be used to provide information to the fire control systems. It was fairly standard equipment by early 1944 or so, and entered service in early 1942. However, this was not the same as dedicated fire control radar; the radar set simply found the range and bearing to a target and fed those to the guns; there was no shot correction or blind fire capability. The Japanese navy was in the process of developing dedicated fire-control radar, but the war ended before they could be put in service. [This](_URL_0_) is a good and sourced online resource for the Japanese navy during the war, and [this](_URL_0_radar.htm) subpage outlines the various Japanese radar types in service.\n\nIn comparison, most contemporary Allied ships at the time had a fully blind-capable fire control with a PPI scope (i.e. the spinning lines with dots that show target positions like you see in movies). These more advanced radars, such as the American Mk. 13, had a much higher resolution and were able to detect the shell splashes and correct their fire, making them much more accurate. Their effectiveness over Japanese radars was seen in the action at Surigao Strait at Leyte Gulf, one of the few times where American and Japanese battleships directly engaged one another.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1493376",
"title": "Fire-control radar",
"section": "Section::::Countermeasures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Most fire-control radars have unique characteristics, such as radio frequency, pulse duration, pulse frequency and power. These can assist in identifying the radar, and therefore the weapon system it is controlling. This can provide valuable tactical information, like the maximum range of the weapon, or flaws that can be exploited, to combatants that are listening for these signs. During the cold war Soviet fire control radars were often named and NATO pilots would be able to identify the threats present by the radar signals they received.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19410369",
"title": "BL 9.2-inch Mk IX – X naval gun",
"section": "Section::::British coastal deployments.:Organisation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "The observers also reported fall of shot relative to the targets, the FPC used an encoder to convert these into a clock code, which the battery converted to its left/right, add/drop corrections. Various types of radars integrated into the fire command soon became widespread in WW2 and enabled effective night engagements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "876166",
"title": "Frederick Terman",
"section": "Section::::Academic career.:War years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "During World War II, Terman directed a staff of more than 850 at the Radio Research Laboratory at Harvard University. This organization was the source of Allied jammers to block enemy radar, tunable receivers to detect radar signals, and aluminum strips (\"chaff, window\") to produce spurious reflections on enemy radar receivers. These countermeasures significantly reduced the effectiveness of radar-directed anti-aircraft fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10096485",
"title": "Armament of the Iowa-class battleship",
"section": "Section::::Main battery.:Fire control.:Mark 38 gun fire control system.:Plotting room.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1012,
"text": "The Mk 13 FC Radar supplied present target range, and it showed the fall of shot around the target so the Gunnery Officer could correct the system's aim with range and deflection spots put into the Rangekeeper. It could also automatically track the target by controlling the director's bearing power drive. Because of radar, Fire Control systems are able to track and fire at targets at a greater range and with increased accuracy during the day, night, or inclement weather. This was demonstrated in November 1942 when the battleship engaged the Imperial Japanese Navy battlecruiser \"Kirishima\" at a range of at night. The engagement left \"Kirishima\" in flames, and she was ultimately scuttled by her crew. This capability gave the United States Navy a major advantage in World War II, as the Japanese did not develop radar or automated fire control to the level of the US Navy and were at a significant disadvantage. See also The Battle of Surigao Strait (25 October 1944) during the WWII Leyte Gulf landings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21169396",
"title": "Ship gun fire-control system",
"section": "Section::::US Navy Systems.:MK 38 GFCS.:Plotting room.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "The Mk 13 FC Radar supplied present target range, and it showed the fall of shot around the target so the Gunnery Officer could correct the system's aim with range and deflection spots put into the rangekeeper. It could also automatically track the target by controlling the director's bearing power drive. Because of radar, Fire Control systems are able to track and fire at targets at a greater range and with increased accuracy during the day, night, or inclement weather. This was demonstrated in November 1942 when the battleship engaged the Imperial Japanese Navy battlecruiser at a range of at night. The engagement left \"Kirishima\" in flames, and she was ultimately scuttled by her crew. This gave the United States Navy a major advantage in World War II, as the Japanese did not develop radar or automated fire control to the level of the US Navy and were at a significant disadvantage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40696227",
"title": "3903rd Radar Bomb Scoring Group",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "Automatic tracking radars were used for World War II ground-directed bombing, and at the end of the war SCR-584 tracking radars with OA-294 plotting equipment which recorded the aircraft path during a bomb run, allowing the bomb release point and velocity to be assessed for Radar Bomb Scoring. In 1945, an RBS site was in New Orleans on Marconi Dr, and the 206th Army Air Force Base Unit (RBS) was organized on 6 June 1945 at \"Colorado Springs\" (tent camp) and controlled RBS detachments at Kansas City and Dallas Love Field, Texas. \"On 24 July 1945, the 206th was redesignated the 63rd AAFBU (RBS) and three weeks later was moved to Mitchel Field, New York, and placed under the command of the Continental Air Force.\" \"On 5 March 1946, the organization moved back to Colorado Springs and on 8 March of the same year was redesignated the 263rd AAFBU.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1493376",
"title": "Fire-control radar",
"section": "Section::::Surface based.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "One of the first successful fire-control radars, the SCR-584, was used effectively and extensively by the Allies during World War II for anti-aircraft gun laying. Since World War II, the U.S. Army has used radar for directing anti-aircraft missiles including the MIM-23 Hawk, the Nike series and currently the MIM-104 Patriot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2f5xmq
|
what was the reason for nintendo 64 to use a 64-bit processor, and why did it take 10 years for every other processor type to catch up?
|
[
{
"answer": "Its processor had a 32-bit bus; in the decade to follow, other gaming systems would use processors with a full 64-bit bus.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Chance, I would suppose. A company called Silicon Graphics Inc. acquired another company called MIPS Technologies specifically because MIPS Technologies had created this really cheap, really powerful new 64-bit processor (MIPS R4000), and Silicon Graphics Inc. wanted the technology.\n\nSGI had initially offered the technology to SEGA, for the Sega Saturn, but SEGA insisted on having exclusive rights to the chip—whereas SGI was fully intent on putting it's processors in non-gaming machines—thus, SGI offered to license their processors to Nintendo, instead.\n\nOther things that may be of interest to you: \n\n-N64 software very rarely utilized 64-bit data operations, and if they did they likely wouldn't run on the N64 at all, due to the limited BUS (data highway) speeds of the CPU, and the fact that all calls to memory had to go through the Reality Co-Processor (a CPU dedicated specifically to video/audio operations) which increased latency.\n\n-Sega's American and Japanese branches had a hilariously disastrous relationship; they never agreed... on anything. This is likely what caused them to bomb the deal with SGI, as well as fall out of the console market altogether.\n\nI hope this is helps answer your question :).\n\nP.S. This is my first post on Reddit, so I apologize if anything is amiss.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "485939",
"title": "Fifth generation of video game consoles",
"section": "Section::::History.:Overview of the fifth generation consoles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "The Nintendo 64, originally announced as the \"Ultra 64\", was released in 1996. The system's delays and use of the expensive cartridge format made it an unpopular platform among third party developers. Several popular 1st party titles allowed the Nintendo 64 to maintain strong sales in the United States, but it remained a distant second to the PlayStation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21849",
"title": "Nintendo 64",
"section": "Section::::Technical specifications.:Hardware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "The Nintendo 64 is one of the first gaming consoles to have four controller ports. According to Shigeru Miyamoto, Nintendo opted to have four controller ports because the Nintendo 64 is the company's first console which can handle a four player split screen without significant slowdown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40052532",
"title": "Nintendo 64 programming characteristics",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "The Nintendo 64 was released in 1996. At the time, \"The Economist\" described the system as \"horrendously complex\". The difficulties were said to be a combination of oversight on the part of the hardware designers, limitations on 3D graphics, technology limits of that time, and manufacturing issues. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1925120",
"title": "Multitap",
"section": "Section::::History.:Decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The Nintendo 64 did not have any official multitaps released for it, as the console featured four controller ports by default (the first console to do so since the Bally Astrocade). As a result, many four-player games were released for the system. Dreamcast and the original Xbox would follow the N64's example by including four controller ports as default as well, as did Nintendo's succeeding console, the GameCube.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21849",
"title": "Nintendo 64",
"section": "Section::::History.:Announcement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "In its explanation of the delay, Nintendo claimed it needed more time for Nintendo 64 software to mature, and for third-party developers to produce games. Adrian Sfarti, a former engineer for SGI, attributed the delay to hardware problems; he claimed that the chips underperformed in testing and were being redesigned. In 1996, the Nintendo 64's software development kit was completely redesigned as the Windows-based Partner-N64 system, by Kyoto Microcomputer, Co. Ltd. of Japan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40051481",
"title": "Nintendo 64 Game Pak",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Industrial reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Aside from the difficulties with some third parties, the Nintendo 64 supports some of the most popular, genre-defining, and critically acclaimed games such as \"Super Mario 64\", \"\", and \"GoldenEye 007\", having given the system a long market lifespan. Much of this success was credited to Nintendo's strong first-party franchises, such as \"Mario\", which had strong name brand appeal, and by Nintendo's own second-party developers such as Rare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21849",
"title": "Nintendo 64",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "The Nintendo 64 (officially abbreviated as N64, model number: NUS, stylized as NINTENDO) is a home video game console developed and marketed by Nintendo. Named for its 64-bit central processing unit, it was released in June 1996 in Japan, September 1996 in North America and Brazil, March 1997 in Europe and Australia, and September 1997 in France. It was the last major home console to use the cartridge as its primary storage format until the Nintendo Switch in 2017. The Nintendo 64 was discontinued in mid-2002 following the launch of its successor, the GameCube, in 2001.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7tzz6d
|
Do rubber soles on our shoes actually protect us from lightning strikes?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, it's very unlikely that they do. \n\nAir has a dielectric strength of 3 MV/m. To travel 1 m, we need 3 million volts. To travel two meters, 6 million volts. And so on.\n\nRubber has ~15 MV/m. It seems a lot more insulating than air. This means that for electricity to travel through your 1 cm soles, we need a voltage of 0.01 m x 15 MV/m = 0.15 MV = 150000 V = 0.15 million volts.\n\n\nLet's imagine that it's lightning that is going to strike somewhere and you're in the middle of the field. It starts in a cloud somewhere high above your head, and gets all the way to your feet. The difference of voltage between cloud and ground is likely several (hundreds) of million volts, so is very unlikely to stop there. But hey, may be you're lucky and the ligthning strike is short 0.1 million volts so it strikes on the grass next to you because the last cm of air is less insulating than your shoes?\n\n\nBad news: *you*'re a lot less insulating than air, so despite your insulating soles, you're doing the lightning a favour by being a salty solution that conducts electricity really well, so you spare the lightning roughly the last 2 m (6 million volts). 6 million volts for your soles? Not a chance.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No. I’m assuming this question comes from the misconception that you’re safe from lightning when you’re in a car due to the tires. Yes you are relatively safe in your car, but because it’s made of metal and has nothing to do with the rubber tires. Electricity can travel across metal but it can’t go through it, so you are 100% safe if you are encased in a metal box. Just don’t touch the metal. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "200136",
"title": "Static electricity",
"section": "Section::::Removal and prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "In the industrial settings such as paint or flour plants as well as in hospitals, antistatic safety boots are sometimes used to prevent a buildup of static charge due to contact with the floor. These shoes have soles with good conductivity. Anti-static shoes should not be confused with insulating shoes, which provide exactly the opposite benefit some protection against serious electric shocks from the mains voltage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65423",
"title": "Brake",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Frictional.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1183,
"text": "Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into \"shoe\" or \"pad\" brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such as parachutes, which use friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear. Typically the term \"friction brake\" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes use friction. Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating wear surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub on the outside of a rotating drum, such as a band brake; a rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly called a \"drum brake\", although other drum configurations are possible; and pads that pinch a rotating disc, commonly called a \"disc brake\". Other brake configurations are used, but less often. For example, PCC trolley brakes include a flat shoe which is clamped to the rail with an electromagnet; the Murphy brake pinches a rotating drum, and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a hollow disc (two parallel discs with a structural bridge) with shoes that sit between the disc surfaces and expand laterally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4316296",
"title": "Track brake",
"section": "Section::::Electromagnetic track brakes.:Requirement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The grip of steel wheels on steel rails tends to be less than is the case with rubber tires, though sanding (dropping gritty material on the track) does compensate if wheel slippage occurs. Therefore when light-rail systems or trams share space with pedestrians, automobiles and other road traffic, or where the vehicles operate on steep track, safety demands that the tram be fitted with electromagnetic track braking for emergency use. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59722",
"title": "Drum brake",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "When asbestos was common in drum brakes, there was a danger workers repairing or replacing them would breathe asbestos fibers, which can cause mesothelioma. Asbestos fibers would break off or become separated over time and with the high temperatures induced by braking. Wet brushes and aerosol sprays were commonly used to reduce dust. Safety regulators sometimes recommended using vacuum hoses to suck away the dust, or enclosures with interior lighting and space to use tools inside them, but these were rare and cumbersome. Distinctive shoes designed to protect against asbestos were also recommended. There is evidence that auto mechanics had disproportionate levels of mesothelioma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52889898",
"title": "Running injuries",
"section": "Section::::Footwear.:Traditional running shoes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "So-called 'traditional' running shoes are designed to give more support and cushion the landing to reduce the effects of impact. They allow for more comfortable running on hard surfaces such as asphalt and also protect the foot when stepping on rocks or other potentially sharp objects. However, the cushioning provided in traditional running shoes is thought to encourage a foot strike pattern, where the heel lands first. Heel striking generates a relatively large amount of impact force that can put different parts of the lower extremities under excessive stress. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53528300",
"title": "Environmental aspects of the electric car",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "BULLET::::- Possible increased particulate matter emissions from tires. This is sometimes caused by the fact that most electric cars have a heavy battery, which means the car's tires are subjected to more wear. The brake pads, however, can be used less frequently than in non-electric cars, if regenerative braking is available and may thus sometimes produce less particulate pollution than brakes in non-electric cars Also, some electric cars may have a combination of drum brakes and disc brakes, and drum brakes are known to cause less particulate emissions than disc brakes. These disadvantages can be solved using different battery types.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "332200",
"title": "Steel-toe boot",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "A steel-toe boot (also known as a safety boot, steel-capped boot or safety shoe) is a durable boot or shoe that has a protective reinforcement in the toe which protects the foot from falling objects or compression, usually combined with a mid sole plate to protect against punctures from below. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6yov6l
|
What was the first country to have an accurate map of the whole world?
|
[
{
"answer": "Maps are still being refined. What do you intend with \"accurate\"?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2866264",
"title": "Early world maps",
"section": "Section::::After 1492.:\"Kunyu Wanguo Quantu\" by Matteo Ricci (1602).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "Kunyu Wanguo Quantu (; , \"Complete Geographical Map of all the Kingdoms of the World\"), printed by Italian Jesuit missionary Matteo Ricci at the request by Wanli Emperor in 1602, is the first known European-styled Chinese world map (and the first Chinese map to show the Americas). The map is in Classical Chinese, with detailed annotations and descriptions of various regions of the world, a brief account of the discovery of the Americas, polar projections, scientific explanation of parallels and meridians, and proof that the Sun is bigger than the Moon. Following Chinese cartographical convention, Ricci placed China (\"the Middle Kingdom\") at the centre of the world. This map is a significant mark of the expansion Chinese knowledge of the world, and an important example of cultural syncretism directly between Europe and China. It was also exported to Korea and Japan as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18542465",
"title": "Wanguo Quantu",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "The Wanguo Quantu or Complete Map of the Myriad Countries is a map developed in the 1620s by the Jesuit Giulio Aleni following the earlier work of Matteo Ricci, who was the first Jesuit to speak Chinese and to publish maps of the world in Chinese from 1574 to 1603. Aleni modified Ricci's maps to accommodate Chinese demands for a sinocentric projection, placing the \"Middle Kingdom\" at the center of the visual field. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25783080",
"title": "Kunyu Wanguo Quantu",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Kunyu Wanguo Quantu, printed in China at the request of the Wanli Emperor during 1602 by the Italian Catholic missionary Matteo Ricci and Chinese collaborators, Mandarin Zhong Wentao and the technical translator, Li Zhizao, is the earliest known Chinese world map with the style of European maps. It has been referred to as the \"Impossible Black Tulip of Cartography\", \"because of its rarity, importance and exoticism\". The map was crucial in expanding Chinese knowledge of the world. It was eventually exported to Korea then Japan and was influential there as well, though less so than Alenio's \"Zhifang Waiji\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25783080",
"title": "Kunyu Wanguo Quantu",
"section": "Section::::Chinese maps published after 1602.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "About 1620 Giulio Aleni made the world map \"Wanguo Quantu\" (萬國全圖, lit. \"Complete map of all the countries\"), putting China at the center of the world map, following Ricci's format and contents, but in a much smaller size (49 cm x 24 cm). This map was included in some editions of Aleni's geographical work, \"Zhifang waiji\". (Descriptions of Foreign Land) His 1623 preface states that another Jesuit, Diego de Pantoja (1571–1618), on the command of the emperor, had translated a different European map, also following Ricci's model, but there is no other knowledge of that work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1168",
"title": "Anaximander",
"section": "Section::::Other accomplishments.:Cartography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Maps were produced in ancient times, also notably in Egypt, Lydia, the Middle East, and Babylon. Only some small examples survived until today. The unique example of a world map comes from late Babylonian tablet BM 92687 later than 9th century BC but is based probably on a much older map. These maps indicated directions, roads, towns, borders, and geological features. Anaximander's innovation was to represent the entire inhabited land known to the ancient Greeks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16342082",
"title": "Da Ming Hunyi Tu",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "It is one of the oldest surviving maps from East Asia although the exact date of creation remains unknown. It depicts Eurasia, placing China in the center and stretching northward to Mongolia, southward to Java, eastward to central Japan, and westward to Europe (including the East African coast as an island).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32102005",
"title": "Medici-Laurentian Atlas",
"section": "Section::::Features.:World map.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The second sheet, the world map, is the one that has attracted most attention. If the original date 1351 is true, that would make it the first (extant) map to incorporate the travel reports of Marco Polo and Ibn Batuta. It shows Asia up to India, marking places like the Delhi Sultanate and others with reasonable accuracy. The atlas also shows the Caspian as a closed sea (unusual for maps of that time).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22jskn
|
Why do some animals have completely blacked out eyes?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's an evolutionary trait that has benefited certain types of predators.\n\nLooking at this from the other side. What benefit comes from eyes that have white around the cornea?\n \nIn herd animals or pack predators there is a type of non verbal queue that allows for one to estimate the direction in which another member of the group is looking. \n \nThe opposite has a benefit if hunting such animals. They can't tell exactly where you are looking. \n \nThe difference has meant more success for those whose species habits and behavior were benefited by one over the other.\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "763646",
"title": "Piebald",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Animals with this pattern may include birds, cats, cattle, dogs, foxes, horses, pigs, and snakes. Some animals also exhibit colouration of the irises of the eye that match the surrounding skin (blue eyes for pink skin, brown for dark). The underlying genetic cause is related to a condition known as leucism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21225900",
"title": "Amelanism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "A similar condition, albinism, is a hereditary condition characterised in animals by the absence of pigment in the eyes, skin, hair, scales, feathers or cuticle. This results in an all white animal, usually with pink or red eyes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37438477",
"title": "Disruptive coloration",
"section": "Section::::In animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Disruptive patterns can also conceal specific features. Animals such as fish, birds, frogs and snakes can readily be detected by their eyes, which are necessarily round and dark. Many species conceal the eye with a disruptive eye mask, sometimes contrasting with a stripe above the eye, making it seem just part of a dark area of background. Cott called this a special case of a \"coincident disruptive pattern\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15331416",
"title": "Adelophthalmus",
"section": "Section::::History of research.:Earliest discoveries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 869,
"text": "Since the preserved carapace had no indication of there ever having been any eyes present, Jordan and von Meyer assumed that the animal would have been completely eyeless in life, with the original description of the fossil citing several cases in which eyeless forms occur in arthropod groups otherwise possessing eyes (such as in crustaceans and trilobites). This apparent eyelessness prompted the choice of name\", Adelophthalmus\", meaning \"no obvious eye\". The species name, \"granosus\", is derived from the latin \"grānōsus\" (\"grainy\" or \"full of grains\"), referring to the state of the fossil preservation having given some of the fossils a grainy texture. The type specimen, to this day the only specimen referred to \"A. granosus\", is today held in the arthropod paleontology collections of the Natural History Museum of Berlin under the specimen number MB.A. 890.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49074033",
"title": "Carea Castellano Manchego",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Colours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1210,
"text": "The most abundant is the black with clear-creams areas on the inside of the limbs, lower area of the same, region of the perineum, lower end of the tail, as well as in front of the chest, back of the ears and much in the face, throat and nose (except the black muzzle, and, occasionally, the distal area of both jaws, especially in young animals, which can be dark). The light spots culminate on the eye sockets and form, in its lower expression, the so-called \"four eyes\" and, when enlarged to merge with those of the face, the group become renamed \"mask\" or \"glasses\". This coat also carries a variable amount of white and / or gray hairs that can be very isolated and thoroughly mixed with the blacks, resulting in the latter case, exemplaries called \"piñanos\" or \"cenizos\". Also, in some animals it complete the combination to join to them wafers or cinnamon hairs, resulting to coats \"atabacadas\". Is completed this variety of color with the presence, in some cases, of small white spots on the feet, chest and, less commonly, in the head and / or throat and / or nose. There are also bicolor or tricolor dogs with \"four eyes\" and \"mask\" in which is replaced the black above-described by chocolate brown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1469640",
"title": "Stabyhoun",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Appearance.:Head.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The eyes should lie level in the head, and be of medium size with tight rounded lids. There should not be the appearance of haw or a third eyelid. Dogs with black and white coats should have dark brown eyes, while brown and white Stabyhouns may have brown- or orange-colored eyes. Bird of prey eyes are considered to be a fault.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181887",
"title": "Night vision",
"section": "Section::::Biological night vision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Many animals have a tissue layer called the \"tapetum lucidum\" in the back of the eye that reflects light back through the retina, increasing the amount of light available for it to capture, but reducing the sharpness of the focus of the image. This is found in many nocturnal animals and some deep sea animals, and is the cause of eyeshine. Humans, and monkeys, lack a \"tapetum lucidum\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2c5ms6
|
How was bronze-/iron age metal mined, what types of metals where mined.
|
[
{
"answer": "hi! not discouraging anyone from providing more info, but FYI, you may be interested in previous posts on mining from the FAQ (link on sidebar):\n\n[Mineral resource extraction](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29219",
"title": "Stone Age",
"section": "Section::::Stone Age in archaeology.:End of the Stone Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Innovation of the technique of smelting ore ended the Stone Age and began the Bronze Age. The first most significant metal manufactured was bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, each of which was smelted separately. The transition from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age was a period during which modern people could smelt copper, but did not yet manufacture bronze, a time known as the Copper Age, or more technically the Chalcolithic, \"copper-stone\" age. The Chalcolithic by convention is the initial period of the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age was followed by the Iron Age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33756307",
"title": "Nonferrous archaeometallurgy of the Southern Levant",
"section": "Section::::Iron Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "Copper and copper-based metals continued to be the major metal in use during the first part of the Iron Age (end of 2nd–beginning of 1st millennium BCE). Bronze scrap re-melting continued (mainly v-shaped clay crucibles, slags, clay tuyères) and structures of open campfires full of metal production remains were found in several sites in Israel associated mainly with the Philistines and the Sea People settlements on the northern Sharon coast between modern Tel Aviv and Haifa, e.g., Tel Qasile, Tel Gerisa, Tel Dor, and Tel Dan, in northern Israel. Only later in the Iron Age did metallic iron start to play a major role as a base metal for tools and weapons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17255423",
"title": "Timeline of ancient history",
"section": "Section::::Bronze Age and Early Iron Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "The Bronze Age was the period in human cultural development when the most advanced metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use) included techniques for smelting copper and tin from naturally-occurring outcroppings of copper ores, and then combining those ores to cast bronze. These naturally-occurring ores typically included arsenic as a common impurity. Copper/tin ores are rare, as reflected in the fact that there were no tin bronzes in western Asia before 3000 BC. In some parts of the world, a Copper Age follows the Neolithic and precedes the Bronze Age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7156643",
"title": "Prehistoric Ireland",
"section": "Section::::Copper and Bronze Ages (2500–500 BC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "The Bronze Age began once copper was alloyed with tin to produce true bronze artefacts, and this took place around 2000 BC, when some \"Ballybeg-type\" flat axes and associated metalwork were produced. The tin needed to be imported, normally from Cornwall. The period preceding this, in which Lough Ravel and most Ballybeg axes were produced, and which is known as the Copper Age or Chalcolithic, commenced about 2500 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12527374",
"title": "History of construction",
"section": "Section::::Copper Age and Bronze Age construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "The Copper Age is the early part of the Bronze Age. Bronze is made when tin is added to copper and brass is copper with zinc. Copper came into use before 5,000 BC and bronze around 3,100 BC, although the times vary by region. Copper and bronze were used for the same types of tools as stone such as axes and chisels, but the new, less brittle, more durable material cut better. Bronze was cast into desired shapes and if damaged could be recast. A new tool developed in the copper age is the saw. Other uses of copper and bronze were to \"harden\" the cutting edge of tools such as the Egyptians using copper and bronze points for working soft stone including quarrying blocks and making rock-cut architecture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "597036",
"title": "Aegidienberg",
"section": "Section::::History.:Governance and economy since the early Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "Ores of various base metals were being mined in the Siebengebirge area as early as the Middle Ages, primarily for the production of copper, zinc and lead. In addition to the work in the mines themselves, their constant need for charcoal led to there being many charcoal producers in the region. A copper mine called \"Gotteshilfe\" was located in Neichen, and in Brüngsberg there were mines called \"Flora\", \"Anrep-Zachäus\" and \"Emma-Sofie\", where zinc and copper ores were mined until early in 1906. The heaps of tailings from the mines can still be seen on the slope of the Logebach valley. With declining prices for the metals, the mines in the Siebengebirge area gradually closed down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35472037",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of copper-based objects",
"section": "Section::::History.:Bronze Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "Alloying copper with tin to make bronze was first practiced about 4000 years after the discovery of copper smelting, and about 2000 years after \"natural bronze\" had come into general use. Bronze artifacts from Sumerian cities and Egyptian artifacts of copper and bronze alloys date to 3000 BC. The Bronze Age began in Southeastern Europe around 3700 - 3300 BC, in Northwestern Europe about 2500 BC. It ended with the beginning of the Iron Age, 2000-1000 BC in the Near East, 600 BC in Northern Europe. The transition between the Neolithic period and the Bronze Age was formerly termed the Chalcolithic period (copper-stone), with copper tools being used with stone tools. This term has gradually fallen out of favor because in some parts of the world the Calcholithic and Neolithic are coterminous at both ends. Brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, is of much more recent origin. It was known to the Greeks, but became a significant supplement to bronze during the Roman Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7jufob
|
Has anyone proved how many colors you would need if you had a cube with an arbitrary number of three-dimensional regions in it so that no two bordering regions are the same color? It would be like the four color theorem but in three dimensions.
|
[
{
"answer": "There are generalizations of the 4-color theorem to arbitrary surfaces. The classical 4-color theorem is concerned with maps drawn on a plane, but we can consider maps drawn on a sphere, or a torus, or a Mobius band, or any 2-dimensional manifold. It turns out that answer to that question is known, and the maximum number of necessary colors depends only on the so-called *Euler characteristic* of the surface. There is a known explicit formula that is valid for all *closed* surfaces.\n\nFor 3-dimensional manifolds, there is no equivalent theorem because we can easily construct \"maps\" that require any number of colors. For instance, consider a collection of *N* spaghetti noodles, each of which represents 1 \"country\". It is possible to twist these noodles around each other so that each noodle touches all other noodles. Thus we need *N* colors to color this map. So we can always come up with a \"3-dimensional map\" that requires any arbitrarily large number of colors. It's possible even to construct a \"3-dimensional map\" that requires infinitely many colors (that is, a map with infinitely many regions all of which touch each other).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First, you have to understand that it's basically a graph theory question : regions become vertices of your graph, and two vertices are joint by an edge if the corresponding regions touch. \n\nThe graphs that arise when you look at planar maps are called planar graphs. These are the graphs that you can draw on a plane without edges intersecting. We say that we can embed the graph in the plane. \n\nNot all graphs are planar. For example, the complete graph on 5 vertices cannot be drawn on a plane without edges intersecting. So you can ask if planar graphs share some properties, such as the number of colors required to draw them. The 4 color theorem is exactly saying that every planar graphs is 4-colorable. \n\n\nBut all possible graphs can be embedded in 3d space. And for any N, you can easily find graphs that cannot be colored with less than N colors (for example, the complete graph on N vertices). So the answer to your question is that there is no analogue of the four-color theorem in three dimensions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38075487",
"title": "Italo Jose Dejter",
"section": "Section::::Graph theory.:Ljubljana graph in binary 7-cube.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "(Independently found by F.R.K.Chung. Improving on this, Marston Conder in 1993 showed that for all n not less than 3 the edges of the \"n\"-cube can be 3-colored in such a way that there is no monochromatic 4-cycle or 6-cycle).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18291960",
"title": "V-Cube 6",
"section": "Section::::Mechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "There are 96 center pieces which show one color each, 48 edge pieces which show two colors each, and eight corner pieces which show three colors. Each piece (or quartet of edge pieces) shows a unique color combination, but not all combinations are present (for example, there is no edge piece with both red and orange sides, since red and orange are on opposite sides of the solved Cube). The location of these cubes relative to one another can be altered by twisting the layers of the Cube 90°, 180° or 270°, but the location of the colored sides relative to one another in the completed state of the puzzle cannot be altered: it is fixed by the distribution of color combinations on edge and corner pieces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38075487",
"title": "Italo Jose Dejter",
"section": "Section::::Graph theory.:Ljubljana graph in binary 7-cube.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "(a) How many colors are needed for a coloring of the \"n\"-cube without monochromatic 4-cycles or 6-cycles? Brouwer, Dejter and Thomassen showed that 4 colors suffice and thereby settle a problem of Erdős.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8771718",
"title": "Instant Insanity",
"section": "Section::::Solution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Given the already colored cubes and the four distinct colors are (Red, Green, Blue, Yellow), we will try to generate a graph which gives a clear picture of all the positions of colors in all the cubes. The resultant graph will contain four vertices one for each color and we will number each edge from one through four (one number for each cube). If an edge connects two vertices (Red and Green) and the number of the edge is three, then it means that the third cube has Red and Green faces opposite to each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2900805",
"title": "Octahedral symmetry",
"section": "Section::::The isometries of the cube.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "BULLET::::- if two opposite faces have the same color, and two other opposite faces also, and the last two have different colors, the cube has 4 isometries, like a piece of blank paper with a shape with a mirror symmetry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6285",
"title": "Cube",
"section": "Section::::Uniform colorings and symmetry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "The cube has three classes of symmetry, which can be represented by vertex-transitive coloring the faces. The highest octahedral symmetry O has all the faces the same color. The dihedral symmetry D comes from the cube being a prism, with all four sides being the same color. The lowest symmetry D is also a prismatic symmetry, with sides alternating colors, so there are three colors, paired by opposite sides. Each symmetry form has a different Wythoff symbol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54011115",
"title": "V-Cube 8",
"section": "Section::::Mechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "There are 216 center pieces which show one color each, 72 edge pieces which show two colors each, and eight corner pieces which show three colors. Each piece (or sextet of edge pieces) shows a unique color combination, but not all combinations are present (for example, there is no edge piece with both red and orange sides, since red and orange are on opposite sides of the solved Cube). The location of these cubes relative to one another can be altered by twisting the layers of the Cube 90°, 180° or 270°, but the location of the colored sides relative to one another in the completed state of the puzzle cannot be altered: it is fixed by the distribution of color combinations on edge and corner pieces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9r2fi6
|
Did the average American see the Civil War coming?
|
[
{
"answer": "Adapted from a previous answer:\n\n**1/2**\n\nDid anybody see the Civil War coming? The answer there that it depends what one means by \"see the Civil War coming\" and also what \"the Civil War entails\" in their minds when they do or don't see it. So let's open the box on Schroedinger's Antebellum American for the firm yes and firm no that are both correct. \n\nPredictions of *a* civil war are almost as old as the Republic, regularly raised as the obvious result of an attempt at breaking the Union. These largely take the role of a general fear and warning, rather than a specific thing people expect to happen in the immediate future. So in the most permissive sense we can say that many people saw it coming, but that papers over a lot of important nuance. A theoretical civil war is, most of the time for most Americans, not a major concern. When tensions over slavery rise -and it's always slavery that brings things to this point- there's a sense that Something Must Be Done or the whole nation may explode. That Something is basically to give slavery extra protections and advantages beyond its already extraordinary protection granted by the Constitution, guarantees which considerably exceed any later provided for freedom or equality. There's usually also a fig leaf for free state pols so they can say they didn't *totally* betray their constituents (at least the ones who dislike slavery) but those concessions are insbustantial and never remotely commensurate with what the enslavers got.\n\nUntil the late 1840s, the steady give (to enslavers) and take (from the enslaved) is the general outline of American politics without major exception. The conflict over the spoils of the Mexican War marked an important departure from that norm and things never quite get back to the status quo ante. There's always been conflict over slavery's future in the nation, but coming into the 1850s the usual rounds of heavy capitulation to the enslavers don't do the trick anymore. Partly, it's that they've gotten so extreme that ordinary whites across the North now feel personally implicated in slavery in ways they were not before courtesy of the Fugitive Slave Act but there's also a general trend of lesser known proslavery provocations that slowly added weight to the antislavery case in the decades prior. The two trends feed on each other in important ways, but most white Americans outside the general evangelical reformist movement of the era don't consider themselves primarily antislavery in their politics until the last antebellum decade even if they do oppose the institution. The big reactions to the Compromise of 1850, followed up by the realization that it really settled nothing, a series of daring rescues of fugitive slaves from their would-be captors, and similar genuinely popular resistance to slavery kick off the decade.\n\nThe tension only ratchets up from there, with a new provocation in the form of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. The law opens vast new territories to slavery, where American law had previously forbade its entry for thirty years. That whether or not slavery will go into Kansas will be settled on the ground leads to a fair bit of actually fighting it out during small-scale violence that erupts for a while into a little war within the territory. Seeing this as their chance to put right what went wrong with the Kansas-Nebraska Act, antislavery Northerners are eager to fund settlement by their own people in the territory. Proslavery Missourians view this as stealing \"their\" turf and respond with semisecret paramilitaries, massive vote fraud, and a fair bit of violence around polling places. All of this keeps the issue in the news and at the center of American politics past the middle of the decade. \n\nThis is all way too much for the systems built up in the 1820s and 1830s to muzzle antislavery whites and defend slavery to handle. The biggest of those are two national parties, with enough constituency and power in each section to act as effective pressure on antislavery members in their own ranks to keep in line *and* to a lesser degree to force other issues which divide antislavery men between the two parties. As long as antislavery whites are divided between Whigs (mostly) and Democrats (an important minority) and other issues on which they disagree (the tariff, internal improvements, the national bank) remain the focus of politics, all this can keep puttering along. When slavery takes center stage and becomes *the* issue, then who cares about the bank, some roads, or a duty on whatever? In that environment, being antislavery counts more and the party coalitions fracture.\n\nThat happens in every sectional clash, which is why more conservative types understand them as so threatening. What happens in 1852-5 is a lot worse than usual because the dispute over the Mexican Cession went on for literal years and the solution kept the issue alive. That solution was a Whig program, roughly, originally managed by the party's chief founder Henry Clay. Clay's solution did not get through Congress with mainly Whig votes because the party's antislavery wing would not accept it and their proslavery wing was lukewarm at best. Instead it's managed by Stephen Douglas, the Democracy's rising star. In the South, that means that the Democrats can deliver for slavery and the Whigs cannot. Until this point, Whiggery has been the South's second party and genuinely competitive in some states. The fallout from 1850 is a lot of Whigs staying home and Whig pols being pounded at the polls. At the same time, Southern Democrats are adopting a still more radically proslavery line...and they were already incredibly proslavery. Lower South Whiggery collapses.\n\nWhat's that do to the Whig Party? It had a bit of a northern tilt to begin with. It's just lost a lot of its voices in the Lower South which tend to be more compromise-minded toward the North as well as an important counterweight on the strong antislavery wing up in the North. The result is a party that's somewhat more antislavery (although still not primarily so) which makes the problem for Southern Whigs worse still. But there are enough conservative, proslavery Whigs in the North to maybe even some of that out. The thing is, they're all tainted by the fact that they voted for hated elements of the Compromise of 1850, particularly the Fugitive Slave Act and their leaders insist that that most odious law must be zealously enforced.\n\nMaybe the Whigs could have recovered from that had the Kansas Question not opened when it did, but that kicks up in 1853 (a little) and then goes huge in 1854. With those conservative Whigs still around making the party look bad, actual antislavery Whigs have a sense that the party is not going to ever come around their way and that it may not be a longterm viable vehicle for them. The fallout from this is that the Whigs contest the presidential election in 1852, lose, and never do another. By the time 1856 rolls around, antislavery Whigs have gotten together with antislavery Dems (who are getting out of their own party for its more radical proslavery turn) to form the Republicans. Because it's a heterogeneous group of people united only on opposing slavery, the GOP is fundamentally an antislavery party first and everything else question mark. That makes it by default a Northern party, though there are some important players from the least enslaved slave states among the lot.\n\nWe can flip the script and do the same for the South, where the Democrats are now absolutely the Southern party and the question is how Southern they will be. Their dispute, internally, is over how far to go with slavery in the territories just as the GOP's uniting issue is that slavery will go no farther. These divisions harden steadily over the 1850s, particularly in the decade's back half when the Dems have two important crack-ups of their own. The first of these is over whether to accept the obviously fraudulent proslavery government of Kansas as a state (remember the proslavery guys cheated *massively*) or instead take on the antislavery Kansas government which is *technically* illegal and *possibly* treasonous but actually has the solid support of a majority of white Kansans. This is the point where the big names lay into each other, with James Buchanan on one side going his all for slavery as he has done for an entire long and miserable career and Stephen Douglas (him again) insisting that none of what shook out in Kansas was what he intended when he started the whole mess, the antislavery guys started it, but in the end you gotta give it to their government.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10054819",
"title": "Orphan school",
"section": "Section::::Orphan Schools in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "The casualties of American Civil War did more than simply reduce the male population of the country, they also dramatically increased the number of widows and orphans. Many states reacted to the crisis by erecting new (or taking over existing) buildings to \"care for, educate and train the children of fallen soldiers.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38600542",
"title": "History of medicine in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "In the American Civil War (1861–65), as was typical of the 19th century, more soldiers died of disease than in battle, and even larger numbers were temporarily incapacitated by wounds, disease and accidents. Conditions were poor in the Confederacy, where doctors and medical supplies were in short supply. The war had a dramatic long-term impact on American medicine, from surgical technique to hospitals to nursing and to research facilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9737779",
"title": "History of Lycoming County, Pennsylvania",
"section": "Section::::The American Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Soon after the beginning of the American Civil War, United States President Abraham Lincoln called for the northern states to muster 75,000 soldiers. Patriotic fever swept through Lycoming County as the people of the north anticipated what they believed would be a rapid defeat of the rebellious Confederate States of America. Twelve days after Fort Sumter was fired upon, Lycoming County was able to produce three companies of soldiers that totaled 244 men.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33158",
"title": "War",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:On military personnel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white American males aged 13 to 43 died in the American Civil War, including about 6% in the North and approximately 18% in the South. The war remains the deadliest conflict in American history, resulting in the deaths of 620,000 military personnel. United States military casualties of war since 1775 have totaled over two million. Of the 60 million European military personnel who were mobilized in World War I, 8 million were killed, 7 million were permanently disabled, and 15 million were seriously injured.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13681",
"title": "Hyperinflation",
"section": "Section::::Examples of high inflation.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 170,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 170,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "A second close encounter occurred during the U.S. Civil War, between January 1861 and April 1865, the Lerner Commodity Price Index of leading cities in the eastern Confederacy states increased from 100 to over 9,000. As the Civil War dragged on, the Confederate dollar had less and less value, until it was almost worthless by the last few months of the war. Similarly, the Union government inflated its greenbacks, with the monthly rate peaking at 40 percent in March 1864 (Bernholz 2003: 107).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3979",
"title": "Baptists",
"section": "Section::::Controversies that have shaped Baptists.:Memory of slavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "In the American South, the interpretation of the American Civil War, abolition of slavery and postwar period has differed sharply by race since those years. Americans have often interpreted great events in religious terms. Historian Wilson Fallin contrasts the interpretation of Civil War and Reconstruction in white versus black memory by analyzing Baptist sermons documented in Alabama. Soon after the Civil War, most black Baptists in the South left the Southern Baptist Convention, reducing its numbers by hundreds of thousands or more. They quickly organized their own congregations and developed their own regional and state associations and, by the end of the 19th century, a national convention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8624187",
"title": "Religion in Black America",
"section": "Section::::History.:Preaching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Many Americans interpreted great events in religious terms. Historian Wilson Fallin contrasts the interpretation of the American Civil War and Reconstruction in white versus black Baptist sermons in Alabama. White Baptists expressed the view that:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6yv83e
|
are there examples of countries that were made artifically successful? are they still successful? is the same thing possible today with any 3rd world country?
|
[
{
"answer": "one could very easily argue Japan if what I understand about your question is correct.\n\nJapan was heavily invested in by the United States and the west after WWII. Given now-to-no interest loans, and tariff-free trading abilities Japan was able to rebuild much faster than the other countries that had been destroyed in WWII.\n\nBecause so much of the world was destroyed, and yet so much of it was left untouched it allowed for the haves to build up select have-nots, with the current global economy this is not possible to recreate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43552948",
"title": "Industrial tourism",
"section": "Section::::Destinations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "However, successful achievements are few and mostly in the developed countries (in Western Europe - especially Germany, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands; as well as in the USA and Japan) where a culture of leadership and collaboration between the different stakeholders at the community's governance level already exists. There is a positive trend and some remarkable achievements in Central Europe (Austria, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Poland), China and India too.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "160114",
"title": "Four Asian Tigers",
"section": "Section::::Education and technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1148,
"text": "These four countries invested heavily in their infrastructure as well as in developing the intellectual abilities of their human talent, fostering and retaining their educated population to help further develop and improve their respective countries. This policy turned out to be so effective that by the late 20th century, all four countries had developed into advanced and high-income industrialized developed countries, developing many different areas of advanced technology that give them a tremendous competitive advantage in the world. For example, all four countries have become top level global education centers with Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea and Hong Kong high school students consistently outperforming all other countries in the world and achieving the highest top scores on international math and science exams such as the PISA exam and with Taiwan students winning multiple gold medals every year consistently at the International Biology Olympiad, International Linguistics Olympiad, International Physics Olympiad, International Earth Science Olympiad, International Mathematical Olympiad and International Chemistry Olympiad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8845647",
"title": "Ignasi Ribó",
"section": "Section::::Habitat-Nation Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "In his book, Ribó applies this theory to support the view that a sustainable world system can only be achieved by developing political communities of smaller size than the large states of the modern era. According to this analysis, existing small nations like Denmark, Ireland or the Netherlands, but also emerging small nations, like Scotland, Catalonia or Bayern, are better prepared to establish democratic, prosperous and sustainable polities, particularly when they are able to form effective confederations at a continental level. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "160353",
"title": "First World",
"section": "Section::::Relationships with the other worlds.:International relations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Until the recent past, little attention was paid to the interests of Third World countries. This is because most international relations scholars have come from the industrialized, First World nations. As more countries have continued to become more developed, the interests of the world have slowly started to shift. However, First World nations still have many more universities, professors, journals, and conferences, which has made it very difficult for Third World countries to gain legitimacy and respect with their new ideas and methods of looking at the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18042165",
"title": "The Emberverse series",
"section": "Section::::Major themes.:First world more likely to survive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Another theme of the series is that First World countries are likely to survive the Change better than Third World countries. Stirling speculates that the developed world is a larger repository of handicraft lore than the undeveloped world, because the latter group heavily relies on First World castoffs and is too busy on a day-to-day basis to keep up the old ways, while people in the First World have the leisure to become expert horse riders or bow makers. This idea is originally expressed in-character by people in former First World areas, and later in the series other characters remark that the assumption is unfounded based on exploration many years post-Change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "231482",
"title": "Artistic gymnastics",
"section": "Section::::Dominant teams and nations.:Other nations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Several other nations were at one time or have become in recent years serious contenders in both WAG and MAG. Part of the rise of the success of various countries' programs in recent years is attributable to the exodus of lots of talent from the USSR and other former Eastern Bloc countries. South Korea, Canada, Spain, Greece, Australia, Brazil, France, Italy and Great Britain are among the other countries to have produced world and Olympic medalists and have started winning team medals at the European, World and Olympic level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3154278",
"title": "Development theory",
"section": "Section::::Structuralism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Structuralists argue that the only way Third World countries can develop is through action by the state. Third world countries have to push industrialization and have to reduce their dependency on trade with the First World, and trade among themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3sqvhf
|
at what point in space would something actually become "weightless?"
|
[
{
"answer": "There is no \"range limit\" on gravity. As you get farther away it takes more sensitive instruments to measure it, but it never stops. \"Weightless\" simply means that you and your surroundings are accelerating together at the rate that matches that caused by the local gravity curvature. You can be weightless in a plane, with the right maneuver.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Adding to the existing answers:\nSomething would be weightless if it was exactly if the center of mass of the universe. Since it would then experience gravititional pull equally in every two opposing directions.\n\nHowever, if you are in the center of mass of the universe, then your arms and legs are not... So they do weight something. Hence a spaceship or person can never really be weightless in reality.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16619",
"title": "Kilogram",
"section": "Section::::Mass and weight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "While the weight of an object is dependent on the strength of the local gravitational field, the mass of an object is independent of gravity, as mass is a measure of the quantity of matter. Accordingly, for astronauts in microgravity, no effort is required to hold objects off the cabin floor; they are \"weightless\". However, since objects in microgravity still retain their mass and inertia, an astronaut must exert ten times as much force to accelerate a 10kilogram object at the same rate as a 1kilogram object.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18603506",
"title": "Weightlessness",
"section": "Section::::Weightlessness in Newtonian mechanics.:How to avoid weightlessness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "In cases where an object is not weightless, as in the above examples, a force acts non-uniformly on the object in question. Aero-dynamic lift, drag, and thrust are all non-uniform forces (they are applied at a point or surface, rather than acting on the entire mass of an object), and thus create the phenomenon of weight. This non-uniform force may also be transmitted to an object at the point of contact with a second object, such as the contact between the surface of the Earth and one's feet, or between a parachute harness and one's body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3174828",
"title": "Space Cadets (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Comedic elements.:Viewer reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Particularly questioned was how weightlessness, which would be present in a real space flight, would be handled on a ground-based set. The Cadets were told that they would be in \"near space\" (as opposed to \"outer space\"), causing only a 30% loss of gravity; which was compensated by \"gravity generators\" built into the ship. Due to the Cadet-choosing criteria, this profoundly absurd explanation was believed (any object in orbit of another astronomical object will experience free-fall, and thus weightlessness).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14476384",
"title": "Mass versus weight",
"section": "Section::::Buoyancy and weight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1053,
"text": "Again, unlike the effect that low-gravity environments have on weight, buoyancy does not make a portion of an object's weight vanish; the missing weight is instead being borne by the ground, which leaves less force (weight) being applied to any scale theoretically placed underneath the object in question (though one may perhaps have some trouble with the practical aspects of accurately weighing something individually in that condition). If one were however to weigh a small wading pool that someone then entered and began floating in, they would find that the full weight of the person was being borne by the pool and, ultimately, the scale underneath the pool. Whereas a buoyant object (on a properly working scale for weighing buoyant objects) would weigh less, the \"object/fluid system\" becomes heavier by the value of object's full mass once the object is added. Since air is a fluid, this principle applies to object/air systems as well; large volumes of air—and ultimately the ground—supports the weight a body loses through mid-air buoyancy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4387132",
"title": "Gravity of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Variation in magnitude.:Altitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "It is a common misconception that astronauts in orbit are weightless because they have flown high enough to escape the Earth's gravity. In fact, at an altitude of , equivalent to a typical orbit of the ISS, gravity is still nearly 90% as strong as at the Earth's surface. Weightlessness actually occurs because orbiting objects are in free-fall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18603506",
"title": "Weightlessness",
"section": "Section::::Technical adaptation in zero-gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Weightlessness can cause serious problems on technical instruments, especially those consisting of many mobile parts. Physical processes that depend on the weight of a body (like convection, cooking water or burning candles) act differently in free-fall. Cohesion and advection play a bigger role in space. Everyday work like washing or going to the bathroom are not possible without adaptation. To use toilets in space, like the one on the International Space Station, astronauts have to fasten themselves to the seat. A fan creates suction so that the waste is pushed away. Drinking is aided with a straw or from tubes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14476384",
"title": "Mass versus weight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "While the \"weight\" of an object varies in proportion to the strength of the gravitational field, its \"mass\" is constant, as long as no energy or matter is added to the object. For example, although a satellite in orbit (essentially a free-fall) is \"weightless\", it still retains its mass and inertia. Accordingly, even in orbit, an astronaut trying to accelerate the satellite in any direction is still required to exert force, and needs to exert ten times as much force to accelerate a 10ton satellite at the same rate as one with a mass of only 1 ton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1zv8ne
|
How long does it take for a star to go nova/supernova, and what would it look like? (Among other questions)
|
[
{
"answer": "The Sun won't \"blow up\". The last evolutionary stage of the Sun is the AGB (Asymptotic Giant Branch) where it starts to pulsate, shredding off most of its mass into a giant [nebula](_URL_0_) leaving a very hot and very dense core consisting of mostly free electrons. This core remnant is known as a *white dwarf*. A white dwarf has the potential to \"blow up\" in a violent Type Ia supernova explosion but only if it exceeds a mass limit known as the *Chandrasekhar limit*. The only real way a white dwarf will obtain enough mass for it to exceed this limit and explode is to accrete the mass of a neighboring binary star. If the white dwarf doesn't have a binary companion, which our Sun hasn't, the white dwarf will just remain a white dwarf while it sits and cools by itself for a *very long time* with no supernova explosion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The mass of stars the main factor that determines what happens to them after they die, and our Sun isn't massive enough to go out in a supernova. \n\nHOWEVER, if the Sun were about eight times more massive, eventually a core-collapse supernova would occur. Essentially, all of the outer layers of the star would suddenly collapse inward since the core would no longer be able to support them. Collapse speeds can be up to around 70,000 kilometers per second, so it might only take 10 seconds for the entire Sun to collapse. \n\nNext, all this material would basically \"rebound\" off the core. Again assuming that the Sun were significantly more massive than it actually is, most of its material would be ejected in the rebound. Even though most of the energy is released in the form of neutrinos, about 10^42 Joules would be released as photons. \nThe effect would be similar to replacing one Sun with one billion Suns. We probably wouldn't even see a bright flash before everything in the Solar System would be completely cooked. We'd be crispy before the actual ejected material even reached us, carrying 100 times as much energy as the photons. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53878",
"title": "Betelgeuse",
"section": "Section::::Life phases.:Main sequence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "A star would take between 11.5 and 15 million years to reach the red supergiant stage, with more rapidly-rotating stars taking the longest. Rapidly-rotating stars take only 9.3 million years to reach the red supergiant stage, while stars with slow rotation take only 8.1 million years. These form the best estimates of Betelgeuse's current age, as the time since its zero age main sequence stage, is estimated to be 8.0–8.5 million years as a star with no rotation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38008280",
"title": "HD 179821",
"section": "Section::::Observations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "The distance is estimated to be around 6,000 parsecs and has a high luminosity of between and . It has a high radial velocity of . According to the studies of Jura \"et al\" (2001), the star may explode as a supernova in the next 100,000 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19334239",
"title": "SCP 06F6",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "According to research authored by Kyle Barbary of the Supernova Cosmology Project, the object brightened over a period of roughly 100 days, reaching a peak intensity of magnitude 21; it then faded over a similar period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6747853",
"title": "Betelgeuse in fiction",
"section": "Section::::The star Betelgeuse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Astronomers believe that this tremendous star is only 10 million years old, but has evolved rapidly because of its great mass. Currently in a late stage of stellar evolution, it is expected to erupt in a Type II supernova, possibly within the next million years (see \"From a Changeling Star\" by Jeffrey Carver, \"Transit of Betelgeuse\" by Robert R. Chase and \"Calculating God\" by Robert J. Sawyer, below).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9009961",
"title": "IK Pegasi",
"section": "Section::::Future evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "Such a supernova event may pose some threat to life on the Earth. It is thought that the primary star, IK Pegasi A, is unlikely to evolve into a red giant in the immediate future. As shown previously, the space velocity of this star relative to the Sun is 20.4 km/s. This is equivalent to moving a distance of one light year every 14,700 years. After 5 million years, for example, this star will be separated from the Sun by more than 500 light years. A Type Ia supernova within a thousand parsecs (3300 light-years) is thought to be able to affect the Earth, but it must be closer than about 10 parsecs (around thirty light-years) to cause a major harm to the terrestrial biosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16071977",
"title": "Supernovae in fiction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the Christmas episode of \"Svensson, Svensson\" (1994), Sara tells her friend Lena she noticed in the newspaper that the Sun will explode within 3000 years, contrary to scientific theories that the Sun will go through the sequence: red dwarf star—yellow dwarf star—giant star—white giant star through the leap of millions of years, rather than go supernova.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19334239",
"title": "SCP 06F6",
"section": "Section::::Possible causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Supernovae reach their maximum brightness in only 20 days, and then take much longer to fade away. Researchers had initially conjectured that SCP 06F6 might be an extremely remote supernova; relativistic time dilation might have caused a 20-day event to stretch out over a period of 100 days. But this explanation now seems unlikely. Other conjectures that have been advanced involve a collision between a white dwarf and an asteroid, or the collision of a white dwarf with a black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7qpprx
|
how do people learn to enjoy the taste of hard liquors such as whisky?
|
[
{
"answer": "Drink rotgut to get drunk, then drink something of higher quality to enjoy the experience of drinking. You'll appreciate the difference.\n\nNote: don't do this all in one night.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39374484",
"title": "Whisky tasting",
"section": "Section::::Tasting notes.:Palate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "The whisky is tasted, often a little at first, and then in larger amounts and with the spirit being moved around the tongue and swallowed slowly. The purpose of the first tasting is to appraise the texture while subsequent tastings are to analyse flavours and scents. In the second tasting the primary flavours are determined. There are only four of these, detected by the tongue: salt, sweet, sour and bitter; the other 'flavours' are aromas and are picked up at the back of the nasal passage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34986061",
"title": "Whisky with food",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "The idea of drinking whisky with food is considered \"outré\" by many, but there is a growing interest in pairing whiskies with complementary foods. The Scotch whisky industry has been keen to promote this. Single malts, pot-still whiskies, bourbons, and rye whiskies offer an interesting range of tastes and aromas, which are just as varied as wine. Jake Wallis Simons compares whiskies in bourbon casks to white wines, due to their lighter flavor, and those in sherry casks to red wines, with their greater fruitiness. A few Scottish cook books contain reference to the use of whisky in cooking, and a few traditional Scottish recipes that use whisky exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8283489",
"title": "Crested Ten",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "'A whiskey of great finesse which is balanced beautifully between sweet and dry, light notes and heavy ones. Like all great Irish whiskeys, for the most satisfying results, this should not be sipped but taken by the mouthful and swallowed slowly.' Jim Murray, A Taste of Irish Whiskey. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4224582",
"title": "Japanese whisky",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The first westerners to taste Japanese whisky were soldiers of the American Expeditionary Force Siberia who took shore leave in Hakodate in September 1918. A brand called Queen George, described by one American as a \"Scotch whiskey made in Japan\", was widely available. Exactly what it was is unknown, but it was quite potent and probably quite unlike Scotch whisky.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23581856",
"title": "Ratzeputz",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Ratzeputz today (2006) only contains 58% alcohol; whereas higher proportions of alcohol used to be common. The ingredients, which are found by most consumers to be sharp, are intended to leave a long aftertaste in the mouth and throat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1591684",
"title": "Bruichladdich distillery",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "BULLET::::- It was featured in an episode of the BBC2 series \"Oz and James Drink to Britain\", in which they were given a tour of the distillery and allowed to try some of the prized 'X4', quadruple-distilled Perilous Whisky, of which Martin Martin wrote in 1695 \"the first taste affects all the members of the body; two spoonfuls of this last liquor is a sufficient dose; and if any man exceed this, it would presently stop his breath, and endanger his life. The BBC presenters used the ultra pure spirit to run a Radical racing car.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "609301",
"title": "Jenever",
"section": "Section::::Old and young.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "There are two types of jenever: \"oude\" (old) and \"jonge\" (young). This is not a matter of aging, but of distilling techniques. Around 1900, it became possible to distill a high-grade type of alcohol almost neutral in taste, independent of the origin of the spirit. A worldwide tendency for a lighter and less dominant taste, as well as lower prices, led to the development of blended whisky in Scotland, and in the Netherlands to \"Jonge Jenever\". During the Great War, lack of imported cereals, and hence malt, forced the promotion of this blend. Alcohol derived from molasses from the sugar beet industry was used as an alternative to grain spirit. People started using the term \"oude\" for the old-style jenever, and \"jonge\" for the new style, which contains more grain instead of malt and can even contain plain sugar-based alcohol. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b5yo7r
|
Is it true that Mahatna Gandhi used to sleep with two girls, naked and told people that he's learning self control?
|
[
{
"answer": "You may be interested in [these two](_URL_0_) previous [answers](_URL_1_) on Gandhi by /u/CogitoErgoDoom and /u/barath_s, respectively. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19379",
"title": "Mahatma Gandhi",
"section": "Section::::Principles, practices and beliefs.:On life, society and other application of his ideas.:Brahmacharya: abstinence from sex and food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 184,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 184,
"end_character": 1293,
"text": "Gandhi tried to test and prove to himself his \"brahmacharya\". The experiments began some time after the death of his wife in February 1944. At the start of his experiment he had women sleep in the same room but in different beds. He later slept with women in the same bed but clothed, and finally he slept naked with women. In April 1945, Gandhi referenced being naked with several \"women or girls\" in a letter to Birla as part of the experiments. According to the 1960s memoir of his grandniece Manu, Gandhi feared in early 1947 that he and she may be killed by Muslims in the run up to India's independence in August 1947, and asked her when she was 18 years old if she wanted to help him with his experiments to test their \"purity\", for which she readily accepted. Gandhi slept naked in the same bed with Manu with the bedroom doors open all night. Manu stated that the experiment had no \"ill effect\" on her. Gandhi also shared his bed with 18-year-old Abha, wife of his grandnephew Kanu. Gandhi would sleep with both Manu and Abha at the same time. None of the women who participated in the \"brahmachari\" experiments of Gandhi indicated that they had sex or that Gandhi behaved in any sexual way. Those who went public said they felt as though they were sleeping with their ageing mother.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39593412",
"title": "Oxford child sex abuse ring",
"section": "Section::::Abuse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "He regularly had sex with her when she was the age of 12. His brother had a parallel relationship with her, although she did not see him as often. Before she reached her teens, she was pregnant. When Mohammed Karrar found out, he was “fucking fuming” with her for allowing it to happen and told her, “You should have been more responsible.” He went into a rage and grabbed her by the throat. Soon after, he gave her drugs and took her to Reading, where a backstreet abortion was performed with a hooked instrument.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39726299",
"title": "Bibi Amtus Salam",
"section": "Section::::Gandhi's associate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Amtus Salam was one of the very few women who had the fortune to serve Mahatma Gandhi during his celibacy tests. She used to sleep and bathe with him naked with another disciple, Sushila Nayyar also serving him. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6060597",
"title": "Sushila Nayyar",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Association with Gandhi during India's freedom struggle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "However, being a close associate of Mahatma Gandhi, Sushila Nayyar was one of the very few women to have the fortune to serve him during his celibacy tests. She used to sleep and bathe with him naked with another disciple Bibi Amtus Salam also serving him in similar way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8867388",
"title": "Islam and children",
"section": "Section::::Muhammad.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Once, Muhammad was sitting with a child in his lap, and the child urinated over Muhammad. Embarrassed, the father scolded the child. Muhammad restrained the father, and advised him: \"This is not a big issue. My clothes can be washed. But be careful with how you treat the child. What can restore his self-esteem after you have dealt with him in public like this?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7893269",
"title": "Early social changes under Islam",
"section": "Section::::Social changes.:Practices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "According to some scholars, Muhammad's condemnation of infanticide was the key aspect of his attempts to raise the status of women. A much cited verse the Qur'an that addresses this practice is: \"When the sun shall be darkened, when the stars shall be thrown down, when the mountains shall be set moving, when the pregnant camels shall be neglected, when the savage beasts shall be mustered, when the seas shall be set boiling, when the souls shall be coupled, \"when the buried infant (\"mawudatu\") shall be asked for what sin she was slain\", when the scrolls shall be unrolled...\", though a hadith links the term used to the pull-out method. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "190884",
"title": "Khalid Sheikh Mohammed",
"section": "Section::::Capture, interrogation, and torture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "According to later reports, Mohammed initially told American interrogators he would not answer any questions until he was provided with a lawyer, which was refused. He claims to have been kept naked for more than a month during his isolation and interrogations, and said he was \"questioned by an unusual number of female handlers\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1rry3i
|
what actually happens mechanically when you turn the thermostat in your car?
|
[
{
"answer": "Modern cars have electronic thermostats, so nothing mechanical happens with the actual thermostat, although a mechanical valve governing the airflow might move.\n\nTraditional thermostats are purely mechanical, however. They have a component called bimetal, it consists of two strips of different type of metal joined together, one end is free to move, the other is clamped down. When the free end of the bimetal touches a conductor (normally a piece of carbon), an electrical circuit is closed. Because the different types of metal will expand or contract a different amount depending on the temperature, the bimetal will bend a certain amount depending on the temperature. Now, when you adjust the thermostat, what you're actually doing is moving the conductor that the free end of the bimetal touches, so the bimetal has to bend more to touch it. \n\nEdit: Forgot to add, instead of having the bimetal close an electrical circuit, it can also be mechanically connected to a valve for example, opening and closing the valve depending on the temperature. Adjusting the thermostat in that case adjusts the length of the rod connecting the bimetal to the valve, so the valve is more or less open at a certain temperature. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a fluid called \"coolant\" or \"antifreeze\" that is pumped through your car's engine to keep it at a specific operating temperature. Part of that coolant's piping runs into the car's cabin into a heat exchanger, which is basically like a very small radiator. That fluid, quite hot now that your engine has warmed up, runs through the heat exchanger and your fan blows that heat into your car's cabin. \n\nWhen you adjust your thermostat, you basically move a door inside the ductwork that adjusts how much of the heat from the heat exchanger is mixed in with unheated air from the outside. If you have the thermostat set all the way hot, then that door is wide open blowing only air from the heat exchanger. If you have it set all the way cold, then there is no air from the heat exchanger. In-between, and you have a mixture of the two.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21600868",
"title": "Radiator (engine cooling)",
"section": "Section::::Automobiles and motorcycles.:Temperature control.:Waterflow control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "The thermostat is therefore constantly moving throughout its range, responding to changes in vehicle operating load, speed and external temperature, to keep the engine at its optimum operating temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9300583",
"title": "Wax thermostatic element",
"section": "Section::::Automotive thermostats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "The internal combustion engine cooling thermostat maintains the temperature of the engine near its optimum operating temperature by regulating the flow of coolant to an air cooled radiator. This regulation is now carried out by an internal thermostat. Conveniently, both the sensing element of the thermostat and its control valve may be placed at the same location, allowing the use of a simple self-contained non-powered thermostat as the primary device for the precise control of engine temperature. Although most vehicles now have a temperature-controlled electric cooling fan, \"\"the unassisted air stream can provide sufficient cooling up to 95% of the time\"\" and so such a fan is not the mechanism for primary control of the internal temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265822",
"title": "Thermostat",
"section": "Section::::Mechanical thermostats.:Wax pellet.:Automotive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "On many automobile engines, including all Chrysler Group and General Motors products, the thermostat does not restrict flow to the heater core. The passenger side tank of the radiator is used as a bypass to the thermostat, flowing through the heater core. This prevents the formation of steam pockets before the thermostat opens, and allows the heater to function before the thermostat opens. Another benefit is that there is still some flow through the radiator if the thermostat fails.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9300583",
"title": "Wax thermostatic element",
"section": "Section::::Automotive thermostats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1189,
"text": "While the thermostat is closed, there is no flow of coolant in the radiator loop, and coolant water is instead redirected through the engine, allowing it to warm up rapidly while also avoiding hot spots. The thermostat stays closed until the coolant temperature reaches the nominal thermostat opening temperature. The thermostat then progressively opens as the coolant temperature increases to the optimum operating temperature, increasing the coolant flow to the radiator. Once the optimum operating temperature is reached, the thermostat progressively increases or decreases its opening in response to temperature changes, dynamically balancing the coolant recirculation flow and coolant flow to the radiator to maintain the engine temperature in the optimum range as engine heat output, vehicle speed, and outside ambient temperature change. Under normal operating conditions the thermostat is open to about half of its stroke travel, so that it can open further or reduce its opening to react to changes in operating conditions. A correctly designed thermostat will never be fully open or fully closed while the engine is operating normally, or overheating or overcooling would occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10166138",
"title": "FS Class E.656",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.:Auxiliary systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Motor cooling fans are automatically activated when the reverser is in non-neutral position, while rheostat fans activate when the temperature into the rheostat's resistors reaches 65 °C or they are manually activated by the driver via an apposite button.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2622651",
"title": "Autogas",
"section": "Section::::Converter-and-mixer system operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 187,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 187,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The temperature of the engine is critical to the tuning of an autogas system. The engine thermostat effectively controls the temperature of the converter, thus directly affecting the mixture. A faulty thermostat, or a thermostat of the wrong temperature range for the design of the system may not operate correctly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37809153",
"title": "Sevcon",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "An electric vehicle would have had resistances to drop the voltage on the motor when starting, but this created heating. His technology employed semiconductor-controlled rectifiers, with a semiconductor oscillator, which provided pulses of electrical power to power the motor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1dn85n
|
why do streaming video services (vudu, netflix, amazon, etc.) load up in full hd within a matter of seconds, but youtube videos can take 30 seconds to partially buffer in only 240p?
|
[
{
"answer": "Let's say you want to get to work and you have a whole lot of money and comfort is important to you. So you hire a limo to take you to work and pay $100 every day for that service. For $100 you get a lot of comforts, a private limo, plenty of room to spread your legs, leather seats, a mini-bar, it's pretty sweet. \n\n\nOn the other hand, a lot of people don't want to spend money so they take the bus. The bus is noisy and bumpy and crowded and sometimes you have to stand, but it's free and the bus company makes money with ads on the side of the bus and on the top inside. The ad company pays them 10 centers for every person who rides and sees the ads. \n\nA lot of people take the bus, let's say it's 10,000 people! At 10 cents per person the bus company makes $1000 a day! \n\nSo the bus company is actually making double what the limo company does, but they still can't afford the same type of comfort because they have to support 10,000 people instead of 5. This means even though they make more money it's a less comfortable ride because there is less money per person.\n\nStreaming services work the same way. Youtube is free and has to handle a ton of people and they only make very little off each one. On the other hand Netflix and the like is charging a monthly fee, so they actually make a lot more off each person, and thus can offer a higher quality service.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56459958",
"title": "Zettabyte Era",
"section": "Section::::Factors that led to the Zettabyte Era.:Increased video streaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The amount of data used by video streaming services depends on the quality of the video. Thus, Android Central breaks down how much data is used (on a smartphone) with regards to different video resolutions. According to their findings, per hour video between 240p and 320p resolution uses roughly 0.3GB. Standard video, which is clocked in at a resolution of 480p, uses approximately 0.7GB per hour. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13141651",
"title": "Sevenload",
"section": "Section::::Technical Notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "All videos on sevenload get saved in the Flash Video and H.264 formats (file extensions: .flv, .mp4). The videos can be replayed online as a stream in any web browser. To watch the videos in a web browser the Adobe Flash plug-ins must be installed. Videos can be uploaded up to a size of 1,5 GB in all current formats, e.g. AVI, MPEG or QuickTime. Before further distributing the videos, they are converted in the Flash Video formats by sevenload. Users can upload pictures up to a size of 10 MB. The following formats are accepted: JPEG, GIF, PNG, BMP, TIF, JP2, PSD, WMF and EPS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37602602",
"title": "Video optimization",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "When streaming over-the-top (OTT) content and video on demand, systems do not typically recognize the specific size, type, and viewing rate of the video being streamed. Video sessions, regardless of the rate of views, are each granted the same amount of bandwidth. This bottlenecking of content results in longer buffering time and poor viewing quality. Some solutions, such as upLynk and Skyfire’s Rocket Optimizer, attempt to resolve this issue by using cloud-based solutions to adapt and optimize over-the-top content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28682",
"title": "Streaming media",
"section": "Section::::Bandwidth and storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "A broadband speed of 2 Mbit/s or more is recommended for streaming standard definition video without experiencing buffering or skips, especially live video, for example to a Roku, Apple TV, Google TV or a Sony TV Blu-ray Disc Player. 5 Mbit/s is recommended for High Definition content and 9 Mbit/s for Ultra-High Definition content. Streaming media storage size is calculated from the streaming bandwidth and length of the media using the following formula (for a single user and file) requires a storage size in megabytes which is equal to length (in seconds) × bit rate (in bit/s) / (8 × 1024 × 1024). For example, one hour of digital video encoded at 300 kbit/s (this was a typical broadband video in 2005 and it was usually encoded in a 320 × 240 pixels window size) will be:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2711613",
"title": "P2PTV",
"section": "Section::::Technology and use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "In a P2PTV system, each user, while downloading a video stream, is simultaneously also uploading that stream to other users, thus contributing to the overall available bandwidth. The arriving streams are typically a few minutes time-delayed compared to the original sources. The video quality of the channels usually depends on how many users are watching; the video quality is better if there are more users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1543683",
"title": "High-definition video",
"section": "Section::::HD content.:HD on the World Wide Web/HD streaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "A number of online video streaming/on demand and digital download services offer HD video, among them YouTube, Vimeo, Hulu, Amazon Video On Demand, Netflix Watch Instantly, and others. Due to heavy compression, the image detail produced by these formats are far below that of broadcast HD, and often even inferior to DVD-Video (3-9 Mbit/s MP2) upscaled to the same image size. The following is a chart of numerous online services and their HD offering:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37602602",
"title": "Video optimization",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Adaptive bitrate techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Videos streamed using traditional formats such as progressive download and RTSP have a common challenge; any given video must be encoded at a specific target bitrate (e.g., 500 kbps) – and that is the bitrate regardless of the access network over which it is delivered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dwknbb
|
How hydraulic systems work in space?
|
[
{
"answer": "Tanks in space have a zone for liquid and another one for gas, separated by a flexible or movable membrane (a diaphragm). It's the pressure of the gas that pushes on the liquid (okay, it pushes on the diaphragm which in turn pushes the liquid) forcing it to stay next to the tank outlet.\n\nThe problem with this approach is that, as the fuel/oxidizer liquid is consumed, more room is left for the gas to expand, which causes its pressure to decrease. There are two solutions for that:\n\n* Reserve a lot of ullage volume, i.e. a lot of space for the gas. This way pressure will drop very little as the liquid volume diminishes. Pros: simple, low cost. Cons: very big tanks are needed (since tanks are heavy and mass is a major cost driver in space, this is very bad).\n* Add a second, smaller tank to contain gas at very high pressure, and link it to the main one via a pressure regulator. Pros: you get rid of all the mass of the big tank. Cons: some mass is still needed for the smaller tank, and it adds complexity to the system.\n\nThese two approaches work well for small rocket engines, such as those used by attitude control systems (i.e. rotating in space). For larger rockets such as those in launchers, you're going to need pumps.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19636250",
"title": "Hyco International Inc",
"section": "Section::::Product.:Hydraulic cylinders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Hydraulic cylinders are fundamental components of hydraulic machinery. The function of a hydraulic cylinder is to convert the hydrostatic power of a fluid into mechanical power. They are the actuators or muscles of heavy equipment providing motion and force including steering, suspension, pushing, pulling, lifting, lowering, tilting, extending, clamping, stabilizing, and so on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1372353",
"title": "Hydraulic machinery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Hydraulic systems, like pneumatic systems, are based on Pascal’s law which states that any pressure applied to a fluid inside a closed system will transmit that pressure equally everywhere and in all directions. A hydraulic system uses an incompressible liquid as its fluid, rather than a compressible gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65424",
"title": "Hydraulics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "Hydraulics (from Greek: Υδραυλική) is a technology and applied science using engineering, chemistry, and other sciences involving the mechanical properties and use of liquids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid counterpart of pneumatics, which concerns gases. Fluid mechanics provides the theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the applied engineering using the properties of fluids. In its fluid power applications, hydraulics is used for the generation, control, and transmission of power by the use of pressurized liquids. Hydraulic topics range through some parts of science and most of engineering modules, and cover concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluidics and fluid control circuitry. The principles of hydraulics are in use naturally in the human body within the vascular system and erectile tissue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1372353",
"title": "Hydraulic machinery",
"section": "Section::::Force and torque multiplication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "A fundamental feature of hydraulic systems is the ability to apply force or torque multiplication in an easy way, independent of the distance between the input and output, without the need for mechanical gears or levers, either by altering the effective areas in two connected cylinders or the effective displacement (cc/rev) between a pump and motor. In normal cases, hydraulic ratios are combined with a mechanical force or torque ratio for optimum machine designs such as boom movements and trackdrives for an excavator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3232420",
"title": "Hydraulic cylinder",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "A hydraulic cylinder (also called a linear hydraulic motor) is a mechanical actuator that is used to give a unidirectional force through a unidirectional stroke. It has many applications, notably in construction equipment (engineering vehicles), manufacturing machinery, and civil engineering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2925093",
"title": "Hydraulic brake",
"section": "Section::::Special considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Hydraulic fluid must be non-compressible. Unlike air brakes, where a valve is opened and air flows into the lines and brake chambers until the pressure rises sufficiently, hydraulic systems rely on a single stroke of a piston to force fluid through the system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2100884",
"title": "Linear actuator",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Hydraulic actuators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Hydraulic actuators or hydraulic cylinders typically involve a hollow cylinder having a piston inserted in it. An unbalanced pressure applied to the piston generates force that can move an external object. Since liquids are nearly incompressible, a hydraulic cylinder can provide controlled precise linear displacement of the piston. The displacement is only along the axis of the piston. A familiar example of a manually operated hydraulic actuator is a hydraulic car jack. Typically though, the term \"hydraulic actuator\" refers to a device controlled by a hydraulic pump.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eoczlz
|
what does microsoft’s announcement really mean and why are people so upset?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you’re talking about that “pedophile tracker”, most people think it’s \nA. Not effective and most likely will be like other AI detectors. \nB. Simply an excuse to look at peoples chatrooms under the pretense of safety.\nC. Ineffective because, Weill, who uses chatrooms anymore?\nThat’s just what I’ve heard about it, sorry if that doesn’t help much\nEdit: no ones gonna know what you’re talking about, could you more specific?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I didn't know of you're talking about the \"No exclusivity on Series X\" but it means that all the Series X games will also be on XBO or PC for the first two years (until 2023).\nIt could mean that the console will be overpriced and they are counting on selling a lot of XBO",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "326123",
"title": "Windows 7",
"section": "Section::::Editions.:Support lifecycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "In March 2019, Microsoft announced that it would display notifications to users informing users of the upcoming end of support, and direct users to a website urging them to purchase a Windows 10 upgrade or a new device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33879",
"title": "Windows XP",
"section": "Section::::Support lifecycle.:End of support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "On March 8, 2014, Microsoft deployed an update for XP that, on the 8th of each month, displays a pop-up notification to remind users about the end of support; however, these notifications may be disabled by the user. Microsoft also partnered with Laplink to provide a special \"express\" version of its PCmover software to help users migrate files and settings from XP to a computer with a newer version of Windows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19001",
"title": "Microsoft",
"section": "Section::::Corporate affairs.:United States government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "In April 2016, the company sued the U.S. government, arguing that secrecy orders were preventing the company from disclosing warrants to customers in violation of the company's and customers' rights. Microsoft argued that it was unconstitutional for the government to indefinitely ban Microsoft from informing its users that the government was requesting their emails and other documents, and that the Fourth Amendment made it so people or businesses had the right to know if the government searches or seizes their property. On October 23, 2017, Microsoft said it would drop the lawsuit as a result of a policy change by the United States Department of Justice (DoJ). The DoJ had \"changed data request rules on alerting Internet users about agencies accessing their information.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15559466",
"title": "Outlook.com",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:US government surveillance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "In response to the report, Microsoft stated, among other things, that \"when we upgrade or update products we aren't absolved from the need to comply with existing or future lawful demands\" and that \"there are aspects of this debate that we wish we were able to discuss more freely\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50174704",
"title": "Microsoft v. United States (2016)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Legal argument.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 999,
"text": "Microsoft argued that it was unconstitutional for the government to indefinitely ban Microsoft from informing its users that the government was requesting their emails and other documents, and that the Fourth Amendment made it so people or businesses had the right to know if the government searches or seizes their property. It also argued that First Amendment was violated by not allowing Microsoft to speak to its customers. CNN explained that the case \"also notes the odd, modern distinction that the government makes between searching your computer -- and searching your information on a company's computer.\" According to the lawsuit, law enforcement took advantage of an exception to the Fourth Amendment called \"third-party doctrine,\" where a person can't reasonably expect privacy when information is disclosed to a third party. However, up till that point, the courts had ruled that a person's Fourth Amendment rights still applied to their email, regardless of where the email was stored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19444391",
"title": "Where do you want to go today?",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "In August 1995, the \"Times\" reported that the response to Microsoft’s campaign in the advertising trade press had been “lukewarm” and quoted Brad Johnson of \"Advertising Age\" as stating that “Microsoft is on version 1.0 in advertising. Microsoft is not standing still. It will improve its advertising.” Microsoft’s Steve Ballmer, then the firm’s executive vice president, acknowledged that the response to the campaign had been “chilly”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43989914",
"title": "Windows 10",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Distribution practices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "In March 2019, Microsoft announced that it would display notifications on Windows 7 devices informing users of the upcoming end of extended support for the platform, and direct users to a website urging them to upgrade to Windows 10 or purchase new hardware. This dialog will be similar to the previous Windows 10 upgrade prompts, but not explicitly mention Windows 10.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6mjkhg
|
Is our Solar System's number of planets and planetoids, and the distance between them, unusual?
|
[
{
"answer": "I must admit, that I haven't played either Mass Effect nor Infinite Space. But in general games are not the best source for scientific accuracy ;) \nAccording to the [exoplanet archive](_URL_0_) there are almost 600 confirmed multiplanet systems. The largest of which have 7 confirmed exoplanets. I don't know about a paper that actually analyses the distances of the exoplanets to their host stars. However after going through some of the wikipedia site ([here](_URL_3_)) and checking some other ressources such as the exoplanet archive I would come to the conclusion that most exoplanet are indeed much closer to their host stars than planets in our system. However this should not be seen as a definite result. Our current detection methods definitely favor the detection of large planets close to their host star. Far away planets like neptune, uranus are much harder to detect. But we still found some really far away ([source](_URL_1_)). I mean we are not even sure if there are more planets out there in our own system. I personaly think it is unlikely that our system is \"special\". But you never know :) \nBtw, here a nice visualization of many exoplanet systems can be found: [video](_URL_2_) \n & nbsp; \nbtw. these naming of these objects is a bit difficult, but if anything they would be called Plutoids or trans-neptunian dwarf planets ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "827792",
"title": "Rare Earth hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Requirements for complex life.:With the right arrangement of planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1175,
"text": "Observations of exo-planets have shown that arrangements of planets similar to our Solar System are rare. Most planetary systems have super Earths, several times larger than Earth, close to their star, whereas our Solar System's inner region has only a few small rocky planets and none inside Mercury's orbit. Only 10% of stars have giant planets similar to Jupiter and Saturn, and those few rarely have stable nearly circular orbits distant from their star. Konstantin Batygin and colleagues argue that these features can be explained if, early in the history of the Solar System, Jupiter and Saturn drifted towards the Sun, sending showers of planetesimals towards the super-Earths which sent them spiralling into the Sun, and ferrying icy building blocks into the terrestrial region of the Solar System which provided the building blocks for the rocky planets. The two giant planets then drifted out again to their present position. However, in the view of Batygin and his colleagues: \"The concatenation of chance events required for this delicate choreography suggest that small, Earth-like rocky planets – and perhaps life itself – could be rare throughout the cosmos.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22915",
"title": "Planet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Planets are generally divided into two main types: large low-density giant planets, and smaller rocky terrestrials. There are eight planets in the Solar System. In order of increasing distance from the Sun, they are the four terrestrials, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, then the four giant planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Six of the planets are orbited by one or more natural satellites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50402274",
"title": "TRAPPIST-1",
"section": "Section::::Planetary system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "On 22 February 2017, astronomers announced that the planetary system of this star is composed of seven temperate terrestrial planets, of which five (\"b\", \"c\", \"e\", \"f\" and \"g\") are similar in size to Earth, and two (\"d\" and \"h\") are intermediate in size between Mars and Earth. Three of the planets (\"e\", \"f\" and \"g\") orbit within the habitable zone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34381785",
"title": "Kepler-42",
"section": "Section::::Planetary system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "On 10 January 2012, using the Kepler Space Telescope three transiting planets were discovered in orbit around Kepler-42. These planets' radii range from approximately those of Mars to Venus. The Kepler-42 system is only the second known system containing planets of Earth's radius or smaller (the first was the Kepler-20 system pictured at left). These planets' orbits are also compact, making the system (whose host star itself has a radius comparable to those of some hot Jupiters) resemble the moon systems of giant planets such as Jupiter or Saturn more than it does the Solar System. Despite these planets' small size and the star's being one of the faintest stars in Kepler field with confirmed planets, the detection of these planets was possible due to small size of the star, causing these planets to block a larger proportion of starlight during their transits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6661422",
"title": "Small Solar System body",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "The orbits of the vast majority of small Solar System bodies are located in two distinct areas, namely the asteroid belt and the Kuiper belt. These two belts possess some internal structure related to perturbations by the major planets (particularly Jupiter and Neptune, respectively), and have fairly loosely defined boundaries. Other areas of the Solar System also encompass small bodies in smaller concentrations. These include the near-Earth asteroids, centaurs, comets, and scattered disc objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "551374",
"title": "List of trans-Neptunian objects",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "This is a list of trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs), which are minor planets in the Solar System that orbit the Sun at a greater distance on average than Neptune, that is, their orbit has a semi-major axis greater than 30.1 astronomical units (AU). The Kuiper belt, scattered disk, and Oort cloud are three conventional divisions of this volume of space. As of June 2019, the catalog of minor planets contains 664 numbered TNOs. In addition, there are more than 2,000 unnumbered TNOs, first observed between 1993 and 2019.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13768",
"title": "Hydrus",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Three other systems have been found to have planets, most notably the Sun-like star HD 10180, which has seven planets, plus possibly an additional two for a total of nine—as of 2012 more than any other system to date, including the Solar System. Lying around from the Earth, it has an apparent magnitude of 7.33.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2j37zo
|
why don't popular types of candy (m & m's, skittles, reese's, etc.) have cheaper knockoff versions like all other products?
|
[
{
"answer": "They manage to keep their products so cheap, and they have such incredible brand recognition, that it's essentially impossible to compete with them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They do. They just don't have a very large market share because they are aren't cheap enough to warrant buying them over the originals. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "485487",
"title": "M&M's",
"section": "Section::::Marketing.:Joint marketing campaigns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "In 2008, two limited-edition varieties of the candy were introduced – \"Wildly Cherry\" M&M's, and, as a marketing tie-in with the film \"Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull\", \"Mint Crisp\" M&M's.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20004392",
"title": "Candy pumpkin",
"section": "Section::::Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Candy pumpkins are popular in part because the mellowcreme gives them \"an interesting texture.\" As of 1988, most big confectionery companies, including Mars Inc., did not market special Halloween candies. The one exception was Brach's Confections, which made candy pumpkins among other seasonal products. Their \"Mellowcreme Pumpkin\" was made to look like an autumnal fruit; each pumpkin contained 25 calories and 5 grams sugar. In 1992, Brach's Confections expected to sell more than 30 million pounds of mellowcreme candy during the fall season, which included its seasonal mellowcreme pumpkins. You can also find the candy pumpkin in Brach's Autumn Mix.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1621839",
"title": "Zagnut",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Unlike many candy bars, it contains no chocolate, though it does have a small amount of cocoa. Since Zagnuts have no chocolate to melt, they have seen a resurgence in popularity among US troops in places like Iraq and Afghanistan. Stateside, candy and convenience stores stock Zagnut unevenly, since it has only a niche market. It resembles a Butterfinger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485487",
"title": "M&M's",
"section": "Section::::Marketing.:\"E.T.: The Extra-Terrestrial\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "In 1982, the Mars candy bar company rejected the inclusion of M&M's in the new Steven Spielberg movie \"\". Competitor Hershey, on the other hand, took a chance with their Reese's Pieces, which is similar to M&M's but contains a peanut butter filling, and with the movie's blockbuster success, its candy sales dramatically increased, perhaps by as much as 300%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2547114",
"title": "Bulk vending",
"section": "Section::::From the vendor's perspective.:Advantages and disadvantages of bulk vending.:Disadvantages of bulk vending.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "The business is susceptible to inflation because product costs rise higher than prices customers are willing to pay. Many bulk candy vending mechanisms are not equipped to accommodate price increases, unlike electronic machines. Locations often do not see a compelling need to have a bulk candy machine. Moreover, because locations know the machines are easily portable, it is not uncommon for bulk vendors to get kicked out of a location.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8913245",
"title": "Sugar Sugar, Inc",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The company is most famous for their handmade hard candy and inedibly large novelty lollipops weighing up to 2 pounds each. One specialty is custom personalized candy where they form names, words and logos by hand within each bite-sized piece of hard candy. The style of candymaking is very similar to Great Britain's \"stick of rock\" or Australia's \"lollies\" and often called just Rock or Lolly. Sugar-free lollies are also made using Splenda brand sucralose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61230",
"title": "Candy",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Most candies are made commercially. The industry relies significantly on trade secret protection, because candy recipes cannot be copyrighted or patented effectively, but are very difficult to duplicate exactly. Seemingly minor differences in the machinery, temperature, or timing of the candy-making process can cause noticeable differences in the final product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1s2zik
|
Is the "time goes faster as we get older" adage an actual psychological phenomenon?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes.\n\nThink about it like this.\n\nIf you are two years old, a year is half of your life.\n\nIf you are 50, a year is 1/50 of your life.\n\nIf you're 100, it's 1/100 of your life.\n\nLooking back, the year will seem a lot less, and it will seem to have gone faster then when you were younger.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think of it, perhaps, in terms of Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development. When you're young, you are constantly growing, learning. You are also changing physically, socially and mentally. People go through five of these stages by the time they hit their young adulthood. It's common to see people attain indicators of adulthood around their mid to late twenties or early thirties. These could include, leaving the home you grew up in, settling in on a career, getting married, etc. Once these events happen in one's life, among other aspects, the physical, mental and social changes have slowed down and solidified. Now, life stages are gone through on the scale of decades and life can seem so monotonous compared to younger years.\nThis can be one of several reasons why time seems to fly by when we get older.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm sure its merely a mathematical phenomenon.\n\nIf you have time on the x-axis of a graph, and it covers 5 years of time. There is a segment of that axis that covers one year, it appears to be 1/5th of the time.\n\nAs a five year old, this is abstractly the case - you have a 5 year long reference line. As a 10 year old, the reference line is 10 years long, leaving a single year as a smaller fragment of your subjective universal time. As a 50 year old, it becomes smaller still with respect to your memory of the time you've been alive. I imagine the effect is exacerbated as accessibility of memory decays, if not the memories themselves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sapolism has it right, but there's an additional perceptual component.\nWe tend to ignore the 'familiar' as it's not 'new and interesting'.\nAs we age, more and more becomes 'familiar'.\nIf less happens that is 'important' less time seems to pass.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8921111",
"title": "Telescoping effect",
"section": "Section::::Modifiers of effect.:Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "Many older adults claim time speeds up as they get older, which can be explained by forward telescoping. Since forward telescoping leads people to underestimate the amount of time that has occurred since an event, people may feel as if time has passed quickly when they discover the true amount of time since that event. This explanation is one reason for why people perceive time as moving faster as they age, but it does not take into account changes in the amount of telescoping that occurs with age. People are best at accurately identifying dates when they are ages 35–50. Participants age 60 and older show a decrease in the degree of forward telescoping and tend to date events too remotely instead of too recently. The sensation of time speeding up may be derived from the fact that time is subjectively longer and therefore people assume that the time must be going by more quickly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6069126",
"title": "Time perception",
"section": "Section::::Types of temporal illusions.:Changes with age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "Psychologists have found that the subjective perception of the passing of time tends to speed up with increasing age in humans. This often causes people to increasingly underestimate a given interval of time as they age. This fact can likely be attributed to a variety of age-related changes in the aging brain, such as the lowering in dopaminergic levels with older age; however, the details are still being debated. In an experimental study involving a group of subjects aged between 19 and 24 and a group between 60 and 80, the participants' abilities to estimate 3 minutes of time were compared. The study found that an average of 3 minutes and 3 seconds passed when participants in the younger group estimated that 3 minutes had passed, whereas the older group's estimate for when 3 minutes had passed came after an average of 3 minutes and 40 seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56115455",
"title": "2019 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events.:March.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "BULLET::::- Physicist Adrian Bejan presents an explanation of why time seems shorter as we get older, which can be attributed to \"the ever-slowing speed at which images are obtained and processed by the human brain as the body ages.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229060",
"title": "Old age",
"section": "Section::::Signs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "A basic mark of old age that affects both body and mind is \"slowness of behavior\". This \"slowing down principle\" finds a correlation between advancing age and slowness of reaction and physical and mental task performance. However, studies from Buffalo University and Northwestern University have shown that the elderly are a happier age group than their younger counterparts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5914541",
"title": "Evolution of ageing",
"section": "Section::::Natural selection.:Evolvability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Lenart and Vašku (2016) have also invoked evolvability as the main mechanism driving evolution of ageing. However, they proposed that even though the actual rate of aging can be an adaptation the aging itself is inevitable. In other words, evolution can change speed of aging but some ageing no matter how slow will always occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1338103",
"title": "Aspirational age",
"section": "Section::::Evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1053,
"text": "A study of 'Age Related Vicarious Nostalgia and Aesthetic Consumption' from the University of Wolverhampton concluded age as a phenomenon which is not 'totally bound to chronological time constraints'. In this sense, nostalgia 'has a bearing on the cognitive age of the individual', making it useful for businesses to market towards the aspiration age, in an attempt to trigger a pleasant cognitive response. The Harvard Business Review article on a study conducted by the Grenoble School of Management, states that 'nostalgic feelings increased people's willingness to pay for desired objects'. The article concludes that the psychology behind the aspirational age is 'useful to brands looking to elicit feelings of nostalgia in their promotions' . The article uses Subaru's 2012 'First Car Story' as an example, although the car does not target 16-year-olds, the campaign allows adults to create their own first car story through animation. The desired result, as the study suggests, is that when consumers think nostalgically, they spend more money.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39042548",
"title": "Robert R. McCrae",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Through his research he found that around the age of 30, neuroticism and extroversion begin to decline, while agreeableness and conscientiousness increase with age. Openness to experience, however, seems to follow a curved shape, peaking around the age of 19. These results, however, apply to people as a whole, this does not apply specifically to each individual. The group as a whole tends to change in these ways throughout the lifetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5hps3k
|
why do white people in the west have much higher suicide rates?
|
[
{
"answer": "Presuming you mean European-descendent people in the Western World (typically North America + western Europe), and noting that what motivates suicide is wildly individually dependent, generally some contributing factors to the suicide rates of this (big, diverse) cohort include (but are not limited to):\n\n**Secularism & meritocracy** as cultural values, which tend to frame the world as without inherent meaning, and shaped by human action. In this frame, shortcomings in personal or professional life tend to fall more on the shoulders of individuals than in places where \"God's will\", \"karma\", etc. can be used to account for unfortunate circumstances. Rather than seeing themselves as specks floating in a sea they can't possibly control, and hence having a contented resignation to circumstance, the \"story\" is that you are what you make of yourself, and you can only blame yourself if things don't go well. This will understandably affect suicide rates.\n\n**Material comfort in an absurd existence** carries with it the same lesson as the old saying \"ignorance is bliss\". As white westerners live some of the more materially comfortable lives on the planet, their mental lives may be more freed up to think \"big thoughts\" or, some might say, exceedingly small thoughts. Without the restraint of a highly conformist culture, or the need to perform exhausting toil endlessly, the mental and emotional world is given more room to express and be investigated. Related the secularism of the last paragraph, reality is often in this cultural context taken to be \"absurd\", that is, it's so complex and seemingly (from man's perspective) contradictory that there can be no final understanding it. \"Why are beings born, only to die?\", \"Why should anything exist? Why not nothing?\". If you have all the material comforts you need, but set about trying to solve a paradox logically, the results will be mental stress, cognitive dissonance, etc. If this is allowed to persist too far (as our academic culture, our individualism, and the anonymity of the internet are wont to enable), a person can drive themselves into agitated, impulsive suicide, or even a calm, \"rationally-decided\" choice, valid as any other, to cease existing.\n\n**Insufficient cultural narrative** for dealing with the experiences of life, in any culture and circumstance, produces tension that can affect suicide rates. As Christianity wanes from it's dominant position as THE story of life in the west, nothing clear and singular fills its void. The very clear-pointing compass we thought gave us a sense of orientation now spins violently. We've sought this, purposely, finding our old story restricting and not helpful for finding our way, but this is arguably done in a great deal of ignorance as to why we chose that story in to first place. I contend that some of what we have shuffled off our shoulders -not necessarily in Christianity alone, but in many cultural traditions, perspectives, decorum- has been load-bearing in our civilization. But being enabled by parents of the baby-boom and onward, who just wanna give us the loving freedom their parents didn't/couldn't, very young, rash people have been given power that they've used decisively. Couple this \"anything goes\" ethic with the rapid changes that mass immigration and advancing technology bring, and you have very unsure people, to say the least. Being in a democracy and a meritocracy, these very unsure people are tasked with being very very sure about things. Faux pas and missteps are liable to get you called \"racist\" or \"sexist\". It's all highly demanding, and challenging to the identity, which is often very up-in-the-air. The stresses involved can affect suicide rates accordingly.\n\n**White lamentation and guilt** is this final aspect I'll mention, which I'm defining as the sense that a white person has, individually, of sadness, compassion, empathy, etc. for those on Earth present and past, who have been hurt by European conquests and controversially termed civilizing missions. This can be a healthy sense of compassion and lamentation for the suffering of fellow humans, or a more toxic guilt experience in which the individual sees themselves and all living whites as no different that the conquistadors or Atlantic slave traders. Either one, though, can have predictable effects on suicide. And an interesting note on the same subject is not just suicide, but it also motivates some whites to either pledge to not give birth, or to only procreate with non-Europeans, which, evolutionarily, would be interesting to compare to the act of suicide, sharing the characteristic of \"ending the genetic self\" in one way or another.\n\nI can't cite any of this for you, this is just a lot of reading and culture-watching distilled into what insight I think I grasp well enough for it to be responsible to pass on. Obviously much generalization has taken place for the sake of describing the trend in question, which I don't dispute on the grounds you offer it (though I'd like to see just how start the numbers are). But I figured I would give you *something* to chew on, rather than give you a frankly flippant and derogatory answer as I've seen elsewhere. Please forgive if my discussion of such a complex subject strayed into 6-year old language or older ;P\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16711093",
"title": "Domestic violence in Brazil",
"section": "Section::::Incidence.:Race Differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "According to the \"Mapa da Violencia 2015\" report, the black population is the main victim of domestic violence and homicides in the country. The homicide rates of the white population have been falling (-9,8% between 2003 and 2013), while the homicide rates among black population keep rising (+54,2% between 2003 and 2013).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5417166",
"title": "Assessment of suicide risk",
"section": "Section::::Demographic factors.:Ethnicity and culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "A similar pattern is seen in Australia, where Aboriginal people, especially young Aboriginal men, have a much higher rate of suicide than white Australians, a difference which is attributed to social marginalization, trans-generational trauma, and high rates of alcoholism. A link may be identified between depression and stress, and suicide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29070672",
"title": "Race and health in the United States",
"section": "Section::::African Americans.:Homicide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "Homicide plays a significant role in the racial gap in life expectancy. In 2008, homicide accounted for 19% of the gap among black men, though it did not play a significant role in the decline in the gap from 2003 to 2008. A report from the U.S. Department of Justice states \"In 2005, homicide victimization rates for blacks were 6 times higher than the rates for whites\" and \"94% of black victims were killed by blacks.\" Research by Robert J. Sampson indicates that the high degree of residential segregation in African American neighborhoods is responsible for the high homicide rate among African Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51806982",
"title": "Jeffrey Fagan",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "In 2016, he and Joscha Legewie co-authored a study that found that in the United States, police killings of blacks were higher in cities with more racial polarization, especially when the city has two ethnic groups of equal population. They also found that this effect can be reduced by hiring more black police officers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1021698",
"title": "Incarceration in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Prison populations.:Ethnicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "There is general agreement in the literature that blacks are more likely to be arrested for violent crimes than whites in the United States. Whether this is the case for less serious crimes is less clear. Black majority cities have similar crime statistics for blacks as do cities where majority of population is white. For example, white-plurality San Diego has a slightly lower crime rate for blacks than does Atlanta, a city which has black majority in population and city government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24082935",
"title": "Gender differences in suicide",
"section": "Section::::Statistics.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "Within the United States, there are variances in gendered rates of suicide by ethnic group. According to the CDC, as of 2013 the suicide rates of Whites and American Indians are more than twice the rates of African Americans and Hispanics. Explanations for why rates of attempted and completed suicide vary by ethnicity are often based on cultural differences. Among African American suicides, it has been suggested that females usually have better access to communal and familial relations that may mitigate other risk factors for suicide. Among Hispanic populations, the same study showed that cultural values of \"marianismo\", which emphasizes female docility and deference to males, may help explain the higher rate of suicide of Latinas relative to Latinos. The authors of this study did not extrapolate their conclusions on ethnicity to populations outside the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7188697",
"title": "Wellington Boone",
"section": "Section::::Views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Bishop Boone has said that Black Americans are suffering from \"self-genocide\" because many more Blacks are killed by other Blacks than by policemen, especially through abortion and inner-city murders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ylphw
|
How much oxygen would you need to ignite the potentially highly reactive atmosphere of Titan? And how much energy would be released if a suicidal astronaut lit a match?
|
[
{
"answer": "Atmospheric pressure on Titan is about 150 kPa. Acceleration due to gravity at Titan's surface is about 1.4 m/s^2, so the mass of a 1m^2 air column is about 100000kg. Titan has surface area of 8.3E7 km^2, so the mass of the atmosphere is about 8E18 kg. Assuming 1% methane by mass, that is 8E16 kg of methane, or at 16.05 g/mol, 5E18 moles of methane.\n\nCH4 + 2O2 - > CO2 + 2H20\n\nSo you would need to bring along 10E18 moles of oxygen, with mass 3.2E17 kg, in order to combust all of the methane. \n\nThe enthalpy of combustion of methane is -891 kJ/mol at standard conditions. Titan does not have standard conditions, but using that enthalpy, 4.5E24 J would be released. This is about ten times the energy released by the impactor that killed the dinosaurs.\n\nEdit: Underestimated energy by factor of 1000!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1965",
"title": "Apollo 1",
"section": "Section::::Choice of pure oxygen atmosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "In his monograph \"Project Apollo: The Tough Decisions\", Deputy Administrator Seamans wrote that NASA's worst mistake in engineering judgment was not to run a fire test on the command module before the plugs-out test. In the first episode of the 2009 BBC documentary series \"NASA: Triumph and Tragedy\", Jim McDivitt said that NASA had no idea how a 100% oxygen atmosphere would influence burning. Similar remarks by other astronauts were expressed in the 2007 documentary film \"In the Shadow of the Moon\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12785305",
"title": "Life on Titan",
"section": "Section::::Hypothesis.:Hydrocarbons as solvents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "In 2005, astrobiologists Chris McKay and Heather Smith predicted that if methanogenic life is consuming atmospheric hydrogen in sufficient volume, it will have a measurable effect on the mixing ratio in the troposphere of Titan. The effects predicted included a level of acetylene much lower than otherwise expected, as well as a reduction in the concentration of hydrogen itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "663",
"title": "Apollo 8",
"section": "Section::::Mission.:Lunar orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "The SPS was ignited at 69 hours, 8 minutes, and 16 seconds after launch and burned for 4 minutes and 7 seconds, placing the Apollo 8 spacecraft in orbit around the Moon. The crew described the burn as being the longest four minutes of their lives. If the burn had not lasted exactly the correct amount of time, the spacecraft could have ended up in a highly elliptical lunar orbit or even been flung off into space. If it had lasted too long, they could have struck the Moon. After making sure the spacecraft was working, they finally had a chance to look at the Moon, which they would orbit for the next 20 hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34082948",
"title": "Vika oxygen generator",
"section": "Section::::Vika on Mir.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "In February 1997 a Vika chemical oxygen generator failed on Mir. It caught fire and spewed a torch-like jet of a molten metal and sparks across one of the Mir space station modules, burning for around 14 minutes and blocking the escape route to the docked Soyuz spacecraft. The fire was eventually extinguished, and the crew was not harmed. A definitive cause of the accident was not determined because the fire destroyed the device. It was suspected that a torn piece of rubber glove worn during assembly likely contaminated the canister. Despite this incident, NASA decided it was still the best supplemental oxygen system available, and supported its use on the then-upcoming ISS. The US and Russia worked together to improve the safety of the system before using it on the new space station.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47402",
"title": "Titan (moon)",
"section": "Section::::Prebiotic conditions and life.:Methane and life at the surface.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "In 2005, astrobiologist Chris McKay argued that if methanogenic life did exist on the surface of Titan, it would likely have a measurable effect on the mixing ratio in the Titan troposphere: levels of hydrogen and acetylene would be measurably lower than otherwise expected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11145",
"title": "Fire",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "If the oxidizer is oxygen from the surrounding air, the presence of a force of gravity, or of some similar force caused by acceleration, is necessary to produce convection, which removes combustion products and brings a supply of oxygen to the fire. Without gravity, a fire rapidly surrounds itself with its own combustion products and non-oxidizing gases from the air, which exclude oxygen and extinguish the fire. Because of this, the risk of fire in a spacecraft is small when it is coasting in inertial flight. This does not apply if oxygen is supplied to the fire by some process other than thermal convection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "364099",
"title": "Gemini 6A",
"section": "Section::::Flight.:Rendezvous.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "After several more burns, the two spacecraft were only 130 feet (40 meters) apart. The burns had only used 112 lbs. (51 kilograms) of fuel on Gemini 6A, giving plenty of fuel for some fly-arounds. During the next 270 minutes, the crews moved as close as one foot (30 centimeters), talking over the radio. At one stage the spacecraft were stationkeeping so well that neither crew had to make any burns for 20 minutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3fqg8l
|
How did one join the ranks of Praetorian Guard, back in ancient Rome?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Praetorians actually began their existence as the personal bodyguards of Republican generals; the name of this corps was the \"cohors praetoria.\" Augustus took the men from this corps in order to form the modern image of the Praetorian Guard; as a result, Praetorians were initially a general's personal bodyguard, probably drawn from his best legionaries, and were then transformed into a large corps (most estimates stand at 10,000) that was also probably mostly drawn from provincial legions who had seen their fair share of combat.\n\nSource: Sarah Bingham's *The Praetorian Guard: A History of Rome's Elite Special Forces*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "154034",
"title": "Sejanus",
"section": "Section::::Rise to power.:Praetorian prefect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "The Praetorian Guard was an elite unit of the Roman army formed by Augustus in 27 BC, with the specific function to serve as a bodyguard to the emperor and members of the imperial family. Much more than a guard however, the Praetorians also managed the day-to-day care of the city, such as general security and civil administration. Furthermore, their presence served as a constant reminder to the people and the Senate of the substantial armed force which served as the basis for the imperial power. Augustus was careful however to uphold the republican veneer of this regime, and only allowed nine cohorts to be formed (one fewer than in a normal Roman legion), which were inconspicuously scattered across various lodging houses in the city, and commanded by two prefects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3122776",
"title": "Lucius Seius Strabo",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Under Augustus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "The Praetorian Guard was formally established under Augustus in 27 BC. During Republican times, generals or statesmen had relied on private corps of soldiers before, but the Guard as established by Augustus differed from these early cohorts, not only in structure and number but also in function. As a special division of the Roman Army, they were essentially loyal to the Emperor and his family only, and accordingly their pay-rate was much higher. Augustus was careful however the uphold the Republican veneer of his regime, and allowed only nine cohorts to be formed, which was one less than in a normal legion. Only three of those were ever kept on active duty. As the Roman citizens grew more used to the presence of soldiers in the capital however, their numbers were increased from 500 to 1000 soldiers per cohort.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197406",
"title": "Praetorian Guard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "The Praetorian Guard (Latin: \"cohortes praetorianae\") was an elite unit of the Imperial Roman army whose members served as personal bodyguards to the Roman emperors. During the era of the Roman Republic, the Praetorians served as a small escort force for high-ranking officials such as senators or provincial governors like procurators, and also serving as bodyguards for high ranking officers within the Roman legions. With the republic's transition into the Roman Empire, however, the first emperor, Augustus, founded the Guard as his personal security detail. Although they continued to serve in this capacity for roughly three centuries, the Guard became notable for its intrigue and interference in Roman politics, to the point of overthrowing emperors and proclaiming their successors. In 312, the Guard was disbanded by Constantine the Great.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197406",
"title": "Praetorian Guard",
"section": "Section::::Under the empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "The legionaries known as the Praetorian Guard were first hand-picked veterans of the Roman army who served as bodyguards to the emperor. First established by Augustus, members of the Guard accompanied him on active campaign and served as secret police protecting the civic administrations and rule of law imposed by the senate and the emperor. The Praetorian Guard was ultimately dissolved by Emperor Constantine I in the 4th century. They were distinct from the Imperial German Bodyguard which provided close personal protection for the early Western Roman emperors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197406",
"title": "Praetorian Guard",
"section": "Section::::Under the empire.:Service in the Praetorian Guard.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Originally, the Praetorian Guard was recruited from the populations of central Italy (Etruria, Umbria and Latium according to Tacitus). Recruits were between 15 and 32 years of age, compared to legionary recruits who ranged from 18 to 23 years of age. According to Cassius Dio, during the first two centuries AD and before the reform of Septimius Severus, the Praetorians were exclusively limited to Italy, Spain (Roman province), Macedonia and Noricum (current Austria).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197406",
"title": "Praetorian Guard",
"section": "Section::::Under the empire.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "In ancient Rome, \"praetors\" were either civic or military leaders. The \"praetorianus\" were initially elite guards for military praetors, under the Republic. As the Republic ended, the first emperor, Augustus, set up an elite guard of praetorianus to protect himself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "538538",
"title": "Praetorian prefect",
"section": "Section::::History.:Commander of the Praetorian Guard.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "Under the empire the praetorians or imperial guards were commanded by one, two, or even three praefects (praefecti praetorio), who were chosen by the emperor from among the equites and held office at his pleasure. From the time of Alexander Severus the post was open to senators also, and if an equestrian was appointed he was at the same time raised to the senate. Down to the time of Constantine, who deprived the office of its military character, the prefecture of the guards was regularly held by tried soldiers, often by men who had fought their way up from the ranks. In course of time the command seems to have been enlarged so as to include all the troops in Italy except the corps commanded by the city praefect (\"cohortes urbanae\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mcsrq
|
The space program has used CO2 scrubbers for ~50 years. Why can't we use this same technology to help clean the atmosphere?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is largely an issue of size, temperature and time scale, though price cannot be discounted. Here is a link describing the method used on the space shuttle:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "My understanding is that the production and recycling of CO2 scrubbers takes a significant amount of energy, greater than the amount of CO2 that is absorbed from the production of a similar amount of energy. IE it still leads to a net increase in CO2, it just decreases it locally. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "CO2 scrubbing technology DOES exist, and has advanced a long way since the apollo program. REF: _URL_0_\n\nWe can use this technology to eliminate the CO2 output from power plants, the largest CO2 emitters, but for logistical reasons I doubt it would be employed in cars. The trouble then is what to do with the CO2 that is recovered. most people talk about pumping it under high pressures into deep geological formations within the earth's crust.\n\nThe only reason we aren't doing any of this is because its cheaper not to and the negative externalities associated with CO2-caused climate change have not been priced into the system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is largely an issue of size, temperature and time scale, though price cannot be discounted. Here is a link describing the method used on the space shuttle:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My understanding is that the production and recycling of CO2 scrubbers takes a significant amount of energy, greater than the amount of CO2 that is absorbed from the production of a similar amount of energy. IE it still leads to a net increase in CO2, it just decreases it locally. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "CO2 scrubbing technology DOES exist, and has advanced a long way since the apollo program. REF: _URL_0_\n\nWe can use this technology to eliminate the CO2 output from power plants, the largest CO2 emitters, but for logistical reasons I doubt it would be employed in cars. The trouble then is what to do with the CO2 that is recovered. most people talk about pumping it under high pressures into deep geological formations within the earth's crust.\n\nThe only reason we aren't doing any of this is because its cheaper not to and the negative externalities associated with CO2-caused climate change have not been priced into the system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42302371",
"title": "Mars habitat",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Air.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "A concept to scrub CO2 from the breathing air is to use re-usable amine bead carbon dioxide scrubbers. While one carbon dioxide scrubber filters the astronaut's air, the other can vent scrubbed CO2 to the Mars atmosphere, once that process is completed another one can be used, and the one that was used can take a break.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3075977",
"title": "NASA Clean Air Study",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "The NASA Clean Air Study was a project led by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in association with the Associated Landscape Contractors of America (ALCA) to research ways to clean the air in space stations. Its results suggested that, in addition to absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen through photosynthesis, certain common indoor plants may also provide a natural way of removing toxic agents such as benzene, formaldehyde, and trichloroethylene from the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12249109",
"title": "Sustainable automotive air conditioning",
"section": "Section::::Arguments.:Arguments for CO.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "BULLET::::- More environmentally friendly with the lowest Global warming potential (GWP) of all currently used and proposed refrigerants. CO does not deplete the ozone layer. Since the carbon dioxide used in car air conditioning is a recycled industrial waste product it becomes environmentally neutral. Overall, using a CO-based air conditioning system will reduce total car emissions by 10%, thereby sparing the planet 1% of total greenhouse gases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2110335",
"title": "Orient Overseas Container Line",
"section": "Section::::Environmental Considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "In 1992, five years in advance of the Montreal Protocol, an international treaty designed to protect the Earth's ozone layer, OOCL changed the design of its refrigerated container machinery in order to eliminate the use of CFCs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1197569",
"title": "Air purifier",
"section": "Section::::Potential ozone hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Due to the below average performance and potential health risks, Consumer Reports has advised against using ozone producing air purifiers. IQAir, the educational partner of the American Lung Association, has been a leading industry voice against ozone-producing air cleaning technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "665728",
"title": "Shape-memory alloy",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Heating and Cooling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Almost all air conditioners and heat pumps in use today employ vapor-compression of refrigerants. Over time, some of the refrigerants used in these systems leak into the atmosphere and contribute to global warming. If the new technology, which uses no refrigerants, proves economical and practical, it might offer a significant breakthrough in the effort to reduce climate change. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4702515",
"title": "Vapor-compression refrigeration",
"section": "Section::::Economic analysis.:Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Many systems still use HCFC refrigerants, which contribute to depletion of the Earth's ozone layer. In countries adhering to the Montreal Protocol, HCFCs are due to be phased out and are largely being replaced by ozone-friendly HFCs. However, systems using HFC refrigerants tend to be slightly less efficient than systems using HCFCs. HFCs also have an extremely large global warming potential, because they remain in the atmosphere for many years and trap heat more effectively than carbon dioxide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ef1dra
|
how is a game converted to a rom for emulation purposes?
|
[
{
"answer": "It depends on the platform. Typically in older systems you would have some sort of interface to the cartridge that could pull address lines up and read data lines in sequence transferring it back to whatever you’re going to store the ROM on. \n\nFor a lot of the DVD based consoles they would often need custom firmwares for certain PC DVD drives or, if you could get access to run arbitrary code, you dump the game over a serial connection or network. For the GameCube it usually involved exploiting another game (i.e. Phantasy Star Online) to run a dumper that would send the contents of a GameCube mini DVD over the network to a host computer. These days it’s much easier because you can use a DVD dump tool from the Wii’s Homebrew Channel.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A rom is just a copy of the media. In case of GC it's a copy of the data stored on the CD. Some roms are encrypted, like on the 3ds and you need to decrypt them before use on a device.\n\nThey're called ROMs because originally they were the *dumps* of Read Only Memory chips found in cartridges and arcade cabinets.\n\nToday however, they are more akin to directory structures found when browsing a PC/Mac rather than binary dumps of a single chip. If you're emulating the GC for example, it's more appropriate to call the games you're emulating \"images\" - \"disc images\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The rom is essentially just a copy of the data on the original game's disc or cartridge. Exactly how you do that depends on what type of media it is and what anti-copying protections it has. Seems GC games can be copied with a modded Wii.\n\nThat can be played on Android via an emulator. An emulator is a piece of software that interprets the code from the rom and executes it, and emulates the environment of the original console.\n\nI don't know why there are only a limited number of roms. They're easy enough to create for someone who knows what they're doing. Depends where you're getting them from I suppose. Sharing roms is illegal so maybe a lot are getting taken down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a potato (a game) , I know how to eat this potato (I'm the console). You have no idea what a potato is (You're the PC). To you it's just a weird object.\n\nYou take this weird object as is without understanding it (ROM). Then you watch me how I'm eating it, and you replicate the exact steps I'm doing (emulator) to eat the potato .\n\nNow you know how to eat a potato.\n\nThe reason there's a limited number of potatoes you can eat, is because not all potatoes are the same. Some have a complex way of eating them , so it's hard for you to replicate the eating process. Unless you understand exactly how I'm eating those complex potatoes and replicate it yourself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18943937",
"title": "Emulator",
"section": "Section::::In preservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1386,
"text": "Emulation is a strategy in digital preservation to combat obsolescence. Emulation focuses on recreating an original computer environment, which can be time-consuming and difficult to achieve, but valuable because of its ability to maintain a closer connection to the authenticity of the digital object. Emulation addresses the original hardware and software environment of the digital object, and recreates it on a current machine. The emulator allows the user to have access to any kind of application or operating system on a current platform, while the software runs as it did in its original environment. Jeffery Rothenberg, an early proponent of emulation as a digital preservation strategy states, \"the ideal approach would provide a single extensible, long-term solution that can be designed once and for all and applied uniformly, automatically, and in synchrony (for example, at every refresh cycle) to all types of documents and media\". He further states that this should not only apply to out of date systems, but also be upwardly mobile to future unknown systems. Practically speaking, when a certain application is released in a new version, rather than address compatibility issues and migration for every digital object created in the previous version of that application, one could create an emulator for the application, allowing access to all of said digital objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53537897",
"title": "Video game preservation",
"section": "Section::::Preservation of video game software.:Emulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Video game console emulators use software that replicates the hardware of a video game console or arcade machine. Generally these create a virtual machine on newer computer systems that simulate the key processing units of the original hardware. The emulators then can read in software, such as a ROM image for arcade games or cartridge-based systems, or the game's optical media disc or an ISO image of that disc, to play the game in full. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18934755",
"title": "Video game console emulator",
"section": "Section::::Other uses.:Enhanced technical features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Emulation software may offer improved audio capabilities (e.g. decreased latency and better audio interpolation), enhanced save states (which allow the user to save a game at any point for debugging or re-try) and decreased boot and loading times. Some emulators feature an option to \"quickly\" boot a game, bypassing the console manufacturer's original splash screens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18934755",
"title": "Video game console emulator",
"section": "Section::::Other uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Although the primary purpose of emulation is to make older video-games execute on newer systems, there are several advantages inherent in the extra flexibility of software emulation that were not possible on the original systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3575095",
"title": "Hardware emulation",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "In-circuit emulation improves somewhat on FPGA prototyping’s implementation times, and provides a comprehensive, efficient debugging capability. Emulation does this at the expense of running speed and high cost ($1M+) compared to FPGA prototypes ($75K). Looking at emulation from the other direction, it improves on acceleration’s performance by substituting \"live\" stimulus for the simulated testbench. This stimulus can come from a target system (the product being developed), or from test equipment. At 10,000 to 100,000 times the speed of simulation, emulation makes it possible to test application software while still providing a comprehensive hardware debug environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15454",
"title": "Itanium",
"section": "Section::::Software support.:Emulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "Emulation is a technique that allows a computer to execute binary code that was compiled for a different type of computer. Before IBM's acquisition of QuickTransit in 2009, application binary software for IRIX/MIPS and Solaris/SPARC could run via type of emulation called \"dynamic binary translation\" on Linux/Itanium. Similarly, HP implemented a method to execute PA-RISC/HP-UX on the Itanium/HP-UX via emulation, to simplify migration of its PA-RISC customers to the radically different Itanium instruction set. Itanium processors can also run the mainframe environment GCOS from Groupe Bull and several x86 operating systems via instruction set simulators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "364494",
"title": "OpenMSX",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "For copyright reasons, the emulator cannot be distributed with original MSX-BIOS ROM images. Instead, OpenMSX includes C-BIOS, a minimal implementation of the MSX BIOS, allowing some games to be played without the original ROM image. It is possible to for the user to replace C-BIOS own BIOS if they prefer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5mz6ya
|
Did the Allies in World War II ever entertain the idea of offering a conditional surrender to Nazi Germany before the end of the war? Do we know any details on what the conditions of these offers might have entailed?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Allies had different goals of victory for the end of the war, so a discussion of conditional surrender has to take this into account. Churchill, coming from a more traditional British school of thought, was primarily focused on restoring the old European balance of powers system of international governance which relied on equilibrium. It would have seemed natural and logical to allow the Germans to negotiate a conditional surrender on the Western front while rebuilding the Western world (including Germany) to balance the ever growing Soviet Union. However, President Roosevelt had a colliding viewpoint. He instead imagined a 'new' world order, one that was based upon international harmony and cooperation rather than the somewhat anarchic balance of powers system. Kissinger quotes the US Secretary of State:\n\n > ...there will no longer be need for spheres of influence, for allies, for balance of power, or any other of the special arrangements through which, in the unhappy past, the nations strove to safeguard their security or to promote their interests.\n\nThe balance of power and the new world order were in direct conflict with each other, and, as mentioned in /u/orincoro's comment, Churchill did not want to 'push his luck' with the American aid he was now dependant upon. Even in 1944, before the Americans had landed, Roosevelt was already expressing ideas associated with American isolationism, and regretting that America had to come to the aid of Europe:\n\n > As I suggested before, I denounce and protest the paternity of Belgium, France and Italy. You really ought to bring up and discipline your own children. In view of the fact that they may be your bulwark in future days, you should at least pay for their schooling now!\n\nStatements like these would have been extremely worrying to Churchill, who at this point was the head of a tired British war effort. He simply could not risk pressuring Roosevelt too hard at the risk of losing the war. In order for Roosevelt's vision of the Four Policemen to come to fruition, a complete removal of Hitler and disarmament of Germany was required. This put an enormous emphasis on an unconditional surrender from Nazi Germany.\n\nStalin's peace goals were instead based entirely on Realpolitik. The more land Stalin could acquire, the larger the security-belt or buffer zone would be to protect Russia. Roosevelt's unconditional surrender proposal was therefore very appealing since it would remove the Axis from peace negotiations entirely, allowing for a great deal of flexibility and exploitation at the negotiating table for Stalin.\n\n---\n\nKissinger, Henry. \"Three Approaches to Peace: Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill in World War II\" in *Diplomacy*. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1994.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2554206",
"title": "Flensburg Government",
"section": "Section::::Dissolution.:Withdrawal of diplomatic recognition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1445,
"text": "On 8 May 1945, these arrangements were put into effect in full, notwithstanding that the only German parties to the signed surrender document had been the German High Command. The western Allies maintained that a functioning German state had already ceased to exist, and that consequently the surrender of the German military had effected the complete termination of Nazi Germany. The protecting powers complied fully with the Allied demands: Sweden, Switzerland and Ireland announced the breaking off of relations; consequently the German state ceased as a diplomatic entity on 8 May 1945. Imperial Japan, the only remaining Axis belligerent, had already denounced the German surrender and Flensburg government, and seized the German embassy in Tokyo and seven U-boats. Henceforward, although the Flensburg government had a nominated Minister for Foreign Affairs, it had no access to the diplomatic assets of the former German state and was not accorded diplomatic recognition by any of the former protecting powers or other remaining neutral countries. On 5 May Von Krosigk had dispatched Walter Schellenberg to Sweden as a personal emissary via Folke Bernadotte, hoping to establish diplomatic relations and to expedite a partial surrender of German forces in Norway. This mission was overtaken by the general capitulation of all German forces, and following 8 May all further approaches from the Flensburg Government to Sweden were ignored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11990024",
"title": "Berlin Declaration (1945)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1785,
"text": "The principle that hostilities against Germany should continue until its armed forces laid down their arms on the basis of unconditional surrender had been adopted by the Allies in the Moscow Declarations of October 1943. In the same declarations it was also stated that, following a German surrender, any individuals participating in atrocities within territories under German occupation would be returned to those territories to be judged and punished; while the entire leadership of Nazi Germany - classed as 'criminals' - would be seized and 'punished by the joint decision of the government of the Allies' (a formula then understood as indicating summary execution without trial, which remained British policy until April 1945). The principles of the Moscow Declarations were to be elaborated in the proceedings of the European Advisory Commission to specify that the Allies would undertake that both Nazism and German Militarism would be eradicated from Europe. In this respect the British War Cabinet came to agree with the American proposal that tribunals of justice should be established; with the consequence that all individual Nazi leaders would now be tried as criminals, and that all Nazi institutions, agencies and associations would be declared to be 'criminal organizations', proved membership of which would be grounds for judicial penalties. Since, in practice, by May 1945 such Nazi bodies were the only functioning institutions of German civil administration, the effect of this was to designate the entire civil apparatus of state power in Germany, and all employment within it, as 'criminal' activity in the service of the Nazi party; on the basis that \"the Nazi state was structurally, in its genesis and throughout its existence, a vast criminal enterprise\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5451330",
"title": "German resistance to Nazism",
"section": "Section::::Relations with Allies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Prior to the formulation of unconditional surrender by the Allies, the peace demands sent from the German resistance were hardly satisfactory; for example in 1941 a proposal by Goerdeler demanded borders of 1914 with France, Belgium and Poland, as well as acceptance of annexation of Austria and Sudetenland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2554206",
"title": "Flensburg Government",
"section": "Section::::Dissolution.:Withdrawal of diplomatic recognition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1320,
"text": "During 1944 and 1945 countries that had been neutral or allies of Germany had been joining the Allied Powers and declaring war on Germany. The German embassies to these countries had been closed down, and their property and archives held in trust by a nominated protecting power (usually Switzerland or Sweden) under the terms of the Geneva Conventions. There were counterpart arrangements for the former embassies of Allied countries in Berlin. The United States Department of State had prepared for the diplomatic consequences of the war ending on the assumption that there would have been an explicit statement of unconditional surrender of the German state in accordance with the terms of a draft surrender text jointly agreed by the Allied powers in 1944. In the final days of April 1945 the State Department had notified the protecting powers, and all other remaining neutral governments (such as Ireland), that following the forthcoming German surrender the continued identity of the German state would rest solely in the four Allied Powers. The Allied Powers would immediately recall all German diplomatic staff, take ownership of all German state property, extinguish all protecting power functions, and require the transfer of all archives and records to one or another of the embassies of the western Allies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1373357",
"title": "German Instrument of Surrender",
"section": "Section::::\"Declaration regarding the defeat of Germany\".:Diplomatic relations and embassies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 1915,
"text": "During 1944 and 1945 formerly neutral countries, and former German allies, had been joining the Allied Powers and declaring war on Germany. The German embassies to these countries had been closed down, with their property and archives held in trust by a nominated protecting power (usually Switzerland or Sweden) under the terms of the Geneva Conventions; with counterpart arrangements for the former embassies of Allied countries in Berlin. The United States State Department had prepared for the diplomatic consequences of the war's ending on the assumption that there would have been an explicit statement of unconditional surrender of the German state in accordance with the agreed EAC surrender text. In the final days of April 1945, the State Department had notified the protecting powers, and all other remaining neutral governments (such as Ireland), that following the forthcoming German surrender, the continued identity of the German state would rest solely in the four Allied Powers, who would immediately recall all German diplomatic staff, take ownership of all German state property, extinguish all protecting power functions, and require the transfer of all archives and records to one or another of the embassies of the western Allies. On 8 May 1945, these arrangements were put into effect in full, notwithstanding that the only German parties to the signed surrender document had been the German High Command; the western Allies maintaining that a functioning German state had already ceased to exist, and consequently that the surrender of the German military had effected the complete termination of Nazi Germany. As the protecting powers complied fully with the Allied demands, the German state ceased as a diplomatic entity on 8 May 1945 (Imperial Japan, the only remaining Axis belligerent, having already denounced the German surrender and unilaterally seized the German embassy in Tokyo).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4085044",
"title": "Achterveld",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "The Allies tried to start negotiations about an unconditional German surrender. Seyss-Inquart did not want to comply there and then, although a general cease-fire was convened. The Germans ceased their resistance only on May 5 following, in Wageningen. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3498526",
"title": "Forest of Compiègne",
"section": "Section::::History.:Armistices of 1918 and 1940.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "During World War II, a second treaty was signed in the forest, this time arranging an armistice between France and Nazi Germany (22 June 1940). With an unmistakable desire to humiliate his defeated enemy, German dictator Adolf Hitler gave orders that the surrender should be received in exactly the same spot, even the same railway car, where the Germans had surrendered in 1918.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
e1xfv0
|
Were the Reserves for Native Americans in Canada Inspired by the Reservations in the United States?
|
[
{
"answer": "Kwe,\n\nReserves in Canada were created before the first US reserves, even before the US themselves. The first to establish reserves were the French when what is now Eastern Canada was New France (1534-1763).\n\n Most Indigenous peoples living on the territorie claimed by the French were nomadic or semi-nomadic. Algonquian peoples usually aggregated in villages at strategic locations during Summer. It was during that season that most missionary work was made (it was easier to find people to convert when they were in villages). Missionaries were mainly Jesuits. They translated the Bible, they studied the peoples, they learned the languages, etc. But, in their mind, a true Christian is sedentary. As such, they looked at the work of their brothers in the Spanish colonies. In South America, they created reductions were the ''Savages'' could be ''civilized''. So, they created the réduction of Sillery near Québec in 1638. It was the first reserve in today's Canada. This model was used again and again, in places like Oka or Sainte-Marie-des-Hurons. \n\nWith the British conquest, Catholicism was, for a short time, illegal. Furthermore, in the years after the conquest of New France, the Indigenous peoples were seen as a buffer to control colonists of the Thirteen Colonies, and after the independance of the US, of the Usanians. Most of the lands South of the Great Lakes were reserved for the Indians with the Royala Proclamation of 1763 and the Queec Act. The Royal Proclamation also enshrined the need to make treaties with the Indians before taking their lands. Things changed with the Western expansion. Indigenous peoples were now a problem and they created reserves. Canada inherited of this method and officialized it with the Indian Act (1876). This is one of the reasons why you see way more reserves in Western Canada than in Eastern Canada. Even though the creation of most reserves in the West were agreed upon with treaties, the legitimacy of the treaties can be argued.\n\nThe reserves were more peacuful integration with the Jesuits, as the French had relatively peaceful relations. The goal was to assimilate the ''Sauvages''. However, the British were far more violent. Sometimes, reserves were created after wars, other times, with economic, social or political pressures. But the Catholic Church (mostly French/French Canadian or Irish) participated in the creation and mangement of the reserves, so the Church was not that peaceful. Today, reserves are still created, but usually it is by the Courts forcing Canada to reserve some lands to Indigenous peoples.\n\nIn conclusion, Canada was not inspired by the US for the creation of reserves. They were reserves ultimately,inspired by the Spanish Jesuits. However, the process was similar to the US, as you had Spanish missions and more ''Anglo-Saxon'' reserves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1439608",
"title": "List of Indian reserves in Canada",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Canada has numerous Indian reserves for its First Nations people, which were mostly established by the \"Indian Act\" of 1876 and have been variously expanded and reduced by royal commissions since. They are sometimes incorrectly called by the American term \"reservations\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196075",
"title": "Indigenous peoples in Canada",
"section": "Section::::History.:Forced assimilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "Another focus of the Canadian government was to make the Aboriginal groups of Canada sedentary, as they thought that this would make them easier to assimilate. In the 19th century, the government began to support the creation of model farming villages, which were meant to encourage non-sedentary Aboriginal groups to settle in an area and begin to cultivate agriculture. When most of these model farming villages failed, the government turned instead to the creation of Indian reserves with the Indian Act of 1876. With the creation of these reserves came many restricting laws, such as further bans on all intoxicants, restrictions on eligibility to vote in band elections, decreased hunting and fishing areas, and inability for status Indians to visit other groups on their reservations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6092970",
"title": "Native Americans and World War II",
"section": "Section::::Pre-war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "According to Burnstein, life on reservations was difficult for Native Americans prior to the war due to low levels of development and lack of economic opportunities. In 1939, the median income for Native American males living on reservations was $500, compared to the national average for males of $2300. Nearly one quarter of Native Americans at this time had no formal education, and even for high school graduates, few forms of conventional employment existed on reservations. In the absence of conventional employment, those Native Americans who stayed on the reservations generally worked the land and farmed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21510889",
"title": "List of Indian reserves in British Columbia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "The Government of Canada has established at least 316 Indian reserves for First Nation band governments in its westernmost province of British Columbia. The majority of these reserves continue to exist while a number are no longer in existence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52935795",
"title": "Environmental policy of the Donald Trump administration",
"section": "Section::::Department of the Interior.:Privatization of Native American reservations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "Within the Interior Department, the Bureau of Indian Affairs handles some federal relations with Native Americans. Native American reservations are estimated to contain about a fifth of the nation’s oil and gas, along with vast coal reserves. In December 2016, a Trump advisory group put forth a plan to privatize Native American reservations to open them up to drilling and mining. Many Native Americans view such efforts as a violation of tribal self-determination and culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "315239",
"title": "First Nations",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary issues.:Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 1533,
"text": "The Canadian federal government is responsible for health and social services on the reserve and in Inuit communities, while the provincial and territorial governments provide services elsewhere. The divide between each level of government has led to a gap in services for Aboriginal people living off-reserve and in Canadian towns and cities. Although Aboriginal people living off-reserve have access to the programs and services designed for the general population, these programs and services do not address the specific needs of Aboriginal people, nor is it delivered in a culturally appropriate way. It has not been until recently that the Canadian federal government had to increase recognition to the needs for programs and services for Aboriginal people in predominantly non-Aboriginal communities. It is however funding that lags the growth of urban Aboriginal populations and the uncoordinated delivery of services through various government departments would also pose as a barrier. The federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status Indians pointed out that in 2003 almost 90 percent of the funding for programs designed for Aboriginal peoples is spent on reserves, while off-reserve programs for Aboriginal people are delivered through just 22 federal departments, as well as other provincial and territorial agencies. The federal subcommittee on Indigenous child welfare described a \"jurisdictional web\" in which there is little to no coordination with or between municipal, provincial and federal levels of government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196075",
"title": "Indigenous peoples in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 1062,
"text": "Indian reserves, established in Canadian law by treaties such as Treaty 7, are lands of First Nations recognized by non-indigenous governments. Some reserves are within cities, such as the Opawikoscikan Reserve in Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, Wendake in Quebec City or Enoch Cree Nation 135 in the Edmonton Metropolitan Region. There are more reserves in Canada than there are First Nations, which were ceded multiple reserves by treaty. Aboriginal people currently work in a variety of occupations and may live outside their ancestral homes. The traditional cultures of their ancestors, shaped by nature, still exert a strong influence on them, from spirituality to political attitudes. National Aboriginal Day is a day of recognition of the cultures and contributions of the First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples of Canada. The day was first celebrated in 1996, after it was proclaimed that year, by then Governor General of Canada Roméo LeBlanc, to be celebrated on June 21 annually. Most provincial jurisdictions do not recognize it as a statutory holiday.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22xzfg
|
how can this book cost $7000?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't think this is the result of a runaway pricing algorithm, I think it is intentionally priced at this level.\n\nSome companies or labs need to have reference materials; a chemical engineer may need to look up the official weight of a particular compound, or a structural engineer may need to look up the finer points of the behavior and properties of certain materials. Those sorts of books are constructed from hundreds of thousands of careful observations by scientists around the world and contain extremely precise data which only a relatively few people are interested in. This book has the title \"Phase Diagrams, Crystallographic and Thermodynamic Data, Critically Evaluated by MSIT (Materials Science International Team)\", and the Table of Contents is just a list of elements. I think that this is one such book, and it is something that an organization working with three-element alloys would need to have one of. Just one for the entire organization, but it is quite important to have.\n\nSo if you are building a $30 million dollar laboratory where you will be experimenting with various advanced materials, you would need to buy one of these books for reference. That is why it costs so much; it isn't for the consumption of individuals, but large organizations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the problem lies in thinking a books worth is based solely on the number of pages and not the value of the contents.\n\nKnowledge is power man. When you want to make the world longest bridge or tallest building, your probably looking for the most reputable information possible. Those projects cost millions to even billions of dollars. $7k is the least of their worries.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25547928",
"title": "John Locke (author)",
"section": "Section::::Writing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The other seven authors to top one million in eBook sales sell their novels for upwards of $10.00. As Locke reported to the \"Daily Telegraph\" in 2011, \"I put the most famous authors in the world in the position of having to prove their books were ten times better than mine.\" At this price, the author earns 35% royalties, as opposed to 70% if the author were to price the book between $2.99 and $9.99.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1965184",
"title": "Bhutan: A Visual Odyssey Across the Last Himalayan Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "The book was certified by \"Guinness World Records\" as the largest book in the world until 2007. The 118 page tome weighs approximately 133 pounds (60.3 kg) and measures five feet by seven feet (2.13 × 1.53 m) when opened. Each image is nearly two gigabytes in size, and each copy of the book requires more than of ink and 24 hours to be printed. It costs $2000 to produce and sells for $10,000, which is donated to Friendly Planet, a charity that builds schools in Cambodia and Bhutan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "254108",
"title": "Textbook",
"section": "Section::::Market.:Production.:Cost distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "According to the National Association of College Stores, the entire cost of the book is justified by expenses, with typically 11.7% of the price of a new book going to the author's royalties (or a committee of editors at the publishing house), 22.7% going to the store, and 64.6% going to the publisher. The store and publisher amounts are slightly higher for Canada. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2158585",
"title": "The Final Days",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "As published by Simon & Schuster, the book contained some photographic illustrations and cost $10.95. After it became the fastest selling book in the publisher's history, the price was raised to $11.95, supposedly to defray paper costs and, in the publisher's words, as part of \"maintaining priority press time so that [it] can get on press before other books.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1097863",
"title": "Sisters (Lynne Cheney novel)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The book is now out of print. Existing copies have been put up for sale on eBay, amazon.com, and various other Internet sites for prices ranging, at this writing (September 26, 2009), from $49.96 to $295.00 unsigned, and $1,500 for a copy autographed by Cheney.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45710455",
"title": "Kindle Store",
"section": "Section::::E-book pricing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "In late 2007, new releases and \"New York Times\" best sellers were being offered for approximately $11 at the store, with first chapters of many books offered as free samples. Many titles, including some classics, are offered free of charge or at a low price, which has been stated to relate to the cost of adapting the book to the Kindle format. Magazines, newspapers and blogs via RSS are provided for a monthly subscription fee or during a free trial period. Newspaper subscriptions cost from $1.99 to $27.99 per month; magazines charge between $1.25 and $10.99 per month, and blogs charge from $0.99 to $1.99 per month. Amazon e-book sales overtook print for one day for the first time on Christmas Day 2009. International users may pay different prices for e-books depending on the country listed as their home address.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46661518",
"title": "Booktopia",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "It took 3 days to sell the first book as the company was started on a $10 per day budget. After the first month sales were $2,000. By the 4th month sales were up to $30K per month and by the end of the year $100K per month. By the end of 2 years it was $200K per month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9nx6mj
|
why do objects in old cartoons that the characters interact with have distinctly different textures, colours, brightness, saturation, etc. than the background?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because they're drawn separately on different cels.\n\nIn old cartoons, a background cel would be drawn and colored, and the foreground cels, containing everything that moves and is interacted with, are drawn and colored separately as well.\n\nThe cells were stacked and the entire thing was filmed, one frame at a time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it's because the background is drawn once and used many times but those objects are drawn for the specific episode.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29070171",
"title": "Jack and Holly",
"section": "Section::::Animation style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Although the characters share some visual similarities with Japanese Anime characters and cartoons they have a distinctive design. They do not have legs, but instead they float, fly and hover. The color palette was designed specifically to appeal to younger children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28762",
"title": "SameGame",
"section": "Section::::Visuals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "There is a special visual aspect in some versions; instead of separate blocks, games like \"iDrops\" and \"SameGameManiak\" feature bordered areas for adjacent blocks of the same color. Some have elaborate tile graphics, featuring pictures or patterns inside the tile, like \"KSame\" and \"Same GNOME\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "184579",
"title": "Cartoonist",
"section": "Section::::Art styles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "McCloud also notes that in several traditions, there is a tendency to have the main characters drawn rather simplistic and cartoony, while the backgrounds and environment are depicted realistically. Thus, he argues, the reader easily identifies with the characters, (as they are similar to one's idea of self), whilst being immersed into a world, that's three-dimensional and textured. Good examples of this phenomenon include Hergé's \"The Adventures of Tintin\" (in his \"personal trademark\" Ligne claire style), Will Eisner's \"Spirit\" and Osamu Tezuka's \"Buddha\", among many others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27977",
"title": "South Park",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Animation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "The characters and objects are composed of simple geometrical shapes and primary colors. Most child characters are the same size and shape, and are distinguished by their clothing, hair and skin colors, and headwear. Characters are mostly presented two-dimensionally and from only one angle. Their movements are animated in an intentionally jerky fashion, as they are purposely not offered the same free range of motion associated with hand-drawn characters. Occasionally, some non-fictional characters are depicted with photographic cutouts of their actual head and face in lieu of a face reminiscent of the show's traditional style. Canadians on the show are often portrayed in an even more minimalist fashion; they have simple beady eyes, and the top halves of their heads simply flap up and down when the characters speak.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47069739",
"title": "Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Animation and design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1537,
"text": "Rather than using animation principles like squash and stretch they came up with substitute versions of them; \"so that in texture and feel it felt different, but it still achieved the same goal — to either feel weight or anticipation or impact or things like that\". Different comic styles were emulated throughout the film for the different characters, with Spider-Gwen's animation based on the designs in her comics, Spider-Man Noir having a black-and-white color scheme, and Spider-Ham being designed as \"cartoony\" as possible. Former Disney animator Shiyoon Kim served as overall character designer, while Craig Kellman designed the exaggerated look for Spider-Ham. Justin K. Thompson served as production designer after having done so on the \"Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs\" films for Lord, Miller, and Sony Pictures Animation. Danny Dimian served as visual effects supervisor after having worked on both the 2002 \"Spider-Man\" film and the first \"Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs\" film, and also compared the approach Imageworks took with the film to the 2000 film \"Hollow Man\". Animation co-director Patrick O'Keefe said that committing fully to each Spider's unique art style was like \"making five movies\". In-universe comic-books in the film were designed as a combination of the artwork of Steve Ditko and John Romita. Chris Pine's Peter Parker cover was designed by Keith Pollard, Erik Larsen designed the cover for Jake Johnson's Peter Parker, and Miles Morales co-creator Sara Pichelli, also contributed art for the film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25920826",
"title": "Scooby-Doo! Abracadabra-Doo",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "The animation is now in a different format, with a darker, more realistic look similar to \"Zombie Island\" and \"Witch's Ghost\", and the characters are now in their original outfits and designs from the \"Where Are You!\" series.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "207863",
"title": "Creature Comforts",
"section": "Section::::The advertisements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "There was a certain charm about the animations, with their quirky humour and sharpness of observation – such as in the antics of the non speaking characters and in the odd little things happening in the background. The animations had an unusual expressiveness, with the wit often coming from tiny nuances – such as a dog scratching his ear at a particular moment. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2mtffu
|
what makes the internet "fast lane" different than paying for faster shipping with the usps?
|
[
{
"answer": "You order something from Joe's House of Crab Cakes. You pay for the regular ground shipping. Joe ships it to you. It takes a week. Your crab cakes are rotten.\n\nYou order something from Joe's House of Crab Cakes. You pay extra for the expedited shipping. Joe ships it to you. It takes two days. Your crab cakes are wonderful.\n\nYou order something from Joe's House of Crab Cakes. You pay extra for the expedited shipping (paying for higher bandwidth). Joe does the shipping paperwork. When the UPS driver shows up to pick up the package, he says, \"You know, even though your customer has paid for the 2-day shipping, you ship an awful lot with us, and it ties up a lot of trucks, planes, drivers, and pilots. We can't really promise it will get to your customer in 2 days unless you give us a little something to make sure all your packages get extra-special service. It's really hot this week, and sometimes stuff sits on the tarmac longer than you want it to. Can't be helped.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Like paying for faster shipping with USPS\" is what already exists - it's the pricing tiers you already get. $X/month for 10MBps, $Y/month for 20MBps, etc.\n\nInternet \"Fast lanes\" or \"paid prioritization\" is *content*-based. It would be like the USPS starting up a competitor to Etsy (www._URL_0_ or something), then started charging much higher rates to ship anything bought off Etsy. People would start shopping at _URL_0_ because it'd be cheaper, and Etsy would be driven out of business.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are two differences. \n\nFirst off, it's not faster shipping for some--it's slower shipping for anyone else. (That is, it's not that the ISPs are offering to build a fast lane for some--it's that they're offering to put everyone else in a slow lane; \"fast lane\" is just whatever we have today).\n\nSecond, it's a question of who pays. Imagine if the Post Office charged you X dollars to send a package at a certain speed, *and then threatened the recipient that they would slow it down unless the recipient paid too.* That would be double-dipping, and that's the problem with \"fast lanes.\"\n\nThat's not a perfect example because with the internet it works in reverse; you're the recipient rather than the sender. So you pay your ISPs for a given connection so you can watch Netflix, then they go to Netflix and say, hey, if you want Heji2 to get your data at useable speeds [which you, Heji2, *have already fucking paid for goddammit*] you have to pay us as well.\"\n\n(I made a comic explaining it more clearly, like you're 5; it's here: _URL_0_.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55865407",
"title": "Net Neutrality (Last Week Tonight)",
"section": "Section::::Context.:2014 fast-lane proposal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1058,
"text": "In April 2014, the FCC proposed a set of new regulations that, among other things, would allow for ISPs to levy charges on websites in exchange for faster connection speeds. The \"fast lane\", as the proposal was called, would prioritize that website's internet connection over those of other websites that did not pay, although the ISP could not outright block web users from accessing websites that did not pay for \"fast lanes\". In addition, in enacting these \"fast lanes\", ISPs had to divulge whether they were promoting the content of sponsors or affiliates. This was at least the FCC's third attempt to create internet fast lanes. By May 2014, the FCC was considering two options: permitting fast and slow broadband lanes, thereby compromising net neutrality; or reclassifying broadband as a telecommunication service, thereby preserving net neutrality. Draft plans for the \"fast-lane\" option were approved, with 3 Democratic FCC commissioners voting to have the public review the proposal, and 2 Republican communications voting against public feedback.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28979945",
"title": "Broadband mapping in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Internet access and bit rates (often called \"speeds\") vary considerably across the US. Generally, rural Internet users have fewer options and slower service. American consumers often spend more money for slower service than in other countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "359193",
"title": "Internet exchange point",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "The third advantage, speed, is most noticeable in areas that have poorly developed long-distance connections. ISPs in these regions might have to pay between 10 or 100 times more for data transport than ISPs in North America, Europe, or Japan. Therefore, these ISPs typically have slower, more limited connections to the rest of the Internet. However, a connection to a local IXP may allow them to transfer data without limit, and without cost, vastly improving the bandwidth between customers of the two adjacent ISPs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11358026",
"title": "Internet in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Usage-based billing (UBB).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "There are some supporters for usage-based-billing (UBB) at lower rates instead of the current $2/GB. One example is TekSavvy, providing \"Lite\" cable Internet services (6 Mbit/s down, ¼ Mbit/s up) at $30.95/month with 300 GB, equivalent to around 10¢/GB. Rogers Hi-Speed Internet offers Internet access at the same speed for $41.49/month but with only 20 GB, equivalent to around $2.07/GB. The difference of $1.97/GB between the two providers is one key reason why consumer advocates oppose UBB. Some also claim that it costs the incumbents as low as 3¢/GB.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43355689",
"title": "Package forwarding",
"section": "Section::::Reasons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "There are several obstacles towards a successful cross-border online shopping, and these include shipping and paying for orders. For instance, US online stores are popular worldwide, but some of them only ship to US addresses or they ask for high shipping international rate. So the package forwarding service helps international shoppers in shipping their purchases from the US to their home addressed or helps them place a direct order with the US retailers if they do not have a US billing address.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1653981",
"title": "Bandwidth throttling",
"section": "Section::::Network neutrality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "BULLET::::- No paid prioritization: broadband providers may not favor some lawful Internet traffic over other lawful traffic in exchange for consideration or payment of any kind—in other words, no \"fast lanes.\" This rule also bans ISPs from prioritizing content and services of their own affiliated businesses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18609854",
"title": "PTT Metro",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Another major advantage is the greater control that a network can have regarding the delivery of their traffic as close as possible to their destination, which usually results in better performance and quality to their customers and more efficient operation of the Internet as a whole. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
pfqav
|
Is there a "true" up and down in the universe? Our galaxy is flat, where is up and down in relation to the Earth?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is not a true up and down in the universe. You can only infer an up or a down using reference; for example the earth rotates the Sun, you could define \"Up\" and \"Down\" using that reference to the earth, by defining the rotation as forward/backward and left/right axis.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Defining up and down relative to the rest of the galaxy is called \"galactic north\" and \"galactic south\". Though it's not universal, other galaxies face all sorts of directions. The galactic equator is a lot easier to spot than galactic north or south, it's the milky way. The south galactic pole is in Sculptor. I mean, it's not actually _in_ there, but if you were to draw a line parallel to the axis through the earth, that's where it would point.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58935",
"title": "Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure",
"section": "Section::::Late 20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "BULLET::::- 2000 — Data from several cosmic microwave background experiments give strong evidence that the Universe is \"flat\" (space is not curved, although space-time is), with important implications for the formation of large-scale structure\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13811",
"title": "Heaven",
"section": "Section::::Indic religions.:Jainism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "The shape of the Universe as described in Jainism is shown alongside. Unlike the current convention of using North direction as the top of map, this uses South as the top. The shape is similar to a part of human form standing upright.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "103123",
"title": "Modern flat Earth societies",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "BULLET::::- All-Star NBA point guard, Kyrie Irving, has made public claims that he believes the Earth is flat. Irving made headlines when discussing conspiracy theories with Richard Jefferson and Channing Frye, two of his former teammates. He tells them \"The Earth is flat. The Earth is flat... it's right in front of our faces. I'm telling you it's right in front of our faces. They lie to us.\" He claims that he has done extensive research on the topic and knows the science behind it in which has led him to believe this social phenomenon. Irving has since retracted the comments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233636",
"title": "Spherical Earth",
"section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.:High and late medieval Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 187,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 187,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Many scholastic commentators on Aristotle's \"On the Heavens\" and Sacrobosco's \"Treatise on the Sphere\" unanimously agreed that the Earth is spherical or round. Grant observes that no author who had studied at a medieval university thought that the Earth was flat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192904",
"title": "Ultimate fate of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Role of the shape of the universe.:Flat universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "If the average density of the universe exactly equals the critical density so that formula_8, then the geometry of the universe is flat: as in Euclidean geometry, the sum of the angles of a triangle is 180 degrees and parallel lines continuously maintain the same distance. Measurements from Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe have confirmed the universe is flat with only a 0.4% margin of error.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15117322",
"title": "Tales from the Flat Earth",
"section": "Section::::Geography of the Flat Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "In the Flat Earth series, the world is a flat square, with area approximating that of the Earth. The Flat Earth floats amid formless chaos; the sun and moon rise out of the chaos in the east, travel across the upper ethers of the world, and then descend back into chaos in the west. What happens to the sun and moon while in chaos is not clear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "180583",
"title": "Dymaxion map",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "More unusually, the Dymaxion map does not have any \"right way up\". Fuller argued that in the universe there is no \"up\" and \"down\", or \"north\" and \"south\": only \"in\" and \"out\". Gravitational forces of the stars and planets created \"in\", meaning \"towards the gravitational center\", and \"out\", meaning \"away from the gravitational center\". He attributed the north-up-superior/south-down-inferior presentation of most other world maps to cultural bias.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a9s6y6
|
why does chocolate in advent calendars and selection boxes not melt?
|
[
{
"answer": "Depends on the ingredients-milk, wax, cocoa, etc. it just has a bit of a higher melting point. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most chocolate manufacturers add bees was or paraffin wax or some other Edible wax so that they do not have to temper the chocolate and so that it will not bloom in the shipping process. Buy an expensive chocolate I.e. Godiva or better. It will not have the wax and will bloom or melt at much lower temp. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1545663",
"title": "After Eight",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "The fondant in the centre of After Eights is made from a stiff paste of common sugar, water, and a small amount of the enzyme invertase. This fondant can readily be coated with dark chocolate. After manufacture, the enzyme gradually splits the common sugar into the much more soluble sugars glucose and fructose, resulting in a more liquid consistency. Maturing of the mint is said to take over three days. Once manufactured, each completed chocolate is packaged in an open paper wrapper and then loaded into a box.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1730071",
"title": "Chocolate chip",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Baking and melting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Although convenient, melted chocolate chips are not always recommended as a substitute for baking chocolate. Because most chocolate chips are designed to retain their shape when baking, they contain less cocoa butter than baking chocolate, and so can be more difficult to work with melted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3541700",
"title": "Callebaut",
"section": "Section::::History.:Focus on couverture chocolate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "in 1988, the Callets see the daylight: these small drop-shaped chocolate pieces were developed to optimize the workability of chocolate. Dosing, melting and tempering work better with smaller drops than with the original big 5 kg blocks of chocolate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1503768",
"title": "Chocolate fountain",
"section": "Section::::Increasing popularity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "This expansion into the retail market caused the demand to peak drastically. As a result, the catering industry saw more requests for chocolate fountains at events. Flavoring oils such as mint, orange, and cappuccino were developed to give the chocolate extra taste. Caterers began adding food coloring to white chocolate to make it coincide with special holidays or events. Caterers and home users created special recipes for a variety of fondues that would flow well in a fountain; some of the more popular recipes included caramel, cheese, maple syrup, ranch dressing, and BBQ sauce. Because of the growing practice of using chocolate fountains for other types of fondue, chocolate fountains became interchangeably referred to as \"fondue fountains\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7089",
"title": "Chocolate",
"section": "Section::::Popular culture.:Religious and cultural links.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Chocolate is associated with festivals such as Easter, when moulded chocolate rabbits and eggs are traditionally given in Christian communities, and Hanukkah, when chocolate coins are given in Jewish communities. Chocolate hearts and chocolate in heart-shaped boxes are popular on Valentine's Day and are often presented along with flowers and a greeting card. In 1868, Cadbury created Fancy Boxes – a decorated box of chocolates – in the shape of a heart for Valentine's Day. Boxes of filled chocolates quickly became associated with the holiday. Chocolate is an acceptable gift on other holidays and on occasions such as birthdays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7089",
"title": "Chocolate",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Chocolate bloom is caused by storage temperature fluctuating or exceeding , while sugar bloom is caused by temperature below or excess humidity. To distinguish between different types of bloom, one can rub the surface of the chocolate lightly, and if the bloom disappears, it is fat bloom. Moving chocolate between temperature extremes, can result in an oily texture. Although visually unappealing, chocolate suffering from bloom is safe for consumption and taste unaffected. Bloom can be reversed by retempering the chocolate or using it for any use that requires melting the chocolate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2621635",
"title": "Military chocolate (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Logan Bar or D ration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Its ingredients were chocolate, sugar, oat flour, cacao fat, skim milk powder, and artificial flavoring. Chocolate manufacturing equipment was built to move the flowing mixture of liquid chocolate and oat flour into preset molds. However, the temperature-resistant formula of chocolate became a gooey paste that would not flow at any temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22ng86
|
NSFW How did Ancient cultures deal with sex crimes?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can comment on the issue of rape in ancient Greece. My main source being Lysias 1 in which Lysias (a logographer) writes a defence speech for Euphiletos who has just killed a man named Eratosthenes after catching him sleeping with his wife. Lysias was considered on of the greatest \"lawyers\" Athens had ever seen. Given that, remember that it would not be likely that a great lawyer as Lysias would use anything outside of social norms to defend his client. By this I mean he would only use principles that would appeal to the jury (white, Athenian citizens). In this defence speech there is a portion where Lysias writes:\n[32] You hear, gentlemen, that it lays down that if anyone rapes a free man or child, he owes double the damages. If he rapes a woman, in those cases that carry the penalty of death, he is liable at the same rate. Thus, gentlemen, rapists are thought to deserve a lighter penalty than seducers, because the law condemned the latter to death, but assigned double the amount of the damages to the former.\n\nThis is in fact not true, as rapist have to pay double the fine of a seducer (someone who sleeps with your wife or concubine). But what is interesting here is that the social implications of what Lysias attempts to do. The idea of inheritance of land from father to son in ancient Greek culture is so engrained in society such that the paternity of a child is of outmost concern, i.e who the real father is or has the mother slept with another man. Lysias thinks that although the law gives rapists a harsher punishment, the social norms of society at the time believe that seducers (the people that ruin inheritance and debase society) are of more law breaking behaviour than rapist are. This idea is an interesting one as it pits social norms of the time against what the law actually says. We do not know if Lysias client was found guilty or not (although he did admit to the murder quite bluntly). You may also want to refer to Draco's homicide law which gives some exceptions as to when a man can kill another man. Note: I am not a historian, but I have taken numerous classical courses and am currently taking Ancient Crime and Punishment. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can answer for Rome. There are two major sources for roman attitude toward rape the first is the rape of Lucretia by Livy. Now there is some debate as to the veracity of the story however it is still illuminating on the attitudes of Romans on that era. In that story. Rape is described as an unspeakable crime against both the woman and her husband. Since in that story the rape of a woman leads to the overthrowing of the last king of Rome. The other major source is the works of Quintellian which is one of the only surviving roman legal textbooks for lack of a better word. The rape of a man is the very worst crime according to him put up there with parricide and robbing a temple. The other thing to remember with rape in Rome is that it was one of the few crimes were the death penalty was applied. However it must be kept in mind that this only applies to highborn people raping slaves if you were not the owner was a form of property crime with the punishment a fine. If you were a prostitute there was no case where you could be raped. It was thought that you had given up your rights by prostituting yourself. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure if this is ancient enough but in the 1400's, specifically England, one of rape's definitions was 'adultery with a woman of station without her husband's will or knowledge.'\n\nThe logic behind it was pretty simple. No married noblewoman could possibly commit adultery of her own free will. So if you had sex with a noblewoman in that fashion, you had to have taken her by force. Obviously this is sheer nonsense but it was a good way to save face for the people involved. The husband got to avoid being known as having been cuckolded, the woman avoids the stigma of adultery, and the only loser here is the one imprisoned.\n\nA pretty famous case of this was Thomas Malory, the man who would be known for writing *Le Morte d'Arthur*, a compilation of various stories about King Arthur. He was imprisoned for 'raping' Joan Smith (or Smythe) not once but twice. It's a bit of conjecture, but some people like to think the reason he wrote a lot about Lancelot who is famous for his moment of weakness with Queen Guinevere was because he emphasized with the Knight.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2085",
"title": "Assyria",
"section": "Section::::History.:Middle Assyrian Empire 1392–1056 BC.:Society and law in the Middle Assyrian Period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "In the Middle Assyrian Laws, sex crimes were punished identically whether they were homosexual or heterosexual. An individual faced no punishment for penetrating a cult prostitute, someone of an equal or lower social class, such as slaves, or someone whose gender roles were not considered solidly masculine. Such sexual relations were even seen as good fortune. However, homosexual relationships with royal attendants, between soldiers, or with those where a social better was submissive or penetrated were either treated as rape or seen as bad omens, and punishments applied. One historian notes that the laws would not be so detailed \"if homosexual behavior were not a familiar aspect of daily life of early Mesopotamia\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2460",
"title": "Anal sex",
"section": "Section::::Other cultural views.:Ancient and non-Western cultures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "From the earliest records, the ancient Sumerians had very relaxed attitudes toward sex and did not regard anal sex as taboo. \"Entu\" priestesses were forbidden from producing offspring and frequently engaged in anal sex as a method of birth control. Anal sex is also obliquely alluded to by a description of an omen in which a man \"keeps saying to his wife: 'Bring your backside.'\" Other Sumerian texts refer to homosexual anal intercourse. The \"gala\", a set of priests who worked in the temples of the goddess Inanna, where they performed elegies and lamentations, were especially known for their homosexual proclivities. The Sumerian sign for \"gala\" was a ligature of the signs for \"penis\" and \"anus\". One Sumerian proverb reads: \"When the \"gala\" wiped off his ass [he said], 'I must not arouse that which belongs to my mistress [i.e., Inanna].'\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2460",
"title": "Anal sex",
"section": "Section::::Other cultural views.:Ancient and non-Western cultures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "In later Roman-era Greek poetry, anal sex became a common literary convention, represented as taking place with \"eligible\" youths: those who had attained the proper age but had not yet become adults. Seducing those not of proper age (for example, non-adolescent children) into the practice was considered very shameful for the adult, and having such relations with a male who was no longer adolescent was considered more shameful for the young male than for the one mounting him; Greek courtesans, or hetaerae, are said to have frequently practiced male-female anal intercourse as a means of preventing pregnancy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1421393",
"title": "LGBT history",
"section": "Section::::Ancient history.:Ancient Assyria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "The Middle Assyrian Law Codes (1075 BC) state: If a man has intercourse with his brother-in-arms, they shall turn him into a eunuch. This is the earliest known law condemning the act of male-to-male intercourse in the military. Despite these laws, sex crimes were punished identically whether they were homosexual or heterosexual in the Assyrian society. Homosexuality was also an integral part of temple life in parts of Mesopotamia, and no blame appears to have attached to its practice outside of worship. Freely pictured art of anal intercourse, practiced as part of a religious ritual, dated from the 3rd millennium BC and onwards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50521",
"title": "Sumer",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Social and family life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "From the earliest records, the Sumerians had very relaxed attitudes toward sex and their sexual mores were determined not by whether a sexual act was deemed immoral, but rather by whether or not it made a person ritually unclean. The Sumerians widely believed that masturbation enhanced sexual potency, both for men and for women, and they frequently engaged in it, both alone and with their partners. The Sumerians did not regard anal sex as taboo either. \"Entu\" priestesses were forbidden from producing offspring and frequently engaged in anal sex as a method of birth control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2460",
"title": "Anal sex",
"section": "Section::::Other cultural views.:Ancient and non-Western cultures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 1282,
"text": "Male-male anal sex was not a universally accepted practice in Ancient Greece; it was the target of jokes in some Athenian comedies. Aristophanes, for instance, mockingly alludes to the practice, claiming, \"Most citizens are \"europroktoi\" (wide-arsed) now.\" The terms \"kinaidos\", \"europroktoi\", and \"katapygon\" were used by Greek residents to categorize men who chronically practiced passive anal intercourse. While pedagogic pederasty was an essential element in the education of male youths, these relationships, at least in Athens and Sparta, were expected to steer clear of penetrative sex of any kind. Greek artwork of sexual interaction between men and boys usually depicted fondling or intercrural sex, which was not condemned for violating or feminizing boys, while male-male anal intercourse was usually depicted between males of the same age-group. Intercrural sex was not considered penetrative and two males engaging in it was considered a \"clean\" act. Some sources explicitly state that anal sex between men and boys was criticized as shameful and seen as a form of hubris. Evidence suggests, however, that the younger partner in pederastic relationships (i.e., the \"eromenos\") did engage in receptive anal intercourse so long as no one accused him of being 'feminine'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43797",
"title": "Violence against LGBT people",
"section": "Section::::State-sanctioned violence.:Historic.:The Middle East.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "An early law against sexual intercourse between men is recorded in Leviticus by the Hebrew people, prescribing the death penalty. A violent law regarding homosexual intercourse is prescribed in the Middle Assyrian Law Codes (1075 BCE), stating: \"If a man lay with his neighbor, when they have prosecuted him (and) convicted him, they shall lie with him (and) turn him into a eunuch\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
443gob
|
why do we rarely use the term "tens" but "dozens" is commonly used?
|
[
{
"answer": "Base 12 counting. These days once we count up to ten we start again with a new set of ten. Hence ten, twenty, thirty, etc. This is called \"base ten\" counting.\n\nIn older counting systems, we used base twelve. Twenty would be \"one dozen and eight\" while 24 is two dozen, etc. This format still holds on in certain idioms, as does base 20 (four score and seven years ago - meaning 87 years ago)\n\nIncidentally, base 12 is why we have \"eleven\" and \"twelve\", not \"oneteen\" and \"twoteen\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8400",
"title": "Duodecimal",
"section": "Section::::Advocacy and \"dozenalism\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Both the Dozenal Society of America and the Dozenal Society of Great Britain promote widespread adoption of the base-twelve system. They use the word \"dozenal\" instead of \"duodecimal\" to avoid the more overtly base-ten terminology. The etymology of 'dozenal' is itself also an expression based on base-ten terminology since 'dozen' is a direct derivation of the French word 'douzaine' which is a derivative of the French word for twelve, \"douze\" which is related to the old French word 'doze' from Latin 'duodecim'. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208154",
"title": "Dozen",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1049,
"text": "The English word \"dozen\" comes from the old form \"douzaine\", a French word meaning \"a group of twelve\" (\"\"Assemblage de choses de même nature au nombre de douze\"\"(translation: \"A group of twelve things of the same nature\" as defined in the eighth edition of the Dictionnaire de l'Académie française). This French word is a derivation from the cardinal number \"douze\" (\"twelve\", from Latin \"duodĕcim\") and the collective suffix \"-aine\" (from Latin \"-ēna\"), a suffix also used to form other words with similar meanings such as \"quinzaine\" (a group of fifteen), \"vingtaine\" (a group of twenty), \"centaine\" (a group of one hundred), etc. These French words have synonymous cognates in Spanish: \"docena\", \"quincena\", \"veintena\", \"centena\", etc. English \"dozen\", French \"douzaine\", Catalan \"dotzena\", Persian dowjin \"دوجین\", Arabic durzen \"درزن\", Turkish \"düzine\", German \"Dutzend\", Dutch \"dozijn\", Italian \"dozzina\" and Polish \"tuzin\", are also used as indefinite quantifiers to mean \"about twelve\" or \"many\" (as in \"a dozen times\", \"dozens of people\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "87812",
"title": "Luganda",
"section": "Section::::Numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 583,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 583,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "'Twenty' to 'fifty' are expressed as multiples of ten using the cardinal numbers for 'two' to 'five' with the plural of 'ten'. 'Sixty' to 'one hundred' are numerical nouns in their own right, derived from the same roots as the nouns for 'six' to 'ten' but with different class prefixes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54508",
"title": "The Dozens",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Dollard originally wrote that he was unaware of how the term \"Dozens\" developed, although he suggested a popular twelve-part rhyme may have been the reason for its name. He only speculated on how the game itself grew to such prominence. Other authors following Dollard have added their theories. Author John Leland describes an etymology, writing that the term is a modern survival of an English verb—\"to dozen\"—dating back at least to the fourteenth century and meaning \"to stun, stupefy, daze\" or \"to make insensible, torpid, powerless\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5556716",
"title": "Romanian numbers",
"section": "Section::::Cardinal numbers.:Numbers from 20 to 99.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "The numbers in this range that are multiple of 10 (that is, 20, 30, ..., 90) are named by joining the number of tens with the word (the plural of ), as shown in the table below. Note that they are spelled as a single word.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "725467",
"title": "Language and thought",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Counting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Different cultures use numbers in different ways. The Munduruku culture for example, has number words only up to five. In addition, they refer to the number 5 as \"a hand\" and the number 10 as \"two hands\". Numbers above 10 are usually referred to as \"many\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33174853",
"title": "Bandial language",
"section": "Section::::Lexicon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Numerals are formed on a system base five. The basic numbers of Bandial are one through five and ten, fifteen and twenty with which other numbers are expressed. The number system is dactylonomic. The literal translation of the Bandial word for ten is 'hands' for fifteen it is 'foot' (you add your five toes to ten fingers) and it is 'king' for twenty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4fqz0w
|
[Biology] Does the vagina absorb any seminal fluids?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most of them just find their way out shortly afterwards, thanks to gravity.\n\nMost of the rest find their way out via regular discharge/menstruation.\n\nI believe that the woman's white blood cells will attack and disassemble some if they are there too long. Not sure how much of the leftovers are flushed out (per point 2) vs. absorbed.\n\nThe point is that most of them are just ejected from the body rather than absorbed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3265502",
"title": "Vaginal discharge",
"section": "Section::::Normal discharge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "The majority of the liquid in vaginal discharge is mucus produced by glands of the cervix. The rest is made up of transudate from the vaginal walls and secretions from glands (Skene's and Bartholin's). The solid components are exfoliated epithelial cells from the vaginal wall and cervix as well as some of the bacteria that inhabit the vagina. These bacteria that live in the vagina do not typically cause disease. In fact, they can protect the individual from other infectious and invasive bacteria by producing substances such as lactic acid and hydrogen peroxide that inhibit growth of other bacteria. The normal composition of bacteria in the vagina (vaginal flora) can vary, but is most commonly dominated by lactobacilli. On average, there are approximately 10 to 10 bacteria per milliliter of vaginal discharge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32476",
"title": "Vagina",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Secretions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "The Bartholin's glands, located near the vaginal opening, were originally considered the primary source for vaginal lubrication, but further examination showed that they provide only a few drops of mucus. Vaginal lubrication is mostly provided by plasma seepage known as transudate from the vaginal walls. This initially forms as sweat-like droplets, and is caused by increased fluid pressure in the tissue of the vagina (vasocongestion), resulting in the release of plasma as transudate from the capillaries through the vaginal epithelium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15179951",
"title": "Human sexuality",
"section": "Section::::Biological and physiological aspects.:Physical anatomy and reproduction.:Male anatomy and reproductive system.:Internal male anatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "The prostate gland and the seminal vesicles produce seminal fluid that is mixed with sperm to create semen. The prostate gland lies under the bladder and in front of the rectum. It consists of two main zones: the inner zone that produces secretions to keep the lining of the male urethra moist and the outer zone that produces seminal fluids to facilitate the passage of semen. The seminal vesicles secrete fructose for sperm activation and mobilization, prostaglandins to cause uterine contractions that aid movement through the uterus, and bases that help neutralize the acidity of the vagina. The Cowper's glands, or bulbourethral glands, are two pea sized structures beneath the prostate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "355594",
"title": "Seminal vesicle",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "The seminal vesicles secrete a significant proportion of the fluid that ultimately becomes semen. Lipofuscin granules from dead epithelial cells give the secretion its yellowish color. About 70-85% of the seminal fluid in humans originates from the seminal vesicles, but is not expelled in the first ejaculate fractions which are dominated by spermatozoa and zinc-rich prostatic fluid. The excretory duct of each seminal gland opens into the corresponding vas deferens as it enters the prostate gland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57865014",
"title": "Seminal fluid protein",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Seminal fluid proteins (SFPs) or accessory gland proteins (Acps) are one of the non-sperm components of semen. In many animals with internal fertilization, males transfer a complex cocktail of proteins in their semen to females during copulation. These seminal fluid proteins often have diverse, potent effects on female post-mating phenotypes. SFPs are produced by the male accessory glands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3265502",
"title": "Vaginal discharge",
"section": "Section::::Normal discharge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "During sexual arousal and sexual intercourse, the amount of fluid in the vagina increases due to engorgement of blood vessels surrounding the vagina. This engorgement of blood vessels increases the volume of transudate from the vaginal walls. Transudate has a neutral pH, so increases in its production can temporarily shift vaginal pH to be more neutral. Semen has a basic pH and can neutralize the acidity of the vagina for up to 8 hrs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55924",
"title": "Prostate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "The function of the prostate is to secrete a fluid which contributes to the volume of the semen. This prostatic fluid is slightly alkaline, milky or white in appearance, and in humans usually constitutes roughly 30% of the volume of semen, the other 70% being spermatozoa and seminal vesicle fluid. The alkalinity of semen helps neutralize the acidity of the vaginal tract, prolonging the lifespan of sperm. The prostatic fluid is expelled in the first part of ejaculate, together with most of the sperm. In comparison with the few spermatozoa expelled together with mainly seminal vesicular fluid, those in prostatic fluid have better motility, longer survival, and better protection of genetic material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3blhoh
|
i see many videos of people peacefully interacting with wild sea animals, from blue whales and manatees to orcas and white sharks. the same is not true for land animals. what makes sea animals, even big predators, seem so much more tolerant to human interaction than wild land animals?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hmm...I'm talking out of my ear here, but maybe because out in the ocean mammals are so much further and far between?\n\nOrcas will torture and kill seals for fun though, so yeah...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not directly involved in their habitat? Or at least for a while.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My theory: they haven't been exposed to humans as much- What is this thing in the water? Will it hurt me? Can I eat it? Is it dangerous?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it's less that sea animals are tolerant, and more that land animals are intolerant due to experience.\n\nIt also may have to do with angle of approach... while sea creatures can exit rapidly in a few directions, land animals can move only on a horizontal plane. \n\nHumans also suck at the ocean compared to sea creatures so we may seem less threatening, where as we are slightly more competent and quicker on land.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Those animals tend to be large enough that they don't have natural predators. Being docile isn't an issue for their species. Something smaller like an otter on the other hand...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Maybe it's your perception. Maybe it's the type of person involved. Maybe it's that land animals are more exposed to the heinous acts we commit against them. I've been blessed with countless positive interactions with wild land animals, and birds. \n\nAs far as a scientific explanation, I don't have one. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well to be fair you do see lion tamers keeping lions in check more or less, elephants are trainable, some folk have giant brown bears trained, gorillas can be fairly close to humans... I'd say there's likely more large land animals \"interacting\" with mankind on a daily basis than underwater. \n\n\n\nPlus, if I had a choice between peacefully interacting with a white shark or an elephant I'm taking elephant any day. Can still kill you but at least you aren't drowning at the same time. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "check out you tube there is a south African dude who treats wild lions like pet cats. A Canadian guy who is best friends with wild bears. And I am not talking domesticated animals imprinted at birth I am talking wild lions and bears.\n_URL_2_\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_\n\nThere's also a family who have a fully grown pet hippopotamous that chills out in their lounge room but I think they raised him from birth so does not really count.\n_URL_3_\n\nEdit: added video and wiki links",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its because water has oxygen in it that bonds with the hydrogen molecules forming H20, which has been proven to sustain life. If they were aggressive they would not be sustaining life, resulting in a paradox and the world would blow up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why is OP getting downvote brigaded for trying to clarify his question?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "230920",
"title": "Beluga whale",
"section": "Section::::Threats.:Contamination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 1186,
"text": "Indirect human disturbance may also be a threat. While some populations tolerate small boats, most actively try to avoid ships. Whale-watching has become a booming activity in the St. Lawrence and Churchill River areas, and acoustic contamination from this activity appears to have an effect on belugas. For example, a correlation appears to exist between the passage of belugas across the mouth of the Saguenay River, which has decreased by 60%, and the increase in the use of recreational motorboats in the area. A dramatic decrease has also been recorded in the number of calls between animals (decreasing from 3.4 to 10.5 calls/min to 0 or <1) after exposure to the noise produced by ships, the effect being most persistent and pronounced with larger ships such as ferries than with smaller boats. Belugas can detect the presence of large ships (for example icebreakers) up to 50 km away, and they move rapidly in the opposite direction or perpendicular to the ship following the edge of the sea ice for distances of up to 80 km to avoid them. The presence of shipping produces avoidance behaviour, causing deeper dives for feeding, the break-up of groups, and asynchrony in dives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305649",
"title": "Oceanic dolphin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Oceanic dolphins are sometimes hunted in places such as Japan, in an activity known as dolphin drive hunting. Besides drive hunting, they also face threats from bycatch, habitat loss, and marine pollution. Dolphins have been depicted in various cultures worldwide. They occasionally feature in literature and film, as in the Warner Bros film \"Free Willy\". Dolphins are sometimes kept in captivity and trained to perform in shows. The most common species of dolphin in captivity is the bottlenose dolphin, and less than 50 killer whales were found in oceanariums in 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267267",
"title": "La Plata dolphin",
"section": "Section::::Behavior and feeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "The animal is very inconspicuous—it moves very smoothly and slowly—and can be difficult to spot unless estuary conditions are very calm. It will commonly swim alone or in small groups. Exceptional groups as large as 15 have been seen. La Plata dolphins are bottom feeders and gut inspections have revealed they eat at least 24 different species of fish, depending on which species are most common. They will also take octopus, squid and shrimp. They are, in turn, hunted by killer whales (orcas) and several species of sharks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17011",
"title": "Killer whale",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour.:Social structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Killer whales are notable for their complex societies. Only elephants and higher primates live in comparably complex social structures. Due to orcas' complex social bonds, many marine experts have concerns about how humane it is to keep them in captivity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46211",
"title": "Tuna",
"section": "Section::::Fishing industry.:Association with dolphins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Fishery practices have changed to be dolphin friendly, which has caused greater bycatch including sharks, turtles and other oceanic fish. Fishermen no longer follow dolphins, but concentrate their fisheries around floating objects such as fish aggregation devices, also known as FADs, which attract large populations of other organisms. Measures taken thus far to satisfy the public demand to protect dolphins can be potentially damaging to other species as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9061",
"title": "Dolphin",
"section": "Section::::Threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 148,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 148,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "Dolphins have few marine enemies. Some species or specific populations have none, making them apex predators. For most of the smaller species of dolphins, only a few of the larger sharks, such as the bull shark, dusky shark, tiger shark and great white shark, are a potential risk, especially for calves. Some of the larger dolphin species, especially orcas (killer whales), may also prey on smaller dolphins, but this seems rare. Dolphins also suffer from a wide variety of diseases and parasites. The Cetacean morbillivirus in particular has been known to cause regional epizootics often leaving hundreds of animals of various species dead. Symptoms of infection are often a severe combination of pneumonia, encephalitis and damage to the immune system, which greatly impair the cetacean's ability to swim and stay afloat unassisted. A study at the U.S. National Marine Mammal Foundation revealed that dolphins, like humans, develop a natural form of type 2 diabetes which may lead to a better understanding of the disease and new treatments for both humans and dolphins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "284899",
"title": "Whale shark",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with humans.:Behavior toward divers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Despite its size, the whale shark does not pose any danger to humans. Whale sharks are docile fish and sometimes allow swimmers to catch a ride, although this practice is discouraged by shark scientists and conservationists because of the disturbance to the sharks. Younger whale sharks are gentle and can play with divers. Underwater photographers such as Fiona Ayerst have photographed them swimming close to humans without any danger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1efujn
|
Why have countries prevented their citizens from leaving? (Russia, E. Germany, China,...)
|
[
{
"answer": "The rationale was that people were treated very much like kids who could not be trusted to make the correct choices on their own. \n\nBecause free will was uncacceptable. Free will means that every person can make any decision (well, in the developed society of today there are some limits to this but generally there is quite a wide choice). \n\nBut those countries had one ruling political party which was considered infallible and always correct, and was supposed to create all the major decisions for the people. And thus a person had only one option - to follow what \"the party\" decided for them. In this case, the Party had decided that people should be loyal to their country and should not leave it. \n\nAnd people were not trusted to simply go abroad because the ruling Party was afraid they may leak government secrets and important secret information to the \"enemy\". There was a strict vetting process involving checks and unreliable individuals were not allowed to go abroad (in case they decided to stay there and leak secrets). \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "247927",
"title": "Border control",
"section": "Section::::Specific requirements.:Travel documents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "Other countries, including most countries in Western Europe and China, permit (or in China's case require) citizens to utilise national identity cards to clear immigration when travelling between adjacent jurisdictions. As a consequence of awkward border situations created by the fall of the Soviet Union, certain former members of the USSR and their neighbours require few or no travel documents for travellers transiting across international boundaries between two points in a single country. For instance, Russia permits vehicles to transit across the Saatse Boot between the Estonian villages of Lutepää and Sesniki without any border control provided that they do not stop. Similar provisions are made for the issuance of Facilitated Rail Transit Documents by Schengen Area members for travel between Kaliningrad and the Russian mainland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11013261",
"title": "Russians in Hong Kong",
"section": "Section::::Migration history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1242,
"text": "After the establishment of the People's Republic of China, the White Russians remaining in China such as in Shanghai began to look to the exits. However, the government would only permit them to leave the country if they had secured visas for overseas destinations. There were further bureaucratic complications in obtaining such visas since at that early date, most countries in which Russians aimed to resettle did not yet recognize the PRC, but recognizing the Republic of China (Taiwan) instead. Similarly, Hong Kong only permitted entry to the refugees if they had those same visas, which in most cases could only be obtained from diplomatic missions in Hong Kong. As a result of these barriers, only 880 Russian refugees from China departed via Hong Kong for resettlement overseas in 1952; they also faced pressure from the PRC government to abandon their efforts to emigrate and instead return to the Soviet Union. However, by 1956, the divergence between the PRC and the Soviet Union which would eventually grow into a full-blown Sino-Soviet split had begun to grow, and the PRC's policy towards the White Russians softened: the government no longer repatriated them to the Soviet Union, and liberalised the issuance of exit permits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1270497",
"title": "Freedom of movement",
"section": "Section::::Common restrictions.:Exit restrictions in certain countries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Currently, some countries require that foreign citizens have valid visas upon leaving the country if they needed one to enter. For example, a person who overstayed a visa in Czech Republic may need to obtain an exit visa. In Russia, the inconvenience goes even further as the legislation there does not formally recognize residency permits as valid visas; thus, foreign citizens lawfully residing in Russia need to obtain \"exit-entry\" visas in order to do a trip abroad. This, in particular, affects foreign students, whose original entry visas expire by the time they return home.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38845919",
"title": "Unaccompanied asylum-seeking children in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Pathways at eighteen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Although these people no longer have a legal right to remain in Britain, they have for one reason or another not been removed from the UK and instead remain. Non-removal can occur for any number of reasons, but most commonly it is because many countries have inadequate return procedures and it is complicated to ensure that people will be returned home safely. A common example of why people may remain in the UK is that the Home Office is frequently unable to obtain the travel documents that would allow a failed asylum-seeker to return to his country of origin. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48846435",
"title": "Asylum in Germany",
"section": "Section::::Development in the Volume of Asylum Applications and their Rate of Success.:Success of asylum applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "Of about 200.000 people who were legally bound to leave in 2015, after their applications for asylum had been rejected, only 20,914 were deported. A major obstacle for deportation was the lack of cooperation from the home countries. In February 2016 the German government did send complaints to 17 nations who do not fulfill their international obligations and insufficiently cooperate, either by not helping to identify their own citizens, by not issuing ID cards for those whose asylum applications have been rejected, or by taking only those people back who voluntarily leave. Those nations are, in Asia: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Lebanon. In Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Mali, Nigeria, Niger, Ethiopia, Tunesia, Ghana, Guinea, Burkina Faso, Benin and Guinea-Bissau.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59974782",
"title": "Eritrean diaspora",
"section": "Section::::Remittance/diaspora tax.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 3210,
"text": "The practice of countries taxing their citizens living abroad is a very rare policy with the only two countries in the world being the US and Eritrea. In the 70's and 80's, during the struggle for independence, the EPLF was one of the few movements in the world that didn't receive any support from both sides of super powers, the Eastern Bloc and the West. This was because the USSR sided the Marxist Ethiopian Dergue regime and the West due to incompatibility in ideological orientation. This is believed to have led to EPLF's few other structural characteristics: mistrust of the international community including donors, insistence of self-reliance, and the birth of diaspora funding (remittance) that will later be the diaspora tax after independence. Today, data shows that diaspora tax covers around one third of the state's national budget, approximately 37% of the GDP. Although the long evolved long-distance Eritrean diaspora-nationalism fueled by festivals, EriTV broadcast and continuous YPFDJ seminars, all grant the diaspora a good appeal, it is also believed that there are forces of coercion at play since services like passports are subject to diaspora tax. This diaspora tax bracket is a flat rate of 2% of citizen's annual income, and even those in open opposition with the government pay this contribution due to its minimal rate and other services that people don't want to lose. Any Eritrean or individuals of Eritrean origin are supposed to pay in order to retain their Eritrean Citizenship even if they are naturalized by the host country or even if they are not born in Eritrea. After the Eritrean-Ethiopian war broke again in 1998, the diaspora remittance showed a significant increase in financial contribution by Eritreans in support of their nation amounting $142.9 million between 1998 and 2000, once again, the diaspora proving to be an indispensable funding source for their nation similar to the days of struggle for independence. In December 2011, The UN Security Council expanded the previous sanctions of 2009 through \"UN Resolution/2023\", mainly demanding for two things: Eritrea should cease to apply the coercive element on collecting diaspora tax, and it should stop using the collected revenue to destabilized the whole region of the Horn. Other than the mandated diaspora tax, Eritreans diaspora also have a culture that evolved into social financial support between close-knit relatives and family members even to the extent higher than most immigrants from other countries does. When this private remittance revenue flows from the Eritrean diaspora to their relatives at home, it serves the government in a few ways. The government profits by enforcing a strict oversight to ensure the monetary transfers are made either through the PFDJ-owned Himbol Financial Services at an unfavorable exchange rate or through the black market \"hawala\" system, which is also dominated by the PFDJ. But sides the that, private remittances mainly helps the government by carrying the burden of alimenting the population, prevent starvation, and maintain sustainability, an interestingly similar strategy to the Cuban Castro-government after the disintegration of the Eastern bloc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "247927",
"title": "Border control",
"section": "Section::::Specific requirements.:Exit controls.:Exit visas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 172,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 172,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "Some countries in Europe maintain controversial exit visa systems in addition to regular border controls. For instance, Uzbekistan requires its own citizens to obtain exit visas prior to leaving for countries other than fellow CIS nations in eastern Europe. Several countries in the Arabian peninsula require exit visas for foreign workers under the Kafala System meaning \"sponsorship system\"). Russia occasionally requires foreigners who overstay to obtain exit visas since one cannot exit Russia without a valid visa. Czechia has a similar policy. Similarly, a foreign citizen granted a temporary residence permit in Russia needs an exit visa to take a trip abroad (valid for both exit and return). Not all foreign citizens are subject to that requirement. Citizens of Germany, for example, do not require this exit visa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
av2izq
|
Cold War Propaganda Posters?
|
[
{
"answer": " You can find a good digital collection of propaganda posters from Mao-era China here: _URL_0_\n\nThe editor, Stefan Landsberger, is a really reputable historian. Each poster has an English translation and a little bit of historical context, too. There are a few from after Mao, such as Hua Guofeng, too. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4523282",
"title": "Propaganda in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Domestic.:Cold War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1171,
"text": "Propaganda during the Cold War was at its peak in the 1950s and 1960s in the early years of the Cold war. The United States would make propaganda criticizing and making fun of the enemy the Soviet Union. The propaganda was on movies, television, music, literature and art. The United States officials did not call it propaganda they were just telling the accurate information about the world to the people who had different views on things. The television promoted conservative family values and how great it is to live in America. One of the TV shows at the time was called The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet. The show was about how being a family in America is great showing the importance of getting an education, respecting your parents and working hard. Propaganda was also in sports. In 1980 the olympics were in Moscow and the United States boycotted along with Japan, West Germany and many other nations. When the Olympics were held in Los Angeles in 1984 the Soviets did the same as the United States did to them and did not show up for the games. In Education purposes the United States kids watched videos in school and one is called How to Spot a Communist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20557129",
"title": "Poster",
"section": "Section::::Types of poster designs.:Propaganda and political posters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Posters during wartime were also used for propaganda purposes, persuasion, and motivation, such as the famous Rosie the Riveter posters that encouraged women to work in factories during World War II. The Soviet Union also produced a plethora of propaganda posters, some of which became iconic representations of the Great Patriotic War. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23758960",
"title": "House Un-American Activities Committee",
"section": "Section::::History.:Hollywood blacklist.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 983,
"text": "In 1947, studio executives told the committee that wartime films – such as \"Mission to Moscow\", \"The North Star\", and \"Song of Russia\" – could be considered pro-Soviet propaganda, but claimed that the films were valuable in the context of the Allied war effort, and that they were made (in the case of \"Mission to Moscow\") at the request of White House officials. In response to the House investigations, most studios produced a number of anti-communist and anti-Soviet propaganda films such as \"The Red Menace\" (August 1949), \"The Red Danube\" (October 1949), \"The Woman on Pier 13\" (October 1949), \"Guilty of Treason\" (May 1950, about the ordeal and trial of Cardinal József Mindszenty), \"I Was a Communist for the FBI\" (May 1951, Academy Award nominated for best documentary 1951, also serialized for radio), \"Red Planet Mars\" (May 1952), and John Wayne's \"Big Jim McLain\" (August 1952). Universal-International Pictures was the only major studio that did not produce such a film.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23203",
"title": "Propaganda",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "The West and the Soviet Union both used propaganda extensively during the Cold War. Both sides used film, television, and radio programming to influence their own citizens, each other, and Third World nations. George Orwell's novels \"Animal Farm\" and \"Nineteen Eighty-Four\" are virtual textbooks on the use of propaganda. During the Cuban Revolution, Fidel Castro stressed the importance of propaganda. Propaganda was used extensively by Communist forces in the Vietnam War as means of controlling people's opinions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33171",
"title": "War film",
"section": "Section::::Subgenres.:Propaganda.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "During the Cold War, \"propaganda played as much of a role in the United States' struggle with the Soviet Union as did the billions of dollars spent on weaponry.\" \"Face to Face with Communism\" (1951) dramatised an imagined invasion of the United States; other films portrayed threats such as communist indoctrination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14856988",
"title": "History of public relations",
"section": "Section::::Wartime propaganda.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "According to historian Zbyněk Zeman, broadcasting became the most important medium for propaganda throughout the war. Posters were also used domestically and leaflets were dropped behind enemy lines by air-ship. In regions conquered by Germany, citizens could be punished by death for listening to foreign broadcasts. Britain had four organizations involved in propaganda and was methodical about understanding its audiences in different countries. US propaganda focused on fighting for freedom and the connection between war efforts and industrial production. Soviet posters also focused on industrial production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "325329",
"title": "Cold War",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 213,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 213,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "During the Cold War itself, with the United States and the Soviet Union invested heavily in propaganda designed to influence the hearts and minds of people around the world, especially using motion pictures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
q7tu8
|
How is mimicry/camouflage selected for, and how can it become so accurate? (Owl faces in moths/butterflies, walking sticks, leafy seadragons, etc)
|
[
{
"answer": "Take your basic butterfly, add a pattern that varies with each individual, eat all the ones that look the least like the target pattern, and what's left over will have patterns that are less likely to be eaten. Repeat for generations and you get closer and closer to perfection.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "its selected for because its obvious darwinian fitness. if you look like a stick, or an owls face, you will not get depredated as much as others, hence live longer and pass on your genes to the next generation. the reason its so accurate is the same, the more accurate the mimicry, the fitter and fitter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42980268",
"title": "Visual spatial attention",
"section": "Section::::Use in camouflage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Camouflage relies on deceiving the cognition of the observer, such as a predator. Some camouflage mechanisms such as distractive markings likely function by competing for visual attention with stimuli that would give away the presence of the camouflaged object (such as a prey animal). Such markings have to be conspicuous, and positioned away from the outline so as to avoid drawing attention to it, in contrast to disruptive markings which work best when in contact with the outline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1316947",
"title": "Ambiguous image",
"section": "Section::::Texture segmentation and figure-ground assignments.:Extremal edges and relative motion.:Using ambiguous images to hide in the real world: camouflage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "In nature, camouflage is used by organisms to escape predators. This is achieved through creating an ambiguity of texture segmentation by imitating the surrounding environment. Without being able to perceive noticeable differences in texture and position, a predator will be unable to see their prey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6446",
"title": "Camouflage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1162,
"text": "Camouflage is the use of any combination of materials, coloration, or illumination for concealment, either by making animals or objects hard to see (crypsis), or by disguising them as something else (mimesis). Examples include the leopard's spotted coat, the battledress of a modern soldier, and the leaf-mimic katydid's wings. A third approach, motion dazzle, confuses the observer with a conspicuous pattern, making the object visible but momentarily harder to locate. The majority of camouflage methods aim for crypsis, often through a general resemblance to the background, high contrast disruptive coloration, eliminating shadow, and countershading. In the open ocean, where there is no background, the principal methods of camouflage are transparency, silvering, and countershading, while the ability to produce light is among other things used for counter-illumination on the undersides of cephalopods such as squid. Some animals, such as chameleons and octopuses, are capable of actively changing their skin pattern and colours, whether for camouflage or for signalling. It is possible that some plants use camouflage to evade being eaten by herbivores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18587056",
"title": "Visual hierarchy",
"section": "Section::::Application.:Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Camouflage patterns diminish the contrast between themselves and their surroundings. Camouflage describes a form that mimics the physical characteristics of its environment. These patterns are difficult and sometimes impossible to perceive. Certain animals and military forces have both developed their own camouflaged patterns as mechanisms of defense.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38919300",
"title": "Deception in animals",
"section": "Section::::Camouflage.:Crypsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Most forms of camouflage are less effective when the camouflaged animal moves because motion is easily seen by the observing predator or prey. However, insects such as hoverflies and dragonflies use motion camouflage: the hoverflies to approach possible mates, and the dragonflies to approach rivals when defending territories. Motion camouflage is achieved by moving so as to stay on a straight line between the target and a fixed point in the landscape; the pursuer thus deceives the target animal by appearing not to move but only to loom larger in the target's field of vision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6446",
"title": "Camouflage",
"section": "Section::::Principles.:Crypsis.:Motion camouflage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "Most forms of camouflage are ineffective when the camouflaged animal or object moves, because the motion is easily seen by the observing predator, prey or enemy. However, insects such as hoverflies and dragonflies use motion camouflage: the hoverflies to approach possible mates, and the dragonflies to approach rivals when defending territories. Motion camouflage is achieved by moving so as to stay on a straight line between the target and a fixed point in the landscape; the pursuer thus appears not to move, but only to loom larger in the target's field of vision. The same method can be used for military purposes, for example by missiles to minimise their risk of detection by an enemy. However, missile engineers, and animals such as bats, use the method mainly for its efficiency rather than camouflage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31304687",
"title": "Defense in insects",
"section": "Section::::Mimicry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Mimicry is a form of defense which describes when a species resembles another recognized by natural enemies, giving it protection against predators. The resemblance among mimics does not denote common ancestry. Mimicry works if and only if predators are able to learn from eating distasteful species. It is a three part system that involves a model species, a mimic of that species, and a predatory observer that acts as a selective agent. If learning is to be successful, then all models, mimics, and predators must co-exist, a notion feasible within the context of geographic sympatry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9f2b0i
|
if rat fleas are natural carriers of the plague, how come they don't transmit it anymore?
|
[
{
"answer": "They do; there are between 1000 and 3000 cases of the plague reported annually. Rats just aren't as much of an urban epidemic as they used to be and the plague can be cured now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's still somewhat common, it's just treatable with antibiotics now. I was out in Rocky mountain national park last summer and they have signs up warning people that the ground squirrels carry the plague. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55586589",
"title": "21st century Madagascar plague outbreaks",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Confounding factors.:Rats and fleas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1194,
"text": "High rates of plague transmission have been associated with low rat abundance and high volume of flea vectors. Historically, rats who acted as hosts to the flea vector subsequently died once they were infected with plague. However, the organism evolved and scientists are now finding that rats are not dying from plague. This means that plague survives longer in the host and allows for the bacteria to live longer and potentially infect more people. Scientists discovered three new strains of \"Y. pestis\" in Madagascar in 2017. Additionally, one strain of \"Y. pestis\" was found to be resistant to antibiotic treatment. Because of plague moving from rural to urban areas, there is increased risk for transmission to other countries. Urban areas that are a major transportation hub for shipping and recreation are at high risk for transmitting plague to nearby countries. The elevation of the mountains where most of the agriculture takes place, in addition to the ideal climate that allows rats and fleas to prosper, scientists have seen plague thrive in Madagascar’s climate compared to other countries where there is endemic plague. During this plague season, rats and fleas infect the soil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4746",
"title": "Plague (disease)",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "Contrary to popular belief, rats did not directly start the spread of the bubonic plague. It is mainly a disease in the fleas (\"Xenopsylla cheopis\") that infested the rats, making the rats themselves the first victims of the plague. Infection in a human occurs when a person is bitten by a flea that has been infected by biting a rodent that itself has been infected by the bite of a flea carrying the disease. The bacteria multiply inside the flea, sticking together to form a plug that blocks its stomach and causes it to starve. The flea then bites a host and continues to feed, even though it cannot quell its hunger, and consequently the flea vomits blood tainted with the bacteria back into the bite wound. The bubonic plague bacterium then infects a new person and the flea eventually dies from starvation. Serious outbreaks of plague are usually started by other disease outbreaks in rodents, or a rise in the rodent population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55983",
"title": "Black rat",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Rats are resilient vectors for many diseases because of their ability to hold so many infectious bacteria in their blood. Rats played a primary role in spreading bacteria contained in fleas on their body, such as \"Yersinia pestis\", which is responsible for the Plague of Justinian and the Black Death. A study published in 2015 indicates that other Asiatic rodents served as plague reservoirs, from which infections spread as far west as Europe via trade routes, both overland and maritime. Although the black rat was certainly a plague vector in European ports, the spread of the plague beyond areas colonized by rats suggests that the plague was also circulated by humans after reaching Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26834953",
"title": "Rats in New York City",
"section": "Section::::Disease, allergies, asthma and damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "A 2015 joint study by Columbia University and Cornell University found that the rats are commonly infested with fleas, lice, and mites that carry bacteria that can cause disease in humans, including bubonic plague, typhus, and spotted fever. They found an average of five fleas per rat, a sharp increase from a 1925 study that found one out of five rats had no fleas at all. \"Bartonella\" pathogens (which can cause cat scratch disease, trench fever, and Carron disease) and various viruses were also found in New York City's rats in this study. These results were confirmed by a study published in 2015 in the \"Journal of Medical Entomology\". A higher risk of allergies and asthma is linked to exposure to rodent hair, droppings, and urine, especially in children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77305",
"title": "Flea",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with humans.:Carriers of plague.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Oriental rat fleas, \"Xenopsylla cheopis\", can carry the coccobacillus \"Yersinia pestis.\" The infected fleas feed on rodent vectors of this bacterium, such as the black rat, \"Rattus rattus\", and then infect human populations with the plague, as has happened repeatedly from ancient times, as in the Plague of Justinian in 541–542. Outbreaks killed up to 200 million people across Europe between 1346 and 1671. The Black Death pandemic between 1346 and 1353 likely killed over a third of the population of Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1543486",
"title": "Third plague pandemic",
"section": "Section::::Disease research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "The disease is caused by a bacterium usually transmitted by the bite of fleas from an infected host, often a black rat. The bacteria are transferred from the blood of infected rats to the rat flea (\"Xenopsylla cheopsis\"). The bacillus multiplies in the stomach of the flea, blocking it. When the flea next bites a mammal, the consumed blood is regurgitated along with the bacillus into the bloodstream of the bitten animal. Any serious outbreak of plague in humans is preceded by an outbreak in the rodent population. During the outbreak, infected fleas that have lost their normal rodent hosts seek other sources of blood. The bacterium that causes this disease, \"Yersinia pestis\", was named after Yersin. His discoveries led in time to modern treatment methods, including insecticides, the use of antibiotics and eventually plague vaccines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77305",
"title": "Flea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "The oriental rat flea, \"Xenopsylla cheopis\", is a vector of \"Yersinia pestis\", the bacterium which causes bubonic plague. The disease was spread to humans by rodents such as the black rat, which were bitten by infected fleas. Major outbreaks included the Plague of Justinian, c. 540 and the Black Death, c. 1350, both of which killed a sizeable fraction of the world's population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
edo3wg
|
Does velocity of sound waves in a medium vary by the frequency?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is no frequency-dependence for the speed of sound traveling through an ideal gas, but at least in air there is a small (unnoticeable) frequency-dependence due to vibrational relaxation effects of nitrogen and oxygen. You can calculate the speed of sound through air at a given frequency with:\n\n* (1/c_*0*_) - (1/c_*f*_) = ∑*_r_* (a*_r_*/2πf*_r_*)\n * c_*0*_ = speed of sound with 0 frequency\n * c_*f*_ = speed of sound at frequency f\n * a*_r_* = attenuation coefficient \n * f*_r_* = relaxation frequency\n\nHowell, G. P., & Morfey, C. L. (1987). [Frequency dependence of the speed of sound in air](_URL_0_). The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 82(1), 375–376. doi:10.1121/1.395523",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "147853",
"title": "Speed of sound",
"section": "Section::::Dependence on the properties of the medium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The speed of sound is variable and depends on the properties of the substance through which the wave is travelling. In solids, the speed of transverse (or shear) waves depends on the shear deformation under shear stress (called the shear modulus), and the density of the medium. Longitudinal (or compression) waves in solids depend on the same two factors with the addition of a dependence on compressibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58320",
"title": "Potential flow",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics and applications.:Compressible flow.:Sound waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "which is a linear wave equation for the velocity potential . Again the oscillatory part of the velocity vector is related to the velocity potential by , while as before is the Laplace operator, and is the average speed of sound in the homogeneous medium. Note that also the oscillatory parts of the pressure and density each individually satisfy the wave equation, in this approximation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147853",
"title": "Speed of sound",
"section": "Section::::Equations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "In a dispersive medium, the speed of sound is a function of sound frequency, through the dispersion relation. Each frequency component propagates at its own speed, called the phase velocity, while the energy of the disturbance propagates at the group velocity. The same phenomenon occurs with light waves; see optical dispersion for a description.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25098",
"title": "Phase velocity",
"section": "Section::::Relation to group velocity, refractive index and transmission speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "In a given medium, the frequency is some function of the wave number, so in general, the phase velocity and the group velocity depend on the frequency and on the medium. The ratio between the speed of light c and the phase velocity \"v\" is known as the refractive index, . \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8724",
"title": "Doppler effect",
"section": "Section::::General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "In classical physics, where the speeds of source and the receiver relative to the medium are lower than the velocity of waves in the medium, the relationship between observed frequency formula_1 and emitted frequency formula_2 is given by:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33633646",
"title": "Geometrical acoustics",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "The below discussion is from Landau and Lifshitz. If the amplitude and the direction of propagation varies slowly over the distances of wavelength, then an arbitrary sound wave can be approximated locally as a plane wave. In this case, the velocity potential can be written as\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10779",
"title": "Frequency",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Sound.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "In many media, such as air, the speed of sound is approximately independent of frequency, so the wavelength of the sound waves (distance between repetitions) is approximately inversely proportional to frequency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2gy6jj
|
What sort of buildings would be found in a roman town? How would a hamlet, town and city differ regarding types if structures?
|
[
{
"answer": "For a largish Roman city of the early Imperial period, you should imagine a \"civic package\" of buildings: a theater, an arena, a forum-basilica with temple, aqueducts, sewers, and a stadium. Not every city had every building: for example, in Britain it was very rare to have a temple connected to the forum, Carthage didn't have aqueducts until relatively late (but did have massive cisterns), in Syria everything can be kind of weird, arenas are relatively rare in Greece, etc. Starting in the third century or so city walls and elaborate gates become more common, which used to be connected to the turmoil of the day but an equally good explanation is that walls were traditionally a privilege granted to *municipia* and so were an important status symbol--likely either factor played a role depending on the specific situation of the city.\n\nSmall towns are rather more complicated because it is rather common to define a \"small town\" as essentially a settlement without the civic package, and frequently without planned out grid streets. Some archaeologists use complicated and rather arbitrary numbers games to make the distinction eg, (a city is a settlement with more than x inhabitants), some prefer to use administrative distinctions (city's have major administrative functions) and some simply wing it and don't worry about coming up with rigorous distinctions. It is not terribly uncommon to find a small town without much in the way of civic structures at all, on the other hand, there are small towns in North Africa with extremely sophisticated and elaborate hydrological structures. So, again, it depends.\n\nA hamlet, more or less by definition, its basically a small collection of domestic and agricultural structures with no civic buildings. They can be extremely complicated--are we looking at a hamlet? Agricultural sheds? A single house with dispersed structures? Would one family or multiple families live here? We can't really know. Trying to recover the Roman peasant is increasingly popular in Roman archaeology, however, so perhaps in a decade or so there will be a better answer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31625136",
"title": "Romanization of Hispania",
"section": "Section::::Roman Settlements.:Municipalities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Roman towns or settlements were conceived as images of the imperial capital in miniature. The construction of public buildings was carried out by the curator operatum and were run directly by the supreme municipal magistrates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1032663",
"title": "Spello",
"section": "Section::::Main sights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "The densely inhabited town, built with stone, retains its medieval aspect; the town is enclosed in a circuit of medieval walls built on Roman foundations, including three Roman Late Antique gates (\"Porta Consolare\", \"Porta di Venere\" and the \"Arch of Augustus\") and traces of three more. The town incorporated the remains of an amphitheater. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52686",
"title": "Romanesque architecture",
"section": "Section::::Romanesque castles, houses and other buildings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Examples of all these types of buildings can be found scattered across Europe, sometimes as isolated survivals like the two merchants' houses on opposite sides of Steep Hill in Lincoln, England, and sometimes giving form to a whole medieval city like San Gimignano in Tuscany, Italy. These buildings are the subject of a separate article.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1211610",
"title": "Augusta Raurica",
"section": "Section::::Augusta Raurica today.:Excavations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Several private commercial buildings also have been found (a taberna, a bakery, a potter, and a tile kiln), as well as portions of a sewer. Around 80% of the built-up area has yet to be excavated. Augusta Raurica is the best-preserved Roman city north of the Alps that has not been built-over in medieval or modern times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13448411",
"title": "Krk (town)",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Roman ruins can be seen today in some parts of the town, for example mosaics in the houses. The city had also preserved many medieval fortifications, including Frankopan Castle close to the Kamplin park, and part of the city walls built during the five centuries when the Republic of Venice ruled the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28082619",
"title": "Guissona",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "The Romans conquered Iesso to transform it into a municipality. The town is mentioned by the Roman authors Pliny the Elder and Ptolemy. During that period it was built a defensive wall that surrounded a more extensive surface than the present historic center. The remains of the Roman period are numerous, notably, the Roman thermae of the city. The archeological site includes the water supply of the actual Medieval enclosure, the wells of the public fountain, a number of headstones (e.g., the gravestone of \"Servilla Praepusa\" (2nd-3rd century AD), a sculpture of a Roman horseman, and the Necropolis located in the area of \"Cal Mines\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3360224",
"title": "Dougga",
"section": "Section::::General layout.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "The city as it exists today consists essentially of remains from the Roman era dating for the most part to the 2nd and 3rd century. The Roman builders had to take account both of the site’s particularly craggy terrain and of earlier constructions, which led them to abandon the normal layout of Roman settlements, as is also particularly evident in places such as Timgad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ikw40
|
how does basic circuitry (like in a calculator) perform coding or mathematical function?
|
[
{
"answer": "Is done in layers. Each layer adds complexity.\n\nLet's look at three layers:\n\n- Transistors\n\n- Logic gates\n\n- Logic circuits\n\nThe key element in these kinds of circuits are **transistors**. They work like tiny little switches.\n\nBy putting a few transistors together, it's possible to make basic **logic gates**. [This website](_URL_1_) explains how this is done, and shows the circuit diagram for a NAND gate.\n\nOnce you've built some logic gates, you then bolt these together to perform logical functions, by making a **logic circuit**. This takes a little bit more explaining. For example, to add two numbers:\n\n(I'm going to assume that:\n\n- you have a good understanding of binary\n\n- you understand the basics of logic gates\n\nIf that's not the case, let me know.)\n\nStarting with the least significant bit, we have two inputs, let's call them A and B. And we have two outputs - the least significant bit of our final output, and also a carry bit which will get added onto the next bit to the left. We can make a table of all the possible outcomes:\n\nA B Out Carry\n\n----------------------\n\n\n0 0 0 0\n\n0 1 1 0\n\n1 0 1 0\n\n1 1 0 1\n\nNow, we can look at that table, and write logical equations for the output bit and the carry bit:\n\nOut = A XOR B\n\nCarry = A AND B\n\nThat's the first bit done. The other bits are a little more complex, because they have three inputs each - A, B and the Carry bit from the previous bit. But using the same principle, you can work out similar logical equations for all the other bits.\n\nThen you put them all together in a logic circuit. [Here](_URL_0_) is a circuit which adds together two numbers, each of 3 bits. The inputs are on the left - three switches on the left hand side for the first input (least significant bit at the top), and three switches to the right of that for the second input. On the right hand side are four light bulbs for the output. You can see a wire that goes from the top part of the circuit to the middle part, and another that goes from the middle part to the bottom part. These are the carry bits. (Each of them splits into two, because the carry bit is used in two separate places in the next part of the equations.)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All digital computers work with what is known as boolean logic. Boolean logic is essentially working with two states - 1 and 0. A zero represents a false and a 1 represents a true state. Using a series of semiconductors, resistors and capacitors, we are able to built logic gates that have these boolean mathematical properties. These different states are typically represented as 0 volts (a false) and +5 volts (a true condition). Such logic gates can be designed with a number of boolean conditions such as AND, OR, NOT, NAND, etc. These different types of gates give different outcomes based on the input that is driving them. For example, an AND gate requires both conditions on the input (InA AND InB) to be true in order for the OUTPUT to be true. If these conditions at the input are not true for both InA and InB (or a positive voltage), then the output of the gate will be false or in this example zero volts. \n\nNow these logic gates are typically created from Transistors, which have 3 pins; a collector, base, and emitter. When a voltage is applied to the base, it will allow current to flow through the transistor from the collector and out the emitter. We can look at the base as being the input of the gate and the emitter being the output. Using these transistors, we can combine them into a configuration that is able to perform boolean math. \n\nWe can combine these logic gates to perform calculations, counters, memory, etc. all while using the boolean model. From here we can combine these gates to perform addition, subtraction, and a variety of other math functions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "LondonPilot has an excellent explanation.\n\nIf you want everything explained in a book, look at [Code by Charles Petzold](_URL_1_). It's basically an ELI5 Computers through all the layers of abstraction, literally starting with binary.\n\nIf you want a hands on approach, check out [The Elements of Computing Systems](_URL_0_). It will take you through building the gates that LondonPilot is talking about to building Memory, ALUs, and even a CPU. It continues on to assembly language programming, writing a compiler, writing a high level language, etc.\n\nThese books combined is really a large chunk of what you should know with a BS in Computer science.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We use devices called \"logic gates\" to do all computation. A logic gate is a device with input terminals and output terminals (usually just one). The output depends on the input. We use binary signals, either 0 or 1, to represent information. Voltage or current being present in the line represents a 1, and no voltage or current represents a 0.\n\nLet's start with a NOT gate, which is the simplest. A NOT gate takes one input, and produces the opposite as its output. So, if you send \"1,\" it spits \"0\" out the other end, and vice versa. The circuit diagram looks like [this](_URL_0_). If there's a voltage at a, the input line, the transistor will conduct, and the voltage at F is 0 because there's a direct connection to ground. If there is no voltage at a, the transistor goes into cutoff, there's no connection to ground, and F will have a voltage (it's \"floating\" which is bad design but whatever).\n\nAnother type is an AND gate. It takes two inputs and compares them. If they're both 1, it will send 1 as an output, and it will send 0 otherwise. There are also OR gates, which send 1 as output if either or both inputs are 1, and XOR gates, which send 1 as output if one of the inputs is 1 and the other is 0, and so on.\n\nWe arrange logic gates in complicated circuit designs to make them actually do logical and mathematical things. The easiest example is single-bit addition. We're gonna take two single bit numbers and add them.\n\nThe way we handle the first bit of our answer is by passing the numbers through an XOR gate. If one of the inputs is 1, we get 1 as our answer, which we'd expect. If both are 1 or 0, we get 0.\n\nFor the second bit, we pass them through an AND gate. If both inputs are 1, the second bit is 1, and otherwise it's zero. So, let's look at the outputs:\n\nIf both inputs are 0, the XOR gate and AND gate both return 0, so \"00\" (0 in regular numbers) is our answer. That's good.\n\nIf one of the inputs is 1 and the other is 0, the XOR gate returns 1 and the AND gate returns 0, so we get \"01,\" which is 1 in decimal notation. Again, good.\n\nIf both inputs are 1, the XOR gate returns 0 and the AND gate returns 1, so we get \"10,\" which is 2 in decimal notation. So, we're getting the correct answer for all possible inputs, which is good.\n\nObviously, most logic circuits are much more complicated than this, but that's the very basic idea.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1911084",
"title": "Function composition (computer science)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "In computer science, function composition is an act or mechanism to combine simple functions to build more complicated ones. Like the usual composition of functions in mathematics, the result of each function is passed as the argument of the next, and the result of the last one is the result of the whole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24351683",
"title": "XLeratorDB",
"section": "Section::::Functions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "In computer science, a function is a portion of code within a larger program which performs a specific task and is relatively independent of the remaining code. As used in database and spreadsheet applications these functions generally represent mathematical formulas widely used across a variety of fields. While this code may be user-generated, it is also embedded as a pre-written sub-routine in applications. These functions are typically identified by common nomenclature which corresponds to their underlying operations: e.g. IRR identifies the function which calculates Internal Rate of Return on a series of periodic cash flows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1139338",
"title": "Computable function",
"section": "Section::::Uncomputable functions and unsolvable problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Every computable function has a finite procedure giving explicit, unambiguous instructions on how to compute it. Furthermore, this procedure has to be encoded in the finite alphabet used by the computational model, so there are only countably many computable functions. For example, functions may be encoded using a string of bits (the alphabet }).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1198197",
"title": "Function generator",
"section": "Section::::Electronic instruments.:Software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "A completely different approach to function generation is to use software instructions to generate a waveform, with provision for output. For example, a general-purpose digital computer can be used to generate the waveform; if frequency range and amplitude are acceptable, the sound card fitted to most computers can be used to output the generated wave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89371",
"title": "Combinational logic",
"section": "Section::::Logic formula minimization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "With the use of minimization (sometimes called logic optimization), a simplified logical function or circuit may be arrived upon, and the logic combinational circuit becomes smaller, and easier to analyse, use, or build.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21890324",
"title": "Arithmetic circuit complexity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "In computational complexity theory, \"arithmetic circuits\" are the standard model for computing polynomials. Informally, an arithmetic circuit takes as inputs either variables or numbers, and is allowed to either add or multiply two expressions it has already computed. Arithmetic circuits provide a formal way to understand the complexity of computing polynomials. The basic type of question in this line of research is \"what is the most efficient way to compute a given polynomial formula_1?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7878457",
"title": "Computer",
"section": "Section::::Software.:Programs.:Machine code.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 152,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 152,
"end_character": 1291,
"text": "In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number (its operation code or opcode for short). The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer's memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes. This leads to the important fact that entire programs (which are just lists of these instructions) can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data. The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer's memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. In some cases, a computer might store some or all of its program in memory that is kept separate from the data it operates on. This is called the Harvard architecture after the Harvard Mark I computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU caches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4bbksb
|
why do the germans have the 'german discipline'?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's really more of a way of perceiving your own country. Germany had a rather troubled past, which makes pure patriotism often hard to justify, so we instead cling to virtues like discipline, being on time, organization, that sort of things.\n\nOf course, that never really translates into reality as much as you'd like.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2974653",
"title": "Gymnasium (Germany)",
"section": "Section::::Culture of Teaching and Testing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "While this sounds like discipline is strict in German Gymnasia, in many cases, the official rules are watered down and ignored, except when school officials are watching. For example, while teachers and upper-class students are not allowed to call one another by their first names, in some cases, they do. Relationships can be very informal, and notoriously some teachers have even become drunk with their students after school. A 'Klassenabend' or 'Kurstreffen' are features of German schools, whereby teachers meet their form in the evening for a social occasion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "217284",
"title": "List of German expressions in English",
"section": "Section::::German terms common in English academic context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "German terms sometimes appear in English academic disciplines, e.g. history, psychology, philosophy, music, and the physical sciences; laypeople in a given field may or may not be familiar with a given German term.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2318626",
"title": "German studies",
"section": "Section::::German linguistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "In addition, the discipline examines German under various aspects: the way it is spoken and written, i.e., spelling; declination; vocabulary; sentence structure; texts; etc. It compares the various manifestations such as social groupings (slang, written texts, etc.) and geographical groupings (dialects, etc.).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2318626",
"title": "German studies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "German studies is the field of humanities that researches, documents, and disseminates German language and literature in both its historic and present forms. Academic departments of German studies often include classes on German culture, German history, and German politics in addition to the language and literature component. Common German names for the field are , , and . In English the terms Germanistics or Germanics are sometimes used (mostly by Germans), but the subject is more often referred to as \"German studies\", \"German language and literature\", or \"German philology\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20974891",
"title": "Stereotypes of Germans",
"section": "Section::::Stereotypes with negative use.:No sense of humour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Germans are perceived to be stiff and humourless. They are presented this way in the Funnybot episode of \"South Park\". At work, the Germans are very serious, but in their free time, they are completely different. Edward T. Hall, an American sociologist and intercultural expert, has identified certain dimensions to explain cultural differences. He noted in particular that the Germans are task-oriented people, while the French for example prefer personal relationships. See: Anna Claire Gunter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234538",
"title": "German grammar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "German has retained many of the grammatical distinctions that other Germanic languages have lost in whole or in part. There are three genders and four cases, and verbs are conjugated for person and number. Accordingly, German has more inflections than English, and uses more suffixes. For example, in comparison to the -s added to third-person singular present-tense verbs in English, most German verbs employ four different suffixes for the conjugation of present-tense verbs, namely -e for the first-person singular, -st for the second-person singular, -t for the third-person singular and for the second-person plural, and -en for the first- and third-person plural.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1416390",
"title": "Brazilian German",
"section": "Section::::Hunsrückisch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Due to lack of exposure – from 1938 till 1961, German was not even taught at higher schools. – Standard German became restricted to formal contexts such as church, whereas all daily interactions happened either in dialect or in Portuguese, from which the required words for innovations were also taken.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
34g4rw
|
does computer/laptop grow old? or they just can't keep up with current software?
|
[
{
"answer": "Unless you're talking about games with big resource requirements or heavy duty processing tools (like Adobe Premiere), they should keep up with software for quite a long time. A lot of desktop/laptop machines get bogged down over time with stuff that has been installed on them which add to their slowness by putting their own doo-dads in the startup sequence (stuff that always loads every time you boot).\n\nI'd bet if you cloned your hard drive right when you got your computer (and put nothing on it), and then put it back in a couple of years later and compared the performance, you'd notice it's a lot faster now that you've put a hard drive on there that doesn't have all the clutter that the existing drive has accumulated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Both, but the biggest issue is the software. You've got software that gets updated and updated while the hardware remains the same. Yes electronics degrade, but not nearly at the same rate that software advances. This is why it's stupid to say there's a conspiracy that companies like Apple have switches where they flip and make your phone suddenly go slow so you buy a new one. It slowed down because you're running new software on old hardware. No shit it's slower. Try running windows 8 on a computer from 1995 and see how it runs.\n\nEdit; typo",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A little of both. Dust can get inside it, which makes electronics unhappy, but also, people keep making better computers, which makes the old ones look dumb.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52742",
"title": "Desktop computer",
"section": "Section::::History.:Decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "The decades of development means that most people already own desktop computers that meet their needs and have no need of buying a new one merely to keep pace with advancing technology. Notably the successive release of new versions of Windows (Windows 95, 98, XP, Vista, 7, 8, 10 and so on) had been drivers for the replacement of PCs in the 1990s, but this slowed down in the 2000s due to the poor reception of Windows Vista over Windows XP. Recently, some analysts have suggested that Windows 8 has actually hurt sales of PCs in 2012, as businesses have decided to stick with Windows 7 rather than upgrade. Some suggested that Microsoft has acknowledged \"implicitly ringing the desktop PC death knell\" as Windows 8 offers little upgrade in desktop PC functionality over Windows 7; instead, Windows 8's innovations are mostly on the mobile side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "589755",
"title": "Retrocomputing",
"section": "Section::::Vintage computers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1011,
"text": "The personal computer has been around since approximately 1976. But in that time, numerous technological revolutions have left generations of obsolete computing equipment on the junk heap. Nevertheless, in that time, these otherwise useless computers have spawned a sub-culture of vintage computer collectors, who often spend large sums to acquire the rarest of these items, not only to display but restore to their fully functioning glory, including active software development and adaptation to modern uses. This often includes so-called hackers who add-on, update and create hybrid composites from new and old computers for uses for which they were otherwise never intended. Ethernet interfaces have been designed for many vintage 8-bit machines to allow limited connectivity to the Internet; where users can access user groups, bulletin boards and databases of software. Most of this hobby centers on those computers manufactured after 1960, though some collectors specialize in pre-1960 computers as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7623241",
"title": "Sustainable Development Strategy in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Action plan.:Computer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "Computer equipment includes desktop personal computers (PCs), laptops, monitors and peripherals: i.e., cables, printers, scanners, keyboards and speakers. In 1998, nearly 50% of households in Canada had computers and that number is steadily increasing. Due to technological innovations and market expansion of computer equipment and software, PCs are now becoming obsolete at increasing rates and are globally one of the fastest growing components of municipal waste streams. The average first life, the amount of time the PC is useful to its original owner, is now 2–4 years. In the year 2005, a PC's first life was decreased by another year. Considering reuse and storage options, the total lifespan, the period from manufacture to disposal, of a PC is estimated at 3–6 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "386407",
"title": "Digitization",
"section": "Section::::Digitization versus digital preservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Digital preservation is more complicated because technology changes so quickly that a format that was used to save something years ago may become obsolete, like a 5 1/4\" floppy drive. Computers are no longer made with them, and obtaining the hardware to convert a file from an obsolete format to a newer one can be expensive. As a result, the upgrading process must take place every 2 to 5 years, or as newer technology becomes affordable, but before older technology becomes unobtainable. The Library of Congress provides numerous resources and tips for individuals looking to practice digitization and digital preservation for their personal collections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63569",
"title": "QuickBASIC",
"section": "Section::::Current uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Since 2008, a set of TCP/IP routines for QuickBASIC 4.x and 7.1 has revitalized some interest in the software. In particular, the vintage computer hobbyist community has been able to write software for old computers that run DOS, allowing these machines to access other computers through a LAN or the internet. This has allowed systems even as old as an 8088 to serve new functions, such as acting as a Web server or using IRC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52742",
"title": "Desktop computer",
"section": "Section::::History.:Decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "The post-PC trend has seen a decline in the sales of desktop and laptop PCs. The decline has been attributed to increased power and applications of alternative computing devices, namely smartphones and tablet computers. Although most people exclusively use their smartphones and tablets for more basic tasks such as social media and casual gaming, these devices have in many instances replaced a second or third PC in the household that would have performed these tasks, though most families still retain a powerful PC for serious work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "158859",
"title": "Plug and play",
"section": "Section::::Legacy Plug and Play.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Until approximately 2000, PC computers could still be purchased with a mix of ISA and PCI slots, so it was still possible that manual ISA device configuration might be necessary. But with successive releases of new operating systems like Windows 2000 and Windows XP, Microsoft had sufficient clout to say that drivers would no longer be provided for older devices that did not support auto-detection. In some cases, the user was forced to purchase new expansion devices or a whole new system to support the next operating system release.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16okvb
|
what are ticks and why are they so bad?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ticks are a small bug that feed of the blood of animals and humans. They carry diseases, specifically Lyme Disease. They can be difficult to remove depending on where they attach to the host. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ticks are little insects, a distant cousin of spiders. They are like little vampires, attaching themseves to the skin of an animal. After attatched they stay there sucking its blood and becoming HUGE, way way bigger when it was starving. They are bad because some of them carry bacteria that can cause a variety of diseases.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50884",
"title": "Chelicerata",
"section": "Section::::Interaction with humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Ticks are parasitic, and some transmit micro-organisms and parasites that can cause diseases in humans, while the saliva of a few species can directly cause tick paralysis if they are not removed within a day or two.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33894099",
"title": "Ticks of domestic animals",
"section": "Section::::Variety of ticks affecting domestic animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1943,
"text": "Ticks are invertebrate animals in the phylum Arthropoda, and are related to spiders. Ticks are in the subclass Acari, which consists of many orders of mites and one tick order, the Ixodida. Some mites are parasitic, but all ticks are parasitic feeders. Ticks pierce the skin of their hosts with specialized mouthparts to suck blood, and they survive exclusively by this obligate method of feeding. Some species of mites may be mistaken for larval ticks at infestations on animal hosts, but their feeding mechanisms are distinctive. All ticks have an incomplete metamorphosis: after hatching from the egg, a series of similar stages (= instars) develops from a six-legged larva, to eight-legged nymph, and then a sexually developed, eight-legged adult. Between each stage is a molt (ecdysis), which enables the developing tick to expand within a new external skeleton. Ticks are grouped in three families, of which two have genera of importance to domestic animals, as follows. The family Argasidae contains the important genera \"Argas\", \"Ornithodoros\", and \"Otobius\". These genera are known as soft ticks because their outer body surfaces lack hard plates. The family Ixodidae contains 14 genera, including \"Amblyomma\", \"Dermacentor\", \"Haemaphysalis\", \"Hyalomma\", \"Ixodes\", \"Margaropus\", and \"Rhipicephalus\". Also, the important boophilid ticks, formerly of the genus \"Boophilus\", are now classified as a subgenus within the genus \"Rhipicephalus\". These genera are known as hard ticks because their outer surfaces have hard plates. Within these genera are, very roughly, 100 species of importance to domestic animals. Some of these species are also important to humans. The only countries that do not have some kind of problem with ticks on domestic animals are those that are permanently cold. An outline classification of the Acari, including the two families of ticks of importance to domestic animals is in the article Mites of livestock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "198639",
"title": "Ixodidae",
"section": "Section::::Medical Importance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "Many hard ticks are of considerable medical importance, acting as vectors of diseases caused by bacteria, protozoa, and viruses, such as \"Rickettsia\" and \"Borrelia\". The saliva of female ticks is toxic, causing ascending paralysis in animals and people, known as \"tick paralysis.\" Tick species that are commonly associated with tick paralysis are \"Dermacentor andersoni, Dermacentor occidentalis, Dermacentor variabilis,\" and \"Ixodes holocyclus\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33894099",
"title": "Ticks of domestic animals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "Ticks of domestic animals directly cause poor health and loss of production to their hosts by many parasitic mechanisms. Ticks also transmit numerous kinds of viruses, bacteria, and protozoa between domestic animals. These microbes cause diseases which can be severely debilitating or fatal to domestic animals, and may also affect humans. Ticks are especially important to domestic animals in tropical and subtropical countries, where the warm climate enables many species to flourish. Also, the large populations of wild animals in warm countries provide a reservoir of ticks and infective microbes that spread to domestic animals. Farmers of livestock animals use many methods to control ticks, and related treatments are used to reduce infestation of companion animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50696779",
"title": "List of ixodid ticks of Sri Lanka",
"section": "Section::::Ticks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Ticks are small arachnids in the order Parasitiformes. Along with mites, they constitute the subclass Acari. Ticks are ectoparasites (external parasites), living by hematophagy on the blood of mammals, birds, and sometimes reptiles and amphibians. Ticks are vectors of a number of diseases that affect both humans and other animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172273",
"title": "Tick",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Diet and feeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Ticks satisfy all of their nutritional requirements as ectoparasites, feeding on a diet of blood. They are obligate hematophages, needing blood to survive and move from one stage of life to another. Ticks can fast for long periods, but eventually die if unable to find a host. This behavior evolved approximately 120 million years ago through adaptation to blood-feeding. The behavior evolved independently in the separate tick families, with differing host-tick interactions driving the evolutionary change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1112059",
"title": "Tick-borne disease",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Tick-borne diseases, which afflict humans and other animals, are caused by infectious agents transmitted by tick bites. Tick-borne illnesses are caused by infection with a variety of pathogens, including rickettsia and other types of bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. Because individual ticks can harbor more than one disease-causing agent, patients can be infected with more than one pathogen at the same time, compounding the difficulty in diagnosis and treatment. As of 2016, 16 tick-borne diseases of humans are known (four discovered since 2013).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8tzvot
|
radio frequencies
|
[
{
"answer": "AM radio has a longer wavelength than FM. FM has cleaner sound, but a smaller effective range, while AM can be more easily interrupted, which leads to more static, however it can travel much farther than FM frequencies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[GIF here](_URL_0_)\n\nFM and AM are ways that we \"interpret\" some signal. We have to do this \"modulation\" which is basically \"transforming - (encoding) \" any given signal of low frequency into a signal of much higher frequency that we can then easily send over great distances. \n\n\nWe say that original signal (lower frequency) has been \"modulated\" and the \"carrier\" (high frequency) signal was used as a means of transportation.\n\nFM and AM are just two ways where we use amplitude and frequency of carrier signal to store information, there's also phase, where we store information about original signal into the phase of another, and of course there are combinations....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42852",
"title": "Radio frequency",
"section": "Section::::In communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Radio frequencies are generated and processed within very many functional units such as transmitters, receivers, computers, and televisions to name a few. Radio frequencies are also applied in carrier current systems including telephony and control circuits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42852",
"title": "Radio frequency",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "Radio frequency (RF) is the oscillation rate of an alternating electric current or voltage or of a magnetic, electric or electromagnetic field or mechanical system in the frequency range from around twenty thousand times per second () to around three hundred billion times per second (). This is roughly between the upper limit of audio frequencies and the lower limit of infrared frequencies; these are the frequencies at which energy from an oscillating current can radiate off a conductor into space as radio waves. Different sources specify different upper and lower bounds for the frequency range. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "153217",
"title": "Carrier wave",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "Most radio systems in the 20th century used frequency modulation (FM) or amplitude modulation (AM) to add information to the carrier. The frequency spectrum of a modulated AM or FM signal from a radio transmitter is shown above. It consists of a strong component \"(C)\" at the carrier frequency formula_1 with the modulation contained in narrow sidebands \"(SB)\" above and below the carrier frequency. The frequency of a radio or television station is considered to be the carrier frequency. However the carrier itself is not useful in transmitting the information, so the energy in the carrier component is a waste of transmitter power. Therefore, in many modern modulation methods the carrier is not transmitted. For example, in single-sideband modulation (SSB), the carrier is suppressed (and in some forms of SSB, eliminated). The carrier must be reintroduced at the receiver by a beat frequency oscillator (BFO).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "634183",
"title": "Radio spectrum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "The radio spectrum is the part of the electromagnetic spectrum with frequencies from 30 Hertz to 300 GHz. Electromagnetic waves in this frequency range, called radio waves, are widely used in modern technology, particularly in telecommunication. To prevent interference between different users, the generation and transmission of radio waves is strictly regulated by national laws, coordinated by an international body, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39871679",
"title": "Spectrum reallocation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Middle 20th century frequency allocation assigned much of the radio spectrum to broadcasting. Late in the century, other uses arose and in United States, spectrum reallocation mostly refers to reassigning frequency bands to uses such as wireless broadband, trunking, or point-to-point microwave services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23275402",
"title": "Amateur radio",
"section": "Section::::Licensing.:Privileges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Radio amateurs have access to frequency allocations throughout the RF spectrum, usually allowing choice of an effective frequency for communications across a local, regional, or worldwide path. The shortwave bands, or HF, are suitable for worldwide communication, and the VHF and UHF bands normally provide local or regional communication, while the microwave bands have enough space, or bandwidth, for amateur television transmissions and high-speed computer networks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34469665",
"title": "Radio Frequency Systems",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Radio Frequency Systems (RFS) is a designer and manufacturer of coaxial cable, antenna and tower systems, as well as active and passive RF filters. In 1999, Cablewave, Celwave, and RFS merged worldwide operations and formed Radio Frequency Systems\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3mvytu
|
why does gravity cause planets to be attracted to other planets and the sun?
|
[
{
"answer": "It might help to think about this the other way around. It's not that something called 'gravity' existed and one day it decided to start pulling on planets. It's rather that we humans realized that we are pulled down toward the earth and decided to use the word 'gravity' to describe that. Later we realized that everything is pulled toward everything else but it's not a very strong pull so we only notice it when it involves really big things like planets, and also it works over great distances.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1111581",
"title": "Reaction (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Gravitational forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 840,
"text": "The Earth, among other planets, orbits the Sun because the Sun exerts a gravitational pull that acts as a centripetal force, holding the Earth to it, which would otherwise go shooting off into space. If the Sun's pull is considered an action, then Earth simultaneously exerts a reaction as a gravitational pull on the Sun. Earth's pull has the same amplitude as the Sun but in the opposite direction. Since the Sun's mass is so much larger than Earth's, the Sun does not generally appear to react to the pull of Earth, but in fact it does, as demonstrated in the animation (not to precise scale). A correct way of describing the combined motion of both objects (ignoring all other celestial bodies for the moment) is to say that they both orbit around the center of mass, referred to in astronomy as the barycenter, of the combined system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16614758",
"title": "Jovian–Plutonian gravitational effect",
"section": "Section::::Hoax explained.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "The hoax claims that the gravitational pull of Jupiter and Pluto combined will cause one to spend a significantly longer amount of time in the air due to an increase in gravitational pull from the distant planets; however, this is incorrect. Although other planets do exert a gravitational pull on humans on Earth, the amount is very small.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9422452",
"title": "Galactic tide",
"section": "Section::::Effects on bodies within a galaxy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "The Sun's gravity is sufficiently weak at such a distance that these small galactic perturbations may be enough to dislodge some planetesimals from such distant orbits, sending them towards the Sun and planets by significantly reducing their perihelia. Such a body, being composed of a rock and ice mixture, would become a comet when subjected to the increased solar radiation present in the inner Solar System.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10890",
"title": "Fundamental interaction",
"section": "Section::::The interactions.:Gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Even though electromagnetism is far stronger than gravitation, electrostatic attraction is not relevant for large celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies, simply because such bodies contain equal numbers of protons and electrons and so have a net electric charge of zero. Nothing \"cancels\" gravity, since it is only attractive, unlike electric forces which can be attractive or repulsive. On the other hand, all objects having mass are subject to the gravitational force, which only attracts. Therefore, only gravitation matters on the large-scale structure of the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38930",
"title": "Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Interaction with the Solar System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Along with the Sun, the gravitational influence of Jupiter has helped shape the Solar System. The orbits of most of the system's planets lie closer to Jupiter's orbital plane than the Sun's equatorial plane (Mercury is the only planet that is closer to the Sun's equator in orbital tilt), the Kirkwood gaps in the asteroid belt are mostly caused by Jupiter, and the planet may have been responsible for the Late Heavy Bombardment of the inner Solar System's history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4387043",
"title": "History of gravitational theory",
"section": "Section::::Antiquity.:India.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Aryabhata (476–550) first identified the force which explains why the Earth's rotation does not cause objects to spin away from it, and developed a geocentric solar system of gravitation. This features an eccentric elliptical model of the planets, where the planets spin on their axes and follow elliptical orbits, the Sun and the Moon revolving around the Earth in epicycles. Indian astronomer and mathematician Brahmagupta (c. 598–c. 668) described gravity as an attractive force and used the term \"gurutvākarṣaṇam (गुरुत्वाकर्षणम्)\" to describe it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1490148",
"title": "Perturbation (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Most systems that involve multiple gravitational attractions present one primary body which is dominant in its effects (for example, a star, in the case of the star and its planet, or a planet, in the case of the planet and its satellite). The gravitational effects of the other bodies can be treated as perturbations of the hypothetical unperturbed motion of the planet or satellite around its primary body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10c5z2
|
Time dilation at absolute zero.
|
[
{
"answer": "Well the perception of time is relative to the observer. If you get in a spaceship with a clock and travel away from Earth at 99% the speed of light, to you the clock still ticks at the same rate but someone on Earth would see your clock slow down. I think Stephen Hawking gives a good example of this in Brief History of Time which is definitely worth a read if you are interested in this kind of stuff. \n\nHowever, to directly answer your question temperature does not relate to the passage of time in any way - imagine a thought experiment where we are in a lab at rest, and we build a clock which works by seeing how long it takes a pulse of light to cross the room and back. For the sake of argument let's say that it takes exactly 1 second. If we start to cool the lab down to near absolute zero, we still measure the passage of time the same because the speed of light is NOT temperature dependent. It is for this reason that you don't get time dilation when you cool things down. Bear this thought experiment in mind and [read through this](_URL_0_) particularly the section on light clocks being slowed by motion, which will help to explain time dilation in a bit more of an intuitive way (and I think this is the same one in Brief History of Time too).\n\n \nRegarding absolute zero, it is impossible to cool an object that low but we can get pretty close. The reason isn't due to the movement of the Earth but because it requires an infinite amount of work to be done on the system in order to remove all the heat from the material you are going to cool, which is impossible. I noticed you said about speeding up an object to light speed then time for that object would seem to stand still, but again this is impossible due to the infinite amount of work needed to be done.\n\nedit - forgot to directly answer the question!\nedit2 - added some extra info to the first paragraph",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In principle the kinetic motion of gasses time dilates the molecules.\n\nConsider a gas of tritium, or heavy hydrogen, which is radioactive with a half-life of 12.32 years or 4,500 +/- 8 days.\n\nAt room temperature, the average molecule is moving at a speed of 1700 m/s relative to the lab frame of reference. So the time dilation factor is 1.0000000000160778. This will increase the half life (as measured in the lab) by two seconds. Since the tritium is decaying more slowly, any glow from a phosphorescent material would in principle be slightly dimmer than if the tritium was near absolute zero.\n\nHowever, this effect is too subtle to measure. The uncertainty on the half-life of tritium is 8 days, so the addition of 2 seconds is impossible to determine with current capabilities.\n\nBasically, gasses are moving very slow at room temperature relative to the speed of light, and any time dilation effects are likely too subtle to measure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "297839",
"title": "Time dilation",
"section": "Section::::Velocity time dilation.:Hyperbolic motion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "In special relativity, time dilation is most simply described in circumstances where relative velocity is unchanging. Nevertheless, the Lorentz equations allow one to calculate proper time and movement in space for the simple case of a spaceship which is applied with a force per unit mass, relative to some reference object in uniform (i.e. constant velocity) motion, equal to \"g\" throughout the period of measurement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297839",
"title": "Time dilation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "Time dilation is a difference in the elapsed time measured by two clocks, either due to them having a velocity difference relative to each other, or by their being differently situated in a gravitational field. After compensating for varying signal delays due to the changing distance between an observer and a moving clock (i.e. Doppler effect), the observer will measure the moving clock as ticking slower than a clock that is at rest in the observer's own reference frame. A clock that is close to a massive body (and which therefore is at lower gravitational potential) will record less elapsed time than a clock situated further from the said massive body (and which is at a higher gravitational potential). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297839",
"title": "Time dilation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Time dilation by the Lorentz factor was predicted by several authors at the turn of the 20th century. Joseph Larmor (1897), at least for electrons orbiting a nucleus, wrote \"... individual electrons describe corresponding parts of their orbits in times shorter for the [rest] system in the ratio :formula_1\". Emil Cohn (1904) specifically related this formula to the rate of clocks. In the context of special relativity it was shown by Albert Einstein (1905) that this effect concerns the nature of time itself, and he was also the first to point out its reciprocity or symmetry. Subsequently, Hermann Minkowski (1907) introduced the concept of proper time which further clarified the meaning of time dilation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31591",
"title": "Time travel",
"section": "Section::::Forward time travel in physics.:Time dilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "There is a great deal of observable evidence for time dilation in special relativity and gravitational time dilation in general relativity, for example in the famous and easy-to-replicate observation of atmospheric muon decay. The theory of relativity states that the speed of light is invariant for all observers in any frame of reference; that is, it is always the same. Time dilation is a direct consequence of the invariance of the speed of light. Time dilation may be regarded in a limited sense as \"time travel into the future\": a person may use time dilation so that a small amount of proper time passes for them, while a large amount of proper time passes elsewhere. This can be achieved by traveling at relativistic speeds or through the effects of gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "531373",
"title": "Gravity Probe A",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Time dilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "Time dilation refers to the expansion or contraction in the rate at which time passes, and was the subject of the Gravity Probe A experiment. Under Einstein's theory of general relativity, matter distorts the surrounding spacetime, so that space gets bent similarly to the way a sheet of fabric would bend if a bowling ball were dropped in the middle of the sheet. But the distortion manifests itself in the time direction as well: time would appear for a distant observer to flow more slowly in the vicinity of a massive object. For example, the metric, surrounding a spherically symmetric gravitating body, has a smaller coefficient at formula_1 closer to the body, which means slower rate of time flow there. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21538638",
"title": "2012 phenomenon",
"section": "Section::::New Age beliefs.:Timewave zero and the \"I Ching\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "\"Timewave zero\" is a numerological formula that purports to calculate the ebb and flow of \"novelty\", defined as increase over time in the universe's interconnectedness, or organized complexity. Terence McKenna claimed that the universe has a teleological attractor at the end of time that increases interconnectedness. He believed this which would eventually reach a singularity of infinite complexity in 2012, at which point anything and everything imaginable would occur simultaneously. He conceived this idea over several years in the early to mid-1970s whilst using psilocybin mushrooms and DMT. The scientific community considers novelty theory to be pseudoscience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33431450",
"title": "Modern searches for Lorentz violation",
"section": "Section::::Time dilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "The current precision with which time dilation is measured (using the RMS test theory), is at the ~10 level. It was shown, that Ives-Stilwell type experiments are also sensitive to the formula_3 isotropic light speed coefficient of the SME, as introduced above. Chou \"et al.\" (2010) even managed to measure a frequency shift of ~10 due to time dilation, namely at everyday speeds such as 36 km/h.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3eojqi
|
are there any well documented nutritional differences between raw, unrefined sugar, cane sugar, white sugar, natural sugars in fruits etc? do our bodies handle refined white sugar differently than the "natural" stuff?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, there are differences, because there are different kinds of sugar. The most common two you'll see are sucrose (table sugar) and fructose (corn syrup, most fruits, honey). Fructose is sweeter, but also processed faster by your body, and as a result may cause larger blood sugar swings. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "654373",
"title": "White sugar",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "From a chemical and nutritional point of view, white sugar does not contain - in comparison to brown sugar - some minerals (such as calcium, potassium, iron and magnesium) present in molasses, even if the quantities contained in brown sugar are so small to be actually not significant. The only detectable differences are therefore the white color and the less intense flavor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27712",
"title": "Sugar",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition and flavor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Brown and white granulated sugar are 97% to nearly 100% carbohydrates, respectively, with less than 2% water, and no dietary fiber, protein or fat (table). Brown sugar contains a moderate amount of iron (15% of the Reference Daily Intake in a 100 gram amount, see table), but a typical serving of 4 grams (one teaspoon), would provide 15 calories and a negligible amount of iron or any other nutrient. Because brown sugar contains 5–10% molasses reintroduced during processing, its value to some consumers is a richer flavor than white sugar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50563",
"title": "Sucrose",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Types.:Culinary sugars.:Mill white.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Mill white, also called plantation white, crystal sugar or superior sugar is produced from raw sugar. It is exposed to sulfur dioxide during the production to reduce the concentration of color compounds and helps prevent further color development during the crystallization process. Although common to sugarcane-growing areas, this product does not store or ship well. After a few weeks, its impurities tend to promote discoloration and clumping; therefore this type of sugar is generally limited to local consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10834",
"title": "Food preservation",
"section": "Section::::Traditional techniques.:Sugaring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "The earliest cultures have used sugar as a preservative, and it was commonplace to store fruit in honey. Similar to pickled foods, sugar cane was brought to Europe through the trade routes. In northern climates without sufficient sun to dry foods, preserves are made by heating the fruit with sugar. \"Sugar tends to draw water from the microbes (plasmolysis). This process leaves the microbial cells dehydrated, thus killing them. In this way, the food will remain safe from microbial spoilage.\" Sugar is used to preserve fruits, either in an antimicrobial syrup with fruit such as apples, pears, peaches, apricots, and plums, or in crystallized form where the preserved material is cooked in sugar to the point of crystallization and the resultant product is then stored dry. This method is used for the skins of citrus fruit (candied peel), angelica, and ginger. Also, sugaring can be used in the production of jam and jelly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2366752",
"title": "High-fructose corn syrup",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1035,
"text": "Prior to the development of the worldwide sugar industry, dietary fructose was limited to only a few items. Milk, meats, and most vegetables, the staples of many early diets, have no fructose, and only 5–10% fructose by weight is found in fruits such as grapes, apples, and blueberries. Most traditional dried fruits, however, contain about 50% fructose. From 1970 to 2000, there was a 25% increase in \"added sugars\" in the U.S. After being classified as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1976, HFCS began to replace sucrose as the main sweetener of soft drinks in the United States. At the same time, rates of obesity rose. That correlation, in combination with laboratory research and epidemiological studies that suggested a link between consuming large amounts of fructose and changes to various proxy health measures, including elevated blood triglycerides, size and type of low-density lipoproteins, uric acid levels, and weight, raised concerns about health effects of HFCS itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "654373",
"title": "White sugar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "White sugar, also called table sugar, granulated sugar or regular sugar, is the sugar commonly used in North America and Europe, made either of beet sugar or cane sugar, which has undergone a refining process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27712",
"title": "Sugar",
"section": "Section::::Consumption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "In most parts of the world, sugar is an important part of the human diet, making food more palatable and providing food energy. After cereals and vegetable oils, sugar derived from sugarcane and beet provided more kilocalories per capita per day on average than other food groups. According to one source, per capita consumption of sugar in 2016 was highest in the United States, followed by Germany and the Netherlands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3emio3
|
why is it so bad to turn off a computer by the physical on/off button?
|
[
{
"answer": "Depends what you mean. If you press the button and let the system go through its shutdown process everything should be fine. If you hold it for a few seconds and force the system to just shut down in the middle of what its doing you risk data corruption. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's like going to sleep by being hit with a baseball bat in the head. You'll probably wake up just fine but its not something you should want to do regularly. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Start -- > Shutdown lets all the programs close themselves out gracefully. Your open files get saved, and so on. Killing the power prevents that from happening.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well the difference between holding the power button and manually clicking \"Shutdown\" is like going to sleep vs getting knocked out. Manually shutting down would be like taking medication and taking off glasses before sleeping, so all processes are neatly done and taken care of. Holding the power button is like someone knocking you out, you are asleep in an uncomfortable place, and you haven't done anything to prepare yourself for it. \n\nEssentially, with computers. If you keep holding the power button to shut it off, you'll eventually start having corruption errors because things were not saved. Also, if you were writing something, and let's say a document was not saved, you will lose that.\n\nIf you do it every time you want to shut a computer down, that'll be bad. You can manually turn it off sometimes when you have errors. That can be compared to knocking someone out because they need a surgery.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Computers often have problems when they get interrupted trying to save data. For the most part, abruptly powering down probably won't have any ill effects, but doing so risks stopping the computer in the middle of a save operation and when you power it back up, whatever it was messing with will probably be corrupted. Sometimes, when this happens, the computer will think that there was some kind of hardware error and treat a section of your storage space as broken, reducing the capacity by a little bit and reducing the lifespan of the harddrive. It's not a huge problem, but it can add up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not nearly as bad as it used to be, between non-hardwired power buttons and improved file systems. In the old days, before hard drives had an array of safety features built in, it could actually lead to a hard disk crash (where the read head scratches the disk surface and severely damages it)!\nBut generally, your OS will save information that it needs to boot efficiently. Powering down all of a sudden, if nothing else, could lead to longer boot times and extra temporary files taking up hard drive space. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It isn't bad.\n\nMaybe it used to be, but it's not a big deal anymore. The only real problem as other people have suggested is relating to how files are stored and the possibility of losing some data.\n\nHowever, computers (operating systems) have become a lot smarter in how they handle sudden poweroffs. Idk what windows does currently, but if you are running a linux operating system with an ext4 or xfs filesystem (those two are the defaults on most linuxes currently) then you should not be worried about data loss when forcefully powering off.\n\nConsider that there is an enterprise-level class of software (high-availability clusters) that absolutely *relies* on the ability to *forcefully poweroff* and boot a system. Your bank probably uses such software for its servers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's less of an issue than it used to be.\n\nWith older disk formats if the computer wasn't shutdown cleanly then the data on the drive could get corrupted.\n\nThat could mean files could get 'lost' and other issues as the data structures that the operating system itself used to access the data on the drive would be corrupted. This could mean the operating system failed to boot properly after a power cut or abrupt shutdown.\n\nThese days, most modern operating systems using journalling file systems. This means a journal is kept of updates to the drive which can be used after a crash to restore integrity.\n \nIf the system crashes or power is lost, the journal can be replayed at boot and the drive is far less likely to be corrupted.\n\nIf you have a USB stick, digital camera, or something like a garmin cycling computer some of these use old disk formats that can be corrupted if you remove them from the computer without ejecting them properly. This usually prompts windows to perform a 'chkdsk' on it.\n\nBack in the day people would run chkdsk on their hard drives and it would find lots of issues. These days chkdsk still exists in windows, but aside from issues caused by hardware failure, it's less likely to find a multitude of problems.\n\nHowever, even though a power cut or unexpected, non clean shutdown is far less likely to corrupt the disk and cause issues with the operating system, applications can still lose or corrupt data if you just switch the power off. So it's still a good idea to use 'start- > shutdown' rather than just switching it off at the power.\n\ntl;dr Older computers would often corrupt the disk if you didn't use shutdown. Modern OSes have largely solved this problem. Applications can still lose / corrupt data though so it's still not a good idea.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17325181",
"title": "HTC Touch Diamond",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The screen turns itself off when a person is on a call. This is to prevent the screen accepting unwanted inputs from the user's face when they are making a call, but it also requires the user to turn the screen back on if they want to use the screen. Removing the stylus when in a phone call both turns on the screen and starts up the notes application (if so selected as an option by the user).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45273",
"title": "Infinite loop",
"section": "Section::::Intended vs unintended looping.:Intentional looping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Modern computers also typically do not halt the processor or motherboard circuit-driving clocks when they crash. Instead they fall back to an error condition displaying messages to the operator, and enter an infinite loop waiting for the user to either respond to a prompt to continue, or to reset the device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29575318",
"title": "Computer-induced medical problems",
"section": "Section::::Common computer-induced medical problems.:Musculoskeletal problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1481,
"text": "Another medical issue caused by the use of computers is back and posture problems. These problems relate to musculoskeletal disorders caused by the need for the user to be crouched and hunched towards the monitors and computer components due to the design and positioning of these particular computer peripherals. This hunching forward of the user causes posture and back problems but is also the cause of severe and acute pain in the upper back, particularly pain in the neck and or shoulders. A study was conducted where 2146 technical assistants installed a computer program to monitor the musculoskeletal pain they suffered and answered questionnaires on the location and severity of the pain. The study showed interesting results, as it detailed how in the majority of cases any pain suffered was aggravated and exacerbated by the use of computer peripherals like the mouse and keyboard but overall the pain did not originate from using computers. \"Moreover, there seems to be no relationship between computer use and prolonged and chronic neck and shoulder pain\" This is a positive study for computer manufacturers but although the pain may not originate from computer peripherals there is no doubt that the pain is exacerbated by their use and this revelation alone should lead computer manufacturers to pioneer new technologies that reduce the risk of posture or musculoskeletal problems aggravated by the use of poorly designed and linearly designed computer peripherals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5700624",
"title": "Sony Ericsson W600",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "A common problem with this phone is the top half (the screen and navigation buttons) detaching from the bottom half (the keypad). This problem is caused by four loose screws that hold the top half to a swiveling metal plate attached to the bottom half. It is possible for one to fix this on their own.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53249961",
"title": "Fileless malware",
"section": "Section::::Digital forensics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "BULLET::::- Make sure that the computer is switched off – some screen savers may give the appearance that the computer is switched off, but hard drive and monitor activity lights may indicate that the machine is switched on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1441035",
"title": "Device Manager",
"section": "Section::::Types of icons.:Hardware not working properly.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "There are many reasons why hardware may not work properly. If Windows recognizes a problem with a device, it is denoted by a black exclamation point (!) on a yellow triangle in the lower right-hand corner of the device's icon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312998",
"title": "Reset button",
"section": "Section::::Personal computers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Pressing the reset button would be preferable to the power button, which could potentially leave a device in the middle of some operation and subject to defect. In most commodity hardware, the consumer would expect the device to be resilient enough to 'reset' when power was restored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a7m6dy
|
Do any of the stars in the centre of our galaxy harbour planets?
|
[
{
"answer": "There aren't many collisions in the centre of the galaxy - the stars are still plenty far apart from each other. You do get some mergers in places like dense globular clusters, but not all that many. However, rather than direct collisions, the gravity of a star coming even vaguely close may disrupt the orbits of the planets and throw them out of the system. So you might not expect many planets in this inner region.\n\nIn terms of explosions - in the Milky Way, much of the new star formation is going on in the spiral arms, so the central bulge tends to have older dimmer calmer stars, while the spiral arms have more big bright young stars that burn themselves out quickly and go supernova.\n\nBut you do have a higher intensity of background radiation because of the large density of stars, which may have some effect on life and evolution - although it's not completely clear which way this would go.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just to expand on the other answer here, I'll note that collisions between starts are exceeding unlikely. Most of space is just... empty space. Stars are relatively small compared to the distances between them so they don't often get very close to eachother. Even during galaxy mergers, where two galaxies \"collide\", you wouldn't expect any collisions.\n\nWhat does happen occasionally though is when two stars are close enough that they pull each other out of their original orbits. Sometimes these stars end up orbiting around eachother, and over time they draw closer until the larger star begins to pull stellar material off of the smaller one. This is what we'd call a merger, and while they sound very violent, they're not really the supernova-level explosions that one might expect. It's more like \"pouring\" gas from one star onto another. Definitely not a head-on collision.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "480638",
"title": "Phantasy Star II",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Somewhere deep within the Andromeda Galaxy lies the Algol Star System. The parent star, Algol (referred to as \"Algo\" by this point in the timeline), has three planets orbiting about it. First is Palm (\"Palma\"), the home of the government. Governors, treasurers, and great thinkers dwell here in great ivory towers, away from the hubbub of everyday life. Next is Mota (\"Motavia\"), the shining jewel. Once a dry desert planet infested with ant lions, Mota has been transformed into a blue and green tropical paradise. Domed farms grow crops, and the water is regulated into dammed rivers. Life on Mota is sweet, peaceful, and easy. The people have everything they want and do not need to work. Farthest out is Dezo (\"Dezoris\"), the ice planet. Little is known about this mysterious and dark planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185763",
"title": "Norma (constellation)",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Four star systems are known to harbour planets. HD 330075 is a sunlike star around 164 light-years distant that is orbited by a hot Jupiter every 3.4 days. Announced in 2004, it was the first planet discovered by the HARPS spectrograph. HD 148156 is a star 168 ± 7 light-years distant. Slightly larger and hotter than the Sun, it was found to have a roughly Jupiter-size planet with an orbital period of 2.8 years. HD 143361 is a binary star system composed of a sunlike star and a faint red dwarf separated by 30.9 AU. A planet roughly triple the mass of Jupiter orbits the brighter star every 1057± 20 days. HD 142415 is approximately 113 light-years distant and has a Jupiter-sized planet with an orbital period of around 386 days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34253810",
"title": "2012 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:January.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "BULLET::::- An international team of astronomers report that each star in the Milky Way Galaxy may host \"on average ... at least 1.6 planets\", suggesting that over 160 billion star-bound planets may exist in our galaxy alone. The team used gravitational microlensing to discover the gravitational effects of planets orbiting distant stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53643485",
"title": "Gliese 581 planetary system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "The confirmed planets are believed to be located close to the star with near-circular orbits. In order of distance from the star, these are Gliese 581e, Gliese 581b, and Gliese 581c. The letters represent the discovery order, with b being the first planet to be discovered around the star.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47266911",
"title": "HIP 11915 b",
"section": "Section::::Significance in astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "While several Jovian-sized planets have been discovered, most have been found orbiting close to their stars. It is now hypothesized that Jupiter's movement in the Solar System may have cleared the way for the rocky inner planets, including Earth, to form. The similarity extends to the star that centers the system; like the Sun, HIP 11915 is a G-class star.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2903021",
"title": "15 Aquilae",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "This star is most likely a member of the thin disk population of the Milky Way. It is orbiting through the galaxy with an eccentricity of 0.06, which carries it as close as to the Galactic Core, and as far away as . The orbital inclination carries it no more than from the galactic plane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3499647",
"title": "AD Leonis",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "This star is orbiting through the Milky Way galaxy with an eccentricity of 0.028. This carries the star as close as 8.442 kpc from the galactic core, and as far as 8.926 kpc. The orbital inclination carries it as far as 0.121 kpc from the plane of the galaxy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3xq5ro
|
In the past, farmers were far more numerous than smiths, so why is Smith a more common name than Farmer?
|
[
{
"answer": "hi, there's always room for more discussion on this, but thought you might be interested in a couple of earlier posts about \"Smith\"; the first one does discuss \"Smith\" vs \"Farmer\" also\n\n* [Why is Smith the most common surname?](_URL_0_)\n\n* [Why are there so many \"Smiths\" out there? Were there just a shitload of blacksmiths in Medieval times or did the blacksmiths just produce a prodigious amount of progeny? OR Why is Smith such a common surname?](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "412847",
"title": "Oliver Cowdery",
"section": "Section::::As purported co-author of the Book of Mormon.:Speculation of pre-1829 connection between Cowdery and Smith.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "There is also a geographical connection between the Smiths and the Cowderys. During the 1790s, both Joseph Smith, Sr. and Lucy Mack Smith, and two of Cowdery's relatives were living in Tunbridge, Vermont.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2326978",
"title": "Nominative determinism",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Empirical evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "As for Casler's third possible explanation for nominative determinism, genetics, researchers Voracek, Rieder, Stieger, and Swami found some evidence for it in 2015. They reported that today's Smiths still tend to have the physical capabilities of their ancestors who were smiths. People called Smith reported above-average aptitude for strength-related activities. A similar aptitude for dexterity-related activities among people with the surname Tailor, or equivalent spellings thereof, was found, but it was not statistically significant. In the researchers' view a genetic-social hypothesis appears more viable than the hypothesis of implicit egotism effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7873845",
"title": "St. Eloy's Hospice",
"section": "Section::::Charity.:Adriaan Willemszoon van Dashorst.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "The Guild of Smiths seems to have been a rich guild, mainly in consequence of an inheritance from Brother Adriaan Willemszoon van Dashorst in 1571. A special additional clause in the will allowed for the distribution of bread and some money on Sundays to twenty upright poor guild brothers or other paupers, and that in perpetuity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3113151",
"title": "Early life of Joseph Smith",
"section": "Section::::Childhood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "The Smiths were a middling farm family, but suffered a fateful loss when Smith Sr., after speculating in ginseng and being cheated by a business associate, was financially ruined. After he sold the family farm to pay his debts, the Smiths \"crossed the boundary dividing independent ownership from tenancy and day labor.\" In the next fourteen years, the Smiths moved seven times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16318864",
"title": "Smithers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Smithers is a surname of English origin. It derives from the Middle English term \"smyther\", referring to a metalsmith, and is thus related to the common occupational surname Smith. The name Smither is related.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1814",
"title": "Adam Smith",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:As a symbol of free-market economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Smith has been celebrated by advocates of free-market policies as the founder of free-market economics, a view reflected in the naming of bodies such as the Adam Smith Institute in London, multiple entities known as the \"Adam Smith Society\", including an historical Italian organization, and the U.S.-based Adam Smith Society, and the Australian Adam Smith Club, and in terms such as the Adam Smith necktie.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31527637",
"title": "Ann Carroll Fitzhugh",
"section": "Section::::The Ann Fitzhugh and Gerrit Smith Household.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The Smiths lived in a large frame house facing Peterboro green. It was built in the hall-and-parlour style, with a large central hall front to back. The library of about 2,000 volumes, dining room and kitchen flanked the central hall on one side; a parlour and conservatory lay on the other. The Smiths emphasized equality, simplicity, intellectualism and spirituality in their domestic life. After 1835, the two would not serve food grown with slave labor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
620oc9
|
why is all glass not safety glass?
|
[
{
"answer": "for general use, cost. \n\ncar windshield glass is laminated. it's actually two pieces of glass with a clear glue in the middle. it doesn't shatter into million pieces when it breaks. windshield glass also needs to be mostly distortion free. you'll note that windshields are bent, but when you look thru them, the image is not bent. \n\ncar side window glass is not laminated, but it's still special glass. it's tempered. it's stronger than just \"normal\" glass. but it shatters into many pieces when it breaks. \n\nthen there's glass made for ever other specialty application. \n\noptical glass doesn't need to be super strong or not shatter. it needs to be very clear and very distortion free. \n\ngorilla glass is very scratch and shatter resistant. and very pricey. \n\nUV protection glass filters out UV light. \n\nresidential window glass is treated for filtering our both UV and IR light. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most probable reason? Price.\n\nPlain glass is much cheaper than shock resistant glass, or even scratch resistant glass or so. All these improvements make the product a tad more expensive and sometimes this difference gets bit enough to matter. \n\nWe could also say that in some situations a heat tempered glass piece is just plain stupid. Imagine if a window in you house got hit by a sharp rock. If it was a heat tempered piece it would shatter in a million pieces and cleaning that would be a pain in the butt. Now, if we use plain glass it just breaks into big chunks near the impact. See? Its much easier to clean and sometimes can be \"fixed\" with a piece of tape till the next day, while if it was HT glass you woudn't have a window anymore, just a hole in your wall.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Toughened or tempered safety glass is very difficult to work with. It can't be cut to size or drilled, it has to be made to order the specific shape needed. The plastic layer in laminated safety glass affects the optics and working with it.\n\nAnd in general, you can't really get everything in one kind of glass. For lab glassware heat resistance and chemical inertness are usually most important, borosilicate glass ('pyrex') is good for that. Some uses need it to be shaped when heated though, for example to make 'glass welds', so ordinary soda-lime glass is used for that. For cars, impact resistance is important. For camera lenses, optical properties are paramount. And so on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3618245",
"title": "Safety glass",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Safety glass is glass with additional safety features that make it less likely to break, or less likely to pose a threat when broken. Common designs include toughened glass (also known as tempered glass), laminated glass, wire mesh glass (also known as wired glass) and engraved glass. Wire mesh glass was invented by Frank Shuman. Laminated glass was invented in 1903 by the French chemist Édouard Bénédictus (1878–1930).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4049168",
"title": "Glass cloth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Due to properties of glass such as heat resistance and an inability to ignite, glass has been used to create fire barriers in hazardous environments such as inside of racecars. Its poor flexibility, and its being a source of skin irritation, made the fibers inadequate for apparel uses. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155443",
"title": "Corrosion",
"section": "Section::::Corrosion in nonmetals.:Corrosion of glass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Glass is characterized by a high degree of corrosion-resistance. Because of its high water-resistance it is often used as primary packaging material in the pharma industry since most medicines are preserved in a watery solution. Besides its water-resistance, glass is also robust when exposed to certain chemically aggressive liquids or gases. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35295311",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of glass objects",
"section": "Section::::Agents of deterioration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Water itself is not a hazard to stable glass, but in the case of a piece with existing “glass disease,” it can accelerate problems associated with it such as weeping, and crizzling as mentioned above. Here, glass should not be kept in places where the threat of water exposure could occur, such as low to the ground, or near places where water might pool. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1358074",
"title": "Solar mirror",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Glass or metal substrate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "Glass may also be used as a protective layer to protect the other layers from abrasion and corrosion. Although glass is brittle, it is a good material for this purpose, because it is highly transparent (low optical losses), resistant to ultraviolet light (UV), fairly hard (abrasion resistant), chemically inert, and fairly easy to clean. It is composed of a float glass with high optical transmission characteristics in the visible and infrared ranges, and is configured to transmit visible light and infrared radiation. The top surface, known as the \"first surface\", will reflect some of the incident solar energy, due to the reflection coefficient caused by its index of refraction being higher than air. Most of the solar energy is transmitted through the glass substrate to the lower layers of the mirror, possibly with some refraction, depending on the angle of incidence as light enters the mirror.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2928392",
"title": "Glass floor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Glass floors are made with transparent glass when it is useful to view something from above or below; whereas translucent glass is used when there is no need to view through. In either case, toughened glass is usually chosen, for its durability and resistance to breakage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37973155",
"title": "Glass in green buildings",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Glass is a useful material that has such advantages such as Transparency, Natural Day-lighting, permitting a sky view and Acoustic control, depending on the glazing solution used. Glass is a wholly recyclable material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2d6w0h
|
why doesnt apple make computers specifically for video games?
|
[
{
"answer": "PC gamers are not their market and they probably don't want to be associated with them. Their current image brings them customers from the demographic they are targeting. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The power of an Apple computer is pretty meh for gaming, really. Even the really high-end of their lines.\n\nThey could make a Mac with a good GPU and all the rest, but given the price of a mediocre Mac it'd be like 3000$ for your gaming Mac... and it'd be outclassed in power by a 1500$ desktop built with off-the-shelf components.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a few things that limit apples gaming potential. \n\n1) Apple OS is not supported by most games. So a lot of games, especially new games, won't work at all on a Mac.\n\n2) Power vs. Quality - we can debate all day about the quality of a apple computer. What can be said is that dollar for dollar, a Mac is nothing compared to a PC in terms of raw power. For the price of a decent Mac $1500 - $2500, you can build a PC with 2 - 3 times to raw power of that Mac.\n\n3) Control - a PC power user has a lot more control over their machine on windows or Linux than does that same person on a Mac. This includes both over the hardware and over the software running the machine. When gaming, more control is always better.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Most PC gamers build, or at least customize their own PC. Not only that, most games are Windows and not Mac. Apple computers are made for students, professionals and workstations. If they spent the money developing and producing a gaming PC, they wouldn't make it back. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The problem with mac gaming isn't the computer, it is the operating system. When you write a program you have to write it for the operating system. Since most people use Windows, game devs wont bother rewriting the game for mac.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "have fun trying to get developers to make serious games for your system. If Linux which is free is having issues with gaming, apple would be a nightmare.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4705441",
"title": "Mac gaming",
"section": "Section::::Early game development on the Mac.:Attempts by Apple to promote gaming on Mac.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Apple has at times attempted to market the platform for gaming. In 1996, they released a series of game-enabling APIs called Game Sprockets. In April 1999, Steve Jobs gave an interview with the UK-based \"Arcade\" magazine to promote the PowerPC G3-based computers Apple were selling with then new ATI Rage 128 graphics cards, and describing how Apple was \"trying to build the best gaming platform in the world so developers are attracted to write for it\" and \"trying to leapfrog the PC industry\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10126591",
"title": "Atari 8-bit family software",
"section": "Section::::Games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Because of graphics superior to that of the Apple II and Atari's home-oriented marketing, the Atari 8-bit computers gained a good reputation for games. \"BYTE\" in 1981 stated that \"for sound and video graphics [they] are hard to beat\". Jerry Pournelle wrote in the magazine in 1982, when trying to decide what computer to buy his sons, that \"if you're only interested in games, that's the machine to get. It's not all that expensive, either\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4705441",
"title": "Mac gaming",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "Mac gaming refers to use of video games on Macintosh personal computers. In the 1990s, Apple computers did not attract the same level of video game development as Windows computers due to the high popularity of Windows and, for 3D gaming, Microsoft's DirectX technology. In recent years, the introduction of Mac OS X and support for Intel processors has eased porting of many games, including 3D games through use of OpenGL and more recently Apple's own Metal API. Virtualization technology and Boot Camp also permit the use of Windows and its games on Macintosh computers. Today, a growing number of popular games run natively on MacOS, though as of early 2019, a majority still require the use of Windows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1492625",
"title": "Macintosh clone",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Apple eventually licensed the Apple II ROMs to other companies, primarily to educational toy manufacturer Tiger Electronics in order to produce an inexpensive laptop with educational games and the AppleWorks software suite: the Tiger Learning Computer (TLC). The TLC lacked a built-in display. Its lid acted as a holster for the cartridges which stored the bundled software, as it had no floppy drive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29368554",
"title": "Game Sprockets",
"section": "Section::::History.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Early in its history, the Macintosh computer was a strong gaming platform due to its high-resolution screen, digital sound hardware and the fact that every Mac came equipped with a reasonable gaming controller, the mouse. However, gaming was never supported in any strong way within Apple, and in some cases actively discouraged. By the 1990s the Mac platform had greatly increased in complexity through a profusion of models with different features. Supporting a game across the entire lineup required the programmer to learn the intricacies of different models at a time when even figuring out which machine the program was installed on had no standard solution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3879451",
"title": "Gaming computer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Because of the large variety of parts that can go into a computer built to play video games, gaming computers are frequently custom-assembled, rather than pre-assembled, either by gaming and hardware enthusiasts or by companies that specialize in producing custom gaming machines. In order to generate interest, gaming computer manufacturers that sell complete systems often produce boutique models, allowing them to compete on aesthetic design in addition to the hardware inside.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3917952",
"title": "List of Apple IIGS games",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Following is a list of Apple II games. While backwards compatible for running most Apple II games, the Apple II has a native 16-bit mode with support for graphics, sound, and animation capabilities that surpass the abilities of the earlier Apple II. The machine is part of the 16-bit home computer gaming revolution of the mid 1980s to early 1990s, competing directly with the Amiga and Atari ST.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4wnnf1
|
Why do chefs wear those tall white hats?
|
[
{
"answer": "The traditional chef's hat or a \"toque blanches\" was developed in 16th century France as a means of symbolising your status in the kitchen with chef's hats being the highest. The pleats in the hat were also a way of showing how experienced a chef was. Traditionally, the toques had a hundred pleats for senior chefs, some still have a hundred but it has become less common in modern kitchens. They are generally white as it is supposed to denote cleanliness and hygiene.\r\n\r\n Interestingly, the hundred pleats are representative of the hundred ways a chef can cook an egg. \r\n\r\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4410836",
"title": "Chef's uniform",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "In more traditional restaurants, especially traditional French restaurants, the white chef’s coat is standard and considered part of a traditional uniform and as a practical chef's garment. Most serious chefs wear white coats to signify the importance and high regard of their profession. The thick cotton cloth protects from the heat of stoves and ovens and protects from splattering of boiling liquids. The double breasted jacket is used to add protection to the wearer's chest and stomach area from burns from splashing liquids. This can also be reversed to hide stains. Knotted cloth buttons were used to survive frequent washing and contact with hot items. White is intended to signify cleanliness as well as repelling heat from the kitchen and is generally worn by highly visible head chefs. Increasingly, other colours such as black are becoming popular as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "279684",
"title": "Chef",
"section": "Section::::Uniform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "The standard uniform for a chef includes a hat called a toque, necktie, double-breasted jacket, apron and shoes with steel or plastic toe-caps. A chef's hat was originally designed as a tall rippled hat called a Dodin Bouffant or more commonly a toque. The Dodin Bouffant had 101 ripples that represent the 101 ways that the chef could prepare eggs. The modern chef's hat is tall to allow for the circulation of air above the head and also provides an outlet for heat. The hat helps to prevent sweat from dripping down the face and hair shedding on food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4410836",
"title": "Chef's uniform",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "The traditional chef's uniform (or chef's whites) includes a \"toque blanche\" (\"white hat\"), white double-breasted jacket, pants in a black-and-white houndstooth pattern, and apron. It is a common occupational uniform in the Western world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4410836",
"title": "Chef's uniform",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "The toque is a chef's hat that dates back to the 16th century. Different heights may indicate rank within a kitchen, and they are designed to prevent hair from falling into the food when cooking. The 100 folds of the chefs’ toque are said to represent the many different ways a chef knows to cook eggs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22230227",
"title": "Stephen Jones (milliner)",
"section": "Section::::Stephen Jones and popular culture.:Promotions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "Jones hats have been used to promote food and soft drinks, including Chiquita, Twix, St Ivel, Quaker Oats, Ryvita, Golden Wonder, Walker's Sensations, Tango, and Robinson's orange squash. Alcoholic beverages have also been advertised using his hats, beginning with Tennents lager in 1987 and including Tia Maria, Cinzano, Perrier, Boddingtons, and Martini & Rossi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "468335",
"title": "Top hat",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "As part of traditional formal wear, in popular culture the top hat has been associated with the upper class, and used by satirists and social critics as a symbol of capitalism or the world of business (one current example is the Monopoly Man). The top hat also forms part of the traditional dress of Uncle Sam, a symbol of the United States, generally striped in red, white and blue. The top hat is also associated with stage magic, both as costume and especially the use of hat tricks, such as the famous \"Pulling a Rabbit out of a Hat\" trick dating back to Louis Comte who performed the trick in 1814.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38501408",
"title": "George Hill (chef)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "George Everard Hill (born 20 May 1942) is an Australian chef, educator, and author. Hill is one of seven living Black Hat Chefs in Australia and is a \"2004 Pioneer\" amongst Les Toques Blanches (lit. \"The White Hats\") Executive Chefs of Australia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ocefa
|
Does a power strip split up the power going to each device, or does it maintain the same power as plugging straight into the wall?
|
[
{
"answer": "It simply distributes the wall power to more outlets. It may have a surge protector to avoid overload, or other type of protection (e.g., battery backup) - but beyond that, it is not 'splitting' anything.\n\nThis makes logical sense -- everything you plug into it requires 110 AC (USA). If it was 'splitting the power' devices would not receive enough to operate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The power strip just connects the devices in parallel.\n\nIn series, the voltage is split between all the devices based on their resistive load, but the current is identical between all loads. In parallel, the voltage is identical between all loads, but the current entering the system from the power source is split between all loads (based on the resistive loads).\n\nThe power source at the wall outlet merely sees an equivalent resistive load from the combination of all sources. With more devices plugged in, more current will be drawn, equal to the current the device would draw if it were plugged directly into the wall.\n\nPower would be Voltage * Current. The voltage is the same between all loads, but each one draws a current. So total power is Voltage x sum_of_currents.\n\n(To the electrical engineers who may read this, \"power\" is being used here to mean the simple RMS power calculations, assuming purely resistive loads, as would be taught in early undergraduate courses. I recognize that power is more complicated, but there is no need to go into that detail.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "457968",
"title": "Power strip",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 913,
"text": "A power strip (also known as an extension block, power board, power bar, plug board, pivot plug, trailing gang, trailing socket, plug bar, trailer lead, multi-socket, multi-box, super plug, multiple socket, multiple outlet, polysocket and by many other variations) is a block of electrical sockets that attaches to the end of a flexible cable (typically with a mains plug on the other end), allowing multiple electrical devices to be powered from a single electrical socket. Power strips are often used when many electrical devices are in proximity, such as for audio, video, computer systems, appliances, power tools, and lighting. Power strips often include a circuit breaker to interrupt the electric current in case of an overload or a short circuit. Some power strips provide protection against electrical power surges. Typical housing styles may include strip, rack-mount, under-monitor and direct plug-in.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "457968",
"title": "Power strip",
"section": "Section::::Socket arrangement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "If sockets on a power strip are grouped closely together, a cable with a large \"wall wart\" transformer at its end may cover up multiple sockets. Various designs address this problem, some by simply increasing the spacing between outlets. Other designs include receptacles which rotate in their housing, or multiple short receptacle cords feeding from a central hub. A simple DIY method for adapting problematic power strips arrangements to large \"wall warts\" is to use a three-way socket adapter to extend the socket above its neighbors, providing the required clearance. The PowerCube adapter is arranged as a cube, meaning the adapters do not fight for space next to each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1145788",
"title": "Extension cord",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "A power strip is a block on the end of a power cable with a number of sockets (usually 3 or more), often arranged in a line. This term is also used to refer to the whole unit of a short extension cord terminating in a power strip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10249042",
"title": "Coaxial power connector",
"section": "Section::::Connector construction and terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Power is generally supplied \"by\" a plug \"to\" a receptacle. Cables are available with one in-line receptacle fanning out to a number of plugs, so that many devices may be supplied by one supply. As the use of a plug implies a cable, even a short stub, some power supplies carry panel-mounted receptacles instead to avoid this cable, i.e. the normal convention of power from plug to receptacle is reversed. Cables for such cases are available with a plug at each end, although cables or adapters with two \"receptacles\" are not widely available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4562095",
"title": "Port expander",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "In the non-computer world, splitters are very common. Extension cords and power strips are in nearly every modern home. Both of these devices will split a single outlet to multiple devices. Cable splitters also operate in many homes, allowing a single coaxial cable to provide cable television to multiple sets. Some systems may even use an A/B box, a device that connects multiple sets of devices to the same system, with users switching between them by flipping between the A or B mode.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "457968",
"title": "Power strip",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Power strips are generally considered a safer alternative to “double adapters”, “two-way plugs”, “three-way plugs”, or “cube taps” which plug directly into the socket with no lead for multiple appliances. These low-cost adapters are generally not fused (although more modern ones in the UK and Ireland are). Therefore, in many cases the only protection against overload is the branch circuit fuse which may well have a rating higher than the adapter. The weight of the plugs pulling on the adapter (and often pulling it part way out of the socket) can also be a problem if adapters are stacked or if they are used with brick-style power supplies. Such adapters, while still available, have largely fallen out of use in some countries (although two- and three-way adapters are still common in the US, UK, and Ireland).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47963445",
"title": "Bus duct",
"section": "Section::::Construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "A plug-in bus duct system or busway can have disconnect switches and other devices mounted on it, for example, to distribute power along a long building. Many forms of busway allow plug-in devices such as switches and motor starters to be easily moved; this provides flexibility for changes on an assembly line,for example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
62ortl
|
What do we know about childhoods of The Beatles' members?
|
[
{
"answer": "*To be sung to the tune of the [Crash Test Dummies' 'Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm'](_URL_0_)*:\n\n\nOo-once there was this boy^1 who\n\nGrew up with his Aunt and never knew his Mum^2\n\nAnd wh-ee-en she finally came back\n\nShe got run over by a policeman^3\n\nIt really might explain why \n\nThe kid could be soooooo meeeaaann^4\n\n & nbsp;\n\nMmm mmm mmm mmm\n\n & nbsp;\n\nOnce there was this kid^5 who\n\nDid quite well at school and was on track to be a teacher^6\n\nBut wh-ee-en his mother Mary passed away^7\n\nHe began to hang with the wrong crowd^8\n\nHe couldn't quite explain it\n\nHe just wanted to rooooock and rooooll\n\n & nbsp;\n\nMmm mmm mmm mmm\n\nMmm mmm mmm mmm\n\n & nbsp;\n\nBut both John and Paul were glad\n\nCos one kid had it worse than that\n\n & nbsp;\n\nCause then there was this boy^9 who\n\nGrew up in the shittiest slum in Liverpool^10\n\nAnd whe-en he was growing up\n\nHe spent years sick in hospital^11\n\nHe couldn't quite explain it^12\n\nHe just wanted to play the drums^13\n\n & nbsp;\n\nMmm mmm mmm mmm^14\n\nMmm mmm mmm mmm\n\n & nbsp;\n\n...\n\n & nbsp;\n\nFootnotes:\n\n1. John Winston Lennon\n\n2. Lennon's father was at sea in the merchant navy when he was born, and by the time Lennon was born, his mother Julia was 'living in sin' with someone else (John Dykins), and Lennon was sleeping in the same bed as Julia and John Dykins. After Julia's sister Mimi complained to Social Services about this situation, Julia gave up John to Mimi, who was childless, and not by choice.\n\n3. Julia became more of a part of Lennon's life again when he was a teenager - to him she seemed almost like a cool older sister - but passed away when she was hit by a car in July 1958 driven by an off-duty policeman near Mimi's house. \n\n4. Everyone in the Beatles' circle lived in fear of Lennon's mouth - it was almost certainly why Pete Best basically only turned up to gigs and left straight afterwards when he was in the band, for example.\n\n5. Sir James Paul McCartney\n\n6. Unlike Lennon, he passed the 11-Plus exam (designed to detect students destined for university), and attended the Liverpool Institute, a grammar school. His family expected him to become a teacher.\n\n7. Mary McCartney, a nurse who actually was the primary breadwinner of the family, passed away in 1957, when Paul was 14. She and Paul's father had kept her illness something of a secret, and so it was a great shock to Paul when she passed away quite suddenly.\n\n8. i.e., John Lennon, who was universally hated by his friends' parents\n\n9. Richard Starkey, aka Ringo Starr\n\n10. John grew up in Aunt Mimi and Uncle George's very solidly middle class house (when I visited as part of a Beatles tour in Liverpool, I was actually impressed by how nice it looked). Paul grew up in government housing, but then reasonably new and spacious government housing on what was then a fancy, country-ish council estate. Ringo - known as Ritchie as a kid - grew up in the Dingle, which was widely considered the worst slum in Liverpool. This is likely why he contracted tuberculosis as a teenager in the 1950s. Like John, he had very little contact with his father, who preferred to go drinking rather than bring up his son.\n\n11. At age six, Ringo contracted a very serious case of peritonitis, and was in a coma for the best part of two weeks; his mother thought he was going to die. He was in hospital for a year recovering. In 1953 he came down with tuberculosis and was confined to a hospital sanatorium for months.\n\n12. Ringo's sicknesses and the general desultory atmosphere of the Dingle, living with parents who he later said were basically alcoholics, meant that he was actually illiterate at age eight, and only became somewhat literate because a neighbour tutored him. After returning home from the sanatorium he didn't bother to go back to school\n\n13. It was at the sanatorium that he discovered his great love for the drums, playing in a band of kids at the sanatorium.\n\n14. Sorry, George fans, there's only three verses in 'Mmm Mmm Mmm Mmm'.\n\nFor further reading: Bob Spitz's *The Beatles* and especially Mark Lewisohn's *Tune In* are the books that go into the most detail on their early lives; both books have a good sense of social context and Lewisohn especially is good at explaining their lives as they were rather than with their not-necessarily-destined future careers in mind.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "671281",
"title": "Charly García",
"section": "Section::::First Era - Music groups.:The beginning: Sui Generis (1972–1975).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "The Beatles appeared in Charly's life when he was thirteen. Having previously only been exposed to classical music and folk, he would describe the Beatles as \"classical music from Mars\". In high school he met Carlos Alberto \"Nito\" Mestre and the two fused their bands to give birth to Sui Generis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21453243",
"title": "Beatles (novel)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Beatles is a novel written by the Norwegian author Lars Saabye Christensen. The book was first published in 1984. It takes its title from the English rock band The Beatles, and all the chapters are named after Beatles songs or albums. The book tells the story of four Oslo boys in the years from 1965 to 1972, recapitulating their adolescent years and early adulthood. The boys have a common interest - worship of the Beatles, and take on the names of the group members, John, Paul, George and Ringo. Each of them shares some characteristics with the chosen member.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "129211",
"title": "Mal Evans",
"section": "Section::::Early life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "Details of Evans' early life are unknown, apart from his birth date. No book has been written about him, although he wrote his memoirs, \"Living The Beatles' Legend\", from which extracts were released on 20 March 2005. What is known about him starts in 1961, when Evans married a Liverpool girl, Lily, after meeting her at a funfair in New Brighton opposite Liverpool on the Wirral. Their first child, Gary, was born in the same year. Their daughter, Julie, was born five years later in 1966. The Beatles were the resident group at Liverpool's Cavern Club when Evans first heard them perform during his lunch break. He was then living in Hillside Road, Mossley Hill and working as a telephone engineer for the Post Office. He became a committed fan, even though his musical hero at the time was Elvis Presley.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43809884",
"title": "The Beatles (terrorist cell)",
"section": "Section::::Members.:\"Ringo\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "In 2016, Alexanda Kotey, a 32-year-old convert from West London, was identified as a member of the Beatles by the \"Washington Post\" and \"BuzzFeed News\". They were uncertain whether he was \"George\" or \"Ringo\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43809884",
"title": "The Beatles (terrorist cell)",
"section": "Section::::Members.:\"George\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "In 2016, Alexanda Kotey, a 32-year-old convert from west London, was identified as a member of the Beatles by \"The Washington Post\" and \"BuzzFeed News\". They were uncertain whether he was \"George\" or \"Ringo\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8780285",
"title": "The Beatles in film",
"section": "Section::::Inspired by The Beatles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Beatles\" (2014) Norwegian film based on Beatles (novel) written by Lars Saabye Christensen. It's about five boys in the seventh grade in school, they live on the west side of Oslo, they are all great fans of the band \"The Beatles\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36532818",
"title": "Tomorrow Never Knows (Beatles album)",
"section": "Section::::Influence on rock music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Adam Levine of Maroon 5—\"The Beatles are a massive part of who I am. My mother lived and breathed The Beatles and they were a huge part of my upbringing. Every time we went anywhere The Beatles were playing on the stereo. That seeped into my consciousness and completely shaped my musical style.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
30q86h
|
how does light move forever (in a hypothetical pure vacuum)? wouldn't that take infinite energy?
|
[
{
"answer": "Energy is required to accelerate something. Moving at a constant speed takes no force, assuming there's no resistance.\n\nNot to mention that photons don't really behave according to traditional kinematics anyway.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Newton's First Law: \"An object at rest stays at rest and an object in motion stays in motion with the same speed and in the same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force.\"\n\nAnything (light, planets, asteroids, spaceships) will move forever at a constant speed in a pure vacuum. It takes no energy at all to keep moving -- it requires energy only to change either speed or direction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1849686",
"title": "Ronald Mallett",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Time travel research.:Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 960,
"text": "Another objection by Olum and Everett is that even if Mallett's choice of spacetime were correct, the energy required to twist spacetime sufficiently would be huge, and that with lasers of the type in use today the ring would have to be much larger in circumference than the observable universe. At one point Mallett agreed that in a vacuum the energy requirements would be impractical but noted that the energy required goes down as the speed of light goes down. He then argued that if the light is slowed down significantly by passing it through a medium (as in the experiments of Lene Hau where light was passed through a superfluid and slowed to about 17 metres per second) the needed energy would be attainable. However, the physicist J. Richard Gott argues that slowing down light by passing it through a medium cannot be treated as equivalent to lowering the constant \"c\" (the speed of light in a vacuum) in the equations of General Relativity, saying:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26962",
"title": "Special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Traditional \"two postulates\" approach to special relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Principle of Invariant Light Speed – \"... light is always propagated in empty space with a definite velocity [speed] \"c\" which is independent of the state of motion of the emitting body\" (from the preface). That is, light in vacuum propagates with the speed \"c\" (a fixed constant, independent of direction) in at least one system of inertial coordinates (the \"stationary system\"), regardless of the state of motion of the light source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23535",
"title": "Photon",
"section": "Section::::Photons in matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 1342,
"text": "Light that travels through transparent matter does so at a lower speed than \"c\", the speed of light in a vacuum. For example, photons engage in so many collisions on the way from the core of the sun that radiant energy can take about a million years to reach the surface; however, once in open space, a photon takes only 8.3 minutes to reach Earth. The factor by which the speed is decreased is called the refractive index of the material. In a classical wave picture, the slowing can be explained by the light inducing electric polarization in the matter, the polarized matter radiating new light, and that new light interfering with the original light wave to form a delayed wave. In a particle picture, the slowing can instead be described as a blending of the photon with quantum excitations of the matter to produce quasi-particles known as polariton (other quasi-particles are phonons and excitons); this polariton has a nonzero effective mass, which means that it cannot travel at \"c\". Light of different frequencies may travel through matter at different speeds; this is called dispersion (not to be confused with scattering). In some cases, it can result in extremely slow speeds of light in matter. The effects of photon interactions with other quasi-particles may be observed directly in Raman scattering and Brillouin scattering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9476",
"title": "Electron",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Motion and energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "According to Einstein's theory of special relativity, as an electron's speed approaches the speed of light, from an observer's point of view its relativistic mass increases, thereby making it more and more difficult to accelerate it from within the observer's frame of reference. The speed of an electron can approach, but never reach, the speed of light in a vacuum, \"c\". However, when relativistic electrons—that is, electrons moving at a speed close to \"c\"—are injected into a dielectric medium such as water, where the local speed of light is significantly less than \"c\", the electrons temporarily travel faster than light in the medium. As they interact with the medium, they generate a faint light called Cherenkov radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5617142",
"title": "The Tachypomp",
"section": "Section::::Tachypomp, in reality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Though an interesting idea in theory, the special theory of relativity dictates that the speed of light in a vacuum is absolute and represents an ultimate speed limit for the universe (at least locally). If a Tachypomp were constructed, relativistic principles such as length contraction and time dilation would prevent any component of the system from achieving or exceeding the speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11439",
"title": "Faster-than-light",
"section": "Section::::Justifications.:Casimir vacuum and quantum tunnelling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 1835,
"text": "The experimental determination has been made in vacuum. However, the vacuum we know is not the only possible vacuum which can exist. The vacuum has energy associated with it, called simply the vacuum energy, which could perhaps be altered in certain cases. When vacuum energy is lowered, light itself has been predicted to go faster than the standard value \"c\". This is known as the Scharnhorst effect. Such a vacuum can be produced by bringing two perfectly smooth metal plates together at near atomic diameter spacing. It is called a Casimir vacuum. Calculations imply that light will go faster in such a vacuum by a minuscule amount: a photon traveling between two plates that are 1 micrometer apart would increase the photon's speed by only about one part in 10. Accordingly, there has as yet been no experimental verification of the prediction. A recent analysis argued that the Scharnhorst effect cannot be used to send information backwards in time with a single set of plates since the plates' rest frame would define a \"preferred frame\" for FTL signalling. However, with multiple pairs of plates in motion relative to one another the authors noted that they had no arguments that could \"guarantee the total absence of causality violations\", and invoked Hawking's speculative chronology protection conjecture which suggests that feedback loops of virtual particles would create \"uncontrollable singularities in the renormalized quantum stress-energy\" on the boundary of any potential time machine, and thus would require a theory of quantum gravity to fully analyze. Other authors argue that Scharnhorst's original analysis, which seemed to show the possibility of faster-than-\"c\" signals, involved approximations which may be incorrect, so that it is not clear whether this effect could actually increase signal speed at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10890",
"title": "Fundamental interaction",
"section": "Section::::The interactions.:Electroweak interaction.:Electromagnetism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The constant speed of light in a vacuum (customarily described with a lowercase letter \"c\") can be derived from Maxwell's equations, which are consistent with the theory of special relativity. Einstein's 1905 theory of special relativity, however, which flows from the observation that the speed of light is constant no matter how fast the observer is moving, showed that the theoretical result implied by Maxwell's equations has profound implications far beyond electromagnetism on the very nature of time and space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
bz4grt
|
We often cite Rome as an example of a great empire. At Rome's height, what did Romans cite as an example of a great empire?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is a really complicated question on one level, if we are to get too deep into the various ideological constructs that surrounded the Roman notion of an \"Empire\" was. But there is at least one polity that I can point to some direct attestations of as being described as vast and powerful (if not in all other respects admirable): what we today call the Achaemenid Empire.\n\nPlutarch's Life of Artaxerxes:\n\n > 6.1 Nevertheless, restless and factious men thought that affairs demanded Cyrus, a man who had a brilliant spirit, surpassing skill in war, and great love for his friends; and that **the magnitude of the empire required a king of lofty purpose and ambition**. \n\n > 20.1 Nevertheless, he could not capture them, but though they had lost Cyrus their leader and their own commanders, they rescued themselves from his very palace, as one might say, thus proving clearly to the p175 world that **the empire of the Persians and their king abounded in gold and luxury** and women, but in all else was an empty vaunt.\n\n > 28.3 However, it was **the greatness of the empire** and the fear which Dareius felt towards Ochus that paved the way for Teribazus although, since Aspasia had been taken away, the Cyprus-born goddess of love was not altogether without influence in the case.\n\n(The term translated \"empire\" here is _basileia_)\n\nThese discussions - including Plutarchs' moralistic remarks on the vauntness of the polity beyond its vast wealth - tie into something I have previously argued. Namely, that there seems to be a thread starting in the Classical era and carried on through authors like Plutarch and Arrian, that sees the ancient kings of Persia as highly emblematic of the institution of _monarchy_. You can see this among other things in the frequent usage of titles such as simply \"the King\" (ho basileus) or \"the Great King\" (ho megas basileus) rather than \"the King of Persia\" even in circumstances where it would not necessarily be unambiguous, something that I know is remarked on in the Landmark edition of Arrian's Anabasis. There's a sort of preoccupation with the quaintness of court ritual and intrigue (real or otherwise) evident from Ctesias' _Persica_ (4th c BC) and carried on by authors like Diodoros and Plutarch. Here's one example of Diodorus emphasizing the vast reach of the King's dominion:\n\n > 22.1 King Artaxerxes had learned some time before from Pharnabazus that Cyrus was secretly collecting an army to lead against him, and when he now learned that he was on the march, he summoned his armaments from every place to Ecbatana in Media. 2 When the contingents from **the Indians and certain other peoples were delayed because of the remoteness of those regions**, he set out to meet Cyrus with the army that had been assembled\n\nAnd in another part of his World History, Diodoros discusses the court intrigue of Persia:\n\n > 17.5.3 As our narrative is now to treat of the kingdom of the Persians, we must go back a little to pick up the thread. While Philip was still king, Ochus15 ruled the Persians and oppressed his subjects cruelly and harshly. Since his savage disposition made him hated, the chiliarch Bagoas, a eunuch in physical fact but a militant rogue in disposition, killed him by poison administered by a certain physician and placed upon the throne the youngest of his sons, Arses...\n\nThe story of Bagoas seems to have been popular, and it suggests to me an idea of how these authors viewed Persia - it was vast and powerful, but still \"weak\" in that it was subject to the whims and intrigues of its decadent, effete court life. This particular narrative ends with the appointment of Dareios III, the last Great King and one with a much weaker claim to the throne than his predecessors, who ends up turning the tables on Bagoas and killing him. On a side note, Arrian cites a supposed letter by Alexander claiming that in fact Dareios III had had his brief predecessor Artaxerxes IV murdered, which is another example of the predominant relevance these anecdotes had in the minds of the authors who kept them alive (as opposed to mundane matters of administration and regular rule in the dominions subject to the Persian monarch, which they appear to have been pretty uninterested in!)\n\nUnfortunately, there are only a few major stories that get repeated over and over with slight variations by Roman-era authors (mainly the life of Cyrus the Great, Xerxes' invasion, Cyrus the Younger's rebellion, Alexander's invasion), so we only get a limited view, and it is not really clear to me how Roman subjects would relate the Kingdom of the Persians to the polity they themselves lived under. However, even from these few examples, we have some idea: these authors clearly possessed an awareness of the Persian Empire as an incredibly vast and powerful dominion that had existed well before Rome's rise to prominence in later centuries, and still regarded the tales of its court intrigue and the character of its rulers as relevant and instructive topics of discussion.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "923406",
"title": "Fall of the Western Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Height of power, crises, and recoveries.:Height of power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "The Roman Empire reached its greatest geographical extent under Trajan (r. 98–117), who ruled a prosperous state that stretched from Armenia to the Atlantic. The Empire had large numbers of trained, supplied, and disciplined soldiers, as well as a comprehensive civil administration based in thriving cities with effective control over public finances. Among its literate elite it had ideological legitimacy as the only worthwhile form of civilization and a cultural unity based on comprehensive familiarity with Greek and Roman literature and rhetoric. The Empire's power allowed it to maintain extreme differences of wealth and status (including slavery on a large scale), and its wide-ranging trade networks permitted even modest households to use goods made by professionals far away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14532",
"title": "Italy",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "The Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time, and it was one of the largest empires in world history. At its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. The Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world; among the many legacies of Roman dominance are the widespread use of the Romance languages derived from Latin, the numerical system, the modern Western alphabet and calendar, and the emergence of Christianity as a major world religion. The Indo-Roman trade relations, beginning around the 1st century BCE, testifies to extensive Roman trade in far away regions; many reminders of the commercial trade between the Indian subcontinent and Italy have been found, such as the ivory statuette Pompeii Lakshmi from the ruins of Pompeii.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47634469",
"title": "List of ancient great powers",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Europe.:Roman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 157,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 157,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "The Roman Empire is widely known as ancient Europe's largest and most powerful civilization. After the Punic Wars Rome was already one of the biggest empires on the planet but its expansion continued with the invasions of Greece and Asia Minor. By 27 BC Rome had control over half of Europe as well as Northern Africa and large amounts of the Middle East. Rome also had a developed culture, building on the earlier Greek culture. From the time of Augustus to the Fall of the Western Empire, Rome dominated Western Eurasia, comprising the majority of its population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "504379",
"title": "Western Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Nomenclature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "Though Marcellinus does not refer to the Empire as a whole after 395, only to its separate parts, he clearly identifies the term \"Roman\" as applying to the Empire as a whole. When using terms such as \"us\", \"our generals\", and \"our emperor\", Marcellinus distinguished both divisions of the Empire from outside foes such as the Sasanian Persians and the Huns. This view is consistent with the view that contemporary Romans of the 4th and 5th centuries continued to consider the Empire as a single unit, although more often than not with two rulers instead of one. The first time the Empire was divided geographically was during the reign of Diocletian, but there was precedent for multiple emperors. Before Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, there had been a number of periods where there was more than one co-emperor, such as with Caracalla and Geta in 210–211, who inherited the imperial throne from their father Septimius Severus, but Caracalla ruled alone after the murder of his brother.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "25507",
"title": "Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Geography and demography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 962,
"text": "The Roman Empire was one of the largest in history, with contiguous territories throughout Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. The Latin phrase \"imperium sine fine\" (\"empire without end\") expressed the ideology that neither time nor space limited the Empire. In Vergil's epic poem the \"Aeneid,\" limitless empire is said to be granted to the Romans by their supreme deity Jupiter. This claim of universal dominion was renewed and perpetuated when the Empire came under Christian rule in the 4th century. In addition to annexing large regions in their quest for empire-building, the Romans were also very large sculptors of their environment who directly altered their geography. For instance, entire forests were cut down to provide enough wood resources for an expanding empire. In his book \"Critias,\" Plato described that deforestation: where there was once \"an abundance of wood in the mountains,\" he could now only see \"the mere skeleton of the land.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3072770",
"title": "Roman Empire (disambiguation)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "The Roman Empire usually refers to the post-republican, autocratic government period of Roman civilization, centered on the city of Rome on the Italian peninsula from 27 BC to 330 AD, and in Constantinople on the Bosporus from 330 to 1453 AD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "25507",
"title": "Roman Empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1108,
"text": "The Roman Empire (, ; Koine Greek: , tr. ) was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome, consisting of large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean sea in Europe, North Africa and West Asia ruled by emperors. From the accession of Caesar Augustus to the military anarchy of the third century, it was a principate with Italy as metropole of the provinces and its city of Rome as sole capital (27 BC – 286 AD). The Roman Empire was then ruled by multiple emperors and divided in a Western Roman Empire, based in Milan and later Ravenna, and an Eastern Roman Empire, based in Nicomedia and later Constantinople. Rome remained the nominal capital of both parts until 476 AD, when it sent the imperial insignia to Constantinople (Byzantium in Ancient Greek) following the capture of Ravenna by the barbarians of Odoacer and the subsequent deposition of Romulus Augustus. The fall of the Western Roman Empire to Germanic kings, along with the hellenization of the Eastern Roman Empire into the Byzantine Empire, is conventionally used to mark the end of Ancient Rome and the beginning of the Middle Ages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
5astdc
|
why are gas companies allowed to put of ethanol inside of gasoline to make it burn faster
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, This is not so much on why they are allowed but more on how they can get gasoline to produce less polluting residue. \n\n > \"Most of ethanol blending into U.S. motor gasoline occurs to meet the requirements of the 1990 Clean Air Act (RFG Fuel) and the Renewable Fuel Standard set forth in the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007.\"\n\nThis was part of a push from ethanol producer ( corn states) and politicians in office to reduce emissions and foreign oil dependency.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Adding alcohol to gasoline has nothing to do with making it burn faster...It's not malicious at all. Due to a lot of bad press, and lobbying, Ethanol has gotten a very bad, yet undeserved reputation.\n\nAdding Ethanol to gasoline does 2 main things. \n\n1. It is used to help reduce emissions. Not only does it burn cleaner, on its own (So ~20% of your tank fill is cleaner burning than gasoline), but Ethanol also adds oxygen to the gasoline, causing it to burn cleaner, and reducing NOx and CO.\n\n2. > 40 years ago, lead was added to gasoline to reduce wear on upper cylinder walls and valves, but also to increase the octane of the fuel. In the 70's lead was outlawed, and replaced with MTBE. MTBE also increased the octane of gasoline, but was also shown to be harmful when burned...so, then Ethanol was added to replace the MTBE. Ethanol has an effective octane of 106, so when added to gasoline in different ratios, the octane can be changed for the different \"grades\" of gas at the pumps.\n\nThe main problem with Ethanol is, by volume, it contains less energy than gasoline. That's why you get slightly less mileage with ethanol mixed gasoline. However, it is renewable, cheap, and abundant, so the loss in mileage \"should\" be made up by cost savings.\n\nMost people confuse Ethanol with Methanol. Still alcohol, but it's the kind that makes you go blind when you drink it, or corrodes fuel lines, dissolves plastic fuel tanks, and is generally not user friendly. \n\nEthanol is the same alcohol that you drink. It's almost completely non-toxic.\n\nI'm shocked at the number of people that are furious that Ethanol is being \"forced upon us by the evil corn industry\" (Or whatever your hatred of the stuff comes from)...however, no one really says a word when nearly every single edible pre-made food contains tons of corn syrup.\n\nThe world would be a much better place if we stopped putting corn syrup in our foods...and started burning it in our cars. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "188543",
"title": "Biofuel",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Ethanol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Ethanol can be used in petrol engines as a replacement for gasoline; it can be mixed with gasoline to any percentage. Most existing car petrol engines can run on blends of up to 15% bioethanol with petroleum/gasoline. Ethanol has a smaller energy density than that of gasoline; this means it takes more fuel (volume and mass) to produce the same amount of work. An advantage of ethanol () is that it has a higher octane rating than ethanol-free gasoline available at roadside gas stations, which allows an increase of an engine's compression ratio for increased thermal efficiency. In high-altitude (thin air) locations, some states mandate a mix of gasoline and ethanol as a winter oxidizer to reduce atmospheric pollution emissions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "608623",
"title": "Ethanol fuel",
"section": "Section::::Engines.:Fuel economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Ethanol contains approx. 34% less energy per unit volume than gasoline, and therefore in theory, burning pure ethanol in a vehicle reduces miles per US gallon 34%, given the same fuel economy, compared to burning pure gasoline. However, since ethanol has a higher octane rating, the engine can be made more efficient by raising its compression ratio. Using a variable geometry or twin scroll turbocharger, the compression ratio can be optimized for the fuel, making fuel economy almost constant for any blend.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "608623",
"title": "Ethanol fuel",
"section": "Section::::Environment.:Air pollution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Compared with conventional unleaded gasoline, ethanol is a particulate-free burning fuel source that combusts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water and aldehydes. The Clean Air Act requires the addition of oxygenates to reduce carbon monoxide emissions in the United States. The additive MTBE is currently being phased out due to ground water contamination, hence ethanol becomes an attractive alternative additive. Current production methods include air pollution from the manufacturer of macronutrient fertilizers such as ammonia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2155310",
"title": "Common ethanol fuel mixtures",
"section": "Section::::Use limitations.:Modifications to engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 897,
"text": "Disadvantages to ethanol fuel blends when used in engines designed exclusively for gasoline include lowered fuel mileage, metal corrosion, deterioration of plastic and rubber fuel system components, clogged fuel systems, fuel injectors, and carburetors, delamination of composite fuel tanks, varnish buildup on engine parts, damaged or destroyed internal engine components, water absorption, fuel phase separation, and shortened fuel storage life. Many major auto, marine, motorcycle, lawn equipment, generator, and other internal combustion engine manufacturers have issued warnings and precautions about the use of ethanol-blended gasolines of any type in their engines, and the Federal Aviation Administration and major aviation engine manufacturers have prohibited the use of automotive gasolines blended with ethanol in light aircraft due to safety issues from fuel system and engine damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2155310",
"title": "Common ethanol fuel mixtures",
"section": "Section::::Use limitations.:Modifications to engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "The use of ethanol blends in conventional gasoline vehicles is restricted to low mixtures, as ethanol is corrosive and can degrade some of the materials in the engine and fuel system. Also, the engine has to be adjusted for a higher compression ratio as compared to a pure gasoline engine to take advantage of ethanol's higher oxygen content, thus allowing an improvement in fuel efficiency and a reduction of tailpipe emissions. The following table shows the required modifications to gasoline engines to run smoothly and without degrading any materials. This information is based on the modifications made by the Brazilian automotive industry at the beginning of the ethanol program in that country in the late 1970s, and reflects the experience of Volkswagen do Brasil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "469823",
"title": "Mursko Središće",
"section": "Section::::Modern development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Low prices of gasoline forced the industry to be closed despite the significant reserves. New technology and approaches are needed to continue. Use of existing technology for coal extraction would not be profitable any more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6027241",
"title": "Butanol fuel",
"section": "Section::::Properties of common fuels.:Air-fuel ratio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "Alcohol fuels, including butanol and ethanol, are partially oxidized and therefore need to run at richer mixtures than gasoline. Standard gasoline engines in cars can adjust the air-fuel ratio to accommodate variations in the fuel, but only within certain limits depending on model. If the limit is exceeded by running the engine on pure ethanol or a gasoline blend with a high percentage of ethanol, the engine will run lean, something which can critically damage components. Compared to ethanol, butanol can be mixed in higher ratios with gasoline for use in existing cars without the need for retrofit as the air-fuel ratio and energy content are closer to that of gasoline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c7p0r1
|
Does the amount of dark energy in the universe change?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, the density of dark energy is constant, which means that the total amount of dark energy is proportional to the size of the universe.\n\nDark matter is very different, is works just like regular matter with respect to expansion; it's not affected.\n\nThe above also means that conservation of energy doesn't hold in the universe as a whole.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Be careful talking about \"movement\" of mass - the expansion of the universe doesn't correspond to actual motion. It's a change in the properties of space itself, not a change in the positions of objects within that space. No energy needs to be transferred to cause this change - it happens simply due to the presence of matter and dark energy, with the relative amounts of the two determining whether the space contracts, expands, or expands at an accelerating rate.\n\nOn a related note, don't think of the Big Bang as an explosion which caused the expansion. The Big Bang just causes spacetime to come into being, along with the materials that fill it. Once they're there, the expansion again happens \"automatically\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5382",
"title": "Inflation (cosmology)",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical status.:Relation to dark energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Dark energy is broadly similar to inflation and is thought to be causing the expansion of the present-day universe to accelerate. However, the energy scale of dark energy is much lower, 10 GeV, roughly 27 orders of magnitude less than the scale of inflation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19604228",
"title": "Dark energy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Assuming that the standard model of cosmology is correct, the best current measurements indicate that dark energy contributes 68% of the total energy in the present-day observable universe. The mass–energy of dark matter and ordinary (baryonic) matter contribute 27% and 5%, respectively, and other components such as neutrinos and photons contribute a very small amount. The density of dark energy is very low (~ 7 × 10 g/cm), much less than the density of ordinary matter or dark matter within galaxies. However, it dominates the mass–energy of the universe because it is uniform across space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18478320",
"title": "Future of an expanding universe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1109,
"text": "If dark energy—represented by the cosmological constant, a \"constant\" energy density filling space homogeneously, or scalar fields, such as quintessence or moduli, \"dynamic\" quantities whose energy density can vary in time and space—accelerates the expansion of the universe, then the space between clusters of galaxies will grow at an increasing rate. Redshift will stretch ancient, incoming photons (even gamma rays) to undetectably long wavelengths and low energies. Stars are expected to form normally for 10 to 10 (1–100 trillion) years, but eventually the supply of gas needed for star formation will be exhausted. As existing stars run out of fuel and cease to shine, the universe will slowly and inexorably grow darker. According to theories that predict proton decay, the stellar remnants left behind will disappear, leaving behind only black holes, which themselves eventually disappear as they emit Hawking radiation. Ultimately, if the universe reaches a state in which the temperature approaches a uniform value, no further work will be possible, resulting in a final heat death of the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38992",
"title": "Cosmological constant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Since the 1990s, studies have shown that around 68% of the mass–energy density of the universe can be attributed to so-called dark energy. The cosmological constant Λ is the simplest possible explanation for dark energy, and is used in the current standard model of cosmology known as the ΛCDM model. While dark energy is poorly understood at a fundamental level, the main required properties of dark energy are that it functions as a type of anti-gravity, it dilutes much more slowly than matter as the universe expands, and it clusters much more weakly than matter, or perhaps not at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57326415",
"title": "List of unsolved problems in astronomy",
"section": "Section::::Cosmology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "BULLET::::- Dark energy: What is the cause of the observed accelerated expansion (de Sitter phase) of the universe? Why is the energy density of the dark energy component of the same magnitude as the density of matter at present when the two evolve quite differently over time; could it be simply that we are observing at exactly the right time? Is dark energy a pure cosmological constant or are models of quintessence such as phantom energy applicable?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183089",
"title": "List of unsolved problems in physics",
"section": "Section::::Unsolved problems by subfield.:Cosmology and general relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "BULLET::::- Dark energy: What is the cause of the observed accelerated expansion (de Sitter phase) of the universe? Why is the energy density of the dark energy component of the same magnitude as the density of matter at present when the two evolve quite differently over time; could it be simply that we are observing at exactly the right time? Is dark energy a pure cosmological constant or are models of quintessence such as phantom energy applicable?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5378",
"title": "Physical cosmology",
"section": "Section::::Areas of study.:Dark energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "A better understanding of dark energy is likely to solve the problem of the ultimate fate of the universe. In the current cosmological epoch, the accelerated expansion due to dark energy is preventing structures larger than superclusters from forming. It is not known whether the acceleration will continue indefinitely, perhaps even increasing until a big rip, or whether it will eventually reverse, lead to a big freeze, or follow some other scenario.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1bmfhn
|
What sort of electrical potential differences exist between objects in space?
|
[
{
"answer": "One issue is that space is filled with plasma as well as gas. Plasma exhibits a phenomenon called screening, where a charged object attracts a layer of oppositely charged ions around it, called an electric double layer. At a certain distance (called the Debye length), there is zero net charge enclosed so it is said that electrostatic interactions are screened. This also happens in ionic fluids in addition to plasmas: DNA is strongly charged but the cellular environment screens it, because DNA has that few-nanometer double layer around it. So if stars or planets were charged, it is possible they would not attract each other because of screening from the plasma. I don't know enough about space plasma physics to answer it fully though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7122953",
"title": "Plasma contactor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Space contains regions with varying concentrations of charged particles such as the plasma sheet, and a static charge builds up as the spacecraft moves between these regions, or as the electrical potential varies within such a region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "271708",
"title": "Near and far field",
"section": "Section::::Classical EM modelling.:Antennas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "If an oscillating electrical current is applied to a conductive structure of some type, electric and magnetic fields will appear in space about that structure. If those fields extend some distance into space the structure is often termed an antenna. Such an antenna can be an assemblage of conductors in space typical of radio devices or it can be an aperture with a given current distribution radiating into space as is typical of microwave or optical devices. The actual values of the fields in space about the antenna are usually quite complex and can vary with distance from the antenna in various ways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34006224",
"title": "Electrocommunication",
"section": "Section::::Signals.:Physical properties of signals.:Active space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "To understand the effectiveness of electric signal transmission, it is necessary to define the term \"active space-\" the area/ volume within which a signal can elicit responses from other organisms. The active space of an electric fish normally has an ellipsoid shape due to the arrangement of dipoles formed by its electric organs. While both electric communication and electrolocation rely on signals generated by electric organs, electrocommunication has an active space tenfold larger than electrolocation because of the extreme sensitivity of tuberous electrocommunication receptors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4186556",
"title": "Mermin–Wagner theorem",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "This is because the propagator is the reciprocal of in space. To use Gauss's law, define the electric field analog to be . The divergence of the electric field is zero. In two dimensions, using a large Gaussian ring:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10902",
"title": "Force",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental forces.:Electromagnetic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Subsequent mathematicians and physicists found the construct of the \"electric field\" to be useful for determining the electrostatic force on an electric charge at any point in space. The electric field was based on using a hypothetical \"test charge\" anywhere in space and then using Coulomb's Law to determine the electrostatic force. Thus the electric field anywhere in space is defined as\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43667672",
"title": "Ewald–Oseen extinction theorem",
"section": "Section::::Derivation from Maxwell's equations.:Derivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "The electric field at a point in space is the sum of the electric fields due to all the various sources. In our case, we separate the fields in two categories based on their generating sources. We denote the incident field\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "571755",
"title": "P–n junction",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Equilibrium (zero bias).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "The electric field created by the space charge region opposes the diffusion process for both electrons and holes. There are two concurrent phenomena: the diffusion process that tends to generate more space charge, and the electric field generated by the space charge that tends to counteract the diffusion. The carrier concentration profile at equilibrium is shown in with blue and red lines. Also shown are the two counterbalancing phenomena that establish equilibrium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2aep48
|
are there any "good" diseases that can make feel more strong, healthy or happy?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not a doctor but i think a Disease is the negative affect of a bacteria or virus. We have hundreds -if not millions- of bacterias in our bodies that help us. So there are good bacteria that help us stay healthy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mania might be the closest thing. It can make you *feel* more strong, healthy and happy even if objectively your behavior is ruining your life.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes! I once heard a radio show (radiolab or something like that) about brain tumors). One nun had one that she didn't want rid of because it gave her an intense connection with God. When it got so big it had to be removed, she felt like removing the tumor removed God. Another guy had a tumor increased his sexual pleasure in some way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34104355",
"title": "Subjective well-being",
"section": "Section::::Factors affecting SWB.:Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Research suggests that probing a patient's happiness is one of the most important things a doctor can do to predict that patient's health and longevity. In health-conscious modern societies, most people overlook the emotions as a vital component of one's health, while over focusing on diet and exercise. According to Diener & Biswas-Diener, people who are happy become less sick than people who are unhappy. There are three types of health: morbidity, survival, and longevity. Evidence suggests that all three can be improved through happiness:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17188187",
"title": "Flourishing",
"section": "Section::::Major empirical findings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "Positive emotional feelings such as moods, and sentiments such as happiness, carry more personal and psychological benefits than just a pleasant, personal subjective experience. Flourishing widens attention, broaden behavioral repertoires, which means to broaden one's skills or regularly performed actions, increase intuition, and increase creativity. Secondly, good feelings can have physiological manifestations, such as significant and positive cardiovascular effects, such as a reduction in blood pressure. Third, good feelings predict healthy mental and physical outcomes. Also, positive affect and flourishing is related to longevity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41232249",
"title": "Amit Sood",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "As per Sood, studies show that people who are more optimistic tend to have better physical health, lower risks of strokes and heart disease, and higher overall survival rates. They also have better emotional health, lower stress, lower percentages of depression, better relationships, and are better equipped to solve life's problems. Sood claims that human mind wanders for half to two-thirds of the day and we can measure happiness through validated happiness scales, assessment is subjective Sood states that the classic fight-or-flight reaction is mostly due to the three major stress hormones, adrenaline, cortisol and norepinephrine\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30074251",
"title": "Emotional well-being",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Good emotional health leads to better physical health, prevents diseases, and makes it possible to enjoy life and be happier. In this way one can become a \"medicine person\" through mirror neurons, those that lead to empathy and fire to imitate the emotions of others. Mirror neurons are what make people feel good when they are with someone who is positive, cheerful and motivational. At the other extreme are the so-called \"toxic people\", who make others around them feel bad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54301172",
"title": "Well-being contributing factors",
"section": "Section::::Major factors.:For evaluative well-being (life satisfaction).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Mental health is the strongest individual predictor of life satisfaction. Mental illness is associated with poorer well-being. In fact, mental health is the strongest determinant of quality of life at a later age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "990505",
"title": "Mental health",
"section": "Section::::Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Good mental health can improve life quality whereas poor mental health can worsen it. According to Richards, Campania, & Muse-Burke, \"There is growing evidence that is showing emotional abilities are associated with prosocial behaviors such as stress management and physical health.\" Their research also concluded that people who lack emotional expression are inclined to anti-social behaviors (e.g., drug and alcohol abuse, physical fights, vandalism), which are a direct reflection of their mental health and suppress emotions. Adults and children with mental illness may experience social stigma, which can exacerbate the issues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22578538",
"title": "Well-being",
"section": "Section::::The Holistic Model ( overview ).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1480,
"text": "When it comes to a person’s wellness, there are signs to show it. Some signs of good well being include persistent presence of a support system, a tendency to adapt to changing conditions, rapid response and recovery from stress, and an increased appetite for physical activity. These are all great signs of wellness. On the contrary, there can also be sign of someone who does not have good wellness. One sign is headaches. Headaches can be a result of emotional distress. Emotional stress increases muscle tension in the neck and increased blood pressure in the head, causing the headache. The holistic approach aims to find the cause of anger, fear, and frustration, and try to reduce or eliminate them. An upset stomach can also be caused by emotional distress. Rather than treating the physical symptoms, the holistic model is a way to determine psychological causes of symptoms. Holistic health and well-being is an ongoing process. It is very dynamic and with one dimension of wellness lacking, it can lead for other areas of wellness to lack as well . The six dimensions in the Holistic model emphasize the unity of mind, emotions, interactions, spirit and body. No dimension of wellness can function in isolation because they all affect one another. Overall, the main goals of the Holistic model is to obtain a positive well-being. The broader picture in all is to increase your life span , reduce health disparities, and altogether live a long, happy, and healthy life!\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ba4l3t
|
How do animals with fur and researchers in the arctic get vitamin D?
|
[
{
"answer": "Animals with fur can still make Vitamin D via UV dependent pathways, it's just less efficient because the fur blocks some of the sunlight. Fish are excellent dietary sources of Vitamin D and much of the non-human arctic wildlife eats fish or other aquatic wildlife that is obtaining Vitamin D from the aquatic food chain. \n\nAs for the humans in arctic regions, Vitamin D supplementation and dietary sources rich in Vitamin D are essential during the periods of the year where there is a little to no UV rays.\n\nI know in certain regions of Alaska that have prolonged periods of darkness, tanning beds are popular in the winter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Vitamin D is needed by animals, and almost all of them can synthesise it trivially via several pathways, all of which are photo-mediated: Biology seems to only be able to make vitamin D precursors using photochemistry, which plankton has been using for 500 million years (the ultimate source of it in the marine food chain). Vitamin D as we know it is really a pro-vitamin, the cholecalciferol is itself inert. 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin is photodegraded to cholecalciferol. The liver converts it to 25-hydroxycalciferol, which is hydroxylated to calcitriol in the kidneys, this is the active form of vitamin D.\n\nDogs and cats can't use this mechanism at all, and rely on dietary sources. Ruminants get most of theirs from their skin ( [_URL_0_](_URL_0_) ) even if they're hair covered. Sheep are industrially used to make vitamin D, from lanolin (wool grease), which is rich in 7-dehydrocholesterol. It is not well conserved in terrestrial animals, but the liver and kidney metabolic pathways are, indicating that diet is an important source of vitamin D precursors among terrestrial animals.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n(This, BTW, is an excellent question, and the science here seems to require more research as we don't seem to have studied many animal groups on this topic)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "people usually eat the liver in those regions which is high in vit D,A, and other fats/fat soluble compounds.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nanimals eat livers of other animals and vit D is a compound that can be stored for a long time too",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "“In birds and fur-bearing mammals, fur or feathers block UV rays from reaching the skin. Instead, vitamin D is created from oily secretions of the skin deposited onto the feathers or fur, and is obtained orally during grooming.”\n\n [Wikipedia ](_URL_0_) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think that most animals living in the extreme north get it from their diet, which consists mainly of other animals. Could it be, that herbivores have larger reserves of vitamin D in their fatty tissues? After all, it can be stored as it is a fat soluble and not a water soluble vitamin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24998247",
"title": "Vitamin D",
"section": "Section::::Biosynthesis.:Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "In birds and fur-bearing mammals, fur or feathers block UV rays from reaching the skin. Instead, vitamin D is created from oily secretions of the skin deposited onto the feathers or fur, and is obtained orally during grooming. However, some animals, such as the naked mole-rat, are naturally cholecalciferol-deficient, as serum 25-OH vitamin D levels are undetectable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2941264",
"title": "Hypervitaminosis A",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Some Arctic animals demonstrate no signs of hypervitaminosis A despite having 10–20 times the level of vitamin A in their livers as other Arctic animals. These animals are top predators and include the polar bear, Arctic fox, bearded seal, and glaucous gull. This ability to efficiently store higher amounts of vitamin A may have contributed to their survival in the extreme environment of the Arctic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3115091",
"title": "Phytomenadione",
"section": "Section::::Chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The best-known function of vitamin K in animals is as a cofactor in the formation of coagulation factors II (prothrombin), VII, IX, and X by the liver. It is also required for the formation of anticoagulant factors protein C and S. It is commonly used to treat warfarin toxicity, and as an antidote for coumatetralyl.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31485669",
"title": "Vegan nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Nutritional deficiencies.:Vitamin D.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Sunlight, fortified foods and supplements are the main sources of vitamin D for humans. Unlike plant-foods, some animal products naturally contain small amounts of vitamin D, such as salmon and other oily fish, egg yolks, some dairy products, and various organ meats. Furthermore, vitamin D3 used in some supplements and fortified foods, which has longer lasting effects than vitamin D2, is commonly animal-derived. Vitamin D2 is obtained from fungi, such as mushrooms exposed to sun or industrial ultraviolet light, offering a vegan choice for dietary or supplemental vitamin D.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2941264",
"title": "Hypervitaminosis A",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Vitamin A toxicity has long been known to the Inuit and has been known by Europeans since at least 1597 when Gerrit de Veer wrote in his diary that, while taking refuge in the winter in Nova Zemlya, he and his men became severely ill after eating polar bear liver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18837028",
"title": "Inuit cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Vitamins and minerals which are typically derived from plant sources are nonetheless present in most Inuit diets. Vitamins A and D are present in the oils and livers of cold-water fishes and mammals. Vitamin C is obtained through sources such as caribou liver, kelp, whale skin, and seal brain; because these foods are typically eaten raw or frozen, the vitamin C they contain, which would be destroyed by cooking, is instead preserved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4102255",
"title": "Diploderma splendidum",
"section": "Section::::Housing and Habitat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "Ultraviolet light is needed for the lizard to properly synthesize vitamin D. In the wild, UVB rays are naturally provided by the sun, and in a captive environment, is needed to prevent the lizard from developing any calcium deficiency (Metabolic Bone Disease). Also, dust the lizard's prey with a calcium supplement specifically for reptiles as indicated by the manufacturer. Purchase an appropriate heat lamp and UVB bulb for your reptile. Keep a thermometer in the terrarium to monitor the temperature. The mid to upper 70s (23 - 26 Celsius) is fine and in the upper section of the enclosure, near the heat lamp, the temperature can range from the lower to mid 80s (27 - 30 Celsius).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8uiq6a
|
What is the origin of the "International Jewish Conspiracy"? Have the rise of international banking families as Rothschilds fueled the belief that "Jews rule the World"?
|
[
{
"answer": "The origins of the \"international Jewish conspiracy\" can be traced to the Middle Ages. The stereotype of Jews working with money has very real foundations in the ways in which Jews were generally forced to make their living in Medieval Europe. Jews were subject to a whole host of laws and decrees which limited the ways in which they could earn a living. Among these restrictions included prohibitions against owning land, joining artisan’s guilds, selling new merchandise, and even working on Sundays and Christian holidays. These laws were not limited the Medieval period and can be found in the Early Modern Period as well. Frederick II of Prussia issued a charter in 1750 that placed these very restrictions on the Jews of his kingdom. \n\nOn its own commercial business was generally not considered troublesome and most Jews made a meager living in some sort of mercantile business. What most non-Jews in European society found morally suspect was moneylending; a profession that many Jews were forced into by circumstance. Since the Middle Ages Jews had been the main source of financial credit to the European populace due to religious prohibitions against Christians participating in usury. Jews were not alone in practicing moneylending, of course Christians engaged in the practice as well. However, they rarely received the same levels of disdain that the Jewish moneylenders did. \n\nSo why could Jews not become artisans? Well in order to be an artisan (in the city anyway) one generally needed to join a guild. Guilds, being religious organizations, almost always forbade Jewish members so Jews resorted to forming their own, such as the Barber’s Guild at Krakow in the early seventeenth century. However, Jewish guilds often played no significant role in the economic lives of their members and quite often found themselves in competition with Christian guilds. With farming and crafting out of reach for most Jews, peddling second-hand goods was the most readily accessible form of work available to Jewish men.\n\nAt this point, I will focus on late 18th - 19th century France, since I am most comfortable speaking about that region. Most Jewish merchants conducted business with Christian peasants in the countryside and at the marketplace in the cities and many had amassed enough money to add loan-making to their résumé. These Jewish moneylenders played an important role in the rural economy of northeastern France. In a society with little to no banks, Jews provided a ready source of agricultural credit to the non-Jewish peasants. As a result of this the Jewish community was often blamed for the indebtedness of the Alsatian peasantry and their image as recalcitrant and parasitic businessmen persisted throughout the nation. The combined economic tensions and underlying religious animosity fueled popular hatred and distrust that bubbled under the surface of French society. \n\nYou mention the Rothschilds, and I am glad you did. The French branch of the Rothschild family heavily invested in building Paris during the Second Industrial Revolution and many Jewish investors poured money into many of the volatile new industries of the industrial revolution (and made a lot of money in the process). Jews in France found themselves integrating more easily into French society at a time when Jewish and Non-Jewish French people were asking themselves if the Jews could in fact be Jewish and French (This was a debate happening across Western and Central Europe). In my opinion, the point when the \"International Jewish Conspiracy\" hit French society was the failure of the 1870-71 Franco-Prussian War and the economic recession that followed. Anti-Semitic publications such as Edouard Drumont's *La France Juive* emerged and were very popular (100,000 copies were sold in its first year of publication). Antisemitic publications alleged that Jews across Europe were more loyal to each other than to the nations in which they lived. In *La France Juive*, Jews are portrayed as \"Christ killers, economic vampires, subhumans, masters of France, reptiles dripping with slime and engorged with their victims blood.\" [Simon Shama, *The Story of the Jews* (New York: Harper Collins, 2017), 640] The Dreyfus Affair later cemented the idea for the anti-Semites of France that Jews were not loyal citizens and were internationalists. Here are some images published by *La Libre Parole* in the late 1890s depicting common anti-semitic tropes. [Here](_URL_1_) [Here](_URL_2_) and [Here](_URL_3_)\n\nAdmittedly I am less knowledgeable about the impact of *The Protocols of the Elders of Zion* and would defer to someone more informed on the subject. I can say that it was widely popular and the themes written in it reinforced many of the Antisemitic ideas that were already present in European society. Daniel Pipes writes in *Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes From*:\n\n > The great importance of The Protocols lies in its permitting antisemites to reach beyond their traditional circles and find a large international audience, a process that continues to this day. The forgery poisoned public life wherever it appeared; it was \"self-generating; a blueprint that migrated from one conspiracy to another.\" The book's vagueness—almost no names, dates, or issues are specified—has been one key to this wide-ranging success. The purportedly Jewish authorship also helps to make the book more convincing. Its embrace of contradiction—that to advance, Jews use all tools available, including capitalism and communism, philo-Semitism and antisemitism, democracy and tyranny—made it possible for The Protocols to reach out to all: rich and poor, Right and Left, Christian and Muslim, American and Japanese.\n\nOther sources:\nThe Jew in the Medieval World A Sourcebook: 315-1791, ed. Mark Saperstein (Cincinnati: Hebrew Union College Press, 1999)\n\n_URL_0_\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You may also be interested in my previous answer:\n\n * [Were there any 'real' factors that contributed to the rampant anti-semitism in 1920/30 Europe?](_URL_0_) \n\nSeveral links in that answer are also worth clicking for additional context.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12478624",
"title": "Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory",
"section": "Section::::Link to the Bilderberg group.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Contemporary conspiracy theorists, who hew to theories centered on the Bilderberg Group and an alleged impending New World Order, often draw upon older concepts found in the Jewish-Masonic conspiracy theory, frequently blaming the Rothschild family or \"international bankers\". Because of the use of themes and tropes traditionally viewed as antisemitic, these contemporary conspiracy theorists tend to draw the ire of groups sensitive to antisemitic terminology, such as the Anti-Defamation League.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6647560",
"title": "Jewish-American organized crime",
"section": "Section::::Jewish-American organized crime and Israel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Several notable Jewish-American mobsters provided financial support for Israel through donations to Jewish organizations since the country's creation in 1948. Jewish-American gangsters used Israel's Law of Return to flee criminal charges or face deportation. Notables include Joseph \"Doc\" Stacher, who built up Las Vegas by pairing the Jewish and Italian Mafia into a national organized crime syndicate. Prime Minister Golda Meir set out to reverse this trend in 1970, when she denied entrance to Meyer Lansky. He was the mob's accountant, thought to be among the most powerful people in the country, with a gambling empire stretching throughout the United States. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23496604",
"title": "Pope Benedict XV and Judaism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The relations between Pope Benedict XV and Judaism were marked by two significant historical events : the emigration of Eastern European Jewish communities due to World War I and to pogroms, and the development of Zionism in the Middle East and its effects on local Levantine, Greek-Catholic and Arab Christian communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "179855",
"title": "Rothschild family",
"section": "Section::::Conspiracy theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Over more than two centuries, the Rothschild family has frequently been the subject of conspiracy theories. These theories take differing forms, such as claiming that the family controls the world's wealth and financial institutions or encouraged or discouraged wars between governments. Discussing this and similar views, the historian Niall Ferguson wrote, \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12478624",
"title": "Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory",
"section": "Section::::The Protocols of the Elders of Zion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "The Judeo-Masonic conspiracy theory merges two older strains of conspiracy claims: anti-Masonic conspiracy claims and antisemitic conspiracy claims. It was heavily influenced by publication of \"The Protocols of the Elders of Zion\", a forged document that appeared in the Russian Empire purporting to be an exposé of a worldwide Jewish conspiracy. The Protocols claim that the Jews had infiltrated Freemasonry and were using the fraternity to further their aims. Adherents of the Judeo-Masonic conspiracy took the claim made by the Protocols to extremes and claimed that the leaders of Freemasonry and the leaders of the Jewish plot were one and the same.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4880288",
"title": "Péreire brothers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "The Pereire brothers were prominent 19th-century financiers in Paris, France, who were rivals of the Rothschilds. Like the Rothschilds, they were Jews, but the Pereire brothers were Sephardi Jews of Portuguese origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6647560",
"title": "Jewish-American organized crime",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1293,
"text": "The largely Jewish-American and Italian-American gang known as Murder, Inc. and Jewish mobsters such as Meyer Lansky, Mickey Cohen, Harold \"Hooky\" Rothman, Dutch Schultz, and Bugsy Siegel developed close ties with and gained significant influence within the Italian-American Mafia, eventually forming a loosely organized, mostly Jewish and Italian criminal syndicate known in the press as the \"National Crime Syndicate.\" Jewish and Italian crime groups became increasingly interconnected in the 1920s and 1930s, as they often occupied the same neighborhoods and social statuses of the time. The two ethnic crime groups became especially close in New York City following the establishment of the close relationship between partners Lucky Luciano and Meyer Lansky and their subsequent elimination of many of the so-called \"Mustache Pete\", or the Sicilian-born gangsters that often refused to work with non-Italians and even non-Sicilians. The Cohen crime family of Los Angeles and Las Vegas was notably part of both the Jewish Mafia and Italian-American Mafia, and lines between the two ethnic criminal organizations often blurred throughout the 20th century. For decades after, Jewish-American mobsters would continue to work closely and at times compete with Italian-American organized crime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
n8ae2
|
What evidence is there that electrons literally orbit the nucleus?
|
[
{
"answer": "None, because they don't orbit. The electron wavefunction forms a geometrical shape around the nucleus with a different shape for each energy level s, p, d, f... The electron can be found to be in any position on this wavefunction when measured but is not in any position with any specific momentum before measured. The word \"orbit\" is just a term.\n\nlook at [atomic orbitals](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They aren't, at least not in the same way the Earth orbits the Sun. It's taught as such because it's a comforting inaccuracy that still allows students of chemistry or physics to make many physically meaningful calculations without mucking about with the insanity that is quantum mechanics.\n\nElectrons are a smear of probability whose overall 'shape' of the cloud is defined by the quantum states it occupies. We know this to be the case because it's possible to directly probe atomic structures and make very precise measurements of energy and mass. If you're more interested in how the basic structure of atoms was discovered than I invite you to read upon Rutherford's now-famous gold foil experiment and it's descendants. These experiments solidified the notion that atoms had an extremely small positively-charged core and and nebulous negatively-charged outer structure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually they do not orbit the nucleus. Electrons aren't really objects in the sense that they behave like marbles. They don't behave like marbles at all actually.\n\nElectrons exist in distributions of where you will most likely find them. So if you want, it's better to thing of them occupying a space of where you'll probably find them, the [probability cloud orbital](_URL_0_) is a more accurate representation of them. For instance these surfaces are areas where you have a fixed probability of finding them.\n\nAnother reason it's not useful to say they literally orbit the nucleus is because the ground state atom of hydrogen has an electron in the 1s shell. This orbital/shell (whatever term you wish to use) has an orbital momentum of zero. If they were literally orbiting then you'd expect a non-zero angular momentum, but they have zero.\n\nThe probability distribution for this electron also looks like a sphere. However this isn't perfect either as the sphere only measures one probability. If you wanted to draw all the probabilities it'd be a sort of fuzzy hollow sphere/cloud. The strangest thing is in this model, the electron has a non-zero probability of being actually inside the proton it associates with.\n\nSo when you see pictures of electrons orbiting the nucleus like little planetary systems, these really do not represent reality. The truth really is stranger than fiction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The observation came first, then the theory. \n\nBalmer found that hydrogen emission occurred at specific wavelengths and developed an [empirical formula to describe it](_URL_2_). Bohr then developed a [model](_URL_0_) that postulated that electrons circle the nucleus in discrete orbits. Using this he derived a formula that exactly matched Balmer's formula. \n\nWe've since learned that thought the electrons have this energy in the orbitals, the actual position of the electron is given by the Schrodinger equation, and are [actually probability clouds](_URL_1_), rather than specific orbitals. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "None, because they don't orbit. The electron wavefunction forms a geometrical shape around the nucleus with a different shape for each energy level s, p, d, f... The electron can be found to be in any position on this wavefunction when measured but is not in any position with any specific momentum before measured. The word \"orbit\" is just a term.\n\nlook at [atomic orbitals](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They aren't, at least not in the same way the Earth orbits the Sun. It's taught as such because it's a comforting inaccuracy that still allows students of chemistry or physics to make many physically meaningful calculations without mucking about with the insanity that is quantum mechanics.\n\nElectrons are a smear of probability whose overall 'shape' of the cloud is defined by the quantum states it occupies. We know this to be the case because it's possible to directly probe atomic structures and make very precise measurements of energy and mass. If you're more interested in how the basic structure of atoms was discovered than I invite you to read upon Rutherford's now-famous gold foil experiment and it's descendants. These experiments solidified the notion that atoms had an extremely small positively-charged core and and nebulous negatively-charged outer structure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually they do not orbit the nucleus. Electrons aren't really objects in the sense that they behave like marbles. They don't behave like marbles at all actually.\n\nElectrons exist in distributions of where you will most likely find them. So if you want, it's better to thing of them occupying a space of where you'll probably find them, the [probability cloud orbital](_URL_0_) is a more accurate representation of them. For instance these surfaces are areas where you have a fixed probability of finding them.\n\nAnother reason it's not useful to say they literally orbit the nucleus is because the ground state atom of hydrogen has an electron in the 1s shell. This orbital/shell (whatever term you wish to use) has an orbital momentum of zero. If they were literally orbiting then you'd expect a non-zero angular momentum, but they have zero.\n\nThe probability distribution for this electron also looks like a sphere. However this isn't perfect either as the sphere only measures one probability. If you wanted to draw all the probabilities it'd be a sort of fuzzy hollow sphere/cloud. The strangest thing is in this model, the electron has a non-zero probability of being actually inside the proton it associates with.\n\nSo when you see pictures of electrons orbiting the nucleus like little planetary systems, these really do not represent reality. The truth really is stranger than fiction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The observation came first, then the theory. \n\nBalmer found that hydrogen emission occurred at specific wavelengths and developed an [empirical formula to describe it](_URL_2_). Bohr then developed a [model](_URL_0_) that postulated that electrons circle the nucleus in discrete orbits. Using this he derived a formula that exactly matched Balmer's formula. \n\nWe've since learned that thought the electrons have this energy in the orbitals, the actual position of the electron is given by the Schrodinger equation, and are [actually probability clouds](_URL_1_), rather than specific orbitals. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "277468",
"title": "Two-body problem",
"section": "Section::::Results for prominent cases.:Inapplicability to atoms and subatomic particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Electrons in an atom are sometimes described as \"orbiting\" its nucleus, following an early conjecture of Niels Bohr (this is the source of the term \"orbital\"). However, electrons don't actually orbit nuclei in any meaningful sense, and quantum mechanics are necessary for any useful understanding of the electron's real behavior. Solving the classical two-body problem for an electron orbiting an atomic nucleus is misleading and does not produce many useful insights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2796131",
"title": "Introduction to quantum mechanics",
"section": "Section::::The quantization of matter: the Bohr model of the atom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "By the dawn of the 20th century, evidence required a model of the atom with a diffuse cloud of negatively charged [[electron]]s surrounding a small, dense, positively charged [[Atomic nucleus|nucleus]]. These properties suggested a model in which electrons circle around the nucleus like planets orbiting a sun. However, it was also known that the atom in this model would be unstable: according to classical theory, orbiting electrons are undergoing centripetal acceleration, and should therefore give off electromagnetic radiation, the loss of energy also causing them to spiral toward the nucleus, colliding with it in a fraction of a second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1206",
"title": "Atomic orbital",
"section": "Section::::Electron properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "With the development of quantum mechanics and experimental findings (such as the two slit diffraction of electrons), it was found that the orbiting electrons around a nucleus could not be fully described as particles, but needed to be explained by the wave-particle duality. In this sense, the electrons have the following properties:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2844",
"title": "Atomic theory",
"section": "Section::::History.:Quantum physical models of the atom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "A consequence of describing electrons as waveforms is that it is mathematically impossible to simultaneously derive the position and momentum of an electron. This became known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle after the theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg, who first described it and published it in 1927. This invalidated Bohr's model, with its neat, clearly defined circular orbits. The modern model of the atom describes the positions of electrons in an atom in terms of probabilities. An electron can potentially be found at any distance from the nucleus, but, depending on its energy level, exists more frequently in certain regions around the nucleus than others; this pattern is referred to as its atomic orbital. The orbitals come in a variety of shapes-sphere, dumbbell, torus, etc.-with the nucleus in the middle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3043836",
"title": "Nuclear binding energy",
"section": "Section::::Binding energy for atoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "This is also evident from phenomena like electron capture. Theoretically, in orbital models of heavy atoms, the electron orbits partially inside the nucleus (it does not \"orbit\" in a strict sense, but has a non-vanishing probability of being located inside the nucleus).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2796131",
"title": "Introduction to quantum mechanics",
"section": "Section::::The quantization of matter: the Bohr model of the atom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "In 1913 [[Niels Bohr]] proposed [[Bohr model|a new model of the atom]] that included quantized electron orbits: electrons still orbit the nucleus much as planets orbit around the sun, but they are permitted to inhabit only certain orbits, not to orbit at any distance. When an atom emitted (or absorbed) energy, the electron did not move in a continuous trajectory from one orbit around the nucleus to another, as might be expected classically. Instead, the electron would jump instantaneously from one orbit to another, giving off the emitted light in the form of a photon. The possible energies of photons given off by each element were determined by the differences in energy between the orbits, and so the emission spectrum for each element would contain a number of lines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902",
"title": "Atom",
"section": "Section::::History of atomic theory.:Bohr model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "In 1913 the physicist Niels Bohr proposed a model in which the electrons of an atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but could only do so in a finite set of orbits, and could jump between these orbits only in discrete changes of energy corresponding to absorption or radiation of a photon. This quantization was used to explain why the electrons orbits are stable (given that normally, charges in acceleration, including circular motion, lose kinetic energy which is emitted as electromagnetic radiation, see \"synchrotron radiation\") and why elements absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete spectra.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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