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23v98e
|
What mechanisms are at play so that there are very precisely 50% males and 50% females? And is it the same mechanism among all animals?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's a very good answer to this question from evolutionary biology, called Fisher's Sex Ratio Theorem. It explains why in humans our sex ratio is about 50/50, and why it's different in some other species.\n\nSo imagine a population in which one sex predominates. Say there are way more girls than boys. In that case, an individual that, because of random variation, produces more boys, will be at a big advantage! The rare male will get more mating opportunities, and will be more likely to find high quality mates, because he has his pick. So if the sex-ratio is skewed towards more girls then boys, then organisms which produce more boys will have an evolutionary advantage, and therefore reproduce more. And if you have an evolutionary advantage, your genes (which cause you to produce more boys) will spread through the population, evening out the sex-ratio!\n\nIt's a kind of balancing. If there are more girls, then producing boys becomes an evolutionary advantage. If there are more boys, then producing more girls is an advantage. These two competing advantages should balance each other out.\n\nNow all that is assuming that it takes the same amount of energy to raise boys as girls. If it's way more work to raise boys (say they're much larger for example, and therefore need more food) then producing more boys isn't such an advantage. So in those cases, we should expect producing the less costly sex to remain an advantage, even if there are more of them. And in nature, that's exactly what we see. Species with big differences between the sexes (sexual dimorphism) will have ratios that are not 50/50. \n\nNeat, huh?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First of all, there is not a precise 50:50 split but the ratio is approximately 1:1 in humans. Many animals do not have a 1:1 ratio but it is a common ratio. The mechanism for the 50:50 ratio in humans is driven by our chromosomes. You may have previously heard that women are XX and men are XY. This is how we refer to human sex chromosomes (and some other animals but certainly not all). Sperm and eggs each contain half of the parental DNA. Since mothers are always XX, egg cells always contain an X. Since fathers are XY, there is a 50% chance of each sperm to contain an X or a Y. Therefor, the sex of the child depends on if an X sperm or a Y sperm fertilizes the egg and there is a 50% chance of having a son or a daughter. This leads to an average sex ratio of 1:1.\n\nSex determination can very quite a bit in other species and it is difficult to be general about. For instance, the sex of crocodile offspring can be influenced by the temperature that the eggs are incubated at and they have a 10 female to 1 male sex ratio ([source](_URL_3_)). Some animals (such as bees) determine sex by whether or not the egg is fertilized. Males bees result from unfertilized eggs and therefore have half the DNA of female bees which result form fertilized eggs. Interestingly, honeybees are born with a 1:1 sex ratio but the adult sex ratio is closer to 3f:1m due to worker bees providing more care to females than males ([source](_URL_0_)).\n\nFor further information here are a few nice wiki articles:\n\n[Sex ratio in non-human animals](_URL_2_)\n\n[Sex determination systems](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1586039",
"title": "Menstrual synchrony",
"section": "Section::::Scientific details.:Adaptivity of menstrual synchrony.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 1529,
"text": "In mammalian mating systems generally, and among primates in particular, female spatio-temporal distribution – how clumped females are in the environment and how much they overlap their fertile periods – affects the ability of any single male to monopolize matings. The basic principle is that the more females are fertile at any one time, the harder it is for any single male to monopolize access to them, impregnating all simultaneously at the expense of rival males. In the case of nonhuman primates, once the number of co-cycling females rises above a critical threshold, a harem-holder may be unable to prevent other males from invading and mating with his females. A dominant male can maintain his monopoly only if his females stagger their fertile periods, so that he can impregnate them one at a time (see figure a, right). Suppose a group of female baboons need between them just one dominant male, desirable in view of his high-quality genes. Then, logically, they should avoid synchronizing their cycles. By the same token, if males during the course of human evolution became valued by females for additional purposes – hunting and bringing home food, for example – then females should resist being controlled by dominant male harem-holders. If males are useful partners to have and keep around, then ideally each female should have at least one for herself. Under those circumstances, according to this argument, the logical strategy would be for females to synchronize as tightly as they can (see figure b, right).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5529740",
"title": "Sex allocation",
"section": "Section::::Fisher’s principle and equal sex allocation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "R.A. Fisher developed an explanation, known as Fisher's principle, of why sex ratios in many animals are 1:1. If there were 10 times more females in a population than males, a male would on average be able to mate with more partners than a female would. Parents who preferentially invested in producing male offspring would have a fitness advantage over those who preferentially produced females. This strategy would result in increasing numbers of males in the population, thus eliminating the original advantage of males. The same would occur if there were originally more females than males in a population. The evolutionarily stable strategy (ESS) in this case would be for parents to produce a 1:1 ratio of males and females.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21304415",
"title": "Sexual reproduction",
"section": "Section::::Sex ratio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Apart from some eusocial wasps, organisms which reproduce sexually have a 1:1 sex ratio of male and female births. The English statistician and biologist Ronald Fisher outlined why this is so in what has come to be known as Fisher's principle. This essentially says the following:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39300801",
"title": "Sexual selection in mammals",
"section": "Section::::Precopulatory mechanisms.:Sex-role reversal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Female-female competition is a common abnormality within animals with accepted sex roles. Females invest into choosing the best possible mate because they have more of a part in bringing up their offspring than males (gestation and lactation). Gestation and lactation are energy-consuming, which means their competition for resources is high. Female-female competitions are observed to gain access for better mates. Meerkat females acquire dominant status because resources for female reproduction are scarce. Dominant females in this species are heavier and win in competitions over other females.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "582393",
"title": "Polygynandry",
"section": "Section::::Maintenance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "On the other hand, studies have shown that males have had a higher reproductive success than females when they were polygynandrous. When compared to female chimpanzees, male chimpanzees had a better ratio of number of matings and number of offspring produced. Not only did studies show a higher reproductive success, but Columbian ground squirrels exhibited a significant male-biased sexual size and body mass, suggesting male-male competition. Male-male competition means sexual dimorphism amongst the males and this means females are able to sexually select males based on the sexual ornaments they display.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "624313",
"title": "Mating system",
"section": "Section::::In animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "BULLET::::- Polygynandry: Polygynandry is a slight variation of this, where two or more males have an exclusive relationship with two or more females; the numbers of males and females don't have to be equal, and in vertebrate species studied so far, the number of males is usually less. This is associated with multi-male, multi-female group compositions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "320713",
"title": "Sexual fantasy",
"section": "Section::::Gender differences.:Frequent themes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "Another way the sexes differ is that men are much more likely to fantasize about having multiple sexual partners (i.e., having threesomes or orgies) compared to women and seek greater partner variation in their sexual fantasies. Evolutionary theory suggests that this may be due to men's capacity to produce many offspring at any one time by impregnating multiple females, and thus predicts that males will be more open to the concept of multiple partnerships in order to increase reproductive success and continue their genetic line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7fwtp0
|
How did Jim Crow laws effect Mexican Americans in the American Southwest?
|
[
{
"answer": "More of course can be said on this, but [this older answer](_URL_0_) on Jim Crow laws regarding other minorities might be of interest for you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1142431",
"title": "African-American history",
"section": "Section::::Jim Crow, disenfranchisement and challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws in the United States enacted between 1876 and 1965. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities, with a supposedly \"separate but equal\" status for black Americans. In reality, this led to treatment and accommodations that were usually inferior to those provided for white Americans, systematizing a number of economic, educational and social disadvantages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2711369",
"title": "History of Mississippi",
"section": "Section::::Gilded Age: 1877-1900.:Blacks: 1877-1940.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "The Jim Crow system became total after 1900, with disenfranchisement, coupled with increasingly restrictive racial segregation laws, and increased lynchings. Economic disasters always lurked, such as failure of the cotton crop due to boll weevil infestation, and successive severe flooding in 1912 and 1913. By 1920, the third generation after freedom, most African Americans in the state were landless sharecroppers or laborers facing inescapable poverty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23515799",
"title": "List of Jim Crow law examples by state",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "This a list of examples of Jim Crow laws, which were state and local laws in the United States enacted between 1876 and 1965. Jim Crow laws existed mainly in the South and originated from the Black Codes that were passed from 1865 to 1866 and from prewar segregation on railroad cars in northern cities. The laws sprouted up in the late 19th century after Reconstruction and lasted until the 1960s. They mandated de jure segregation in all public facilities, with a supposedly \"separate but equal\" status for Americans of African descent. In reality, this led to treatment that was usually inferior to that provided for Americans of European descent, systematizing a number of economic, educational and social disadvantages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7574447",
"title": "A. P. Tureaud",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Jim Crow laws arose directly from a Supreme Court ruling which validated a \"states' rights\" notion that blacks and whites could be equally well served using separate but equal public facilities. With \"Plessy v. Ferguson\" (USSC 1896) the United States Supreme Court confirmed the right of state legislatures to enact discriminatory legislation. With this authority, civic organizations throughout the American South moved to restrict citizen access and limit citizens from exercising their civil rights based on the basis of their social and economic status, and on their personal history as descended from a former slave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2250414",
"title": "Railroad Commission of Texas",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Segregation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "From the 1890s through the 1960s, the Texas Railroad Commission found it difficult to enforce fully Jim Crow segregation legislation. Because of the expense involved, Texas railroads often allowed wealthier blacks to mix with whites, rather than provide separate cars, dining facilities, and even depots. In addition, West Texas authorities often refused to enforce Jim Crow laws because few African Americans resided there. In the 1940s, the railroad commission's enforcement of segregation laws began collapsing further, in part because of the great number of African American soldiers that were transported during World War II. The trains were integrated in the early 1960s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19481110",
"title": "Jim Crow laws",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "Jim Crow laws were state and local laws that enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States. All were enacted in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by white Democratic-dominated state legislatures after the Reconstruction period. The laws were enforced until 1965. In practice, Jim Crow laws mandated racial segregation in all public facilities in the states of the former Confederate States of America and other states, starting in the 1870s and 1880s, and were upheld in 1896, by the U.S. Supreme Court's \"separate but equal\" legal doctrine for facilities for African Americans, established with the court's decision in the case of \"Plessy vs. Ferguson\". Moreover, public education had essentially been segregated since its establishment in most of the South, after the Civil War (1861–65).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19481110",
"title": "Jim Crow laws",
"section": "Section::::Origins of Jim Crow laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "In Texas, several towns adopted residential segregation laws between 1910 and the 1920s. Legal strictures called for segregated water fountains and restrooms. Jim Crow laws were a product of what had become the solidly Democratic South due to disfranchisement of blacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17l3ny
|
At what point during the process of snapping does the associated noise occur?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's the tip of the snapping finger striking the base of the thumb.\n\nThis was asked recently, although I can't find that post. It was also asked not so recently in the link below (and it's on [wikipedia](_URL_0_)). Please do a search next time before posting!\n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52395024",
"title": "Crackling noise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "Crackling noise arises when a system is subject to an external force and it responds via events that appear very similar at many different scales. In a classical system there are usually two states, on and off. However, sometimes a state can exist in between. There are three main categories this noise can be sorted into: the first is \"popping\" where events at very similar magnitude occur continuously and randomly, e.g. popcorn; the second is \"snapping\" where there is little change in the system until a critical threshold is surpassed, at which point the whole system flips from one state to another, i.e. snapping a pencil; the third is \"crackling\" which is a combination of popping and snapping, where there are some small and some large events with a relation law predicting their occurrences, referred to as universality. Crackling can be observed in many natural phenomena, e.g. crumpling paper, fire, occurrences of earthquakes and the magnetisation of magnets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3966982",
"title": "Noise (electronics)",
"section": "Section::::Noise types.:Burst noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Burst noise consists of sudden step-like transitions between two or more discrete voltage or current levels, as high as several hundred microvolts, at random and unpredictable times. Each shift in offset voltage or current lasts for several milliseconds to seconds. It is also known a \"popcorn noise\" for the popping or crackling sounds it produces in audio circuits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3917373",
"title": "Snapping hip syndrome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Snapping hip syndrome, also referred to as dancer's hip, is a medical condition characterized by a snapping sensation felt when the hip is flexed and extended. This may be accompanied by an audible snapping or popping noise and pain or discomfort. Pain often decreases with rest and diminished activity. Snapping hip syndrome is commonly classified by the location of the snapping as either or articular.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61126372",
"title": "Snapping (song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "\"Snapping\" is a song by South Korean singer Chungha released on June 24, 2019, by MNH Entertainment, Stone Music Entertainment. The track acts as the title track for the her Korean fourth extended play \"Flourishing\", which was released simultaneously with the single. As of June 2019, it has over 30 million views on YouTube and 9 million streams on Spotify. \"Snapping\" was placed first on the music show, \"Show Champion\" on July 3, 2019.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3125571",
"title": "Knuckle",
"section": "Section::::Cracking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The physical mechanism behind the popping or cracking sound heard when cracking joints such as knuckles has recently been elucidated by cine MRI to be caused by tribonucleation as a gas bubble forms in the synovial fluid that bathes the joint. Despite this evidence, many still believe it to be caused by synovial fluid filling the vacuum left by the joint's displacement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30707",
"title": "Temporomandibular joint dysfunction",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Mechanisms of main signs and symptoms.:Joint noises.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1595,
"text": "Noises from the TMJs are a symptom of dysfunction of these joints. The sounds commonly produced by TMD are usually described as a \"click\" or a \"pop\" when a single sound is heard and as \"crepitation\" or \"crepitus\" when there are multiple, grating, rough sounds. Most joint sounds are due to internal derangement of the joint, which is a term used to describe instability or abnormal position of the articular disc. Clicking often accompanies either jaw opening or closing, and usually occurs towards the end of the movement. The noise indicates that the articular disc has suddenly moved to and from a temporarily displaced position (disk displacement with reduction) to allow completion of a phase of movement of the mandible. If the disc displaces and does not reduce (move back into position) this may be associated with locking. Clicking alone is not diagnostic of TMD since it is present in high proportion of the general population, mostly in people who have no pain. Crepitus often indicates arthritic changes in the joint, and may occur at any time during mandibular movement, especially lateral movements. Perforation of the disc may also cause crepitus. Due to the proximity of the TMJ to the ear canal, joint noises are perceived to be much louder to the individual than to others. Often people with TMD are surprised that what sounds to them like very loud noises cannot be heard at all by others next to them. However, it is occasionally possible for loud joint noises to be easily heard by others in some cases and this can be a source of embarrassment e.g. when eating in company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37306055",
"title": "Alpheus heterochaelis",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The bigclaw snapping shrimp produces a loud, staccato concussive noise with its snapping claw. The sound is produced when the claw snaps shut at great speed creating a high-speed water jet. This creates a small, short-lived cavitation bubble and it is the immediate collapse of this bubble that creates the sound. A spark is formed at the same time. The snapping noise serves to deter predators and to stun prey, and is also used for display purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3l33cv
|
What is known about population dynamics of any American Indian tribes between years 1-1492? Birthrates, infant mortality, lifespans, cause of death, etc.?
|
[
{
"answer": "That is a rather broad time period spanning two continents. Is there a more specific time frame, group, and region you are interested in?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21217",
"title": "Native Americans in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:European exploration and colonization.:Impact on native populations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1024,
"text": "From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the population of Indians sharply declined. Most mainstream scholars believe that, among the various contributing factors, epidemic disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the Native Americans because of their lack of immunity to new diseases brought from Europe. It is difficult to estimate the number of pre-Columbian Native Americans who were living in what is today the United States of America. Estimates range from a low of 2.1 million to a high of 18 million (Dobyns 1983). By 1800, the Native population of the present-day United States had declined to approximately 600,000, and only 250,000 Native Americans remained in the 1890s. Chicken pox and measles, endemic but rarely fatal among Europeans (long after being introduced from Asia), often proved deadly to Native Americans. In the 100 years following the arrival of the Spanish to the Americas, large disease epidemics depopulated large parts of the eastern United States in the 16th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "252507",
"title": "American frontier",
"section": "Section::::Indian Wars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "Historian Russell Thornton estimates that from 1800 to 1890, the Indian population declined from 600,000 to as few as 250,000. The depopulation was principally caused by disease as well as warfare. Many tribes in Texas, such as the Karankawan, Akokisa, Bidui and others, were extinguished due to conflicts with settlers. The rapid depopulation of the American Indians after the Civil War alarmed the U.S. Government, and the Doolittle Committee was formed to investigate the causes as well as provide recommendations for preserving the population. The solutions presented by the committee, such as the establishment of the five boards of inspection to prevent Indian abuses, had little effect as large Western migration commenced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24545319",
"title": "Native American disease and epidemics",
"section": "Section::::European contact.:Impact on population numbers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1239,
"text": "Many Native American tribes experienced great depopulation, averaging 25–50 percent of the tribes' members lost to disease. Additionally, smaller tribes neared extinction after facing a severely destructive spread of disease. The significant toll that this took is expounded upon in the article Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas. A specific example was Cortes' invasion of Mexico. Before his arrival, the Mexican population is estimated to have been around 25 to 30 million. Fifty years later, the Mexican population was reduced to 3 million, mainly by infectious disease. This shows the main effect of the arrival of Europeans in the new world. With no natural immunity against these pathogens, Native Americans died in huge numbers. Yale historian David Brion Davis describes this as \"the greatest genocide in the history of man. Yet it's increasingly clear that most of the carnage had nothing to do with European barbarism. The worst of the suffering was caused not by swords or guns but by germs.\" By 1700, less than five thousand Native Americans remained in the southeastern coastal region. In Florida alone, there were seven hundred thousand Native Americans in 1520, but by 1700 the number was around 2000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9337",
"title": "Ecuadorians",
"section": "Section::::Nationality, ethnicity, and race.:Indigenous.:Oriente Indians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "The Oriente Indian population dropped precipitously during the initial period of intensive contact with outsiders. The destruction of their crops by mestizos laying claim to indigenous lands, the rapid exposure to diseases to which Indians lacked immunity, and the extreme social disorganization all contributed to increased mortality and decreased birth rates. One study of the Shuar in the 1950s found that the group between ten and nineteen years of age was smaller than expected. This was the group that had been youngest and most vulnerable during the initial contact with national society. Normal population growth rates began to reestablish themselves after approximately the first decade of such contact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24377161",
"title": "Modern social statistics of Native Americans",
"section": "Section::::Health standards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "Native American tribes have received much needed attention from the medical field due to the increasing infant mortality rate among their people, while the American nation sees this demographic overall on the decline. The infant mortality rate of American Indians and Native Alaskans is 8.6 for every 1,000 live births. This is greater than the average infant mortality rate of all ages of 6.9, all measured in 2005. Native American infants suffer from Sudden Infant Death Syndrome at double the rate of their white counterparts. For congenital malformations and low birth weight, Native Americans infants suffer at a ratio of 1.3 to non-Hispanic whites. Low birth weight was observed in 7.3% of births in 2005. Also notable is the fact that as the age of the birth mother increases, the ratio of Native American infant mortality to non-Hispanic white infant mortality increases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52447",
"title": "European colonization of the Americas",
"section": "Section::::Disease and indigenous population loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Others have argued that significant variations in population size over pre-Columbian history are reason to view higher-end estimates with caution. Such estimates may reflect historical population maxima, while indigenous populations may have been at a level somewhat below these maxima or in a moment of decline in the period just prior to contact with Europeans. Indigenous populations hit their ultimate lows in most areas of the Americas in the early 20th century; in a number of cases, growth has returned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "303159",
"title": "Conquistador",
"section": "Section::::Disease in the Americas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "The American researcher H.F. Dobyns said that 95% of the total population of the Americas died in the first 130 years, and that 90% of the population of the Inca Empire died in epidemics. Cook and Borah of the University of California at Berkeley believe that the indigenous population in Mexico declined from 25.2 million in 1518 to 700,000 people in 1623, less than 3% of the original population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
279oun
|
Where does the energy radiated by gravitational waves come from?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's the kinetic energy of the system. As gravitational radiation carries away energy, the decrease in kinetic energy causes the orbit of the binary system to decay. The [Hulse-Taylor pulsar](_URL_0_) was the first system where the predicted orbital decay was observed (and then in 1993 Hulse and Taylor won the Nobel prize for the discovery). \n\nSupplemental interesting info: as you said, the bodies will spiral into each other and collide (in principle, though sometimes the decay times are 10^11 years or longer). In the last few seconds before the collision, the orbital frequency speeds up to ~kHz, depending on the system (imagine neutron stars orbiting thousands of times per second... It's nuts). The gravitational radiation signature produced in these last few moments is the most valuable portion in terms of identifying the gravitational wave signal and estimating the parameters (mass ratio between the bodies, distance to the system, etc.) of the binary system.\n",
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{
"answer": "It reduces the angular momentum of the system (usually resulting in the planets rotating closer to each other).",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5378",
"title": "Physical cosmology",
"section": "Section::::Areas of study.:Gravitational waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "Gravitational waves are ripples in the curvature of spacetime that propagate as waves at the speed of light, generated in certain gravitational interactions that propagate outward from their source. Gravitational-wave astronomy is an emerging branch of observational astronomy which aims to use gravitational waves to collect observational data about sources of detectable gravitational waves such as binary star systems composed of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes; and events such as supernovae, and the formation of the early universe shortly after the Big Bang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "8111079",
"title": "Gravitational wave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Gravitational waves are disturbances in the curvature of spacetime, generated by accelerated masses, that propagate as waves outward from their source at the speed of light. They were proposed by Henri Poincaré in 1905 and subsequently predicted in 1916 by Albert Einstein on the basis of his general theory of relativity. Gravitational waves transport energy as gravitational radiation, a form of radiant energy similar to electromagnetic radiation. Newton's law of universal gravitation, part of classical mechanics, does not provide for their existence, since that law is predicated on the assumption that physical interactions propagate instantaneously (at infinite speed) showing one of the ways the methods of classical physics are unable to explain phenomena associated with relativity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30339158",
"title": "North American Nanohertz Observatory for Gravitational Waves",
"section": "Section::::Gravitational wave detection using pulsar timing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Gravitational waves are an important prediction from Einstein's general theory of relativity and expected to result from the bulk motion of matter, fluctuations during the early universe and the dynamics of space-time itself. Pulsars are rapidly rotating, highly magnetized neutron stars formed during the supernova explosions of massive stars. They act as highly accurate clocks with a wealth of physical applications ranging from celestial mechanics, neutron star seismology, tests of strong-field gravity and Galactic astronomy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8111079",
"title": "Gravitational wave",
"section": "Section::::Gravitational wave astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "The sources of gravitational waves described above are in the low-frequency end of the gravitational-wave spectrum (10 to 10 Hz). An astrophysical source at the high-frequency end of the gravitational-wave spectrum (above 10 Hz and probably 10 Hz) generates relic gravitational waves that are theorized to be faint imprints of the Big Bang like the cosmic microwave background. At these high frequencies it is potentially possible that the sources may be \"man made\" that is, gravitational waves generated and detected in the laboratory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1532536",
"title": "MiniGrail",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Gravitational waves are a type of radiation that is emitted by objects that have mass and are undergoing acceleration. The strongest sources of gravitational waves are expected to be compact objects such as neutron stars and black holes. This detector may be able to detect certain types of instabilities in rotating single and binary neutron stars, and the merger of small black holes or neutron stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1849686",
"title": "Ronald Mallett",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Time travel research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "\"In Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, both matter and energy can create a gravitational field. This means that the energy of a light beam can produce a gravitational field. My current research considers both the weak and strong gravitational fields produced by a single continuously circulating unidirectional beam of light. In the weak gravitational field of an unidirectional ring laser, it is predicted that a spinning neutral particle, when placed in the ring, is dragged around by the resulting gravitational field.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23703",
"title": "Potential energy",
"section": "Section::::Gravitational potential energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Gravitational energy is the potential energy associated with gravitational force, as work is required to elevate objects against Earth's gravity. The potential energy due to elevated positions is called gravitational potential energy, and is evidenced by water in an elevated reservoir or kept behind a dam. If an object falls from one point to another point inside a gravitational field, the force of gravity will do positive work on the object, and the gravitational potential energy will decrease by the same amount.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
13ceiu
|
Between Israel and Palestine, who has been the primary aggressor in modern history? Who will go down in the history books as the 'bad guys', and why?
|
[
{
"answer": "We won't know until the conflict reaches its resolution. However, I certainly hope academic history has moved on from silly distinctions like good and bad. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45382320",
"title": "Alfred G. Gerteiny",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1551,
"text": "Alfred G. Gerteiny (born 1930) is an American author and scholar of Middle Eastern and African Studies, a specialist on the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, the Palestinian issue, and International Terrorism. Gerteiny posits that the \"imposition\" of Israel in Palestine by the International Community was an unprecedented historical blunder, and U.S. blind support of Israel, its strategy, policies and practices in the Occupied Territories as instrumental to the instability and chaos in the Middle East. Gerteiny shares with Richard Arens, Chaim Shatan, and Richard Falk—UN Special Rapporteur on Palestine Human Rights—among other, the belief that these practices may amount to genocide, based on the interpretive comments of the progenitor of the UN Genocide Convention, Raphael Lemkin. Gerteiny considers that the two states solution to the conflict in Palestine is fundamentally flawed, not only because of the intractable mutual claim to the whole former mandate by the warring parties, but also because of its fundamental meaning and importance to Judaism, Christianity and Islam, the 3 branches of the Abrahamic Tradition. He has suggested that a more practical and equitable solution may be one patterned after the Helvetic model—an internationally neutralized \"Holy Land Confederation,\" with Jewish, Christian and Muslim cantons, and with Jerusalem as capital. In \"the Terrorist Conjunction,\" he further argues that \"bad foreign policy choices, when coupled with grievances in the Middle East, are a fuel that triggers terrorizing violence.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4584893",
"title": "Revolutions of 1989",
"section": "Section::::Other events.:Communist and Socialist countries.:Middle East.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 179,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 179,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "BULLET::::- Palestinian Territories – The Palestine Liberation Organization lost one of its most important diplomatic patrons, due to the deterioration of the Soviet Union, Arafat's failing relationship with Moscow and loss of a one-party government and Suspension PFLP-GC of the PLO in 1984. First Intifada occurred from 1987 to 1991, leading to the PLO recognition of Israel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71717",
"title": "Second Intifada",
"section": "Section::::Views on the Second Intifada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Palestinians view the Second Intifada as part of their ongoing struggle for national liberation and an end to Israeli occupation, whereas many Israelis consider it to be a wave of Palestinian terrorism instigated and pre-planned by then Palestinian leader Yasser Arafat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29419843",
"title": "Antisemitism in Turkey",
"section": "Section::::In modern Turkey.:Sources of antisemitism.:Anti-Israeli and anti-Zionist Sentiments on the Left.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Left-wing Turkish intelligentsia tends to view Israel as an instrument of U.S. imperialism in the Middle East. The Israeli-Palestinian conflict is thus interpreted as a conflict between a group \"oppressed by imperialism\" and a proxy of the United States. This tradition has existed since the 1970s, when Turks of the far-left joined the Palestine Liberation Organization and received military training through said organization, and some participated in combated against Israeli forces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23267",
"title": "Palestinians",
"section": "Section::::Rise of Palestinian nationalism.:1967–present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 1371,
"text": "Since 1967, Palestinians in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip have lived under military occupation, creating, according to Avram Bornstein, a carceralization of their society. In the meantime, pan-Arabism has waned as an aspect of Palestinian identity. The Israeli occupation of the Gaza Strip and West Bank triggered a second Palestinian exodus and fractured Palestinian political and militant groups, prompting them to give up residual hopes in pan-Arabism. They rallied increasingly around the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which had been formed in Cairo in 1964. The group grew in popularity in the following years, especially under the nationalistic orientation of the leadership of Yasser Arafat. Mainstream secular Palestinian nationalism was grouped together under the umbrella of the PLO whose constituent organizations include Fatah and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, among other groups who at that time believed that political violence was the only way to \"liberate\" Palestine. These groups gave voice to a tradition that emerged in the 1960s that argues Palestinian nationalism has deep historical roots, with extreme advocates reading a Palestinian nationalist consciousness and identity back into the history of Palestine over the past few centuries, and even millennia, when such a consciousness is in fact relatively modern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30529217",
"title": "Palestine–United States relations",
"section": "Section::::Relations prior to 1988.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1415,
"text": "Prior to the Yom Kippur War in October 1973, the U.S. government considered The PLO and Fatah under Yasser Arafat's leadership as a terrorist organization, and as a result did not support Palestinian aspirations at the UN, and U.S. diplomats in the Middle East were explicitly ordered by the State Department never to make any contacts with Arafat or any representative on his behalf. However, despite the negative view of the PLO, State Department officials began to view the Palestinian factor as crucial enough to be taken into consideration when brokering an Israeli-Jordanian agreement on the West Bank. In contrast to the negative diplomatic view of the PLO, the intelligence community did not refrain from clandestine contacts with that entity, and as early as October 1970, a senior Fatah representative delivered the CIA message about willingness by Arafat to recognize the State of Israel in exchange for US support of a Palestinian state. This trend of clandestine contacts produced some tangible results following the Yom Kippur War. On November 3, 1973 a secret meeting was held in Morocco between Deputy Director of the CIA Vernon A. Walters and Khaled al-Hassan, number two in the PLO at the time, and the two discussed the possibility of integrating the PLO into the peace process. Even though no tangible agreement was reached at that meeting, it led to restraint of Fatah attacks on U.S. targets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4646647",
"title": "Ronnie Kasrils",
"section": "Section::::Positions on Israel/Palestine conflict.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "In a two-part essay \"David and Goliath: Who is Who in the Middle East\" published in the ANC's theoretical journal Umrabulo in late 2006 and early 2007, Kasrils outlined a history of Israel-Palestine since 1948 very critical of Israeli governments and military actions. Parts of the essay were published in the Mail&Guardian in a summarised form under the title \"Rage of the Elephant: Israel in Lebanon.\" The article caused considerable controversy, when Kasrils, commenting on the results of civilian deaths following the Israeli invasion of Lebanon in July 2006, and referring to the Israeli leadership, noted: \"... we must call baby killers 'baby killers' and declare that those using methods reminiscent of the Nazis be told that they are behaving like Nazis.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
5pa8w2
|
Did the French Revolution have any influence on tsarist Russia?
|
[
{
"answer": "The immediate impact of the French Revolution upon the tsarist state and society is difficult to parse out. News of the events in Paris often happened at a distance, and in a *ancien regime* society with low levels of literacy and strong divisions between those who were literate, news of the Revolution was akin to game of telephone. The \"French Revolution\" thus often had a different meaning to different individuals and groups within the Empire. Hostility to the Revolution was also tempered by fascination with French culture, especially among the elite. The net result was there was an ambivalence about the French Revolution that grew over time and was directly related to Russia's increasing entanglement in \nEuropean affairs because of its military involvement in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.\n\nThe response of the Russian executive towards the Revolution illustrates this ambivalence. On one hand, Catherine II and her successor Paul I tacked to an anti-Revolutionary bent in their foreign policies and rhetoric. Catherine II perceived the Revolution as part of a larger process of the Enlightenment going too far, and she tended to lump it in both with the American Revolution and the Pugachev Revolt. The Russian interventions against France came with a larger clamping down on radical ideas and censorship. Likewise, Paul I initiated greater Russian intervention in Central Europe and Italy when the French disbanded the Knights of Malta. \n\nThe actions of these two heads might give the impression that a reactionary Russia was hellbent upon strangling the Revolution in its cradle, but the actions and motivations of Catherine II and Paul I were more complex than a knee-jerk reaction to the politics of 1789. Russian intervention against France often meshed with other geopolitical goals and concerns of the Romanovs. Intervention and playing a key role in the various coalitions gave Russia a voice in other matters concerning Europe such as Poland or the status of the German states. This was one of the reasons why the coalitions against the Revolution were so dysfunctional and fell apart in light of French resistance. Austria in particular was leery that Russia would gain at the Habsburg's expense and the dilemma for Austrian diplomats was that a successful French war might leave France in too weak of a state to be of aid against Russia. Clamping down on the press and letters was also logical given that the Romanovs relied upon a large number of non-Russian servitors for the bureaucracy and the army leadership. Tadeusz Kościuszko was not that different in terms of social background and milieu than other servitors of the Romanov state, but he led a revolt in Russian Poland that had to be crushed by the Romanovs in 1794.\n\nThe wars against the French did not necessarily mean that the Empire's elite did not see any value in the new course of French politics. The success of French arms and the restoration of order by Napoleon seemed to validate the strength of constitutionalism and Enlightenment ideals of a rational society. The Romanov state structure was still predicated upon the idea of Enlightened despotism and a number of post-1789 theorists sought to square new innovations with the established political culture. Catherine II tended to view the Revolution not as ideas spiraling out of control, but rather as evidence that the Bourbons had failed to contain and contour them. More importantly, during Paul I's reign there were a group of young men around the *tsarevich* who saw the Revolution as a pretext to get rid of the dead wood that had accumulated in Catherine II's long reign and which her son did little to remove. These reformers built on long-standing calls for a more modernized and European Romanov state, but repacked them to still suit Romanov needs. Alexander I implemented some of these liberal reforms after his father's assassination. His leading advisor on domestic reform, Mikhail Speransky, looked towards French models and examples to streamline and centralize the Russian bureaucracy. In doing so, Speransky was influenced by the example of Napoleon, who took late Enlightenment principles of rational hierarchies and twisted them to suit his own dictatorship. Although Speransky fell afoul of anti-French factions at court, some of his ideas lived on in Congress Poland. This post-1815 entity was in personal union with the Tsar and had a constitution and other facets of French methods to guarantee a degree of moderate loyalty to the Romanovs among the Polish elite. \n\nBut threading the needle between Enlightenment ideals and Romanov autocracy was going to be difficult prospect among any imperial reformer, and the French 1812 invasion only compounded these difficulties. French methods soon became associated with French invasion and foreign influence. One of Speransky's great enemies at court, the Governor-General of Moscow Fyodor Rostopchin, accused Speransky of being the leader of a wider Free Mason plot to undo the foundations of the Romanov state. The wider Napoleonic Wars also ensured whole generation of Russian officers came into contact with a wider European world and inculcated among mid-level officers a belief that Russia could achieve a similar result of 1789 without the negatives of the Terror or Napoleon. \n\nThese Revolutionary ideas percolated among various secret societies and forms of noble socialization in the years after Waterloo. Especially as Alexander I walked away from liberal ideas and gravitated more towards the reactionary, pro-Russian elements of the state, these societies and network began to envision a kind of Russian 1789. Revolutionary reform's moment seemed to have arrived with the death of Alexander I in December 1825 and the messy transition of power towards his son Nicholas I. Although the revolt of mid-level officers in Saint Petersburg was crushed, the Decembrists became enshrined in both Russian revolutionary circles and within the USSR as an abortive attempt to bring the Revolution into Russia. \n\nSuch a mythology surrounding the Decemberists obscures the important and quite real divisions within them and the different paths they saw towards reform. The Decembrists counted among their ranks individuals like Pavel Pestel who envisioned a republic for Russia and an end to the monarchy. But Pastel was something of an outlier for the Decemberists. The Union of Salvation, or of the Faithful and True Sons of the Fatherland, which was a secret society for various disaffected elites, had split along geographic lines into Northern and Southern wings. Members of the Northern Society tended to favor a constitutional monarchy and a more go-slow approach to revolution and change. Their methods tended to hew towards that of a palace coup rather than an immediate change. In contrast, the Southern Society, influenced by Pavel, favored more extreme measures. Pavel himself argued for an immediate regicide, but this was too far for some of his compatriots. Thus the Decemberists entered into 1825 split between a Jacobin/Girondist faction and a Monarchiens wing, while both sides favored Bonapartist tactics in which the Army would act as a praetorian instigator of change and transition. \n\nSuch splits in the 1820s should come as no surprise as the events of 1789 had occurred at such a historical remove that would-be revolutionaries could style themselves as successors to various movements of the Revolution. This is one of the ironies of the French Revolution in Russia: its main political impact was not among the masses, but upon a very narrow clique of elites and the privileged. Although there was a persistent fear that Russia's serfs would be infected by Revolutionary ideals and revolt, such fears reflected Russian elites' own misgivings about serfdom than the realities of peasant life. Serfs tended not to participate in eighteenth century revolts like Pugachev's and serf commune was in many ways a world apart from other aspects of Russian political life. Even though the serfs were in human bondage, it was a form of bondage in which they often regulated on a day to day basis. The future Decembrist Ivan Yakushkin offered his serfs the option of renting his land in 1819, but his serfs refused his offer claiming that while \"we are yours, but the land is ours.\" The ideas of human liberty, nationalism, or even meritocratic despotism associated with the Revolution consequently did not register with larger population in a deep way, but instead took root in a very narrow segment of the populace that were already an elite. \n\n*Sources*\n\nLincoln, W. Bruce. *In the Vanguard of Reform: Russia's Enlightened Bureaucrats, 1825-1861*. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 1982. \n\nMadariaga, Isabel de, Roger P. Bartlett, and Janet M. Hartley. *Russia in the Age of the Enlightenment: Essays for Isabel De Madariaga*. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1990. \n\nO'Meara, Patrick. *The Decembrist Pavel Pestel: Russia's First Republican*. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. \n\nStone, Bailey. *Reinterpreting the French Revolution: A Global-Historical Perspective*. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2002. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "290941",
"title": "Triple Entente",
"section": "Section::::Russia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "The alignment of the autocratic Russian Empire with Europe's two largest democracies was controversial on both sides. Many Russian conservatives mistrusted the secular France and recalled British past diplomatic maneuvers to block Russian influence in the Near East. In turn, prominent French and British journalists, academics and parliamentarians found the reactionary tsarist regime distasteful. Mistrust persisted even during wartime, with British and French politicians expressing relief when Tsar Nicholas II abdicated and was replaced by the Russian Provisional Government after the February Revolution in 1917. An offer of political asylum for the Romanovs was even withdrawn by the British king for fear popular reaction. Also, France never brought up the subject of asylum with the deposed tsar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "36100324",
"title": "Tsarist bureaucracy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "The Tsarist bureaucracy, alongside the military, the judiciary and the Russian Orthodox Church, played a major role in solidifying and maintaining the rule of the Tsars in the Tsardom of Russia (1547–1721) and in the Russian Empire (1721–1917). In the 19th century, the forces of change brought on by the Industrial Revolution propelled many countries, especially in Europe, to significant social changes. However, due to the conservative nature of the Tsarist regime and its desire to maintain power and control, social change in Russia lagged behind that of Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14115",
"title": "History of Russia",
"section": "Section::::Russian Empire (1721–1917).:Ruling the Empire (1725–1825).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Innovative tsars such as Peter the Great and Catherine the Great brought in Western experts, scientists, philosophers, and engineers. Powerful Russians resented their privileged positions and alien ideas. The backlash was especially severe after the Napoleonic wars. It produced a powerful anti-western campaign that \"led to a wholesale purge of Western specialists and their Russian followers in universities, schools, and government service.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "48738",
"title": "1905 Russian Revolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "The 1905 revolution was spurred by the Russian defeat in the Russo-Japanese war (1904–1905), but also by the growing realisation by the people of the need for reform, after politicians such as Sergei Witte failed to accomplish this. While the Tsar managed to keep his rule, the events foreshadowed those of the Russian revolutions in 1917, which resulted in the overthrow of the monarchy, execution of the royal family, and creation of the Soviet Union by the Bolsheviks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20611504",
"title": "Russian Empire",
"section": "Section::::History.:First half of the nineteenth century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 809,
"text": "The liberal tsar was replaced by his younger brother, Nicholas I (1825–1855), who at the beginning of his reign was confronted with an uprising. The background of this revolt lay in the Napoleonic Wars, when a number of well-educated Russian officers travelled in Europe in the course of military campaigns, where their exposure to the liberalism of Western Europe encouraged them to seek change on their return to autocratic Russia. The result was the Decembrist revolt (December 1825), the work of a small circle of liberal nobles and army officers who wanted to install Nicholas' brother as a constitutional monarch. But the revolt was easily crushed, leading Nicholas to turn away from the modernization program begun by Peter the Great and champion the doctrine of Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17448232",
"title": "France–Russia relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Russia was again hostile when the Revolutions of 1848 broke out across Europe, bringing Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte (later Emperor Napoleon III) to power in France. Napoleon III favoured a \"policy of nationalities\" (\"principe des nationalités\") or support to national revolutions in multinational countries like Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, something fervently opposed by the Tsarist regime in Russia. France's challenges to Russia's influence led France to participate in the Crimean War, which saw French troops invade the Crimean peninsula. The war ended in Russia's defeat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "560481",
"title": "Franco-Russian Alliance",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1172,
"text": "Relying on Russian support, France intensified its colonial policy. After the Fashoda Incident of 1898 with Great Britain, it endeavored even more to strengthen the alliance with Russia. The alliance with France also facilitated the tsarist government’s expansion into Manchuria in the 1890s. During the preparatory period and the first years of the existence of the Russo-French Alliance, the determining role was played by Russia, but in time the situation altered. By constantly receiving new loans from France, Russian tsarism gradually fell into financial dependence on French imperialism. Prior to World War I, the cooperation of the general staffs of both countries assumed closer forms. In 1912 a Russo-French naval convention was signed. Russia and France entered the war united by the treaty of alliance. This had a significant effect on the course and outcome of the war since it forced Germany from the first days of the war to fight on two fronts. This led to the defeat of Germany the battle of the Marne, to the collapse of the Schlieffen Plan, and finally to the defeat of Germany. The Russo-French Alliance was nullified by the Soviet government in 1917.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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] | null |
4ggd4j
|
is my reflection what others truly see?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_ watch this video, it will explain everything. VSauce is amazing and he explains in very great detail why we look different in pictures than mirrors!",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "25269475",
"title": "Sense data",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Consider a reflection which appears to us in a mirror. There is nothing corresponding to the reflection in the world external to the mind (for our reflection appears to us as the image of a human being apparently located inside a wall, or a wardrobe). The appearance is therefore a mental object, a sense datum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "20545",
"title": "Mirror",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Fine art.:Paintings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Painters depicting someone gazing into a mirror often also show the person's reflection. This is a kind of abstraction—in most cases the angle of view is such that the person's reflection should not be visible. Similarly, in movies and still photography an actor or actress is often shown ostensibly looking at him- or herself in the mirror, and yet the reflection faces the camera. In reality, the actor or actress sees only the camera and its operator in this case, not their own reflection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3153635",
"title": "Mirrored-self misidentification",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1087,
"text": "Mirrored-self misidentification is the delusional belief that one's reflection in the mirror is another person – typically a younger or second version of one's self, a stranger, or a relative. This delusion occurs most frequently in patients with dementia and an affected patient maintains the ability to recognize others' reflections in the mirror. It is caused by right hemisphere cranial dysfunction that results from traumatic brain injury, stroke, or general neurological illness. It is an example of a monothematic delusion, a condition in which all abnormal beliefs have one common theme, as opposed to a polythematic delusion, in which a variety of unrelated delusional beliefs exist. This delusion is also classified as one of the delusional misidentification syndromes (DMS). A patient with a DMS condition consistently misidentifies places, objects, persons, or events. DMS patients are not aware of their psychological condition, are resistant to correction and their conditions are associated with brain disease – particularly right hemisphere brain damage and dysfunction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422247",
"title": "Self-awareness",
"section": "Section::::Psychology.:Developmental stages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "BULLET::::- Level 2: Situation. At this point an individual can link the movements on the mirror to what is perceived within their own body. This is the first hint of self-exploration on a projected surface where what is visualized on the mirror is special to the self.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "976335",
"title": "Mirror test",
"section": "Section::::Rouge test.:Methodological flaws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "On a more general level, it remains debatable whether recognition of one's mirror image implies self-awareness. Likewise, the converse may also be false—one may hold self-awareness, but not present a positive result in a mirror test.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1904373",
"title": "Transformation (function)",
"section": "Section::::Reflection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "A reflection is a map that transforms an object into its mirror image with respect to a \"mirror\", which is a hyperplane of fixed points in the geometry. For example, a reflection of the small Latin letter p with respect to a vertical line would look like a \"q\". In order to reflect a planar figure one needs the \"mirror\" to be a line (\"axis of reflection\" or \"axis of symmetry\"), while for reflections in the three-dimensional space one would use a plane (the \"plane of reflection\" or \"symmetry\") for a mirror. Reflection may be considered as the limiting case of inversion as the radius of the reference circle increases without bound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9875832",
"title": "Mirroring (psychology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "Mirroring is the subconscious replication of another person's nonverbal signals. This concept takes place in everyday interactions, and often goes unnoticed by both the person enacting the mirroring behaviors as well as the individual who is being mirrored. The activation of mirror neurons takes place within the individual who begins to mirror another's movements, and allows them a greater connection and understanding with the individual who they are mirroring, as well as allowing the individual who is being mirrored to feel a stronger connection with the other individual. Mirroring is distinct from conscious imitation under the premise that while the latter is a conscious, typically overt effort to copy another person, mirroring is subconsciously done during the act and often goes unnoticed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
x42ep
|
Which military battle has the biggest whitewash?
|
[
{
"answer": "The one that occurred prior to 1992 that immediately comes to mind is Operation Desert Storm. Coalition forces had massive advantages in air power, technology, sea power, and supply. I don't remember the exact casualties but coalition forces suffered only a few hundred killed compared to tens of thousands for the Iraqis. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Er, can you define \"whitewash\"? I use it as a synonym for \"coverup\", but you appear to be using it as \"drubbing\". Is this a use I'm not familiar with?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Battle of the Pyramids (21 July, 1798) comes to mind. 25,000 French fought against 6,000 mamelukes and 15,000-40,000 (more likely on the lower end) fellahin. The mameluke's medieval tactics and technology went up against a prime late 18th century European force. As a result, Bonaparte suffered merely 29 killed and 260 wounded, while the Mamelukes lost 2,000 and several thousand fellahin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Much older than the other examples here, but I've always been a fan of the Battle of Watling Street (_URL_0_). Basically, a British popular uprising disrupts Roman governance of Briton, destroys a few cities and routes a legion. \n\nUltimately, the commander of Legion XIV, plus some scavenged unit elements make a stand against Boudica's mob. That's 10,000 Romans v. 100,000 to 230,000 Britons. \n\nIt was a bloodbath; according to Tacitus, the Romans suffered 400 casualties to the 80,000 the Britons took and decisively ended Boudica's uprising.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The one that is probably closest to my expertize is the Battle of Sand Creek which was perpetrated by Rev. Col. John Milton Chivington on November 29th 1864. Chivington came home to a hero's welcome, and his company promenaded down Denver streets with the trophies they took, scrotums amongst other trinkets. Eventually, Silas Soule--because no one would listen to Native Peoples--spilled the beans, and the horrors of the massacre of 300 (conservative number) unarmed men, women, and children became known. Soule would get a bullet to the back of his head for telling what actually happened. Chivington was disgraced, but he was still celebrated for a number of years amongst Methodists. The massacre is still sometimes, though this is fading, still portrayed as a battle. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18105189",
"title": "Battle of Palan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The Battle of Palan (1 September 1883) was one of several clashes between the Tonkin Expeditionary Corps and Liu Yongfu's Black Flag Army during the Tonkin campaign (1883–1886). The battle took place during the period of increasing tension between France and China that eventually culminated in the Sino-French War (August 1884–April 1885).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22464926",
"title": "Battle of Big Dry Wash",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "The Battle of Big Dry Wash was fought on July 17, 1882, between troops of the United States Army's 3rd Cavalry Regiment and 6th Cavalry Regiment and members of the White Mountain Apache tribe.The location of the battle was called \"\"Big Dry Wash\"\" in Major Evans' official report, but later maps called the location \"\"Big Dry Fork\"\", which is how it is cited in the four Medal of Honor citations that resulted from the battle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5632685",
"title": "Battle of Myton",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "The Battle of Myton, nicknamed the Chapter of Myton or The White Battle because of the number of clergy involved, was a major engagement in the First Scottish War of Independence, fought in Yorkshire on 20 September 1319.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1353460",
"title": "Battle of White Hall",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "The Battle of White Hall, also called the Battle of White Hall Ferry, took place on December 16, 1862, in Wayne County, North Carolina, as part of the Union expedition to Goldsboro, North Carolina, during the American Civil War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "404509",
"title": "Battle of White Plains",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "The Battle of White Plains was a battle in the New York and New Jersey campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought on October 28, 1776, near White Plains, New York. Following the retreat of George Washington's Continental Army northward from New York City, British General William Howe landed troops in Westchester County, intending to cut off Washington's escape route. Alerted to this move, Washington retreated farther, establishing a position in the village of White Plains but failed to establish firm control over local high ground. Howe's troops drove Washington's troops from a hill near the village; following this loss, Washington ordered the Americans to retreat farther north.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8461724",
"title": "Battle of Ani",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Vahram selected a body of 30,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry, forming three divisions, which fought against the Byzantines, numbering 100,000. A battle ensued in which the invaders were routed with great slaughter. The fight was so ferocious that the effusion of blood flowing into the Akhurian River is said to have coloured its waters completely red.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11949250",
"title": "Battle of Suiyang",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The Battle of Suiyang () was a battle in Suiyang during the An Lushan Rebellion, between the rebel An Lushan's Yan army and the loyalist forces of the Tang army. Although the battle was ultimately won by Yan, it suffered a major loss of manpower and time. The battle was noted for the Tang army's determination to fight to the last man, and also due to the cannibalism that occurred during the siege.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
8jn7ef
|
how can shows like saturday night live use the names of real companies when other shows have to cover logos and make up fake names.
|
[
{
"answer": "Because it is considered Parody. A parody is a work that ridicules another, usually well-known work, by imitating it in a comic way. Judges understand that, by its nature, parody demands some taking from the original work being parodied. Unlike other forms of fair use, a fairly extensive use of the original work is permitted in a parody in order to “conjure up” the original.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The answer is twofold:\n\n1. The desire not to give free advertising.\n2. The desire not to get sued.\n\nIt would be perfectly legal, and within all bounds of fair use to show someone drinking a Coke on a TV show without Coca-Cola's permission. However, just because someone wouldn't win a lawsuit, doesn't mean they can't still sue you and cost you money. If Coca-Cola doesn't want their product displayed on your show, they can still make your life a legal hell if you do it anyway.\n\nAnd of course, some usages wouldn't be covered by fair use, and there are lots of grey areas. It is simply easier to just make genericized products for use in your show unless you've been paid for explicit product placement.\n\nWhy does SNL get away with it? Well, they have additional parody protection for fair use, but most important it is worth the risk. As a show doing parody, it wouldn't be as hard hitting if they used fake products instead of real ones. So they take on some increased risk.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": " > I’ve heard that it has something to do with the satirical\n\nWhile some people will tell you this, it **not** the primary reason.\n\nFor the most part, it is not a legal thing at all. Brand names are protected by trademarks, but unlike a copyright or patent, they don't stop other people from using that name. What they do is prevent people from using that name deceptively. If you have a popular restaurant, I can't open one with the same or a very similar name, hoping to trick people they are related. Trademarks are only about making sure consumers aren't fooled. There are a few other legal restrictions, you can't slander a brand (which satire can protect against), you can't make it appear the brand is endorsing you, but beyond that, they are fair game.\n\nHowever, there are a lot of good reasons a TV show might **choose** not to use brand names.\n\nBrand names complicate the networks' advertising model. If an episode prominently features Coke, Pepsi isn't going to want to pay for commercials...and Coke no longer has to. Using generic or fictional brands allows the show to maintain neutrality. Similarly, it preserves the value of product placement..why give it away if someone is willing to pay? And when a company arranges for their products to be featured on a show, they don't want it to play second fiddle so another brand.\n\nCustomers often have strong loyalties, aversions, and preconceptions about brand name products. Your Chevy fan might scoff at a Lincoln shown in a good light, while your Budweiser drinker might be insulted when the show's buffoon is always holding a can. A TV show runs less risk of alienating their viewers if the lead drives a Vista Cruiser and the comic relief drinks Duff beer. Fictional brands also can allow for more creativity. You want a major corporation to crumble, or have your favorite coffee chain be a front for a secret government agency? It works much better if you aren't tied to a real brand.\n\nFinally, avoiding brands keeps shows from becoming dated. A show that is 10, 15, even 20 years old can still seem plausibly modern...especially if no one ever makes a phone call. But one look at Kramer drinking a Crystal Pepsi, you might as well be watching *The Dick Van Dyke Show*. Even when the brands are the same, the logos and packaging can change, and that can hurt a show's value in syndication.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2904368",
"title": "Fictional brand",
"section": "Section::::Purposes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 972,
"text": "Television programs made in Canada for the Canadian market are not permitted to show or mention real brand names except in certain specific circumstances. The CRTC's prohibition of product placement exists primarily to prevent producers from accepting payola, especially if accepting it affects creative control or leads producers to attempt to deceive the audience (by, for instance, implying that X Brand Olive Oil is the best brand because the host uses it). In some instances (especially cooking and home improvement shows) brand names are merely inked, taped, or edited out; in dramatic presentations, however, fake brand names may be used. The restriction does not apply to news or current affairs programs when mention of the brand is necessary to fairly and fully present the subject matter, and it does not apply to televised sporting events, where branding may be beyond the station's control. Programs produced outside of Canada are not subject to these rules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1039078",
"title": "Quinn Martin",
"section": "Section::::QM Productions.:Typical format of a QM program.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "Shows produced by the company were usually introduced with the distinctive voices of announcer Dick Wesson or Hank Simms reading the title of the series and then saying, \"A Quinn Martin Production.\" Images of the stars of the show, followed by the guest stars for that week, were shown and their names announced, followed by the name of the episode and various to-black effects. In some series, such as \"The Fugitive\" and \"The Invaders\", its backstory that led to the plot of the series, narrated by the announcer or the star, was told before the show's guest stars were announced. Most episodes were structured into four \"acts\" and an \"epilogue,\" each labelled at the start of each segment with the show title and the act number (or \"epilog\" near the end of the program).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2478945",
"title": "Fear (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Locations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "The locations shown in the show usually had their name changed to protect their location from vandals and show fanatics. However, some of the places allowed their name to be used, and some of the fans of the show used the Internet to piece together potential matches for the locations used in the show. The locations used in the show were:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38539",
"title": "Reality television",
"section": "Section::::Criticism and analysis.:\"Reality\" as misnomer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "In many cases, the entire premise of the show is a contrived one, based around a competition or another unusual situation. However, various shows have additionally been accused of using fakery in order to create more compelling television, such as having premeditated storylines and in some cases feeding participants lines of dialogue, focusing only on participants' most outlandish behavior, and altering events through editing and re-shoots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40438099",
"title": "Criticism of reality television",
"section": "Section::::\"Reality\" as misnomer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
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"text": "In many cases the entire premise of the show is a contrived one, based around a competition or another unusual situation. However, various shows have additionally been accused of using fakery in order to create more compelling television, such as having premeditated storylines and in some cases feeding participants lines of dialogue, focusing only on participants' most outlandish behavior, and altering events through editing and re-shoots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29584975",
"title": "Between Two Ferns with Zach Galifianakis",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "As the show's title suggests, host Zach Galifianakis interviews celebrities while sitting between two potted ferns. The set intentionally resembles a low-budget amateur production for public-access television, with on-screen graphics containing deliberate comedic errors. For example, in a 2014 episode, Brad Pitt's name is spelled \"Bart Pit\" and his film \"12 Years a Slave\" — the winner of the 2013 Academy Award for Best Picture — entitled \"\"12 Years a Salve.\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10482111",
"title": "The Show with No Name",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 972,
"text": "The Show with No Name was a public-access television cable TV show in Austin, Texas, hosted by Charlie Sotelo and the mysterious \"Cinco.\" Each show featured clips of TV, film and music ephemera along with commentary by the hosts and calls from a predictably unruly public-access television audience. The clips were usually video snippets that captured a crazy moment of ephemeral history, such as Ed McMahon drunk on \"The Tonight Show\", an early live TV appearance by Frank Zappa playing the bicycle and other found instruments, or the famously disastrous Andy Kaufman appearance on Fridays. Often they were obscure cult favorites only circulated underground, such as Heavy Metal Parking Lot, the profane bloopers of an actor in a Winnebago sales video, or Corey Haim's Me, Myself, and I. Many other clips simply presented a zeitgeist gone by: a trailer for an Akira Kurosawa or Sam Peckinpah film, a Bill Hicks comedy set, or Bob Dylan appearing on the Johnny Cash show.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
80p47a
|
What issues led President Harry Truman to relieve General Douglas MacArthur of command in April 1951
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, when you say \"not responsive to civilian control\" you're kind of glossing over a lot. MacArthur had given Harry Truman a string of deliberate insults, and repeatedly brushed up against insubordination. At the Wake Island conference he failed to salute the President, and generally treated him as contemptible. Things never really improved from there.\n\nThe biggest issue with MacArthur's behavior was that he couldn't accept that the President set policy, not MacArthur. This is where he really showed that he was 'not responsive to civilian control.\" MacArthur was told by the Executive branch that Chinese territory was not to be attacked, but rather than accepting that and moving on, MacArthur *repeatedly* asked for it to be changed, incited congressmen to cajole the President about it, and even sabotaged potential peace talks by broadcasting a demand for Chinese surrender without consulting the State Dept first. \n\nAnd there was also the war situation on the ground. At the Wake Island conference, MacArthur had repeatedly assured the President that China would not enter the Korean war. MacArthur then defied instructions to use only S. Korean troops near the Chinese border, but rather used UN (mostly american) soldiers and marines. This of course provoked China into handing the US it's worst battlefield defeat since First Mananas. \n\nIf you want more detail about the MacArthur/Truman conflict, I'd suggest \"The General vs. the President: MacArthur and Truman at the Brink of Nuclear War\" by H.W. Brands. If you want more info on the military history of the Korean War, a good recent book is \"The Coldest Winter\" by david halberstam. ",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "26869583",
"title": "President Truman's relief of General Douglas MacArthur",
"section": "",
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"text": "On 11 April 1951, U.S. President Harry S. Truman relieved General of the Army Douglas MacArthur of his commands after MacArthur made public statements which contradicted the administration's policies. MacArthur was a popular hero of World War II who was then the commander of United Nations forces fighting in the Korean War, and his relief remains a controversial topic in the field of civil–military relations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61227631",
"title": "Foreign policy of the Harry S. Truman administration",
"section": "Section::::Korean War.:Stalemate and dismissal of MacArthur.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 1603,
"text": "MacArthur made several public demands for an escalation of the war, leading to a break with Truman in late 1950 and early 1951. On April 5, House Minority Leader Joseph Martin made public a letter from MacArthur that strongly criticized Truman's handling of the Korean War and called for an expansion of the conflict against China. Truman believed that MacArthur's recommendations were wrong, but more importantly, he believed that MacArthur had overstepped his bounds in trying to make foreign and military policy, potentially endangering the civilian control of the military. After consulting with the Joint Chiefs of Staff and members of Congress, Truman decided to relieve MacArthur of his command. The dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur ignited a firestorm of outrage against Truman and support for MacArthur. Fierce criticism from virtually all quarters accused Truman of refusing to shoulder the blame for a war gone sour and blaming his generals instead. Others, including Eleanor Roosevelt, supported and applauded Truman's decision. MacArthur meanwhile returned to the U.S. to a hero's welcome, and addressed a joint session of Congress. In part due to the dismissal of MacArthur, Truman's approval mark in February 1952 stood at 22% according to Gallup polls, which was, until George W. Bush in 2008, the all-time lowest approval mark for an active American president. Though the public generally favored MacArthur over Truman immediately after MacArthur's dismissal, congressional hearings and newspaper editorials helped turn public opinion against MacArthur's advocacy for escalation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14458973",
"title": "Presidency of Harry S. Truman",
"section": "Section::::Foreign affairs.:Korean War.:Stalemate and dismissal of MacArthur.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 1603,
"text": "MacArthur made several public demands for an escalation of the war, leading to a break with Truman in late 1950 and early 1951. On April 5, House Minority Leader Joseph Martin made public a letter from MacArthur that strongly criticized Truman's handling of the Korean War and called for an expansion of the conflict against China. Truman believed that MacArthur's recommendations were wrong, but more importantly, he believed that MacArthur had overstepped his bounds in trying to make foreign and military policy, potentially endangering the civilian control of the military. After consulting with the Joint Chiefs of Staff and members of Congress, Truman decided to relieve MacArthur of his command. The dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur ignited a firestorm of outrage against Truman and support for MacArthur. Fierce criticism from virtually all quarters accused Truman of refusing to shoulder the blame for a war gone sour and blaming his generals instead. Others, including Eleanor Roosevelt, supported and applauded Truman's decision. MacArthur meanwhile returned to the U.S. to a hero's welcome, and addressed a joint session of Congress. In part due to the dismissal of MacArthur, Truman's approval mark in February 1952 stood at 22% according to Gallup polls, which was, until George W. Bush in 2008, the all-time lowest approval mark for an active American president. Though the public generally favored MacArthur over Truman immediately after MacArthur's dismissal, congressional hearings and newspaper editorials helped turn public opinion against MacArthur's advocacy for escalation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36623",
"title": "George Marshall",
"section": "Section::::Secretary of Defense.:Korean War.:Relief of General MacArthur.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Increasingly concerned about public statements from General Douglas MacArthur, commander of United Nations forces fighting in the Korean War, which contradicted President Harry S. Truman's on prosecution of the war, on the morning of 6 April 1951, Truman held a meeting with Marshall, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Omar Bradley, Secretary of State Dean Acheson and advisor W. Averell Harriman to discuss whether MacArthur should be removed from command.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3147297",
"title": "Adrian S. Fisher",
"section": "Section::::Return to Washington, D.C. and service with Dean Acheson.:Congressional Hearings on the firing of General Douglas MacArthur.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "On April 11, 1951, President Truman announced the dismissal of General Douglas MacArthur from his duties as Allied Commander of United Nations forces in the Far East. Following MacArthur's firing and the subsequent public outcry, the Joint Committee on Armed Services and Foreign Relations of the United States Senate conducted an inquiry into removal of MacArthur. Fisher was assigned the responsibility for the coordination of the State Department Congressional testimony regarding the firing of General MacArthur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "399959",
"title": "Bonus Army",
"section": "Section::::Army intervention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "During the military operation, Major Dwight D. Eisenhower, later the 34th president of the United States, served as one of MacArthur's junior aides. Believing it wrong for the Army's highest-ranking officer to lead an action against fellow American war veterans, he strongly advised MacArthur against taking any public role: \"I told that dumb son-of-a-bitch not to go down there,\" he said later. \"I told him it was no place for the Chief of Staff.\" Despite his misgivings, Eisenhower later wrote the Army's official incident report that endorsed MacArthur's conduct.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48596",
"title": "Douglas MacArthur",
"section": "Section::::Death and legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 153,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 153,
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"text": "On the other hand, Truman once remarked that he did not understand how the US Army could \"produce men such as Robert E. Lee, John J. Pershing, Eisenhower and Bradley and at the same time produce Custers, Pattons and MacArthur\". His relief of MacArthur cast a long shadow over American civil-military relations for decades. When Lyndon Johnson met with William Westmoreland in Honolulu in 1966, he told him: \"General, I have a lot riding on you. I hope you don't pull a MacArthur on me.\" MacArthur's relief \"left a lasting current of popular sentiment that in matters of war and peace, the military really knows best\", a philosophy which became known as \"MacArthurism\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
lu0j0
|
If you cut your lips off and didn't open your mouth until they had healed, would they heal together?
|
[
{
"answer": "TL;DR: Yes.\n\nWhile I admire clessa's work at trying to explain why, he's missing a major element. Collagen forming is not a (physiologically) fast mechanism, and would be destroyed by minor movements of your mouth, so unless you moved less than a catatonic mime in a coma your mouth would not heal together.\n\nSpecifically for your lips (although it holds true for most places in your body) external injuries lead to external hemorrhage which your body will try to fix with homeostasis. This is simply the formation of a platelet plug followed by a blood clot.\n\nThe platelet plug/blood clot is the (majority) of the \"sticky\" part of healing scabs and if you were squeezing two bleeding appendages together this is what would originally hold them together and allow for extracellular processes to occur between the two.\n\nClessa's link is relevant. But yes simplified it's Platelet -- > Blood Clot (Tissues now partially fused) -- > allows extracellular reactions (collagen) -- > tissue grows together.\n\nEverything above common physiology knowledge, you can google most of it. If you're really interested, hit up a library for this (or similar) books:\n\nVander’s Human Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function, 12th edition",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, I know it has been answered but, I figure if its anything like this situation it would indeed happen as you say. I have heard of a similar situation from the grandfather. While he was in a war, (I am unsure as of which I was told this story when I was young) He knew of men who had their palms slit, fingertips cut off, and hands bound in a fist. This would cause their hands to heal together and eventually their finger nails would grow out of the back of their hands. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "TL;DR: Yes.\n\nWhile I admire clessa's work at trying to explain why, he's missing a major element. Collagen forming is not a (physiologically) fast mechanism, and would be destroyed by minor movements of your mouth, so unless you moved less than a catatonic mime in a coma your mouth would not heal together.\n\nSpecifically for your lips (although it holds true for most places in your body) external injuries lead to external hemorrhage which your body will try to fix with homeostasis. This is simply the formation of a platelet plug followed by a blood clot.\n\nThe platelet plug/blood clot is the (majority) of the \"sticky\" part of healing scabs and if you were squeezing two bleeding appendages together this is what would originally hold them together and allow for extracellular processes to occur between the two.\n\nClessa's link is relevant. But yes simplified it's Platelet -- > Blood Clot (Tissues now partially fused) -- > allows extracellular reactions (collagen) -- > tissue grows together.\n\nEverything above common physiology knowledge, you can google most of it. If you're really interested, hit up a library for this (or similar) books:\n\nVander’s Human Physiology: The Mechanisms of Body Function, 12th edition",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, I know it has been answered but, I figure if its anything like this situation it would indeed happen as you say. I have heard of a similar situation from the grandfather. While he was in a war, (I am unsure as of which I was told this story when I was young) He knew of men who had their palms slit, fingertips cut off, and hands bound in a fist. This would cause their hands to heal together and eventually their finger nails would grow out of the back of their hands. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11270150",
"title": "Lip sewing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Sutures are often used to stitch the lips together, though sometimes piercings are made with needle blades or cannulas and monofilament is threaded through the holes. There is usually a fair amount of swelling, but permanent scarring is rare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2536716",
"title": "Dental extraction",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "Immediately after the tooth is removed, a bite pack is used to apply pressure to the tooth socket and stop the bleeding. After a tooth extraction, dentists usually give advice which revolves around not disturbing the blood clot in the socket by not touching the area with a finger or the tongue, by avoiding vigorous rinsing of the mouth, and avoiding strenuous activity. Sucking, such as through a straw, is to be avoided. If the blood clot is dislodged, bleeding can restart, or alveolar osteitis (\"dry socket\") can develop, which can be very painful and lead to delayed healing of the socket. Smoking is avoided for at least 24 hours as it impairs wound healing and makes dry socket significantly more likely. Most advise hot salt water mouth baths which start 24 hours after the extraction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25034832",
"title": "Lip lift",
"section": "Section::::Surgical procedures.:V-Y lip augmentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Another variation of the procedure is for a surgeon to make an incision inside the mouth to loosen the mucosa and vermilion, which are then advanced and secured, leaving a portion of scar tissue inside the mouth which may take 2–4 months to heal. Yet another technique uses a \"W\" incision inside the mouth to create several \"V\" flaps, which are then used in a V-to-Y plasty technique to advance the vermilion of either or both lips. This procedure leaves no exposed areas inside the mouth, but can be painful and has a lengthy recovery period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16159527",
"title": "Mouth infection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1070,
"text": "Patients with mouth infections usually complain of pain at the affected tooth with or without fevers. Inability to fully open one's mouth, also known as trismus, suggests that the infection has spread to spaces between the jaw and muscles of mastication (masseter, medial pterygoid, and temporalis). If an abscess has formed, swelling, redness, and tenderness will be present. Depending on the location of the abscess, it will be visible intraorally, extraorally, or both. Severe infections with significant swelling may cause airway obstruction by shifting/enlarging soft tissue structures (floor of mouth, tongue, etc.) or by causing dysphagia that prevents adequate clearance of saliva. This is a medical emergency and may require endonasal intubation or tracheotomy to protect one's airway. The development of stridor, shortness of breath, and pooling oral secretions may indicate impending airway compromise due to a worsening mouth infection. Other rare but dangerous complications include osteomyelitis, cavernous sinus thrombosis, and deep neck space infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7876057",
"title": "Lip reconstruction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Lip reconstruction may be required after trauma or surgical excision. The lips are considered the beginning of the oral cavity and are the most common site of oral cancer. Any reconstruction of the lips must include both functional and cosmetic considerations. The lips are necessary for speech, facial expression, and eating. Because of their prominent location on the face, even small abnormalities can be apparent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1317363",
"title": "Ankylosis",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "In 2014, Liliana Cernecca, a six-year-old girl at the time, was only able to open her mouth a couple millimeters after one of her jaw joints fused. She underwent surgery to correct her jaw ankylosis during which her jaw was operated on and unlocked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "245973",
"title": "Mouth ulcer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "They may form individually or multiple ulcers may appear at once (a \"crop\" of ulcers). Once formed, the ulcer may be maintained by inflammation and/or secondary infection. Rarely, a mouth ulcer that does not heal may be a sign of oral cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6h11h4
|
The new Assassins Creed game is set in Ptolemaic Egypt, and yet the Pyramids are shown in their pristine form with white slopes and gold caps. Is this an accurate representation?
|
[
{
"answer": "Herodotus indicates, in his *Histories* (c.430 BCE) that the casing stones were present and had inscriptions of strange characters on them. He doesn't seem to mention the presence or absence of a cap/capstone, which suggests that something may have been there but that it may not have been the original--assuming that we take his account as eyewitness and not merely a traveler asking about objects in the distance. If the casing stones were pitted or worn, cracked, or what have you, that seems to have not been noted.\n\nDiodorus Siculus 370-ish years later (60 BCE?) noted that some fragmentary stones laid strewn around the bases, but that most were in place, save the apexes. If they're Romans, they'd be closer to this era. It's noteworthy that the third pyramid's casing was supposedly half darker granite, not limestone, per William Flinders Petrie's (really old, and deeply Orientalist-tinged, but detailed) notes in [*The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh*](_URL_0_) from his fieldwork ca. 1882; this may be the \"Black stone from Ethiopia\" that Strabo in his Geography mentions in 20 BCE as covering the lower half, but Pliny's Natural History in 20 CE claimed that it was covered in marble then.\n\nAs to when the casings vanished, that's a matter less certain, and it may have [e: probably did, really] happened over an extended period. Flinders Petrie in his *History of Egypt* states that the 12th century saw the cannibalization of various stones from the pyramids for some construction in Cairo, but for the casings (see p.203). I see the earthquake of 1303 cited as a key moment for loosening many stones but also destroying or damaging many buildings in Cairo, and Sultan an-Nasir's construction of mosques up to the 1350s (which incorporate many of these stones) as a key culprit, with signature works of later rulers of Egypt as further collecting these stones. \n\nWFP's *Pyramids and Temples* (217) of course channels the old canard of Oriental Despotism in characterizing the destruction of the casing (\"The history of the destruction of the Pyramids really begins with the Arabs\") which should urge a big grain of skeptical salt in taking him at face value. It's also worth noting that Britain had effectively just taken control of Egypt (in all but name) when Petrie did his work and published it, so he's operating as a cataloger of conditions that British civilization would investigate and arrest, in a mould not wholly unlike Napoleon's encyclopedists. Imperial reach as a mode of salvation from cultural degeneracy for \"shared heritage\" (Biblical or Classical) is a common theme of the 19th century, from this to the Elgin Marbles and everywhere in between.\n\nMore recent chronologies may differ on the timing and extent of teardown of the casings, but I'd suspect that the presence of the stones at the end of the Ptolemaic era is believable--if only because the importance of the Pharaonic position would have precluded dismantling more so than, say, the Roman or Caliphate (or later) rulers who had no investment in that line of legitimacy. The golden apex may be the stretch, and the condition of the stones was not likely to have been perfect--many could be chipped, cracked, and broken, and a few perhaps removed (as noted by visitors). \n\nPlease, Egyptologists [and Classicists of all stripes], if you've got something more recent than an imperial archaeologist to provide fine grain of the casing's loss, bring it here and correct me! I'd love a more recent omnibus to reference. After all, a lot of people seem to think the Turks alone ground it up for mortar or gunpowder after 1517, because that's what a bygone era would expect the \"unspeakable Turk\" to do--but the reality is clearly more complicated even by the Victorians' own reckoning.\n\n[edit @ 7 mins - As a bit of background: the reason I go to Flinders Petrie is because his world is the one I know--he's an imperial scientist who corresponds a lot with those who work in Africa in the same era, which is also the era/region/subject I work on as a historian. But this question was one of many in the era of Biblical and Classical archaeology that many dwelt upon in the late 19th century. He was, like almost all such figures, deeply prejudiced and invested in Empire to one degree or another, which has various effects on their work that we must read around.]",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49118639",
"title": "SAK S 3",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "SAK S 3 (\"Saqqara South 3\") is the provisional, modern name of an Egyptian pyramid, which was discovered north of the Pyramid of Khendjer in spring 2006 during a field survey in Saqqara south. The structure appears on some old maps as a hill, without being identified as a pyramid. It is dated with some certainty to the 13th dynasty. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37130084",
"title": "Kamouh el Hermel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "The pyramid has been suggested to date to the first or second century BC due to similarities with architecture of tower tombs of the late Selucid era at Palmyra in Syria. It was considered by William McClure Thomson to possibly have been of Ancient Greek construction, however the lack of inscriptions puzzled him as he thought the ancient Greeks to be a \"\"scribbling generation\"\". Thomson also entertained the notion, along with Charles William Meredith van de Velde that the construction may have been Assyrian. René Dussaud later suggested that although the reliefs resembled the Ishtar Gate, the edifice was likely a monument to the hunting prowess of a member of Syrian royalty from the first century BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "864667",
"title": "Egyptian pyramids",
"section": "Section::::Number and location of pyramids.:Dahshur.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "This area is arguably the most important pyramid field in Egypt outside Giza and Saqqara, although until 1996 the site was inaccessible due to its location within a military base and was relatively unknown outside archaeological circles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48994203",
"title": "Pyramid of Athribis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "The Pyramid of Athribis was a small mudbrick pyramid, which was located at Athribis (Tell Atrib) in the southern Nile Delta, northeast of the modern city of Banha. It was located the furthest north of all the pyramids in ancient Egypt and the only known pyramid to have been built in the Delta.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57878398",
"title": "Sculptural composition \"Egyptian Pyramid\"",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "The Sculptural composition \"Egyptian Pyramid\" (Russian: Скульптурная композиция «Египетская пирамида») is a sculptural composition in Taganrog created by sculptor Dmitry Lyndin based on the story of Anton Chekhov \"Kashtanka\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2348117",
"title": "Meidum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Meidum, Maydum or Maidum () is an archaeological site in Lower Egypt. It contains a large pyramid and several mud-brick mastabas. The pyramid was Egypt's first straight-sided one, but it partially collapsed in ancient times. The area is located around 62 miles (100 km) south of modern Cairo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20084468",
"title": "Egypt 1156 B.C.",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Egypt 1156 B.C. – Tomb of the Pharaoh () is a 1997 adventure video game co-published by Cryo Interactive Entertainment, Canal+ Multimedia and the Réunion des Musées Nationaux for the Microsoft Windows and PlayStation (PAL region only). It was later released in North America by DreamCatcher Interactive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2khnt8
|
Are there any reliable sources regarding the nature and extent of slavery in West Africa before the beginning of the Atlantic slave trade?
|
[
{
"answer": "Slave trading was already going on in West Africa by the time Portuguese Explorers began going on slave raids into the Senegambia coast in 1444. Keep in mind the \"slave trade\" we think of today, with a well assigned system, rules and way of treating slaves already in place. Slaves where gained by raids and through war, to which they where often put out to work, though treated much better than the Europeans did, most slaves where used as servants and used for manual labor, though given much better nourishment and treatment.\n\nMany slaves would be treated as part of the family once enslaved, and would be allowed to eat and stay in the house of whoever family they where with. Slaves would be traded though, usually to lend off their talents or to just gain money.\n\nWhen the Portuguese arrived in 1444 they sent out slave raids on the Senegambia coast, somewhat successfully until West African (Mali) forces began naval scrimmages against the portuguese vessels, often using much lower quality boats, yet, due to their skill with poison arrows where able to put the Portuguese in an increasingly tough situation until in 1456 they send Courtier Diogo Gomes to establish peace between Portugal and the Senegambia coast ruling Mali Empire (though the empire was in its decline, soon to transform into the Songhai empire)\n\nin 1462, after peace was established, Portugal shifted its focus from raids and battles to trade with the Africans. Still desiring the original recourse they came for, slaves, they heightened demand greatly. The West Africans, seeking the valuable European goods began heightening their slave trade, taking slaves from rival nations and villages to be sold to the Europeans.\n\nThe Africans (those not being enslaved) and Europeans both prospered off of this, West Africans became wealthy off of the trade of rival nations and slave trade blossomed as a great new economic tool was established. \n\nIn short, the modern thought that Africans where \"Enslaving their own\" is incorrect. Slaves came from enemy and warring clans and nations, as separate culturally and individually as, say, Vietnam and China. This meant west african nations could now profit from war and battle with their rivals, and that they did. They where quite willing to trade with European partners due to the great goods the Europeans offered, and they traded slaves by their own free will. It was like any other business in a sense. Slaves already owned where traded to Europeans and more where captured after that. It was a mutually beneficial economic relationship, though it damaged the relations in west Africa greatly, throwing the nations into a time of constant tension.\n\n---\n\nSources:\n\n[The Royal Kingdoms of Ghana, Mali and Songhay: Life in Medieval Africa | by Patricia McKissack and Fredrick McKissack] (_URL_1_)\n\n[The African Slave Trade | By Basil Davidson](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10983626",
"title": "Slavery in Africa",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Demographics.:Extent of slavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "The extent of slavery within Africa and the trade in slaves to other regions is not known precisely. Although the Atlantic slave trade has been best studied, estimates range from 8 million people to 20 million. The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database estimates that the Atlantic slave trade took around 12.8 million people between 1450 and 1900. The slave trade across the Sahara and Red Sea from the Sahara, the Horn of Africa, and East Africa, has been estimated at 6.2 million people between 600 and 1600. Although the rate decreased from East Africa in the 1700s, it increased in the 1800s and is estimated at 1.65 million for that century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9963643",
"title": "Philip D. Curtin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "Philip De Armind Curtin (May 22, 1922 Philadelphia – June 4, 2009) was a Professor Emeritus of Johns Hopkins University and historian on Africa and the Atlantic slave trade. His most famous work, 1969's \"The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census\" was one of the first estimates of the number of slaves transported across the Atlantic Ocean between the 16th century and 1870, yielding an estimate of 9,566,000 African slaves imported to the Americas. Although subsequent authors have disputed this number (Joseph E. Inikori, for example, argues for an estimate of about 15 million), his work remains the most commonly cited. He also wrote about how many Africans were taken and from what location, how many died during the middle passage, how many actually arrived in the Americas, and to what colonies/countries they were imported.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4810937",
"title": "Arab slave trade",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "The history of the slave trade has given rise to numerous debates amongst historians. For one thing, specialists are undecided on the number of Africans taken from their homes; this is difficult to resolve because of a lack of reliable statistics: there was no census system in medieval Africa. Archival material for the transatlantic trade in the 16th to 18th centuries may seem useful as a source, yet these record books were often falsified. Historians have to use imprecise narrative documents to make estimates which must be treated with caution: Luiz Felipe de Alencastro states that there were 8 million slaves taken from Africa between the 8th and 19th centuries along the Oriental and the Trans-Saharan routes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27992",
"title": "Slavery",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern history.:Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "The trans-Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. These expeditions were typically carried out by African kingdoms, such as the Oyo empire (Yoruba), the Ashanti Empire, the kingdom of Dahomey, and the Aro Confederacy. It is estimated that about 15 percent of slaves died during the voyage, with mortality rates considerably higher in Africa itself in the process of capturing and transporting indigenous peoples to the ships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49005",
"title": "Atlantic slave trade",
"section": "Section::::16th, 17th and 18th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "It is estimated that more than half of the entire slave trade took place during the 18th century, with the British, Portuguese and French being the main carriers of nine out of ten slaves abducted in Africa. By the 1690s, the English were shipping the most slaves from West Africa. They maintained this position during the 18th century, becoming the biggest shippers of slaves across the Atlantic. By the 18th century, Angola had become one of the principal sources of the Atlantic slave trade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6559979",
"title": "Alexander Falconbridge",
"section": "Section::::The slave trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "After meeting Clarkson, Falconbridge published in 1788 \"An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa\", an influential book in the abolitionist movement. In this book he talked about the trade from when the ships first acquired captives from the African coast, through their treatment during the Middle Passage, to the time they were sold into hereditary bondage in the West Indies\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "622746",
"title": "Columbian exchange",
"section": "Section::::Influence.:Cultural exchanges.:Atlantic slave trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "The Atlantic slave trade was the transfer of Africans from primarily West Africa to parts of the Americas between the 16th and 19th century. About 10 million slaves arrived in the Americas from Africa. The journey that enslaved Africans took from parts of Africa to America is commonly known as the middle passage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fawtz
|
Why can't we directly inject ourselves with Glucocorticoids to speed up weight loss?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Cushing's Syndrome](_URL_0_) would be the main reason. Not to mention that the muscle wasting is counter-productive. You'd probably get better effect with growth hormone, because it's both ketogenic and anabolic (which is why it's considered a PED).",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "711932",
"title": "Lipoid congenital adrenal hyperplasia",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Glucocorticoids can be provided at minimal replacement doses because there is no need for suppression of excessive adrenal androgens or mineralocorticoids. As with other forms of adrenal insufficiency, extra glucocorticoid is needed for stress coverage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "530691",
"title": "Glucocorticoid",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Glucocorticoid drugs currently being used act nonselectively, so in the long run they may impair many healthy anabolic processes. To prevent this, much research has been focused recently on the elaboration of selectively acting glucocorticoid drugs. Side effects include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "530515",
"title": "Prednisone",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.:Dependency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Glucocorticoids act to inhibit feedback of both the hypothalamus, decreasing corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), and corticotrophs in the anterior pituitary gland, decreasing the amount of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). For this reason, glucocorticoid analogue drugs such as prednisone down-regulate the natural synthesis of glucocorticoids. This mechanism leads to dependence in a short time and can be dangerous if medications are withdrawn too quickly. The body must have time to begin synthesis of CRH and ACTH and for the adrenal glands to begin functioning normally again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6717614",
"title": "Deflazacort",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Deflazacort carries the risks common to all corticosteroids, including immune suppression, decreased bone density, and endocrine insufficiency. In clinical trials, the most common side effects (10% above placebo) were Cushing's-like appearance, weight gain, and increased appetite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "310429",
"title": "Cluster headache",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Glucocorticoids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "There is little evidence to support a long-term benefit from glucocorticoids, but they may be used until other medications take effect as they appear to be effective at three days. They are generally discontinued after 8–10 days of treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "530691",
"title": "Glucocorticoid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Glucocorticoids are part of the feedback mechanism in the immune system which reduces certain aspects of immune function, such as inflammation. They are therefore used in medicine to treat diseases caused by an overactive immune system, such as allergies, asthma, autoimmune diseases, and sepsis. Glucocorticoids have many diverse (pleiotropic) effects, including potentially harmful side effects, and as a result are rarely sold over the counter. They also interfere with some of the abnormal mechanisms in cancer cells, so they are used in high doses to treat cancer. This includes inhibitory effects on lymphocyte proliferation, as in the treatment of lymphomas and leukemias, and the mitigation of side effects of anticancer drugs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23416255",
"title": "List of drugs banned by WADA",
"section": "Section::::Glucocorticoids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 199,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 199,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "Glucocorticoids are a class of corticosteroids that affect the metabolism of carbohydrates, fat, and proteins, and regulate glycogen and blood pressure levels.They possess pronounced anti-inflammatory activity and cause alteration of connective tissue in response to injuries. The anti-inflammatory and connective tissue effects of glucocorticoids might mask injuries, leading to more serious injuries to athletes. Because of this and metabolic regulation effects, the administration of any glucorticoid orally, rectally, intraveniously, or intramuscularly is prohibited and requires a therapeutic use exemption. Topical uses of glucocorticoids does not require an exemption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6ugyvw
|
Could there be ancient fauna in caves on Antarctica?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most of West Antarctica is igneous rock that doesn't readily form caves. The West-Antarctic Rift separates the two halves of the continent, and East Antarctica is mainly a continuous platform of crystalline basement (igneous and metamorphic rock) but it is thought to have a cover of sedimentary rock including limestone in places. \n\n\nLimestone is the key to having caves due to the gradual dissolution of its calcium carbonate makeup by rainwater. Any chance of having enough dissolution to have formed caves is then a function of how much time there was when water was free flowing over the continent and able to chemically weather the limestone. I don't know, but it seems possible that there could be a rare few caves here and there, seeing as some limestone was apparently deposited in the Jurassic and Antarctica is thought to have been largely, if not completely ice free throughout the following period also, the Cretaceous. \n\n\nAssuming there could be a hot spring under the ice (a big assumption), you are talking about an environment that is still cut off from the wider world, with limited to no sunlight (the ice is over 4000 m thick in places), and no cycling of nutrients. I don't see how anything could survive like that. [Lake Vostok](_URL_0_), a huge subglacial lake in Antarctica is probably the best bet for finding any sort of 'living fossils' or life that has not interacted with a wider ecosystem for millions of years. There has been talk before of biologists finding DNA residues indicating microbes that usually live inside fish or crustaceans or other larger marine fauna, but it's as far as I can tell it's a bit tenuous to draw any conclusions from. Due to the nature of Vostok being under so much ice, contamination in the drilling process or sample recovery is another reason for scepticism regarding single studies from there. \n\n\nPerhaps it's of more interest to think that before about 50 million years ago Antarctica had warm climate despite moving into a polar latitude, that featured forests and dinosaurs (no dinos after 66 million years ago of course). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26641131",
"title": "Kombuisia",
"section": "Section::::Discovery and geographic range.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "There is no evidence of the exact stratigraphic location of \"K. antarctica\". The specimens are from the central Transantarctic Mountains and were found at Shenk Peak (AMNH 9562) and Graphite Peak (AMNH 9545). The fossils were found in the lower member of the 3 members of the Fremouw Formation. The lower member refers to the Early Triassic and Late Permian in some areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39070352",
"title": "Wildlife of Antarctica",
"section": "Section::::Animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Antarctica's cold deserts have some of the least diverse fauna in the world. Terrestrial vertebrates are limited to sub-antarctic islands, and even then they are limited in number. Antarctica, including the subantarctic islands, has no natural fully terrestrial mammals, reptiles, or amphibians. Human activity has however led to the introduction in some areas of foreign species, such as rats, mice, chickens, rabbits, cats, pigs, sheep, cattle, reindeer, and various fish. Invertebrates, such as beetle species, have also been introduced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26376332",
"title": "Antarctic microorganism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Antarctica is one of the most physically and chemically extreme terrestrial environments to be inhabited by microorganisms. Nonetheless, on February 6, 2013, scientists reported that bacteria were found living in the cold and dark in a lake buried a half-mile deep () under the ice in Antarctica. This finding was later confirmed by scientists on August 20, 2014.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "644586",
"title": "Mount Kirkpatrick",
"section": "Section::::Mount Kirkpatrick as a fossil site.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "Mount Kirkpatrick holds one of the most important fossil sites in Antarctica, the Hanson Formation. Because Antarctica used to be warmer and supported dense conifer and cycad forest, and because all the continents were fused into a giant supercontinent called Pangaea, many ancient Antarctic wildlife share relatives elsewhere in the world. Among these creatures are tritylodonts, herbivorous mammal-like reptiles that are prevalent elsewhere at the time. A crow-sized pterosaur has been identified. In addition to these finds, numerous dinosaur remains have been uncovered. Fossils of dinosaurs resembling \"Plateosaurus\", \"Coelophysis\", and \"Dilophosaurus\" were excavated. Mount Kirkpatrick holds the first dinosaur scientifically named on the continent: the large predatory \"Cryolophosaurus\". In 2004, scientists have even found partial remains of a large sauropod plant-eating dinosaur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53157559",
"title": "Urticinopsis antarctica",
"section": "Section::::Distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "\"Urticinopsis antarctica\" is a common species in Antarctic and Subantarctic waters. It has been recorded at McMurdo Sound, the South Shetland Islands, Prydz Bay, the Cosmonauts Sea, the Haswell Islands in the Davis Sea, and the Weddell Sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1571268",
"title": "Fildes Peninsula",
"section": "Section::::Antarctic specially protected area.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Eight separate sites on the peninsula have been collectively designated an Antarctic Specially Protected Area (ASPA 125) largely because of their paleontological values. The area contains outcrops with fossils dating from the Late Cretaceous to the Eocene, including footprints of both vertebrate and invertebrate animals as well as plant fossils with impressions of leaves and fronds, trunks, and pollen grains and spores. Sites comprising the ASPA are Fossil Hill, Holz Stream, Glacier Dome Bellingshausen, Halfthree Point, Suffield Point, Fossil Point, Gradzinski Cove and Skua Cove.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20378630",
"title": "Psammoactinia antarctica",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Psammoactinia antarctica was an encrusting, colonial cnidarian in the family Hydractiniidae that lived in the Cretaceous Antarctic. Within its family, \"P. antarctica\" had the unusual ability to agglutinate sand and silt grants, incorporating them into the basal layer and pillars making up the wall of the chambers of its laminae. It encrusted gastropod shells inhabited by hermit crabs of the genus \"Paguristes\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1emny8
|
What was the American reaction to the Argentine invasion of the Falklands?
|
[
{
"answer": "While this is not my area of expertise at all, IIRC the US was certainly less-than-thrilled to have to choose a side in that conflict. While with Gr. Britain the US had the \"Special Relationship\" and long-standing partnership, the Argentine military Junta was a nominal ally in the region. Furthermore, the British invasion was technically a violation of the Monroe Doctrine, which, believe it or not, remains in effect and has rarely been violated (the last time was in the 1860s). Secretary of State Alexander Haig, while seeking a negotiated truce, even suggested backing Argentina. [source](_URL_0_)\n\nUltimately of course the US backed Britain, based on their long-standing relationship and hostility to the military dictatorship in Argentina, but this period was one of serious turbulence in US-UK relations, since the next year the US invaded Grenada, a Commonwealth nation under Queen Elizabeth II, which in the UK caused similar hand-wringing as the Falklands Crisis had in the US. It was not until later in the decade that the famous Reagan-Thatcher partnership took off, with all the attendant consequences of that relationship. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "According to [this source](_URL_0_) the US sold sidewinder missiles to the Brits and after the conflict flogged us some cheap Phantoms. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1627776",
"title": "1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "On 2 April 1982, Argentine forces launched the invasion of the Falkland Islands (), beginning the Falklands War. The Argentines mounted amphibious landings, and the invasion ended with the surrender of Government House.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26381767",
"title": "Occupation of the Falkland Islands",
"section": "Section::::Establishment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "In the early hours of 2 April 1982, in the wake of violent anti-government riots in Buenos Aires, the military junta, which ruled Argentina, launched an invasion of the Falkland Islands. Faced with overwhelming Argentine force, Sir Rex Hunt (British Governor of the Islands) surrendered to Admiral Carlos Büsser (the Argentine amphibious force commander) at 9.15am. The next day, Argentina sent troops to capture and occupy South Georgia and the uninhabited South Sandwich Islands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67344",
"title": "Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic",
"section": "Section::::History.:National Reorganization Process.:1982 Falklands War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "On 2 April 1982, the Military Junta invaded the British overseas territories of the Falkland Islands and its dependency South Georgia in order to maintain power by diverting public attention from the nation's poor economic performance and exploiting the long-standing feelings of the Argentines towards the islands. Such action would also bolster its dwindling legitimacy. After short but fierce naval and air battles, the British landed on 21 May, and a land campaign followed until the Argentine forces surrendered on 14 June. 649 Argentines and 255 British died during the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17721893",
"title": "1982 British Army Gazelle friendly fire incident",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "On 2 April 1982, the British overseas territory of the Falkland Islands was invaded by neighbouring Argentina. The United Kingdom, nearly away, assembled and dispatched a naval task force of 28,000 troops to recapture the islands. The conflict ended that June with the surrender of the Argentine forces; the battles fought on land, at sea, and in the air had cost the lives of some 900 British and Argentine servicemen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16594665",
"title": "Argentina–United Kingdom relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:Falklands War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "On 2 April 1982, Argentina under President Leopoldo Galtieri launched an invasion of the Falkland Islands () and on 3 April 1982 this was followed by the Argentine invasion of South Georgia Island. This resulted in the British deploying forces to the Falkland Islands to fight in the Falklands War ().\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "578054",
"title": "East Falkland",
"section": "Section::::History.:1982 invasion and Falklands War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1041,
"text": "In April 1982, East Falkland was invaded by Argentina. Governor Sir Rex Hunt was informed by the British Government of a possible Argentinian invasion on Wednesday 31 March. Governor Hunt summoned the two senior Royal Marines officers of Naval Party 8901 to Government House in Stanley to discuss how to defend the Falklands. Major Mike Norman was given overall command of the Marines because of his seniority, while Major Gary Noott became Hunt's military advisor. The total strength was only 68 Marines and 11 sailors, which nevertheless was more than would normally have been available, since the garrison was in the process of changing over. Their numbers were reinforced by 25 Falkland Islands Defence Force (FIDF) members. The FIDF commanding officer, Major Phil Sommers, tasked the volunteer militiamen with guarding key points including the telephone exchange, the radio station and the power station. Jack Solis, commanding the civilian coastal ship \"Forrest\", operated his vessel as an improvised radar screen station off Stanley.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "447499",
"title": "HMS Cardiff (D108)",
"section": "Section::::Operational history.:Falklands War (1982).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "On 2 April 1982, the disputed British overseas territory of the Falkland Islands was invaded by neighbouring Argentina. The United Kingdom, nearly away, assembled and dispatched a naval task force of 28,000 troops to recapture the islands. The conflict ended that June with the surrender of the Argentine forces; the battles fought on land, at sea, and in the air had cost the lives of some 900 British and Argentine servicemen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2t8f0j
|
definition of parliamentary gov, totalitarian gov, and oligarchy gov?
|
[
{
"answer": "Parliament - The executive branch derives it's authority from the legislative branch (the parliament).\n\nTotalitarian - The Government has absolute control.\n\nOligarchy - Where power rests within a small group of people, whether it is Royalty, the Wealthy, the Educated, etc.\n\nNotice how one doesn't preclude the others. You could easily have a Parliamentary Totalitarian Oligarchy.\n\nThis is effectively what Germany became under the Nazis. They still had a Parliament, with the Executive Branch ultimately receiving their power from Parliament. But true power rested with Hitler and his Advisers. All of whom had near total control over the public.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37570",
"title": "Head of government",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "In parliamentary systems, including constitutional monarchies, the head of government is the \"de facto\" political leader of the government, and is answerable to one chamber or the entire legislature. Although there is often a formal reporting relationship to a head of state, the latter usually acts as a figurehead who may take the role of chief executive on limited occasions, either when receiving constitutional advice from the head of government or under specific provisions in a constitution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21542583",
"title": "Responsible house",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "In parliamentary systems of government with multicameral legislatures, the responsible house is the legislative chamber to which the government of the day is accountable (or \"responsible\", the origin of the term). A government remains in power as long as it retains the confidence of the responsible house.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25318118",
"title": "Government of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Devolved governments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Since 1999, certain areas of central government have been devolved to accountable governments in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. These are not part of Her Majesty's Government, and are accountable to their own institutions, with their own authority under the Crown; in contrast, there is no devolved government in England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54212893",
"title": "List of current heads of government in the United Kingdom and dependencies",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "In the United Kingdom, various titles are used for the head of government of each of the countries of the United Kingdom, Crown dependencies, and Overseas Territories. Following elections to the assembly or parliament, the party (or coalition) with a majority of seats is invited to form a government. The Monarch (in the United Kingdom) or governorlieutenant governor (in the Overseas Territories and Crown dependencies) appoints the head of government, whose council of ministers are collectively responsible to the assembly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "258724",
"title": "Political system",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "In geopolitics, a political system defines the process for making official government decisions. It is usually compared to the legal system, economic system, cultural system, and other social systems. However, this is a very simplified view of a much more complex system of categories involving the questions of who should have authority and what the government influence on its people and economy should.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13456",
"title": "Head of state",
"section": "Section::::Roles.:Executive role.:Appointment of senior officials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "The head of state usually appoints most or all the key officials in the government, including the head of government and other cabinet ministers, key judicial figures; and all major office holders in the civil service, foreign service and commissioned officers in the military. In many parliamentary systems, the head of government is appointed with the consent (in practice often decisive) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the head of government's advice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5531621",
"title": "Machinery of government",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "The machinery of government (sometimes abbreviated as MoG) means the interconnected structures and processes of government, such as the functions and accountability of departments in the executive branch of government. The term is used particularly in the context of changes to established systems of public administration where different elements of machinery are created.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3m5d8e
|
what would happen to airplanes during a massive power outage?
|
[
{
"answer": "Major airports have backup generators that would power them long enough for the planes to land.\n\nFailing that, planes can always talk to each other, and negotiate who is landing where. In fact, this is how it's done at small airports that don't have dedicated air traffic controllers. If there weren't any more planes going out (due to the power outage), it would significantly cut down on the amount of runway and air traffic, too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sure. See that long strip of pavement down there? Land on it. Everything else is pretty much just window dressing. It might be a little harder at night, but with precision GPS approach procedures, not really a problem. I've landed with no runway lights or landing lights before. Not exactly fun, but doable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mildly relevant: A few months ago I was flying into Cincinnati and I noticed that we had been circling the airport for about 30 minutes or so, but not coming in for a landing. At some point the plane stopped circling and they announced that they weren't able to get in touch with air traffic control so we were being rerouted to Dayton because there wasn't enough fuel to continue waiting for air traffic control to respond. \n\nWhen we landed in Dayton, the guy in the row in front of me happened to work with people at the Cincinnati airport and had gotten word that a lightning storm had taken out the power and somehow damaged the generators too. \n\nWe were given the option to get off in Dayton so I did because my destination was an hour drive from either airport. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're going to have to be more specific when you say \"massive\". Are we talking a region the size of NYC and surrounding areas (jersey & Connecticut)? Nationwide? Continent wide? Or the whole world? All would have very different answers imo",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57377245",
"title": "Parker County Airport",
"section": "Section::::Accidents and incidents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "BULLET::::- 19 July 2016: A Cessna 182J Skylane, registration number \"N2644F\", suffered an electrical failure and then lost engine power immediately after takeoff from runway 17 and collided with a fence and trees during the subsequent off-airport forced landing. The aircraft suffered substantial damage; one passenger suffered serious injuries, while the pilot and another passenger suffered minor injuries. The accident was attributed to \"\"An electrical system malfunction for reasons that could not be determined, and the subsequent loss of engine power due to the loss of the electrical boost pumps. Also causal was the pilot's improper emergency action following the loss of engine power due to his lack of knowledge regarding the engine's supercharger system.\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15136099",
"title": "Air Illinois",
"section": "Section::::The crash.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Several weeks after the crash the FAA grounded the company and began official hearings into the crash. The cause was determined to be pilot error after the plane's generators failed two minutes after takeoff yet the crew elected to \"push on\" to their destination, crashing in a pasture when the plane lost all electrical power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28810965",
"title": "Conviasa Flight 2350",
"section": "Section::::Crash.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The pilots of the aircraft reported control problems shortly before landing. Witnesses said that the aircraft struck power lines at low altitude at 09:59 local time, and went down on a wasteland where materials used in a steel mill were stored. The steel mill was evacuated following the accident. Dozens of workers from the steel mill and firefighters pulled the survivors from the burning wreckage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33911171",
"title": "Flight Express, Inc.",
"section": "Section::::Accidents and incidents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "On June 8, 2010, N2263S, a Cessna 210L, departed TPA for FXE. Shortly after takeoff the engine lost power. The pilot turned back toward the airport and the engine lost total power. At 20:39 local, the aircraft landed off airport and struck a fence which resulted in substantial damage to the fuselage and left wing. The pilot was uninjured. The NTSB determined the probable cause of this accident to be the total loss of engine power due to inadequate torque on crankcase bolts and crankshaft failure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3453620",
"title": "Powerback",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "While many aircraft are physically capable of performing powerbacks, many companies impose restrictions on the practice, mainly due to the risk of FOD (foreign object damage) from debris propelled into the air. This problem is magnified even more with planes having wing-mounted engines, as their proximity to the ground can exacerbate debris ingestion if powerbacks are used. Small metal objects are particularly dangerous as they can be propelled into terminal windows, employees on the ground or even the aircraft itself. Applying the brakes when backing up also has the potential to cause a tailstrike.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "294707",
"title": "Swissair Flight 111",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.:Probable cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "The rapid spread of electrical power failures led to the breakdown of key avionics systems, and the crew was soon rendered unable to control the aircraft. The pilot-in-command was forced to fly manually because he had no light by which to see his controls after the instrument lighting failed. The fuel-laden plane was above maximum landing weight; as the flight crew dumped fuel as per procedure, they lost all control, and the doomed plane flew into the ocean uncommanded. Recovered fragments of the plane show that the heat inside the cockpit became so great that aluminum parts in the flight deck ceiling had melted. The recovered standby attitude indicator and airspeed indicators showed that the aircraft struck the water at 300 knots (560 km/h, 348 mph) in a 20 degrees nose down and \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32401395",
"title": "Noar Linhas Aéreas Flight 4896",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "In July 2013, the CENIPA published its final report. It found that the left engine failed because a blade in the gas generator turbine had broken off shortly after the airplane lifted off the runway, causing extensive damage to the engine and loss of power. The failure was caused by metal fatigue originating underneath the surface of the blade. A fluorescent penetrant inspection carried out during maintenance six months before the accident had not revealed any abnormality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ahf3bf
|
Why don't WiFi routers interfere with one another?
|
[
{
"answer": "Thank you for your submission! Unfortunately, your submission has been removed for the following reason(s):\n\nYou can find the basic answer with a google / wiki search. Please start there and come back with a more specific question.\n\n\n\nIf you disagree with this decision, please send a [message to the moderators.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "WiFi routers interfere with each other all the time. You simply haven't noticed.\n\nAs with anything else that emits an omnidirectional electromagnetic wave, WiFi radio waves follow the [inverse square law](_URL_1_), which states that the intensity of the wave at a given point is proportional to the inverse of the square of the distance from the source. In practical terms, this means that the further you get from an access point, the faster the signal strength drops off. If for example we measure an intensity of _x_ at 1 unit away from the AP^0, at 2 units distance we would expect the intensity to be _x/4_; at 3 units away the intensity would be _x/9_; at 4 units away would be _x/16_, and at 10 units away would be _x/100_. As you can see, the power drops off very quickly -- you can see [a graph of the basic distribution here](_URL_2_).\n\nWiFi typically transmits at [100mW of power](_URL_0_), which isn't terribly much. Because of this and the inverse square law, the output power of a WiFi router drops to levels difficult for home WiFi equipment to detect fairly quickly.\n\nIn most normal installation scenarios, the WiFi access point you connect to is the _closest_ AP to your current position, and thus the AP with the highest signal (and hence signal-to-noise ratio). In a neighbourhood, for example, you'll typically be connecting to your own AP, and not your neighbours across the street. The signal of your local AP is going to be much stronger than that of the one across the street thanks to the inverse-square law.\n\nOn top of all of this, the protocols used in WiFi have a built-in robustness to them, in that if a packet of data can't be received due to noise, the sender will re-send the transmission. Because of this, you can get a coherent connection even if the noise level is somewhat high, however as the number of retries increases, your effective bandwidth will decrease.\n\nMuch of the above assumes that APs that could potentially interfere with each other are running in the same frequency range and channel. WiFI APs can use two possible frequency ranges (2.4Ghz or 5Ghz), and a variety of channels inside these ranges. Ideally, two APs running in the same frequency range but within different channels shouldn't interfere with one another -- but in reality the channels have a certain amount of overlap, and can interfere with one another. Thus in practice 2.4Ghz networks only have three non-overlapping channels, whereas 5Ghz networks have 24 non-overlapping channels. Most WiFi access points will pick their channels based on a measured signal-to-noise ratio on every channel, allowing it to choose the channel with the lowest noise floor, so as to minimize interference.\n\nIf you have the equipment, however, you can run an experiment to see interference in action. You need a pair of APs, both setup to run on the same frequency and channel. Then you need three computers -- one to act as a server, and two to act as clients. Setup one AP in the same room as your client computers, and the other as far away as you can reasonably get it. Connect client A to the nearby AP, and start a local large file transfer from the server. Connect client B to the far AP, and also start a local large file transfer from the server. What you should see is that Client A is able to sustain a much higher transfer rate than Client B^1, even though the two are transferring data on the same network, from the same server.\n\nHTH!\n\n-----\n^0 -- Access Point. \n^1 -- assuming Client B is able to sustain a connection at all. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "63973",
"title": "Wi-Fi",
"section": "Section::::Performance.:Interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "To minimise collisions with Wi-Fi and non Wi-Fi devices, Wi-Fi employs Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA), where transmitters listen before transmitting, and delay transmission of packets if they detect that other users are active on the channel. Nevertheless, Wi-Fi networks are still susceptible to the hidden node and exposed node problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63973",
"title": "Wi-Fi",
"section": "Section::::Performance.:Interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 933,
"text": "Wi-Fi connections can be disrupted or the Internet speed lowered by having other devices in the same area. Wi-Fi protocols are designed to share channels reasonably fairly, and will often work with little to no disruption. However, many 2.4 GHz 802.11b and 802.11g access-points default to the same channel on initial startup, contributing to congestion on certain channels. Wi-Fi pollution, or an excessive number of access points in the area, can prevent access and interfere with other devices' use of other access points as well as with decreased signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) between access points. In addition interference can be caused by overlapping channels in the 802.11g/b spectrum. These issues can become a problem in high-density areas, such as large apartment complexes or office buildings with many Wi-Fi access points. Wi-Fi 6 has greatly improved power control, and suffers less from interference in congested areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2928109",
"title": "Packet loss",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Wireless networks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Wireless networks are susceptible to a number of factors that can corrupt or lose packets in transit, such as radio frequency interference (RFI), radio signals that are too weak due to distance or multi-path fading, faulty networking hardware, or faulty network drivers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1057577",
"title": "Port triggering",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "When two networks communicate through a NAT-router, the host machines on the internal network behave as if they have the IP address of the NAT-router from the perspective of the host machines on the external network. Without any traffic forwarding rules, it is impossible for a host machine on an external network (host B) to open a connection to a host machine in the internal network (host A). This is because the connection can only be targeted to the IP of the NAT-router, since the internal network is hidden behind NAT. With port triggering, when some host A opens a connection to a host B using a predefined port or ports, then all incoming traffic that the router receives on some predefined port or ports is forwarded to host A. This is the 'triggering' event for the forwarding rule. The forwarding rule is disabled after a period of inactivity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3084295",
"title": "Linear network coding",
"section": "Section::::Wireless Network Coding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "The broadcast nature of wireless (coupled with network topology) determines the nature of interference. Simultaneous transmissions in a wireless network typically result in all of the packets being lost (i.e., collision, see Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance for Wireless). A wireless network therefore requires a scheduler (as part of the MAC functionality) to minimize such interference. Hence any gains from network coding are strongly impacted by the underlying scheduler and will deviate from the gains seen in wired networks. Further, wireless links are typically half-duplex due to hardware constraints; i.e., a node can not simultaneously transmit and receive due to the lack of sufficient isolation between the two paths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "970058",
"title": "Protocol Independent Multicast",
"section": "Section::::Sparse mode.:Multicast sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Once the other routers which need to receive those group packets have subscribed, the RP will unsubscribe to that multicast group, unless it also needs to forward packets to another router or node. Additionally, the routers will use reverse-path forwarding to ensure that there are no loops for packet forwarding among routers that wish to receive multicast packets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6624928",
"title": "Wireless ad hoc network",
"section": "Section::::Medium-access control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "In most wireless ad hoc networks, the nodes compete for access to shared wireless medium, often resulting in collisions (interference). Collisions can be handled using centralized scheduling or distributed contention access protocols. Using cooperative wireless communications improves immunity to interference by having the destination node combine self-interference and other-node interference to improve decoding of the desired signals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22o3c7
|
What happens when microwaving a lit match?
|
[
{
"answer": "Fire produces ions and free electrons as chemical intermediaries. Plasma is conductive, microwave induces currents in plasma, creates more plasma. Now you have a cup of plasma. Fairly clever really.\n\nHeat makes objects expand. In the case of rigid, brittle objects like glass, uneven heating often causes enormous buildup of stress and cracking. That blue-white ball is at thousands of degrees.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ionizing radiation(X-ray, Gamma rays) can ionize the air, because the frequency is high, it can hit atoms and take out small particles.\n\nThe lower-frequency radiation can ionize air too, but this is because of heating effects(If I'm not mistaken).\n\nWhy doesn't a microwave cause a plasma by itself? The energy required to ignite a plasma in normal circumstances(Room temp, atmospheric pressure) is *enormous*. It is easier, however, if you take a soft vacuum and try to ionize the trace gasses in there. This is how [Plasma cleaning](_URL_0_) works, which is basically an antenna transmitting 2.4GHz(Microwaves) into a low-pressure environment. That being said, if you build a microwave with an immense power output(I have no idea how much exactly) you *could* ionize air.\n\nA preignited plasma, however, is much easier to sustain and add energy to. Fire is a plasma. The microwave radiation adds more energy to the plasma, thus sustaining it and raising the energy until the power is turned off. Remember, a microwave can put hundreds of watts out in microwave radiation.\n\nAs you might or might not know, plasma is the state of matter with the highest enthalpy(Barring some of the more complex states). It contains a *lot* of energy and is therefore very hot. The glass you used couldn't handle the intense heat change from a match flame to a bigger plasma and cracked.\n \ntl;dr: Making a plasma is hard. Sustaining a plasma is easy. Fire is a plasma and the microwave adds energy to it. Glass cracks because of heat.\n\nIf you have more questions, don't be afraid to ask.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1248251",
"title": "Coulomb explosion",
"section": "Section::::Technological Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Coulomb explosions for industrial machining are made with ultra-short (picosecond or femtoseconds) laser pulses. The enormous beam intensities required (10–400 terawatt per square centimeter thresholds, depending on material) are only practical to generate, shape, and deliver for very brief instants of time. Coulomb explosion etching can be used in any material to bore holes, remove surface layers, and texture and microstructure surfaces; e.g., to control ink loading in printing presses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1678229",
"title": "Fire making",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Chemical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "An exothermic chemical reaction can generate enough heat as to catch itself or tinder on fire. Matches are small sticks of wood or stiff paper with a coating that undergoes an exothermic reaction when triggered by friction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10242007",
"title": "Tangential firing",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "The most effective method for producing intense turbulence is by the impingement of one flame on another. This action is secured through the use of burners located in each of the four corners of the furnace, close to the floor or the water-screen. The burner nozzles are so directed that the streams of coal and air are projected along a line tangent to a small circle, lying in a horizontal plane, at the center of the furnace. Intensive mixing occurs where these streams meet. A scrubbing action is present which assures contact between the combustible and oxygen, thus promoting rapid combustion and reducing carbon loss. A rotative motion, similar to that of a cyclone, is imparted to the flame body, which spreads out and fills the furnace area. The ignition at each burner is aided by the flame from the preceding one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12169594",
"title": "Go-to-bed matchbox",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Most incorporated a rough surface on which the match could be struck. All featured a small hole or finial, sometimes in ivory and always part of the design, into which the lighted match could be placed, rather like a miniature candle. The idea was that, rather than risk taking a lighted candle near to the voluminous fabric of a four poster bed, the lighted match on the mantelpiece would burn for some 30 seconds — just long enough for the person to snuff out the candle and get into bed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5299",
"title": "Carbon",
"section": "Section::::Precautions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "In nuclear applications where graphite is used as a neutron moderator, accumulation of Wigner energy followed by a sudden, spontaneous release may occur. Annealing to at least 250 °C can release the energy safely, although in the Windscale fire the procedure went wrong, causing other reactor materials to combust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56343748",
"title": "Laser welding of polymers",
"section": "Section::::Laser welding techniques.:Intermediate film welding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Intermediate film welding is a method to join incompatible plastic components by using an intermediate film between them. Similar to transmission welding, laser radiation passes through the transparent components and melts the intermediate layers to create a joint. This film can be made of an opaque thermoplastic, solvent, viscous fluid, or other substances that heat up upon exposure to laser energy. The combination of intermediate films and adhesion promoters is able to join incompatible thermoplastics together. The thin layer then generates the heat required to fuse the system together.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9318647",
"title": "Electron-beam additive manufacturing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Electron-beam additive manufacturing, or electron-beam melting (EBM) is a type of additive manufacturing, or 3D printing, for metal parts. The raw material (metal powder or wire) is placed under a vacuum and fused together from heating by an electron beam. This technique is distinct from selective laser sintering as the raw material fuses having completely melted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3zserj
|
In the LHC how are protons removed from the nucleus of an atom and kept together?
|
[
{
"answer": "The proton bundles in the LHC start out as hydrogen. To be more specific, they start out as hydrogen from the bottle shown in [this picture](_URL_0_).\n\nSince a hydrogen atom is just 1 proton and 1 electron, we don't have any pesky neutrons to worry about. So that's easy.\n\nWhat's also useful is that protons and electrons have opposite charge. That means that if you apply an electric field to a hydrogen atom, the protons will want to go left and the electrons will want to go right (it's just like driving a car with my wife). Normally, the attraction between the two is strong enough to keep them together (so far the wife analogy still holds, fortunately!), but yank up the electric field far enough and you can separate the proton from the electron.\n\nAfterwards, the protons are redirected to the accelerators. The LHC actually reuses old accelerators as early stages that already speed up the protons before they're finally deposited into the big one. As the protons are moving around, magnetic fields are used to keep them in tight bunches. When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field, it'll feel a force perpendicular to its direction of motion, so magnetic fields can be used for steering, whereas electric fields are used for accelerating. In the LHC, by far the largest part of the ring consists of magnets used to keep the proton bunches going in a circle and only a small part does the actual accelerating.\n\nAnd the electrons? We like to think we're simply discarding them, but in secret they're conspiring to influence decission makers to make the next big experiment an electron-positron accelerator instead of a proton-proton one like the LHC is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21961",
"title": "Nucleon",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Stability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Inside a nucleus, on the other hand, combined protons and neutrons (nucleons) can be stable or unstable depending on the nuclide, or nuclear species. Inside some nuclides, a neutron can turn into a proton (producing other particles) as described above; the reverse can happen inside other nuclides, where a proton turns into a neutron (producing other particles) through decay, or electron capture. And inside still other nuclides, both protons and neutrons are stable and do not change form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26850357",
"title": "Nuclear drip line",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "An arbitrary combination of protons and neutrons does not necessarily yield a stable nucleus. One can think of moving up and/or to the right across the table of nuclides by adding one type of nucleon to a given nucleus. However, adding nucleons one at a time to a given nucleus will eventually lead to a newly formed nucleus that immediately decays by emitting a proton (or neutron). Colloquially speaking, the nucleon has 'leaked' or 'dripped' out of the nucleus, hence giving rise to the term \"drip line\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1228638",
"title": "Chemical shift",
"section": "Section::::Diamagnetic shielding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "In real molecules protons are surrounded by a cloud of charge due to adjacent bonds and atoms. In an applied magnetic field () electrons circulate and produce an induced field () which opposes the applied field. The effective field at the nucleus will be . The nucleus is said to be experiencing a diamagnetic shielding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "391278",
"title": "Proton emission",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "For a proton to escape a nucleus, the proton separation energy must be negative - the proton is therefore unbound, and tunnels out of the nucleus in a finite time. Proton emission is not seen in naturally occurring isotopes; proton emitters can be produced via nuclear reactions, usually using linear particle accelerators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2158646",
"title": "Double electron capture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "In this mode of decay, two of the orbital electrons are captured via the weak interaction by two protons in the nucleus, forming two neutrons. Two neutrinos are emitted in the process. Since the protons are changed to neutrons, the number of neutrons increases by two, the number of protons \"Z\" decreases by two, and the atomic mass number \"A\" remains unchanged. By changing the number of protons, double electron capture transforms the nuclide into a new element.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30700166",
"title": "Orthoacetic acid",
"section": "Section::::Orthoacetate anions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "In theory, removal of one to three protons from the hydroxyls would produce the anions (dihydrogenorthoacetate), (hydrogenorthoacetate), and (orthoacetate). One author claims that sodium orthoacetate is formed by reaction of acetylene and sodium hydroxide at 220 °C:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24138",
"title": "Proton decay",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "According to the Standard Model, protons, a type of baryon, are stable because baryon number (quark number) is conserved (under normal circumstances; see chiral anomaly for exception). Therefore, protons will not decay into other particles on their own, because they are the lightest (and therefore least energetic) baryon. Positron emission – a form of radioactive decay which sees a proton become a neutron – is not proton decay, since the proton interacts with other particles within the atom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ptcez
|
How did copyright violation come to be known as "piracy"?
|
[
{
"answer": "The term \"pirate\" has long been used in a very broad sense for a private, illegal activity. \"Pirate buses\" existed in the 19th century (illegal, unlicensed, privately-run buses), and \"pirate radio\" in the 20th. The analogy here is about \"literary piracy\" or \"print piracy.\" The terminology in English came shortly after stories of pirates were becoming quite famous, and was applied broadly to many areas of illegal and unsanctioned activity. In the case of its earliest uses (print and pharmaceuticals, i.e. \"patent medicines\" and their counterfeiting) it was meant to imply that the \"pirates\" (who were the _producers_ of counterfeit products, not the _consumers_ of them like we think of it today with regards to the Internet) were outsiders to the correct social order, an order that needed to be defended.\n\nAnd it should be noted: the question to ask here is when the term _copyright_ became known. Because _that_ was the late-comer, it is a _response_ to piracy, an establishment of a legal right where one did not exist previously, and did not show up until the late 1730s. Intellectual property was a legal invention meant to \"protect\" printers and authors against piracy. \n\nA great book on the subject: Adrian Johns, _Piracy: The Intellectual Property Wars from Gutenberg to Gates_ (University of Chicago Press, 2009), esp. chapter 3 for the early history of the term.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18948365",
"title": "Copyright infringement",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:\"Piracy\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1298,
"text": "The term \"piracy\" has been used to refer to the unauthorized copying, distribution and selling of works in copyright. The practice of labelling the infringement of exclusive rights in creative works as \"piracy\" predates statutory copyright law. Prior to the Statute of Anne in 1710, the Stationers' Company of London in 1557, received a Royal Charter giving the company a monopoly on publication and tasking it with enforcing the charter. Those who violated the charter were labelled pirates as early as 1603. Article 12 of the 1886 Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works uses the term \"piracy\" in relation to copyright infringement, stating \"Pirated works may be seized on importation into those countries of the Union where the original work enjoys legal protection.\" Article 61 of the 1994 Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) requires criminal procedures and penalties in cases of \"willful trademark counterfeiting or copyright piracy on a commercial scale.\" Piracy traditionally refers to acts of copyright infringement intentionally committed for financial gain, though more recently, copyright holders have described online copyright infringement, particularly in relation to peer-to-peer file sharing networks, as \"piracy\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18948365",
"title": "Copyright infringement",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Copyright infringement (colloquially referred to as piracy) is the use of works protected by copyright law without permission for a usage where such permission is required, thereby infringing certain exclusive rights granted to the copyright holder, such as the right to reproduce, distribute, display or perform the protected work, or to make derivative works. The copyright holder is typically the work's creator, or a publisher or other business to whom copyright has been assigned. Copyright holders routinely invoke legal and technological measures to prevent and penalize copyright infringement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30098451",
"title": "Music piracy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "Music piracy is the copying and distributing of recordings of a piece of music for which the rights owners (composer, recording artist, or copyright-holding record company) did not give consent. In the contemporary legal environment, it is a form of copyright infringement, which may be either a civil wrong or a crime depending on jurisdiction. The late 20th and early 21st centuries saw much controversy over the ethics of redistributing media content, how much production and distribution companies in the media were losing, and the very scope of what ought to be considered piracy — and cases involving the piracy of music were among the most frequently discussed in the debate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18948365",
"title": "Copyright infringement",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:\"Piracy\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Richard Stallman and the GNU Project have criticized the use of the word \"piracy\" in these situations, saying that publishers use the word to refer to \"copying they don't approve of\" and that \"they [publishers] imply that it is ethically equivalent to attacking ships on the high seas, kidnapping and murdering the people on them.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18948365",
"title": "Copyright infringement",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "The terms \"piracy\" and \"theft\" are often associated with copyright infringement. The original meaning of \"piracy\" is \"robbery or illegal violence at sea\", but the term has been in use for centuries as a synonym for acts of copyright infringement. \"Theft\", meanwhile, emphasizes the potential commercial harm of infringement to copyright holders. However, copyright is a type of intellectual property, an area of law distinct from that which covers robbery or theft, offenses related only to tangible property. Not all copyright infringement results in commercial loss, and the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 1985 that infringement does not \"easily\" equate with theft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32881",
"title": "Warez",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "While the term 'piracy' is commonly used to describe a significant range of activities, most of which are unlawful, the relatively neutral meaning in this context is \"...mak[ing] use of or reproduc[ing] the work of another without authorization\". Some groups (including the GNU project of the Free Software Foundation, FSF) object to the use of this and other words such as \"theft\" because they represent an attempt to create a particular impression in the reader:The FSF advocates the use of terms like \"prohibited copying\" or \"unauthorized copying\", or \"sharing information with your neighbor.\" Hence, the term \"software pirate\" is controversial; FSF derides its use, while many self-described pirates take pride in the term, and some groups (e.g., Pirates with Attitudes) fully embrace it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22625",
"title": "Organized crime",
"section": "Section::::Typical activities.:Cybercrime.:Copyright infringement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 1066,
"text": "Copyright infringement is the unauthorized or prohibited use of works under copyright, infringing the copyright holder's exclusive rights, such as the right to reproduce or perform the copyrighted work, or to make derivative works. Whilst almost universally considered under civil procedure, the impact and intent of organized criminal operations in this area of crime has been the subject of much debate. Article 61 of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) requires that signatory countries establish criminal procedures and penalties in cases of willful trademark counterfeiting or copyright piracy on a commercial scale. More recently copyright holders have demanded that states provide criminal sanctions for all types of copyright infringement. Organized criminal groups capitalize on consumer complicity, advancements in security and anonymity technology, emerging markets and new methods of product transmission, and the consistent nature of these provides a stable financial basis for other areas of organized crime.\n",
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6ce0l3
|
What would happen if the Earth's oceans were replaced with fresh water?
|
[
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"answer": "Nearly every salt water ecosystem would die off. In the resulting food shortage and mass emigration from communities that relied on fish the original fresh water ecosystems would likely also be in danger due to fishing demands shifting to whats left. The sudden decrease in the amoubt of salt in the world would mean a lot of the minerals and salts in the soil near/under water would dissolve, which would likely damage coastal ecosystems by depriving them of nutrients. All the animals on land that relied on salt water resources such as fish would starve (i.e. pelicans) and that would move up the food chain as everything loses several food sources. With all the oceans dead, the coasts dead, and everything involved with the coasts starving to death it is likely that humanity would face a second wave of famine and emigration. The newly emptied coasts would erode much faster than before. Assuming that all of the fresh water added is the same several bodies of water that had not previously mixed would suddenly mix (think of those photos of the borders of oceans, where there is a clear divison in the water^^^I was wrong about this). This would change the flow of some currents and alter the weather patterns of the world. With new weather patterns several crop yields would be altered and a third wave of food shortages would happen during emigrations from the brand new deserts. \n \nTldr: Ocean dies, things that need oceans die, weather breaks, its the apocalypse. \n \nAlso 3 people commenting before me are shadowbanned from the looks of it. \n\nEdit: The oceans meeting idea turned out to not be what those pictures I mentioned were",
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"answer": "Likely, the largest extinction event on record. This would start in the oceans, then spread to life on land as the entire planet responded to the changed ocean content.\n\nImagine how glass in car windows is different from your phone screen. The entire planet works with the car windows, and all life depends on them staying fairly consistent. Even though the material is still glass, the phone screen isn't the same. So different wavelengths of light will get through the new glass, the glass will react with heat differently, etc. \n\nThe salt content in the oceans is extremely large, and changes how the water behaves when subjected to temperature, etc. In a smaller body (like big lakes or fairly isolated seas) life would go on after an initial local mass death. Key species for that local body would be replaced over time both on land and in the water.",
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"answer": "I think it's important to consider what you mean by replaced. After the switch, are the dead halophiles still around? Does the fresh water include freshwater ecology?\n\nJust replacing the oceans with *salt water*, but not replacing the life in it, would have a huge impact. Most of the world's oxygen comes from algae, not trees. A suddenly sterile sea would change the composition of the atmosphere everywhere.",
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"answer": "* Most macro sea life would die rather immediately. Land animals dependent on sea life could also face extinction\n\n* The heat capacity of fresh water is higher than that of salt water, which means the oceans could absorb more heat in the spring/summer and release in Autumn/winter while maintaining a more steady temp. themselves.\n\n* Fresh water freezes at a temperature 2°C warmer that saltwater. This would likely increase the extent, thickness, and duration of the polar caps.\n \n* Salinity driven ocean circulation patterns would cease — leading to a redistribution of the ocean heat content with resulting climate effects.\n\n* Oceanic mineral deposits in equalibrium with salt water will find that equalibrium disturbed\n",
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"answer": "On top of all the horrific things others have mentioned, it would cause the shutdown of thermohaline circulation, which helps warm the higher latitudes. It's been hypothesized that a slowing of thermohaline circulation was to blame for the \"Little Ice Age.\" If circulation were to shut down completely and permanently, it could lead to dramatic changes in climate. ",
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"answer": "Not a marine biologist but at least a few decades experience with running aquariums has taught me that a surprising number of plants, invertebrates and fish can survive in drastically different water conditions. Several fish species can survive in salt or fresh water.\n\nThe ocean is a VERY diverse eco-system with a lot of ability to \"self correct\" as minor cataclysms affect small areas or limited species and \"recover\" so that it is similar to what was there before. \n\nThe scale of change you suggest would wipe out most species and the ones that could remain in fresh water would have a whole host of new problems to deal with. \n\nThe large die-offs would cause the fresh water to become more toxic (ammonia, nitrates etc from the rotting dead things). The available food would be quite different and several middle chains in the food web would be broken.\n\nRivers inland would be Ok and some species may be able to move upstream to survive there but again you are upsetting a state system by doing so and may destroy that too. \n\nGiven a long enough time, the oceans would settle down to a new \"normal\" and would be teeming with life but would look quite different from what we have now.\n\n\nOf course the same is true of the rest of the planet. Humans have the power to destroy virtually every existing ecosystem, but even if they launch every nuke, it is likely that the earth would \"recover\" in a few million years and have a very diverse completely different ecology that likely would not include any species we have now.\n\nLife finds a way",
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"answer": "I have a related question which I've asked before but unfortunately never got an answer for.\n\nThe oceans get saltier from the dissolution of minerals on land as the water travels across it to the ocean, getting saltier with time. Do we know how long ago it was that they were fresh enough to drink?",
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"answer": "Well, for one there would be no shortage of potable water for the foreseeable future.\n\nTwo, all the salt water dependent marine life would eventually die out and any animal that requires that marine life to live will either find alternative sources for food or die out.\n\nBeyond that I haven't a clue.",
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"answer": "(looking in the comments you say the water was lacking salt from the beginning) Two huge issues not previously mentioned: Salt domes wouldn't exist and we couldn't mine the sea for salts. \n\nSalt domes are really helpful because humans use them to mine oil, sulfur, and salt. Additionally we use fresh water to flush out huge caverns that the chemical industry uses as storage tanks. This may seem trivial, but the cost is VERY low compared to alternatives and remarkably safe.\n\nThe salts in the ocean have been mined since the late 30's for bromine and magnesium as well as the salt being used to create chlorine. Without the magnesium from salt water, American airplanes would have drastically under-performed in the 2nd World War.\n\nOh, and also, lower salt means lower water density so ships would need to displace a larger volume of water in order to float the same weight.",
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"answer": "Rather than replacing and getting a bunch of answers about how most everything in the oceans would die along with things dependent on that life, I wonder how life on Earth would have evolved differently if our oceans were fresh water.",
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{
"answer": "well some fish will be able to adapt to it, however some fish would require the salt content of the water, in turn they would not be able to go through natural selection, which would create massive extinctions. An example of some of the handful of organisms that can survive in both types of water is the bull shark or other euryhaline fish. Salt water fish on the other hand require osmosis which if not used properly would cause the fish to die in salt water. For the fresh water fish they would eventually swell up and die.",
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"answer": "One effect could be that the price of lithium batteries would increase, as now the only way to produce lithium would be by mining it. One of the most abundant source of lithium is actually seawater.\n\nHere's an excerpt from an ocean research site I found:\n\n > \nLithium does not occur freely in the nature, but is found combined in small amounts in nearly all igneous rocks, in the waters of the many mineral springs and in seawater. Identified lithium land resources are about 13 milion tons (the sum of the lithium content in ores and brines). Lepidolite, pedalite, spodumene and amblygonite are the most important minerals containing lithium. Seawater, which contains 230 billion tons of lithium in total, has recently been paid attention as possible resource of this element.\n > \n\n[Source](_URL_0_)",
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"answer": "Aside from biological consequences, there would likely be a very significant physical effect on ocean circulation. Freshwater has a maximum density at ~4 C, while saltwater tends to increase in density as temperature decreases linearly.\n\nThis would mean that ocean mixing at high latitudes would be amplified during the formation and thawing of ice (or basically any region that would cross the 4 C threshold for a significant portion of the year). This would substantially change ocean circulation, perhaps increasing its intensity. Dissolved gases would likely get sequestered in the deep ocean more rapidly, but for a shorter period of time than the current length of ocean circulation (~1200 years).",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "21161137",
"title": "Water security",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "The Earth has a limited though renewable supply of fresh water, stored in aquifers, surface waters and the atmosphere. Oceans are a good source of usable water, but the amount of energy needed to convert saline water to potable water is prohibitive with conventional approaches, explaining why only a very small fraction of the world's water supply is derived from desalination. However, modern technologies, such as the Seawater Greenhouse, use solar energy to desalinate seawater for agriculture and drinking uses in an extremely cost-effective manner.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "156787",
"title": "Desalination",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Due to its energy consumption, desalinating sea water is generally more costly than fresh water from rivers or groundwater, water recycling and water conservation. However, these alternatives are not always available and depletion of reserves is a critical problem worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "28966352",
"title": "Sustainability and environmental management",
"section": "Section::::Freshwater.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1453,
"text": "Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the oceans and only 2.5% freshwater, most of which is locked up in the Antarctic ice sheet. The remaining freshwater is found in lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. All life depends on the solar-powered global water cycle, the evaporation from oceans and land to form water vapour that later condenses from clouds as rain, which then becomes the renewable part of the freshwater supply. Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the world’s wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster than marine or land ecosystems making them the world's most vulnerable habitats. Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water. In the industrial world demand management has slowed absolute usage rates but increasingly water is being transported over vast distances from water-rich natural areas to population-dense urban areas and energy-hungry desalination is becoming more widely used. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "18413531",
"title": "Sustainability",
"section": "Section::::Environmental dimension.:Environmental management.:Freshwater and oceans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 999,
"text": "Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. Of this, 97.5% is the salty water of the oceans and only 2.5% freshwater, most of which is locked up in the Antarctic ice sheet. The remaining freshwater is found in glaciers, lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, aquifers and atmosphere. Due to the water cycle, fresh water supply is continually replenished by precipitation, however there is still a limited amount necessitating management of this resource. Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the world's wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean, safe water. Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue (harvestable) and green (soil water available for plant use) water, and this applies at all scales of water management.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26515241",
"title": "Climate change and ecosystems",
"section": "Section::::Impacts.:Fresh water.:Combined impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "In general, as the planet warms, the amount of fresh water bodies across the planet decreases, as evaporation rates increase, rain patterns become more sporadic , and watershed patterns become fragmented, resulting in less cyclical water flow in river and stream systems. This disruption to fresh water cycles disrupts the feeding, mating, and migration patterns of organisms reliant on fresh water ecosystems. Additionally, the encroachment of saline water into fresh water river systems endangers indigenous species which can only survive in fresh water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "24179592",
"title": "Future of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Solar evolution.:Loss of oceans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "The loss of the oceans could be delayed until 2 billion years in the future if the atmospheric pressure were to decline. A lower atmospheric pressure would reduce the greenhouse effect, thereby lowering the surface temperature. This could occur if natural processes were to remove the nitrogen from the atmosphere. Studies of organic sediments has shown that at least of nitrogen has been removed from the atmosphere over the past four billion years; enough to effectively double the current atmospheric pressure if it were to be released. This rate of removal would be sufficient to counter the effects of increasing solar luminosity for the next two billion years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2056572",
"title": "Marine life",
"section": "Section::::Water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The oceans are also a reservoir of dissolved atmospheric gases, which are essential for the survival of many aquatic life forms. Sea water has an important influence on the world's climate, with the oceans acting as a large heat reservoir. Shifts in the oceanic temperature distribution can cause significant weather shifts, such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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71pw3p
|
why is it that we always see so many new awesome ways to fight cancer and yet it seems nothing of it is ever being used?
|
[
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"answer": "How would you know they are not used? Do you work in the field? Follow closely current actual used methods?",
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"answer": "There are three main factors here.\n\nOne is that medical treatments tend to get most of their news coverage when they're in early development, since that's when they're novel. It takes years for a new medical treatment to get from \"we're pretty confident this will work\" to mainstream usage, both because there are a lot of processes to follow to make sure it's actually safe and effective, and because when it's new it's really expensive and so the existing treatments continue to be used in some cases.\n\nThe second is that unless you're an oncologist, you probably have no idea what methods are actually being used to treat cancer. Some of them are things you heard about a decade ago and now are the best choice and are used routinely, but there's no reason for you to know that. Survival rates for almost all kinds of cancer have gone way up in the last few decades, and while some of that has been due to improved detection, a bunch of it is new treatment methods. The 10-year prostate cancer survival rate has gone from 25% in 1971 to 84% in 2011, for instance.\n\nThe third is that cancer treatment progress is incremental. It's incredibly rare that a new treatment or prevention method comes out and cuts the mortality rate for a kind of cancer in half or more. More commonly, a new treatment will come out that cuts the mortality rate by, say, 2 percentage points. For a common kind of cancer, that can be thousands of people per year that live when they would previously died, but it's not going to make that kind of cancer a non-issue. Cancer research is largely about stacking up a bunch of advancements like that, though, so that it can incrementally become less and less deadly.",
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"answer": "There's a lengthy time between Discovery and Application of these Therapies. Many of them are concerned with how they affect the Body after the treatment. Often these require Long-Time Studies that take, as the name implies, a really long time.\n\nSometimes they are used on what I understand is called \"Low-Risk\" Patients. Which basically means their situation cannot get much worse but they are at the moment healthy enough and thus they can apply for medicinal studies and experimental treatments.\n\n*One of the Doctors I frequently talked to was quite a cynic and I really enjoyed his \"No BS\" attitude. He told me once: \"You know, we could have 100% Success Rate with Chemo- and Radiation Therapy if we stopped the Treatment only after all of the Cancerous Cells were gone. Sure, most of my patients would be dead but I guarantee that there wouldn't be any cancer cells in their bodies when we are done.\"*\n\nSource: Most of my next of kin suffer(ed) from Cancer, spent many Days in Hospital on Visit, asked this Question many Doctors.\n\n*Also I do want to note that at least in Middle Europe and from personal Experience the Quality and Success Rate of Cancer Treatments has come a quite long way (ignoring the fact that each patients case and type of cancer changes the survivability rating drastically).*",
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"answer": "There is a huge lag time between treatment discovery and actual usage. Not to mention probably 90% of the discoveries you see in the papers never make it to the hospital, after testing reveals significant side effects, or that it doesn't work in humans only mice, or some other reason. \n\nAlso the non-science media likes to hype up discoveries far more than the researchers are comfortable with. Headlines like \"miracle cure\" and \"life saving treatment\" are rarely that, and even the researchers discovering them wouldn't describe them like that.",
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"answer": "I heard a great quote about this from a cancer researcher\n\n\"If you're a mouse, and you've got cancer, we can cure you\"\n\nThe wonder drugs work great on mice, which is when the media jump on it. Most don't work on humans. Those that do, don't get released for human use for another 10 years.",
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"answer": "Obligatory [relevant XKCD](_URL_0_)\n\nRandall did a great job of identifying the problem with new drugs - sure, they kill cancer, but they also kill you. There are a million ways to kill cancer that we already have, but killing cancer while leaving the host alive is another problem.\n\nThere's also the little problem that various types of cancer are weak to different things. It's like pokemon, in a way : you see a grass type, you use a fire move. You see a lymphoma, you use radiotherapy. There are many, *many* types of cancer, and they all demand slightly different methods of treatment.\n\nBack to the subject. So we find this new magic drug *VAPE420* that supposedly kills... idk, renal cell carcinoma cells really well. Eureka! Call the news! VAPE420 hits the headlines. We now have to make VAPE420 into an actual clinical drug. First, we make sure it doesn't kill too many normal cells in a petri dish. We then move on to mice. Does it kill them? No? Good. We then test them on healthy human volunteers. Phase 1. Does it harm them? Hopefully not! Good, they seem to be okay. We now test them on patients. Phase 2. Does it seem to work? Good. We now test it on even more patients. 3. Are there any major side effects etc? No? Great. We finally are able to sell the drug to the public, which starts Phase 4 of drug testing : feedback. This whole process can easily take 10+ years for *a single drug*. Congrats, you now have a single fire-type drug. We now need to make a water-type, a grass-type, a ground-type, etc etc etc.\n\n-------\n\nTl;dr\n\n1. There are many types of cancer.\n\n2. Different drugs are used for different types of cancer.\n\n3. Drugs that kill cancer can also kill you.\n\n4. Testing takes a long time so they won't kill you.\n\n5. Many types x long time = ?",
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"answer": "There is a long time from discovery to market, with tests, certifications and so on.\n\nThen, not all ideas pan out in practice.\n\nBut, there is a bright side. We are getting better and better at fighting cancer. We have not found the silver bullet that cures all cancer yet, but we are improving on all fronts. Leukemia, which used to be a death sentence, now has a 95% survival rate. This moves fast. If you ever get cancer, don't look at any information older than, say 6-12 months, because it's outdated.",
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"answer": "One analogy:\n\nImagine the cure to cancer is like a long complicated staircase up a mountainside that we want to build. If we contact a bunch of carpenters and saying \"I need stairs up that mountain\", we're going to end up with 100 separate staircases being built at the same time, and maybe one of them will make it to the top. Many will fail though, and even the successful ones will take years and years to complete the job.\n\nThen there's also the fact that each type of cancer is different. Not every mountain is the same, and eventually we'd like to have stairs up *every* mountain. The good news is we can apply some of the same designs in each new staircase we build.\n\nWe know this isn't the best way to get the job done.\n\nInstead, the way the treatment research works is \"We need stairs up that mountain, everyone build a piece and we'll put it together later.\"\nThis way, no single person has to complete the whole task on their own. Also, the pieces that aren't useful for one mountain can be useful somewhere else.\n\n\"Curing\" cancer is a complicated process. I'm not in the medical field at all, but here's some layman examples of what those pieces of the staircase might look like. Some of these are more \"solved\" than others:\n\n1. How do we identify cancer? *How do we make sure we avoid false negative and false positive tests?\n\n2. How do we identify how \"bad\" the cancer is? *How do we determine urgency and severity of treatment?\n\n3. How does cancer grow? How do the cells divide and multiply? What makes it so much different than regular cells?\n\n4a. How do we tell cancer *cells* apart from other cells?\n\n* What sets them apart from other cells? The recent article about Poliovirus being used to fight cancer notes that the CD155 protein is more abundant in cancer cells than normal cells. That's one example.\n\n4b. What can kill cancer cells *selectively*? \n\n* How do we kill the cancer cells without killing the normal cells? Is there something we can introduce to the body that ignores regular cells but still attacks cancer cells? How many mistakes does it make? Is it good at killing 50% of the cancer, or can it kill all of it?\n\n4c. Is there anything capable of finding cancer cells?\n\n* As far fetched as it sounds, things like nano-bots are a brainstormed idea for this. If you can introduce a tool that is capable of searching out cancer cells and ignoring regular cells, then you can try and use them to kill the cancer cells.\n\n* Again, the recent article about Poliovirus mentions that the virus uses the CD155 protein as a receptor - which means it latches onto it. Since CD155 is more abundant in cancer cells, this ends up making Poliovirus \"target\" cancer cells more often than normal cells. The virus then does it's normal virus thing and starts a fight with the cell. Eventually white blood cells step as the club bouncers and throw both out the door.\n\n4d. What is reliable at killing cancer cells?\n\n* IF we can find the cancer cells, what does it take to completely kill them? Some treatments just stop them from growing, and the tumour remains there until the cells die naturally and (maybe) get carried away. A benign tumour can still be a health issue.\n\n5. How do we fix the damage the cancer caused?\n\n* How do we keep the cancer from killing the patient?\n\n6. How do we fix the damage that the cure caused?\n\n* Whether we send in an army, a single spy, or a targeted strike-force, there's going to be some amount of collateral damage. How do we fix it? Chemo is an example of sending in an army.\n\n7a. How do we prevent cancer from reappearing?\n\n* The poliovirus article has some information about the polio virus \"sticking around\" and helping the white blood cells identify cancer. It's like a snitch pointing out the problematic cells at the party so they can get thrown out before they hurt anyone.\n\n7b. How do we make sure the \"prevention\" isn't damaging normal cells?\n\n8. How do we prevent cancer from manifesting in already healthy patients?\n\n",
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"answer": "Oncology BioPharm employee here:\n\nAwesome research is done every single day. Some at my company, some at the university level, some at government labs. Finding the 'cure' is relatively easy. Developing it, is not.\n\nYou need to do ph0 or tox trials, this involves animal studies. Many great drugs die right here due to high toxicity. Remember cancer cells ARE human cells. The key is to be able to remove only cancer cells. Lots go away here.\n\nThen you need to do ph1 trials, this takes data from tox trials and starts dosing people, here you'll find out if the animal models predict toxicity to people. Lots fail here due to unexpected things.\n\nThen ph2 comes up, now you're looking to see if this treatment actually works. \"works\" is the key point. You can't do a null placebo, so you need to 'work' better than the standard of care. Lots fail here.\n\nThen ph3 which expands on dosing knowledge from ph2. Lots fail here.\n\nAll of this takes years. Typically from discovery, you need a good 10+ years to do the trials above, plus the insane amount of characterization of the molecule and ALL of the degradation pathways with complete stability profiles for the drug expiry period.\n\n",
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"answer": "A quick explanation of drug development is necessary. Translational research takes place at different levels; basic, preclinical, phase I, phase II, phase III, and phase IV. \n\nAt the basic level, the properties of compounds are studied. Potentially useful compound proceed to the next level of research depending on the data. \n\nAt the preclinical level, potential drugs are tested in cells and small mammals like mice. This is considered pre-clinical research. If results are promising, an expensive clinical can be considered. \n\nPhase I clinical trials test for toxicity in healthy people. They test the range limits to look at side-effects. If positive results, next level trials proceed. \n\nDuring phase II trials, efficacy is tested in the disease model patient. Patients with the disease are treated with potential drug within levels established in phase I are observed. If positive results occur, a larger scale study begins. \n\nThe larger scale study is actually phase III. At this point, the FDA will clear the drug if phase III trials show that new drug treats the disease better than what's currently out. If approved, a drug enters the playing field and is continually observed for what's known as phase IV trials. \n\nPhase IV trials are not the same, but play an important role to observe very rare side-effects. It is impossible to track 1:1,000,000 effects in trials with only 50K patients. This ensures safety of patients. See the history of zimelidine for an example of a drug that was pulled during phase IV. \n\nThe whole process costs 100s of millions of dollars and takes 10-20 years. If the drug fails anywhere along the process, there often no recovery of the investment. This is why new drugs cost a lot. \n\n1. Sensationalized media coverage of early research: most basic science doesn't make it to the end of clinical trials. The number is very slim that anything gets to a phase I trial. If they do, 9/10 of those will fail somewhere along the process. If you get early work in the news, you're not getting an accurate representation of what's actually going to make it. Look at phase II successes to get more accurate results. The drop off in phase III is much lower then anything before it. By then, you've weeded out a lot of unsafe drugs. \n\n2. Drug development is slow: from beginning to end, a drug will take 10-20 years of development before we can see it in the market. \n\n3. Cancer isn't a single disease: cancer is actually a bunch of diseases, depending on where you get it and what subtype. Each is different and can't be treated the same, unless we're talking systemic delivery like dox or other cell poisons. A study for treating pancreatic cancer is only for that type of pancreatic cancer. If it works, it'll work for that type of cancer, not brain cancer or any of its subtypes. \n\n4. Cancer evolves: the scariest part of cancer is that even if a drug makes it to the end of phase III trials and it is effective at killing cancer, it isn't all-encompassing. Cancerous cells divide fast and introduce errors at the genetic level and eventually produce resistance to the drug developed to fight it. One-single cell left behind by a therapy (99.99999% effective) can result in recurrence years later, meaner and stronger than before. Why? The drug that didn't kill it is now unable to kill the new cells with an ability to resist it. Combination therapies are the fad in literature because of this. I'm firmly behind it. \n\nTLDR; news likes to exaggerate or reports on things early in development. Most therapies don't make it to the end for various reasons. Cancer treatment is specific. One treatment doesn't work on others so what you read is not universal if it gets past phase III. Finally, cancer can evolve to resist new therapies even if they work. ",
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"answer": "Mostly because when it comes to science, journalists are idiots.\n\n\"Cure for Cancer Found!\" makes a great headline, so that is the article they want to write, and that will color their view of the facts.\n\nThe reality is novel treatments effective in a lab are found **all the time**. A blowtorch will kill cancer cells in a petri dish. Most will prove ineffective or impractical in people, and a few will become new treatments for very specific situations. Since that sort of steady, incremental change doesn't fit the cure for cancer narrative the reports are going for, they don't write a lot of follow-up stories.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I work for a clinical research organization and here’s what I can share.\n\nFirst off, before a drug or treatment can be released to the market, it will have to undergo 3 phases of human clinical trials. These phases can last for months or years.\n\nPhase I will assess the safety of the drug. This phase includes the study on Pharmacokinetics (movement of the drug inside the body - absorption, metabolism, excretion) and Pharmacodynamics (how the drug affects the body, i.e. side effects). This phase also includes identifying of the drug’s proper dosage. At this phase, the drug will only be tested on a small group or population.\n\nPhase II will test the efficacy of the drug. This is usually done on a bigger population than Phase I. Most studies in this phase are with one group receiving the experimental drug while the other group receives a placebo.\n\nPhase III is large-scale testing and usually provides a better understanding of the efficacy of the drug. Once the experimental drug successfully passed this phase, the sponsor or company can now request for FDA approval for marketing.\n\nAn additional phase, Phase IV, is done once the drug is released to the market. This phase studies the long term effectiveness of the drug. Note that in this phase, a drug may be removed from the market depending on the findings. \n\nBased from my experience, most Oncology studies I have been part of are currently on Phase I and II, very few are now on Phase III. This is why it seems nothing of it is ever used because technically, the treatments are not yet “clinically proven” for public use or marketing. \nAlso, I noticed that the studies’ experimental drugs are very specific to a type of cancer. Haven’t really encountered one that is more general. An additional difficulty as well is finding or meeting the number of patients who are willing to undergo the clinical trial. This is why it takes years to complete the 3 phases and also the reason why the drug is expensive once released to the market. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cancer is a strange thing. There are many things in cells that can go wrong that cause them to divide uncontrollably. We currently don't have a one cure for all cancer, but several cures and treatments depending on what causes it. New treatments are in the early stage of development and there are many hurdles to overcome. The most important hurdle is to make sure that while killing cancer cells that the side effects, if any (usually there are), aren't more harmful to the patient. It's a lot like coding where a bug is found, is fixed, but may cause other bugs that then need to be fixed.\n\nThere is also a level of success rate. Some people react to some treatments very well while others do not. Cancer cells are tricky, and can sometimes hide from a treatment and the body's own immune system. Progress is still being made, though slowly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because it looks MUCH easier on paper. It can costs millions if not billions of dollars into researching that “new method”. Unless you’re bill gates, you’re going to have some trouble. Not to mention getting government authorization to conduct trials with experimental medicine and procedures, which can also be a problem. \n\nAlso, people seem to forget that cancer is not just one disease. It’s just a term that covers 100+ diseases, a “cure all” cancer drug is like saying we have a “cure all” mental illness drug or a lung disease cure drug. It’s harder than it seems. A breast cancer cell is not the same as a brain cancer cell, they are completely different cells that just happen to divide uncontrollably.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are being used.\n\nLook into the death and survival rates of cancer over time.\n\nThere has been a significant improvement in our ability to treat and cure cancer over just the last 20 years.\n\nCancer isn't really the big C word anymore. If you catch it early you are fine in almost all cases, now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because clinical trials take forever, and even promising technologies die on the vine without enough funding. You have to remember that the development progression is not \"discovery -- > patient treatment\", but at the very least \"discovery -- > preclinical trials -- > IND approval -- > phase 1 trials -- > phase 2 trials -- > phase 3 trials -- > FDA approval -- > patient treatment\". \n\nSome exceptions that expedite the process can be made for orphan diseases or other rare disorders that have little effective current care (ex: Zika or HIV in the early 80's), but the reality is that drug development takes years and years and billions of dollars to see to completion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cancer is hard to solve, mostly because its cells that *your* body produced, fed and nurtured to maturity. They aren't any more different to the other cells in your body they've just malfunctioned big time.\n\nFighting bacteria and viruses is a lot easier as they're different. They stick out like a sore thumb.\n\nWe essentially right now treat cancer by scatter gun, drugs to take to lessen the overall damage, other drugs that attack the general area and physical attack via radiotherapy and or surgery.\n\nRight now in science this decade we are going to make massive leaps, but also we are going to be needing a lot of science overview and new laws. Genetically tailored medicine is going to be a big thing in the future.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "New techniques/drugs/treatments absolutely are being used. It's why the survivability rates of certain types of cancer have increased over the past few years.\n\nThe reason it seems that there's a new cure for cancer every other week that never seems to come to anything is that *there are hundreds of different types of cancer*.\n\nSo, here's what happens. Some new drug is discovered that is shown to kill, say, squamous cell carcinoma in mice...but only if it's caught early and hasn't metastasized, only works in 20% of cases and has the unfortunate side effect of destroying your kidneys and liver.\n\nThen, the scientists publish a paper on it. In its current form the drug is useless, but the tests have shown that its possible to destroy cancer cells in a completely new way... so with further testing, maybe in 10 or 20 years, parts of this research can be used to develop a treatment for one, very specific form of lung cancer, in one set of specific circumstances for one specific group of people.\n\nThen, there's a slow news day and it's reported as \"SCIENTISTS DEVELOP CURE FOR CANCER\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It may not be obvious but it is happening. My brother had lung cancer (never smoked a day in his life) 12 years ago. Through debilitating rounds lasting 6 months of then standard chemo and radiation he achieved remission. \n\nThe cancer returned last year with a vengeance, it had metasisizdd in half a dozen places through his body and this time they did some crazy shit where there took some of his T cells, reprogrammed them in a lab and then grew some more copies, and injected them back into his body. \n\nHe was in remission 1 month later, all traces of cancer gone, with one freaking injection. It was some astounding, straight up Star Trek medical technology. \n\nIn full disclosure, the first two days after injection his body had a severe reaction to the reprogrammed cells, and he had nausea and high fever, but that was it. He walked out of the hospital and felt normal for the rest of the month. Sure as hell beat chemo!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they aren't actually succeeding. They have to pass through different stages and most never make it past stage 1. Most headlines and articles are full of shit or hyperbole trying to get you to click their article. Just like CNN. Ignore them or take them with a grain of salt. Don't blindly believe in the headline or the story. Use critical thinking and give it time to see if it is in fact a legitimate conclusion. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Much of it is already being used. Just that they aren't as effective as you think, far from a cure all. \n\nBiggest problem is, every cancer is different. So it's hard to target it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would argue the initial question. You do see them coming out but you have to watch for them. For example Novartis just got their new CAR-T technology approved which was heralded as a break through 5 or more years ago. Unfortunately, not all of the treatments do make it to patients for limited efficacy or toxicity. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Really, the biggest takeaway from these stories is that you can't pin your hopes on research that happens at a very slow pace. It's one of those things that everyone knows on some level. But I think it's also something that deserves to be repeated because it's clear that society as a whole isn't practicing what they preach. \n\nBut at the end of the day the most effective treatment for most types of cancer is to not get cancer. Making lifestyle choices which promote health can dramatically reduce risks for almost every form of cancer out there. Don't smoke, stay below the overfat rankings for weight, make vegetables a staple of one's diet, exercise regularly and keep drinking moderate. It's less work than it sounds when you get into the swing of it. And it can provide pretty dramatic reductions in one's risks for a very large number of conditions that are often thought to be highly resistant to treatment. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even beyond what all the pharmaceutical people are saying: I'm a biomed PhD student, there's tons of people like me researching cancer immunology across the country. It's like the \"ground level\" of research into fighting cancer and a ton of work is done in the lab in vitro. Often, some sort of interesting result is found in a culture of cancer cells growing in the lab. For example, maybe a virus is found to stop the replication of cancer cells by chance. It gets published, and that sounds like a promising and interesting story so some popular science blog picks it up. They publish a summary of the article with a headline like \"Scientists Discuss Cancer Fighting Virus That Eradicates Tumors\". That might sound cool, but a lot of the time you won't hear about it again. Why? In this case, maybe the virus was just be killed by the immune system in animal trials. The problem is, this was research into 1 cell line, in a dish - hugely different than the body. A lot of the time promising research in one direction doesn't pay off and the lab just moves in a different direction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "'Cancer' is not one disease, it is a group of many different varied and complex diseases, one of the issues with calling it all just cancer is that in pop science it is often assumed that all cancer cells are the same. There are hundreds of different factors and as we are learning more and more in the age of personalized medicine, the disease can vary from person to person even if it is the same 'type' of cancer. We know a lot about a few different pathways that can lead to carcinogenesis and are learning more every day, but usually these findings lead to more questions.\nCancer is your body's own cells and genes malfunctioning, so blocking or trying to affect the pathways in cancer cells can, like many others have mentioned, affect your normal cells too, which is why lots of people have secondary malignancies after treatment to kill cancer cells- radiation may kill the cancer, but it can also mutate the DNA in your normal cells. \nOthers have already mentioned the lengthy and expensive process to get drugs to a clinical use stage, so I won't go into that.\n\n**TL;DR** cancer is incredibly complex and pop science gets a lot of things wrong & sensationalizes treatments\n\nEdit: Wow! Thank you for the reddit gold, kind stranger!!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you are asking this question you probably can't afford the treatment.\n\nPeople are being healed. Just not people in your income bracket.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "News entertainment. \n\nIt's not whatever anyone else tells you. It's all news entertainment. Gone are the days of delivering facts that are clear and concise. They've been gone a long time. Your options now are news entertainment outlets like NBC, fox, CNN, BBC and many more. There are no longer any news shows or channels. \n\nSo this means you get people out of their element reporting on shit they have no clue about in order to just get viewership. They blow small developments out of proportion all the time. Heck... Even the weather network is weather entertainment now. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How do you know they aren't?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Stuff that works a certain way in a petri dish often doesn't work quite the same way in a functioning human body.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Simple answer: the cost of the drugs or treatments after they have been developed. Companies that can take potential treatments from a researcher have to pay for the intellectual property (the treatment) before it can be mass produced, have to pay the FDA to test it clinically, then have to develop (i.e. buy or pay for partnership) distribution chains to get that treatment off of the line and into clinic where it can be properly used. You then have to court medical and insurance distribution networks to recoup the cost of manufacturing, which many times serves as a barrier to entry to the market.\n\n Oncology in the United States has such an overdeveloped infrastructure for chemotherapy that it literally costs 1000s of TIMES more to get a new treatment out into the general marketplace. That's why we as a country continue to develop amazing potential treatments and commercialize them only to leave them unsold and unused by the large medical networks that monopolize the industry here. And then the companies that try to commercialize these treatments ultimately fail because the revenue stream does not cover the costs that it took to get the treatment to that point. Investors become upset that the ROI isn't there and then no one is willing to inject more cash into the company to overcome that barrier. \n\nThe medical industry in this country is killing itself. It punishes innovation in cancer treatment unlike any other field of medicine. SOURCE: I'm a T-cell biologist and I work for a company that gor through clinical trials and is currently fighting to bring a major immunotherapy treatment to the general market for leukemia. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My dad has stage 4 Salvitory duct cancer (extremely rare) and he just got into a trial. They are using the awesome new treatments.. . Just need to ensure they do no harm #science",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10224088",
"title": "Sociedad de Lucha Contra el Cancer",
"section": "Section::::Institute activities.:Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Not only it's important the fight against cancer, but it also is the prevention of it. Hence, the operation of this activity has been giving through interactive lectures, conferences, graphics and demonstrations among people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "105219",
"title": "Cancer",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 191,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 191,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Because cancer is a class of diseases, it is unlikely that there will ever be a single \"cure for cancer\" any more than there will be a single treatment for all infectious diseases. Angiogenesis inhibitors were once incorrectly thought to have potential as a \"silver bullet\" treatment applicable to many types of cancer. Angiogenesis inhibitors and other cancer therapeutics are used in combination to reduce cancer morbidity and mortality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48723042",
"title": "RNAi nanoparticles to target cancer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Cancer treatments may vary depending on what type of cancer is being targeted, but one challenge remains in all of them: it is incredibly difficult to target without killing good cells. Cancer drugs and therapies all have very low selective toxicity. However, with the help of nanotechnology and RNA silencing, new and better treatments may be on the horizon for certain forms of cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7172",
"title": "Chemotherapy",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Chemotherapy does not always work, and even when it is useful, it may not completely destroy the cancer. People frequently fail to understand its limitations. In one study of people who had been newly diagnosed with incurable, stage 4 cancer, more than two-thirds of people with lung cancer and more than four-fifths of people with colorectal cancer still believed that chemotherapy was likely to cure their cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49087209",
"title": "Cancer Breakthroughs 2020",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "The difficulty of treating cancer has led researchers to develop more and more targeted drugs and immune therapies, with the future goal of hitting \"cancers with several such treatments at once, much the way AIDS was tamed when researchers developed drugs to strike the virus at its vulnerable points.\" This new form of combination therapy is needed as cancer is heterogeneous and multiple methods are needed to target multiple types of cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6600576",
"title": "Alternative cancer treatments",
"section": "Section::::Questionable and ineffective treatments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Many therapies have been (and continue to be) promoted to treat or prevent cancer in humans but lack good scientific and medical evidence of effectiveness. In many cases, there is good scientific evidence that the alleged treatments do not work. Unlike accepted cancer treatments, unproven and disproven treatments are generally ignored or avoided by the medical community, and are pseudoscientific.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14088001",
"title": "War on Cancer",
"section": "Section::::Public education and support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "An important aspect to the war on cancer is improving public access to educational and supportive resources, to provide individuals with the latest information about cancer prevention and treatment, as well as access to support communities. Resources have been created by governmental and other organizations to provide support for cancer patients, their families and caregivers, to help them share information and find advice to guide decision making.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
816gvj
|
Why does equilibrium maximize entropy and not some other quality?
|
[
{
"answer": "In a very large system, say a balloon full of gas, there are only a few numbers we use to describe it: pressure, temperature, volume. These define the macroscopic state, or macrostate, of the system. But there are many many possible microscopic states (microstates)---positions and velocities and rotations of the molecules making up the gas---that correspond to each possible macrostate.\n\nThe assumption of thermodynamic equilibrium is that all of the possible microstates that are consistent with any conserved quantities, like energy, are equally likely, since there's no reason to prefer one over another, and they typically change between microstates very frequently.\nBut different *macro*states have different numbers of *micro*states, so the macrostate with the *most* microstates is the most likely.\n\nIn this picture, entropy is just a measurement of how many microstates a given macrostate has, so the macrostate with the most entropy is the most likely one.\n\nThere are a few more details to work out, such as the fact that the number of microstates typically is exponentially large, so entropy is the logarithm of that number; and because of that exponential behavior large systems (with ~a mole of particles) are overwhelmingly likely to be found exactly at the state of maximum entropy (within experimental precision), even though the underlying process is random. It's also necessary to connect this definition of entropy with classical ones (such as the change in entropy being equal to heat flow per unit temperature).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From a thermodynamics perspective, one can show that maximum entropy implies minimum energy and vice versa. \n\nRefer to these tidbits of the proof of the forwards (= > ) _URL_0_\n\nIt's a shame the full proof isn't there (it's really simple), but I know it can be found in Callen, 2nd ed. p 134. \n\nIf you accept the axioms (1st and 2nd) of thermodynamics, then hopefully this is satisfying. \n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9891",
"title": "Entropy",
"section": "Section::::Approaches to understanding entropy.:Relating entropy to energy \"usefulness\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Following on from the above, it is possible (in a thermal context) to regard lower entropy as an indicator or measure of the \"effectiveness\" or \"usefulness\" of a particular quantity of energy. This is because energy supplied at a higher temperature (i.e. with low entropy) tends to be more useful than the same amount of energy available at a lower temperature. Mixing a hot parcel of a fluid with a cold one produces a parcel of intermediate temperature, in which the overall increase in entropy represents a \"loss\" which can never be replaced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7728392",
"title": "Entropy (order and disorder)",
"section": "Section::::Phase change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "Owing to these early developments, the typical example of entropy change Δ\"S\" is that associated with phase change. In solids, for example, which are typically ordered on the molecular scale, usually have smaller entropy than liquids, and liquids have smaller entropy than gases and colder gases have smaller entropy than hotter gases. Moreover, according to the third law of thermodynamics, at absolute zero temperature, crystalline structures are approximated to have perfect \"order\" and zero entropy. This correlation occurs because the numbers of different microscopic quantum energy states available to an ordered system are usually much smaller than the number of states available to a system that appears to be disordered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44041",
"title": "Solvation",
"section": "Section::::Solvation energy and thermodynamic considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "The enthalpy of solution is the solution enthalpy minus the enthalpy of the separate systems, whereas the entropy is the corresponding difference in entropy. Most gases have a negative enthalpy of solution. A negative enthalpy of solution means that the solute is less soluble at high temperatures. The sum of the enthalpy and entropy changes throughout these steps is called the solvation energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9891",
"title": "Entropy",
"section": "Section::::Definitions and descriptions.:Statistical mechanics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "The most general interpretation of entropy is as a measure of our uncertainty about a system. The equilibrium state of a system maximizes the entropy because we have lost all information about the initial conditions except for the conserved variables; maximizing the entropy maximizes our ignorance about the details of the system. This uncertainty is not of the everyday subjective kind, but rather the uncertainty inherent to the experimental method and interpretative model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2212867",
"title": "Detailed balance",
"section": "Section::::Detailed balance and entropy increase.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Nevertheless, the principle of detailed balance is not necessary for entropy growth. For example, in the linear irreversible cycle A1 -> A2 -> A3 -> A1, entropy production is positive but the principle of detailed balance does not hold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34115448",
"title": "Maximal information coefficient",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Entropy is maximized by uniform probability distributions, or in this case, bins with the same number of elements. Also, joint entropy is minimized by having a one-to-one correspondence between bins. If we substitute such values in the formula\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "537539",
"title": "Income inequality metrics",
"section": "Section::::Common income inequality metrics.:Theil index.:Comparison of the Theil index and the Hoover index.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "BULLET::::- For \"high\" inequalities the Theil index is larger than the Hoover index.This means for achieving equilibrium (maximum entropy) in a closed system, more resources would have to be reallocated than in case of a planned and optimized reallocation process, where only the necessary minimum share of resources would have to be reallocated. For an open system the export of entropy (import of redundancy) would allow to maintain the distribution dynamics driven by high inequality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3in8x7
|
what would happen if we detonated an atomic bomb in the eye of a hurricane
|
[
{
"answer": "It would have no noticeable effect. The energy released by the bomb is nothing compared to that in a hurricane.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A hurricane gets its energy from warm ocean water, and in the process of water vapor condensing into rain droplets. The heat released during condensation serves to continue to warm the surrounding air, which causes more seawater to evaporate, condense, and continue the cycle. \nA fully developed hurricane releases 50 or more terawatts of heat energy at any given moment, only about 1 percent of which is converted into wind. The heat release is equivalent to a 10-megaton nuclear bomb exploding every 20 minutes. \nThe entire human race in 2011 used about a third of the energy present in an average hurricane. \n \n\nSo bombing a hurricane might be about as effective as trying to stop a speeding Buick with a feather. \n \nIt will make the hurricane worse because:\n1. There's the possibility that bombing the hurricane, if it had any effect at all, would just add to the storm's heat supply, making it even stronger. \n2. You're creating a radioactive hurricane. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't think it would do much. The eye of a hurricane can be hundreds of miles across, while the blast radius of a large nuclear bomb is at best only a dozen miles or so.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Randall Munroe of XKCD-fame actually did the math on this one!\n\n_URL_1_\n\nEDIT: Actually NOAA did it here. It's official: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The only thing that would happen is spreading a lot of radioactive material around. An atomic bomb is puny to a hurricane.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Apparently that question gets asked so often that [NOAA put it in its hurricane faq](_URL_0_)\n\nLong story short: You may think that nukes are powerful but they are nothing compared to the might of a hurricane.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26343111",
"title": "Sympathetic detonation",
"section": "Section::::Military.:Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "During the Attack of Pearl Harbor, The USS Arizona (BB-39) was struck with an Armor-Piercing Bomb which penetrated the upper deck and stopped inside the forward magazine. The bomb triggered an explosion which was powerful enough to cut the Arizona in half and is considered a sympathetic detonation as there was an apparent delay between the detonation of the bomb and the contents of the forward magazine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8137709",
"title": "List of Florida hurricanes (pre-1900)",
"section": "Section::::1800–1849.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "BULLET::::- September 25, 1848 – The Great Gale of 1848 strikes near Tampa as a major hurricane with an estimated pressure of 948 mbar. Considered one of the most significant hurricanes in the Tampa area, the 15 foot (4.6 m) storm surge from the hurricane destroyed much of Tampa and nearby Fort Brooke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46769273",
"title": "List of Bermuda hurricanes",
"section": "Section::::List of storms.:1980s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "BULLET::::- September 25, 1987 – After a bout of unexpected and rapid intensification, fast-moving Hurricane Emily makes landfall at Category 1 intensity, battering the island with a brief burst of destructive winds. The storm's outer bands spawn \"dozens\" of waterspouts and tornadoes, some of which cause injuries and property damage. Sustained winds of with gusts to bring down many trees, cited as between 80% and 90% of all specimens in the territory. Boats, cars, and utilities also suffer. Of 2,500 houses impacted by the storm, about 200 receive major roof damage. All roads on the island are obstructed by toppled trees and utility poles. Losses are estimated at $35 million, and over 100 people are treated for minor storm-related injuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4906803",
"title": "William H. P. Blandy",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "“The bomb will not start a chain-reaction in the water, converting it all to gas, and letting all the ships on all the oceans drop down to the bottom. It will not blow out the bottom of the sea and let all the water run down the hole. It will not destroy gravity. I am not an atomic playboy, as one of my critics labelled me, exploding these bombs to satisfy my personal whim.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23631609",
"title": "Standard-type battleship",
"section": "Section::::Service history.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "During the Pearl Harbor Attack, \"Arizona\"s forward magazine exploded from a bomb hit and \"Oklahoma\" capsized after multiple torpedo strikes, both with significant losses of life. \"West Virginia\" and \"California\" were also sunk, while \"Nevada\" managed to get underway and was beached shortly afterward. \"Tennessee\" and \"Maryland\" each received two bomb hits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15959883",
"title": "Hurricane Pauline (1968)",
"section": "Section::::Meteorological history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Further investigation into the hurricane was limited to ship reports, and a satellite image on October 1 was mostly not helpful due to another electronic problem; however, it showed that the hurricane had shrunk. A United States Air Force reconnaissance plane flew into the hurricane that day and reported that the eyewall was open on the southwest quadrant. After the breakup of the first eyewall, a break in the clouds lead to the possibility that another eye was forming to the north-northwest of the previous eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26932782",
"title": "West Loch disaster",
"section": "Section::::Explosion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "At 15:08, , moored at Tare 8, exploded, sending a large fireball into the sky. The noise was heard miles away at Pearl Harbor Headquarters. More explosions of increasing intensity followed, sparking fears of a Japanese attack or even an earthquake. Fire and debris raining down on the fuel and munitions stored on the decks of other LSTs had caused an explosive chain reaction. Within minutes, 200 men had been blown into the water. Eleven wooden buildings on the shore were destroyed and vehicles blown on their side. In all, 20 buildings were damaged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5qitw3
|
why do we need discipline?
|
[
{
"answer": "First, you (and I'd say a lot of other people too) need to look up the definition. Second, self-discipline allows you to make the right decisions in your life using critical thinking and to make yourself better (in every aspect) even though you may not necessarily want to. Literally means: \"the ability to control one's feelings and overcome one's weaknesses; the ability to pursue what one thinks is right despite temptations to abandon it\". So instead of like..... pounding down that half tub of ice cream every night, put it away and grab some carrots and hummus instead.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Discipline is what keeps you going when you run out of motivation for a task.\n\nImagine you're climbing a mountain. You have more motivation than people just sitting in front of the TV because you want to drive out and climb that mountain! You get to the base of the trail, get all your gear, and pump yourself up for the climb!\n\nBut as you start climbing, your motivation starts to waver. You don't think you're in shape enough for the climb. Maybe it was more difficult than you expected. The sunny day seems to be getting more cloudy and it might rain.\n\nWhen you run out of motivation, you probably just want to go back home. This is when discipline kicks in. Even though you're suffering now and your motivation is gone, you still want to power through it because the climb may be worth it in the end.\n\nSelf-discipline (also sometimes called \"grit\") is one of the best traits in a person because it is necessary for people to complete tasks. It's very easy to start something but it's difficult to see it through. There's a rule called the 80/20 rule where completing the first 80% of a task takes 20% of the time while the last 20% takes 80% of the time. It's very motivating in the beginning to see something progress quickly but it takes discipline to spend a great deal of time finishing the job.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "455350",
"title": "School discipline",
"section": "Section::::The importance of discipline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Discipline is a set of actions determined by the school district to remedy actions taken by a student that are deemed inappropriate. Some scholars think students misbehave because of the lack of engagement and stimulation in typical school settings, a rigid definition of acceptable behaviors and a lack of attention and love in a student's personal life. In the United States, scholars have begun to explore alternative explanations for why students are being disciplined, in particular the disproportionate rate of discipline towards African-American and minority students.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "455350",
"title": "School discipline",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "School discipline relates to the actions taken by a teacher or the school organization towards a student (or group of students) when the student's behavior disrupts the ongoing educational activity or breaks a rule created by the teacher or the school system. Discipline can guide the children's behaviour or set limits to help them learn to take care of themselves, other people and the world around them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48587010",
"title": "Corporal punishment of minors in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Professionals say the key to discipline include: Communication, respect, consistency, moving on after the punishment is complete, matching discipline to the age of the child, and learning how to recognize when there may be some external factor driving a behaviour (such as being hungry or being bullied at school).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13050685",
"title": "Siddhayoga",
"section": "Section::::Faith in the guru.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "The rules of a discipline may become unnatural because they are artificially imposed: even when doing one's best to remain balanced and free one often finds oneself once again bound. Siddhayoga says that through the grace of a Siddhayoga guru all the work is done for you. You do not force anything; you are not charged anything or asked for anything by the guru – so there is no conflict of interest. One gains peace through direct experience of peace, not from intellectual knowledge of peace. Once peace is felt, the intellect confirms it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267487",
"title": "Discipline",
"section": "Section::::Use of the word discipline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "In the military, discipline regards the efforts made by superiors to punish the serviceperson. Not only in military, in every parts of life of an individual discipline plays the most important role by placing group recognition of the personal significance of activities, in personal life on its gradual improvements and symbolic activities that give homage to the groups actual face or respect which are more routinely recognized by the group. Discipline shows the actual face of an individual, taking personal judgement lower or higher to meet the groups, adding values or reservations so that they may be consistently held.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267487",
"title": "Discipline",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Discipline is action or inaction that is regulated to be in accordance (or to achieve accord) with a particular system of governance. Discipline is commonly applied to regulating human and animal behavior, and furthermore, it is applied to each activity-branch in all branches of organized activity, knowledge, and other fields of study and observation. Discipline can be a set of expectations that are required by any governing entity including the self, groups, classes, fields, industries, or societies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267487",
"title": "Discipline",
"section": "Section::::Self-discipline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "To be self-disciplined according to some obedience-based discipline enthusiasts, employees and employers, first they get up at 5 am, reflect and/or plan their day, run for a few miles, and then drink beverage and healthier breakfast. Self-discipline is about creating new habits of thought, action, and speech toward improving yourself and to reach institutional goals. This is an alternative to viewing discipline as a means to obtain more information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dzlvck
|
how can the house pass a bill, but the senate refuses to vote on, or even look at, it?
|
[
{
"answer": "Senate Majority Leader (R-Mitch McConnel from Kentucky) gets to decide which laws to take up on a vote.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the companies that pay them all kinds of extra moneys don't want them to pass those bills, so they push them to the side.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* Our system is setup like this on purpose.\n* This prevents our government from acting too hastily and passing bad or dangerous laws.\n* If a law is really that important and well written, then both houses of Congress *and* the President will all agree on the same version of the bill.\n* If it was easier to pass laws, then we'd got a lot more bad or dangerous laws that could hurt people.\n* At the point the only remedy would be a lawsuit which could potentially be appealed all the way to the Supreme Court where they might decide it's against the Constitution.\n* It's just a lot easier to make it harder to pass laws in the first place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Constitution lays out fairly clearly what Congress *can* do and what it *can't* do.\n\nHowever, there is very little mention of what it *must* do and *when* it must do. The effect is that the two houses of Congress have near-total control over how they perform their constitutional duties. Which effectively means that the majority party in each house has near total control over how that house performs its constitutional duties.\n\nRight now, the Republicans in the Senate don't want to consider the bills that the Democrats in the House have passed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not an American, but I understand that the House and the Senate have independent processes and priorities.\n\nIdeally, they should be working hand-in-hand, aligned on making the country better. But it is probably also by design that the independence serves as a backstop to prevent extreme swings - the House has a shorter-term focus, while the Senate has a longer-term focus.\n\nIf the two bodies don't agree (as in your example, that they are not focusing on the same issues), somebody needs to re-think what they're doing, or the voters need to re-think what they want.\n\nEDIT: I haven't gone to the extent of studying how the chambers have transferred between the two major parties, but I suspect the outcome is cyclical - power swings to one party, balances back to a split, swings to the other party, balances back to a split, and the cycle repeats.\n\n(Opinion) But it seems, from an outsider's perspective, that the cyclical swings might have gotten too extreme, and the system (comprising both voters and institutions) is at a risk of breaking.\n\nFor anyone who isn't hyper-partisan, [this observation](_URL_0_) from r/TodayILearned is illuminating.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mitch McConnell the Senate majority leader gets to decide what the Senate will do just as Nancy Pelosi the House majority leader gets to decide what the House votes on.\n\nThis is normal and working as designed. Don’t let the media tell you it’s not functioning correctly. This keeps the government in check to a great degree. Sadly it’s what is happening with the unelected public servants that is out of control.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They did look into them, and decided that they wouldn't become law. They just chose to prevent them from becoming law by never scheduling a vote instead of actively voting them down. In Congress, \"NO!\" doesn't usually look like \"NO!;\" instead it looks like inaction.\n\nThere are states whose constitutions require some degree of legislative activity for every bill introduced. Just as an example, maybe it requires that every bill introduced must receive at least one vote in committee. These states don't have obviously better politics or policy than the other states.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "70124",
"title": "Constitution of the Netherlands",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Chapters.:Chapter 5: Legislation and Administration.:§1: Laws and other prescripts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 1735,
"text": "Bills are presented by the King or by the House of Representatives, which thus has the right of initiative (Article 82). Some bills have to be presented by the States General in United Assembly (subarticle 2). The Senate cannot propose law. The ministers can but in fact act through the King who sends a Royal Missive (Article 83), containing the proposal, which is only signed by himself, thus without countersign. The House of Representatives has the right of amendment; government too may amend (Article 84). The Senate only can pass or reject laws in full (Article 85), defended by the responsible minister or by members of the House of Representatives having taken the initiative to propose the law; however, in practice it can send the proposal back asking for a \"novelle\" to be passed by the House of Representatives, in fact an amendment of law. Bills may be withdrawn by the proposer until passed (Article 86), but only by a majority of the House of Representatives if the bill has been presented by some members of the House of Representatives and has been passed by the House of Representatives. Bills become valid law once they have been passed by Parliament and have been affirmed by the King (Article 87). It is generally assumed that this also fulfills the demand of signature by Article 47. The affirmation needs sign and ministerial countersign but also the older Royal Order has to be signed and countersigned, ordering to publish the law in a special publication, the \"Staatsblad van het Koninkrijk der Nederlanden\" (\"Bulletin of Acts, Orders and Decrees of the Kingdom of the Netherlands\", also called \"Bulletin of Acts and Decrees\"). Only after such publication the law has an external binding force (Article 88).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1184443",
"title": "Maryland Senate",
"section": "Section::::Powers and legislative process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1124,
"text": "Once passed by the Senate, a bill is sent to the House of Delegates for consideration. If the House also approves the bill without amendment, it is sent to the Governor. If there is amendment, however, the Senate may either reconsider the bill with amendments or ask for the establishment of a conference committee to work out differences in the versions of the bill passed by each chamber. Once a piece of legislation approved by both houses is forwarded to the Governor, it may either be signed or vetoed. If it is signed, it takes effect on the effective date of the legislation, usually October 1 of that year. If it is vetoed, both the Senate and the House of Delegates must vote by a three-fifths majority to overturn the veto. They may not, however, overturn a veto in the first year of a new term, since the bill would have been passed during the previous session. Additionally, joint resolutions and the budget bill may not be vetoed, although the General Assembly is constitutionally limited in the extent to which it may influence the latter; it may only decrease the Governor's budget proposal, not increase it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23444",
"title": "Politics of the Philippines",
"section": "Section::::Legislature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "Each bill needs the consent of both houses in order to be submitted to the president for his signature. If the president vetoes the bill, Congress can override the veto with a two-thirds supermajority. If either house voted down on a bill or fails to act on it after an adjournment sine die, the bill is lost and would have to be proposed to the next congress, with the process starting all over again. Congress' decisions are mostly via majority vote, except for voting on constitutional amendments and other matters. Each house has its own inherent power, with the Senate given the power to vote on treaties, while money bills may only be introduced by the House of Representatives. The constitution provides Congress with impeachment powers, with the House of Representatives having the power to impeach, and the Senate having the power to try the impeached official.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18579518",
"title": "Constitution of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Chapters.:Chapter VIII: Alteration of the Constitution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "An exception to this process is if the bill is approved by only one house of the parliamentthe other house rejecting it, failing to pass it or passing it with amendments to which the first house does not agree. (Ordinarily, the bill would have been introduced in the House of Representatives; the problem would be disagreement by the Senate.) Then, after three months, the first house may pass the bill again. If the other house still does not agree with the bill, then the Governor-General may put the bill to a referendum in the form in which it was passed by the first house, with any amendments to which the two houses may nevertheless have agreed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1071782",
"title": "Alaska Senate",
"section": "Section::::Powers and legislative process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "Once passed by the Senate, a bill is sent to the opposite legislative house for consideration. If approved, without amendment, it is sent to the governor. If there is amendment, however, the Senate may either reconsider the bill with amendments or ask for the establishment of a conference committee to work out differences in the versions of the bill passed by each chamber. Once a piece of legislation approved by both houses is forwarded to the governor, it may either be signed or vetoed. If it is signed, it takes effect on the effective date of the legislation. If it is vetoed, lawmakers in a joint session may override the veto with a two-thirds majority vote (three-fourths majority is required if it is an appropriations bill).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293605",
"title": "House of Representatives of the Philippines",
"section": "Section::::Powers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 195,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 195,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "The House of Representatives is modeled after the United States House of Representatives; the two chambers of Congress have roughly equal powers, and every bill or resolution that has to go through both houses needs the consent of both chambers before being passed for the president's signature. Once a bill is defeated in the House of Representatives, it is lost. Once a bill is approved by the House of Representatives on third reading, the bill is passed to the Senate, unless an identical bill has also been passed by the lower house. When a counterpart bill in the Senate is different from the one passed by the House of Representatives, either a bicameral conference committee is created consisting of members from both chambers of Congress to reconcile the differences, or either chamber may instead approve the other chamber's version.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2573064",
"title": "Presentment Clause",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "BULLET::::- A bill must be passed in identical form by both the House of Representatives and the Senate. It is common practice for each House to pass its own version of a bill, and then to refer the two versions to a conference committee, which resolves disagreements between the two versions, and drafts a compromise bill; the compromise bill can then be voted upon and passed by both Houses in identical form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4brs51
|
how exactly do marathons/bike races "raise awareness" for certain causes?
|
[
{
"answer": "People are generally aware of the race to begin with, especially if it has TV/radio coverage. So if the organizers start saying they support cause \"X\", there are likely people watching or paying attention in some way that don't know about it. So by advertising their support for a charity or breast cancer or w/e, awareness of this reaches people it otherwise wouldn't.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many of these races require some fundraising, so as participants solicit donations they at least mention the name of charity and probably also more about the cause. Even if there isn't a fundraiser, they raise awareness in other ways. Many times participants will receive a t-shirt with the name/logo/etc. of the charity on it. There will be advertising. Road closures announce the cause. One of my friends is posting her training runs on Facebook. Those are just a few of the ways.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47805447",
"title": "Kashmir International Half Marathon",
"section": "Section::::Events and theme.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "BULLET::::- According to organizers, the Marathon is aimed to promote awareness in local people towards social issues like saving Dal Lake, fighting drug abuse, and keeping the city clean along with promoting traffic awareness, and respect for senior citizens and women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40697847",
"title": "Divine Madness Running Club",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "While running has become a casual exercise for fitness and weight reduction for many, Divine Madness pushes the outer edge of the sport's envelope, specializing in ultra marathons ranging from 50 to 100 miles. The running club is based in Boulder, Colorado.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "762701",
"title": "Chicago Marathon",
"section": "Section::::Economic impact.:Charity program.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Charity fundraising is now closely intertwined with the event as the runners now raise money for research, aid the suffering and heighten public awareness of different causes. The marathon offers all registered entrants the opportunity to fundraise for a charity partner. The marathon recognizes four levels of charities based on the number of participants recruited, and fundraising levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25058428",
"title": "Sundown Marathon",
"section": "Section::::Impact and discernible trends of the event.:Sociocultural.:National identity and morale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "A marathon itself may be enough to spur people on in terms of morale and determination but the Sundown Marathon makes good use of this opportunity with the different categories for the race. It includes a corporate race, which is fully registered and booked by local and multinational companies for their workers by the time registration closed. The corporate race enables company bonding and can motivate workers as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34827690",
"title": "Calicut Mini Marathon",
"section": "Section::::2011.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "This edition of the marathon was for rights of the disabled children. The marathon was co-hosted by Federal Bank. The marathon aimed to induce a change in mindset of the society with regards the way we perceive the differently abled. Students from NIT Calicut, Farooq College, Holy Cross College and KMCT Polytechnic college participated in the marathon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1494233",
"title": "Dance marathon",
"section": "Section::::Charity dance marathons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Today, over 250 colleges and high schools nationwide participate in dance marathons of some sort to raise money for children's hospitals. Some raise money under the Children's Miracle Network and with their help, while others are entirely student-run and operate to benefit partnered charities. Each year, students organize and host different types of dance marathon events in which participants stand on their feet for 12–46 hours straight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25058428",
"title": "Sundown Marathon",
"section": "Section::::Impact and discernible trends of the event.:Health.:Physiological.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Running a marathon promotes a healthy lifestyle. As marathon runners often spend months training for the events, this lifestyle can even continue after the race. Friends and family may also become motivated and encouraged to lead a healthier lifestyle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ox0wn
|
What happened to Arianism in North Africa?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would look at the Ecumenical Councils, particularly the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and the Second Council of Constantinople in 502. The First Council of Nicaea anathematized Arianism, making it pretty unpopular for fourth century Christians to harbor any sort of Arianism. This is when the decline really started. Around the year 400, Theophilius, along with Jerome and Epiphanius of Salamis, went on a campaign to rid the Mediterranean of Arianism and Origenism (metaphysics in Christianity), opting for Scripture-based Christianity. Because they had Church authority at their back, they were able to really stomp out a lot of it by the time they were both formally anathematized (again) at Constantinople II.\n\nI study the history of theology and deal mostly with the application of Greek thought onto Christianity, so my knowledge in this area is somewhat limited, but if I understand correctly, the Arians were pretty unpopular to both Latin and Eastern Christians and the Caliphate didn't really like them too much, either, so they were kind of a minority from the fourth century until they eventually disappeared.\n\nIt's also worth noting that the term Arianism became pejorative after Nicaea I, so the labeling of some group or individual as an \"Arian\" might not be as accurate as we might like...\n\nI hope this helps.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are several clues to the presence of Arianism after the Byzantine reconquest, but we can say nothing definitive about their popularity or influence. Despite North Africa being a relatively wealthy province, we have very few literary sources from that region. I think the only major sources written in Africa in the Byzantine period are a chronicle by Victor of Tunnuna, a poem by Corippus and some letters by Maximus Confessor. They were all written by Nicene Christians, and Victor and Maximus both fulminated against heretics, but their targets were not Arians, but the Byzantine state for making compromises with Miaphysite heretics, which was an issue that arose out of the Council of Chalcedon in 451. Indeed, if we are to look at the Byzantine period as a whole, it would appear that North Africa was firmly Chalcedonian in allegiance, which caused a whole host of issues with the emperors Justinian I (527-565) and Constans II (641-668), the two emperors who tried the hardest to unite the divided Christian communities within their empire (spoiler alert, both failed). \n\nSo what do we actually know about African Arians? Apparently soon after the reconquest of Africa Justinian was keen to keep the locals happy, which meant the toleration of Arianism. Nicene Christians however responded in force and held a synod condemning this, demanding that Arians (along with Donatists and Jews) should not be allowed to hold public office. I'm not sure how to interpret this, since we have no idea about how many Arians there were even under the Vandals and this may just well be a rhetorical thing from Nicenes eager to secure their own position after being persecuted for decades (maybe, the extent of the Arian persecution of Nicenes is I think also debatable). In any case, Justinian responded with a law in 535 that accepted their demands. \n\nThere was also a mutiny by Byzantine soldiers in 536 that was possibly sparked by Arianism, as allegedly Byzantine soldiers who married Vandal women thought that they were being cheated out of their property (Justinian had issued a law that returned land to anyone deprived of property during the Vandalic period). This didn't involve just the Vandals though; many Byzantine soldiers were Arians too, as the army often recruited auxiliaries from outside the empire. This was a practise followed until at least Tiberius II (574-582) and their Arian faith was tolerated, albeit uneasily during periods of religious tension, so it is possible that Arian soldiers of all ethnic backgrounds found the discrimination against the once-powerful Arian Church distasteful, causing a military revolt in North Africa. As for the mutiny, it triggered a series of revolts in Africa for the next decade, but there were no more mentions of Arianism. Again I'm not too sure of what this means. It could be that the sources were silent on this because they tried to airbrush the Arians out of history, or it may simply because Arianism had lost its prominence in a world dominated by Nicenes; the dominant theological debate in the sixth century had shifted to that of Chalcedonianism versus Miaphysitism after all.\n\nArianism did live on in other regions of the empire though. As I said, there were Arian Gothic soldiers in Constantinople under Tiberius II, whilst Byzantine Italy had been invaded by the Lombards in 568, who were a mixture of Arians, Nicenes and pagans. Ravenna, the bureaucratic centre of Byzantine Italy, still had Arian churches until the 560s, suggesting that local Arians reached an accommodation with the new regime. So even without any literary evidence, I think I would be correct to say that many Arians remained in Africa - it was simply impossible for them to disappear so quickly, especially as Donatism, a heresy with an even older pedigree, survived in North Africa until at least the time of Gregory the Great (590-604). As for how long they lasted for, I don't think we'll ever know, though archaeologists are always finding more stuff, so we might be able to have a better idea about when and where they flourished in the future.\n\nNow to address a few of /u/DenysTheAreopagite's points:\n\nYou are right that the Ecumenical Councils were important, but they didn't really matter with regards to Arianism after Constantinople I. Ephesus dealt with Nestorius' followers, Chalcedon with Ephesus' consequences and Constantinople II with the fallout from Chalcedon. Each of these councils dealt with issues within the Eastern Roman Empire, and as Arianism was never a big movement in the east after Theodosius I, it wasn't a priority there. In the west though, Arianism continued to be a force to be reckoned with, as aside from the Vandals, the Visigoths, Ostrogoths and Burgundians all followed this brand of Christianity - even the Franks may have experimented with it, as there are grounds to doubt the Frankish claim that Clovis converted from paganism straight to Nicene Christianity. The Ostrogoths and the Vandals were defeated by the Byzantines, but the Visigoths only converted under King Reccared I (586-601) after his father had persecuted the Nicenes. The Lombards meanwhile were partially Arian until the eighth century. You are probably correct to say that the Arians were a minority in the west, but it definitely wasn't a slow decline from the fourth century onwards - by the end of the fifth century Arian kingdoms dominated Western Europe, with nary a Nicene king in sight.\n\nYou are also right that Arian isn't the best word to use to describe their version of Christianity. I know that Homoian describes the brand of Christianity that Valentinian II (375-392) followed, but I still haven't found out what the appropriate term for Arians in the fifth century and beyond is yet. If anyone has any ideas, please let me know! :)",
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "63006",
"title": "Pope Felix III",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath of the Vandals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "In Arian Africa the Vandal persecutions of Genseric and his son Huneric had driven many Catholics into exile. Huneric was a fervent adherent to Arianism. When peace was restored, numbers of those who through fear had fallen into heresy and had been rebaptized by the Arians desired to return to the Church. On being repulsed by those who had remained firm, they appealed to Felix who convened a synod in 487, and sent a letter to the bishops of Africa, expounding the conditions under which they were to be received back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "35363999",
"title": "Vandal Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1085,
"text": "From the beginning of their invasion of North Africa in 429, the Vandals – who were predominantly followers of Arianism – persecuted the Nicene church. This persecution began with the unfettered violence inflicted against the church during Genseric's invasion but, with the legitimization of the Vandal kingdom, the oppression became entrenched in ‘more coherent religious policies’. Victor of Vita's \"History of the Vandal Persecution\" details the ‘wicked ferocity’ inflicted against church property and attacks against ‘many… distinguished bishops and noble priests’ in the first years of the conquest; similarly, Bishop Honoratus writes that ‘before our eyes men are murdered, women raped and we are ourselves collapse under torture’. Using these and other corroborating sources, Andy Merrills has argued that there is ‘little doubt’ that the initial invasion was ‘brutally violent’. Additionally, he has argued, along with Richard Miles that, the Vandals initially targeted the Nicene church for financial, rather than religious, reasons – seeking to rob the clergy of its wealth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1274010",
"title": "Islam in South Africa",
"section": "Section::::History.:New rise in conversions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 948,
"text": "According to Michael Mumisa, a researcher and writer on African Islam, there has been an increase in the number of black South Africans converting to Islam particularly among the women and the youth. He believes that for some of the youth and women who were schooled in the politics of South African resistance and confrontation with the security forces of the former Apartheid state, the acceptance of Islam has become part of a radical rejection of a society based on Christian principles which are seen as having been responsible for establishing and promoting the Apartheid doctrine through the Dutch Reformed Church in South Africa. The influence of the radical ideas espoused by Malcolm X is very evident among South African Muslims of all races. Branches of the Nation of Islam are already established in South Africa. Louis Farrakhan paid a visit to South Africa and was received by President Nelson Mandela and African Muslim communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191747",
"title": "Idolatry",
"section": "Section::::Traditional religions.:Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "First with the arrival of Islam in Africa, then during the Christian colonial efforts, the religiously justified wars, the colonial portrayal of idolatry as proof of savagery, the destruction of idols and the seizure of idolaters as slaves marked a long period of religious intolerance, which supported religious violence and demeaning caricature of the African Traditional Religionists. The violence against idolaters and idolatry of Traditional Religion practicers of Africa started in the medieval era and continued into the modern era. The charge of idolatry by proselytizers, state Michael Wayne Cole and Rebecca Zorach, served to demonize and dehumanize local African populations, and justify their enslavement and abuse locally or far off plantations, settlements or for forced domestic labor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21001373",
"title": "History of Roman-era Tunisia",
"section": "Section::::Post-Roman successors.:Vandal Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "In religious policy, the Vandals tried to convert the urban Catholic Christians of Africa to their Arian heresy (named after the Egyptian Christian priest Arius, who taught that the Father is greater than the Son and the Spirit). The Vandal regime sent the Catholic clergy into exile and expropriated Catholic churches; in the 520s their efforts turned to persecution, including martyrdom of resisters, yet without success. The Berbers remained aloof. In all Vandal rule would last 94 years (439–533).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1637852",
"title": "History of North Africa",
"section": "Section::::The Muslim Berber dynasties.:Almoravids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "In the 11th century, Berbers of the Sahara began a jihad to reform Islam in North Africa and remove any trace of cultural or religious pluralism. This movement created an empire encompassing parts of Spain and North Africa. At its greatest extent, it appears to have included southern and eastern Iberia and roughly all of present-day Morocco. This movement seems to have assisted the southern penetration of Africa, one that was continued by later groups. In addition, the Almoravids are traditionally believed to have attacked and brought about the destruction of the West African Ghana Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52194814",
"title": "Battle of Sufetula",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "The Exarchate of Africa was in internal turmoil due to the conflict between the mainly Orthodox Chalcedonian population and the supporters of Monotheletism, an attempt at compromise between Chalcedonianism and Monophysitism devised and promoted by Emperor Heraclius in 638.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
358u1r
|
how is it that the farmers almanac can predict long-range forecast so accurately?
|
[
{
"answer": "It always rains around then. All you really have to do is look at a bunch of years and figure out the trends, and then combine all of them into a comprehensive calendar for useful application. I'm sure the biggest part of the whole thing is just accounting for drift in the solar calendar compared to the natural conditions that naturally compose the weather.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "41678937",
"title": "Weather media in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Farmers' almanacs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1011,
"text": "Farmers' Almanacs have published long-term forecasts for around 200 years. While almanac publishers have attributed an 80 to 85 percent accuracy rate to the publication's annual forecasts, independent studies that retrospectively compare the weather with the predictions have not shown them more accurate than chance. Predictions for each edition are made as far as two years in advance. The \"Farmers’ Almanac\" publishers are highly secretive about the method used to make its predictions, only stating publicly that it is a \"top secret mathematical and astronomical formula, that relies on sunspot activity, tidal action, planetary position and many other factors.\" (The use of planetary position or astrology to forecast weather dates back to Ptolemy's work in the second century of the Common Era, and it was thus an outgrowth of the almanacs' other main purpose to provide the positions of celestial bodies. Like other forms of astrology, the scientific community considers it a discredited pseudoscience.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1985079",
"title": "Farmers' Almanac",
"section": "Section::::Accuracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Most scientific analyses of the accuracy of \"Farmers' Almanac\" forecasts have shown a 50% rate of accuracy, no greater than random chance, but higher than that of groundhog prognostication, another folklore method of forecasting. The almanac's admitted longstanding use of astrology in their formula is a debunked pseudoscience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2672029",
"title": "Old Farmer's Almanac",
"section": "Section::::Weather predictions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "While \"The Old Farmer's Almanac\" has always looked to Thomas's original formula to help with predictions, its forecasting methods have been refined over the years. Today, they also incorporate observations of sunspots and other solar activity. Weather trends and events are predicted by comparing solar patterns and historical weather conditions with current solar activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7206983",
"title": "Long-range planning",
"section": "Section::::Forecasting, budgeting and organizational dynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "But clearly true forecasts (as opposed to budgets or targets) should be amended as and when the environment changes. The best managed organizations probably have a quarterly review of their annual forecast (and associated budgets), so that forecasts for the remaining quarters can be based on the latest information. The most sophisticated indulge in rolling forecasts whereby at each quarter a full year ahead is forecast – in other words a new fourth quarter is added to the plan. This takes much of the drama out of the annual planning cycle, and means that there is not a period in the year when the forecast may only cover a matter of days. This can happen, and often does, if the new annual forecast is only agreed in December, to cover January onwards!\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2672029",
"title": "Old Farmer's Almanac",
"section": "Section::::Weather predictions.:Accuracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "The accuracy of \"The Old Farmer's Almanac\"'s predictions has been challenged. John Walsh, University of Illinois Atmospheric Sciences professor emeritus, reviewed the accuracy of five years of monthly forecasts from 32 weather stations around the county and found 50.7% of the monthly temperature forecasts and 51.9% of precipitation forecasts to correctly predict a deviation from averages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11890372",
"title": "SahysMod",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Seasonal approach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "BULLET::::3. this model is especially developed to predict long-term trends, and predictions for the future are more reliably made on a seasonal (long-term) than on a daily (short-term) basis, due to the high variability of short-term data;\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32069811",
"title": "Demand sensing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Traditionally, forecasting accuracy was based on time series techniques which create a forecast based on prior sales history and draws on several years of data to provide insights into predictable seasonal patterns. However, past sales are frequently a poor predictor of future sales. Demand sensing is fundamentally different in that it uses a much broader range of demand signals (including current data from the supply chain) and different mathematics to create a more accurate forecast that responds to real-world events such as market shifts, weather changes, natural disasters, consumer buying behavior etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4mzcv2
|
Was Hannibal Barca black?
|
[
{
"answer": "Coins.\nWe have coins which are apparently presenting the image of Hamilcar (Hannibal's Father) and Hasdrubal (Hannibal's brother.) The coin presented does not appear to favor the features of either. Suggesting that the old coin depicts Hannibal simply because the back depicts and elephant seems like wishful thinking. The coin, apparently with Hannibal's Father's features also has an elephant on the back. Consider the impressive nature of the elephant, the animal need not reference the elephants taken by Hannibal into the Alps. His brother-in-law, Hasdrubal the Fair, has a bust which also doesn't seem to be a match for the coin the video suggests depicts Hannibal. \n\nHamilcar ( _URL_3_ )\nElephant ( _URL_5_ ) \nHasdrubal ( _URL_3_ )\nHasdrubal the Fair ( _URL_2_ ) \nSuggested Hannibal Coin ( _URL_0_ ) \n\n\n\n\nWords:\nThen we have words. Apparently, the type of \"African\" the History Channel has decided to use would have been called Ethiopian. This is a sub-Saharan, not someone from Carthage. \n\n\"Misconceptions about African Blacks in the Ancient Mediterranean World: Specialists and Afrocentrists\" (Frank M. Snowden Jr.; Arion Third Series, Vol. 4, No. 3 (Winter, 1997), pp. 28-50)\n_URL_1_ (under section title Vol 4.3 Essays)\n_URL_4_\n\n\"The only Greek or Latin word, and I emphasize only, that most frequently referred to a black or Negroid type from the sixth century BC onward is Aithiops or Aethiops (Ethiopian), literally a person with a burnt face. These Negroid peoples, who exhibited various shades of pigmentation and whose facial features encompassed a variety of types, came from either the south of Egypt (Kush, Ethiopia, Nubia) or the interior of northwest Africa. Ancient sources also differentiate clearly between people who lived along the coastal areas of northwest Africa (i.e., modern Libya to Morocco) and those who inhabited the interior. \"Aethiops,\" it should be emphasized, with few exceptions, was applied neither to Egyptians nor to inhabitants of northwest Africa, such as Moors, Numidians, or Carthaginians.\" \n\nInterestingly enough, the author also talks directly about Hannibal. \n\n\"All the inhabitants of northwest Africa have been and are black. Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, for example, has been described as a black and, like many of the blacks in Afrocentric studies, appears as such in Rogers's publications. In his discussion of Hannibal, Rogers states that the Carthaginians were descendants of the Phoenicians, a Negroid people, and that until the rise of the doctrine of white superiority Hannibal was traditionally known as a black man. Van Sertima accepts this myth; refers to Carthaginians as Africoid peoples; publishes some illustrations of coins depicting Negroes and elephants; and, though he cites no proof, states that these coins indicate the Africoid ancestry of the Carthaginians (misspelled four times on two pages). Coins with realistic portraits of Hannibal's family, the Barcids, however, depict them as obviously non-Negroid. Furthermore, there is no classical source which describes the Carthaginians who came from Phoenicia at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea as Ethiopians, i.e., Negroes or blacks.\"\n\nIt appears that we cannot ascribe race to Hannibal other than Phonecian. Also, this scholar's article seems to have neatly referenced the curiosity of the coins that my own research on Wikipedia suggested. \n\n",
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"answer": "Apart from the \"war on white history\" which I won't even dignify with recognition, I'll start by saying that there is no surviving physical description of Hannibal Barca, so if History Channel wants to depict Hannibal as being darker skinned they're free to; plus I'm more concerned with their classification of Carthaginians as \"Barbarians\" as at the time of the Punic wars, Carthage was a much older and more cosmopolitan city than Rome! If anything, the Romans were the \"Barbarians\"!\n\nPatrick Hunt at UCL affirmed in a paper in 2014 that not only are we unclear of Hannibal's ethnicity, it can't even be framed within modern concepts of race and ethnicity. \n\nThere might be coins depicting [Hannibal's father minted in Carthaginian colonies in Iberia](_URL_0_) which we can use to get an idea of what he looked like (we also have coins depicting his brother [Hasdrubal](_URL_1_)). But as for his skin color? Hunt affirms that the Barcids were said to descend from Phoenician aristocracy, but affirming that Hannibal would look like the inhabitants of modern-day Lebanon might be problematic; as they had been living in Africa for centuries by the time he came around. Conversely, we have absolutely no indication as to what extent the Barcids or other members of the Carthaginian aristocracy intermarried with the indigenous Garamantes (the predecessors of the Berbers). My guess? He probably looked something like Zinedine Zidane with a beard, as Zidane is an ethnic Berber. \n\nEdit: I don't even remember where I first read Hunt's analysis, [this is all I could find written by him](_URL_2_) that pretty much sums everything up. \n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Legend has it that queen dido, alyssa as we call her, came as a phenician refugee to today tunisia. (My country) to create carthage. She was welcomed by the numedian inhabitants and told she could have a land as big as the skin of a bull. So she threaded the skin of a bull and created carthage. More realistically speaking phenicians came to North africa to create an outpost. They were granted land by the numedian inhabitants and there was carthage. Phenicians created outposts all over the Mediterranean up to Barcelona.\nSo at the basis we know original inhabitants were numedian but carthage was a phenician outpost. Carthage thrived and after the fall of its home country Tyr. BecAmerican a city state of its own. Carthage had outposts all over the Mediterranean from sickly to Spain.\nCarthaginians didn't mix much with the local people. They kept their phenician language and writing and customs (including child savrifices). They were traders and owned the Mediterranean which is why Rome hated them so much. They were not warriors in nature but when the punic wars started with Rome they had to recruit an army. It is known that carthaginian armies were not made up of carthaginians but of people from the surrounding areas. Hence the carthaginians army was mainly made up of Libyans numedians iberians and Gauls each outpost hired the locals. Only the generals and higher ranking people were carthaginian. Including hannibal. Hannibal is considered to come from the carthaginian nobility. His father was a famous general hamilcar. Who spend his life in iberia. Which is why most historians will say that Hannibal mother was iberian. Carthaginians interacted more with iberians than with surrounding populations. If you want more information on his family look up hamilcar, hasdrubal, mago. At certain points through history, the surrounding populations, numedians, sometimes sided with carthage and sometimes with Rome. Until the numedian unified came along. The berber king Massinissa. You can research himethods and see what he looked like. Tunisians today are very close to carthage (that's where I live) other north africans mainly Algerians are closer to massinissa as the berber king. At the end of the day we are all north African.\nThe difference is if you were from carthage you were phenician (lebanese) if you were not carthaginian you were numedian berber. But we claim both. So where were these people from? One thing we know. Phenicians were not black Africans but neither were the numedians. Today in North africa we have what's left of all this mixture. The kabyle berbers. They didn't mix with anybody. They have their pure north African language and customs. They have nothing g to do with Arab invaders or European colonisers. They are just north African.\nAnd finally thanks to genetic testing we know where we came from. _URL_0_ As you can see the north African gene has been there for 30,000 years. People think that africa was all subsaharan africans but the Sahara desert created a boundary that was thicker than the sea. 30,000 years ago Asiatics decided to go there rather than into Europe. And they settled as a caucasoid people. After that people came and left between the Arabs the Europeans etc.. but north africans are still the same. 2 conclusions to this; north africans are not white because of Europeans invasions North Africans are not black either the genetic markers are clear\nWe are who we are because we settled there thousands of years ago. And no hannibal was not black.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1206280",
"title": "Scipio Africanus (slave)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Scipio Africanus (1702 – 21 December 1720) was a slave born to unknown parents from West Africa. He was named after Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Major, the third century BCE Roman general, famous for defeating the Carthaginian military leader Hannibal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "9516993",
"title": "The Black Corsair",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "The Black Corsair is an 1898 adventure novel written by Italian novelist Emilio Salgari. Set in the Caribbean during the Golden Age of Piracy, the novel narrates the exploits of Emilio Roccanera, Lord of Ventimiglia and his attempts to avenge his brothers, slain by the Duke Van Guld, now Governor of Maracaibo. The Lord of Ventimiglia, known throughout the Spanish Main as the Black Corsair, allies himself with some of the greatest pirates and buccaneers of the era: François L'Ollonais, Michael the Basque and Henry Morgan, vowing never to rest until he attains his vengeance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16942274",
"title": "Tudor Parfitt",
"section": "Section::::Origins of the Lemba.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Subsequently, he turned his attention to another black and apparently Jewish group: the Lemba tribe of southern Africa. They claimed descent from some ancient Jewish population. He published \"Journey to the Vanished City\" (1992) about his six-month journey throughout Africa, in which he traced the origins of the tribe to the eastern end of the Hadhramaut in Yemen. There he discovered the ancient city of Sena and origins of the tribe in some migrating Jewish traders. TV programs about the discoveries, and major newspaper coverage, brought Parfitt international attention. He was nicknamed the British 'Indiana Jones,' after a film character.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33550634",
"title": "Antoni Canals",
"section": "Section::::Works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "BULLET::::- His best humanist work: \"Raonament fet entre Scipió e Aníbal\" (Dialogue that was made between Scipio Africanus and Hannibal), which in fact is a free translation of the seventh book of Petrarch's \"Africa\", with interpolations that are based on other authors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51432032",
"title": "Barjawan",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Origin and rise to power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1161,
"text": "Barjawan's origin is obscure: in his biographical dictionary, Ibn Khallikan records him as a Black African, whereas the historians Ibn al-Qalanisi and al-Maqrizi assert that he was white (\"abyaḍ al-lawn\"), with al-Maqrizi further specifying that he was either a Sicilian (\"Siqillī\") or a Slav (\"Saqlabī\"), as both versions appear in the manuscripts of his work. A eunuch, he was brought up as a slave in the court of Caliph al-Aziz Billah (r. 975–996), under whom he became court intendant. Already before the death of al-Aziz, Barjawan was appointed tutor of the Caliph's son and heir Mansur, the future al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, whence he is also mentioned with the title of \"ustādh\", \"master\", often borne by eunuch preceptors of princes. In 996, Bajarwan accompanied his charge to Bilbays, where al-Aziz, in the midst of preparing an expedition against the Byzantine Empire, had fallen ill and was approaching death. According to the chroniclers, upon al-Aziz's death, Bajarwan rushed to find his pupil. Finding him playing in a tree, he placed a jewelled turban on his head, and kissed the ground before him while saluting him as \"Commander of the Faithful\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25614536",
"title": "Character of Robert E. Howard",
"section": "Section::::Racism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1089,
"text": "\"Black Canaan\" is one of the most significant of Howard's works when discussing his attitude towards race. It tells the story of an uprising of \"swamp niggers\" led by a voodoo 'conjer man,' named Saul Stark, which is defeated by the white Kirby Buckner thanks to the sacrifice of his heroic friend, Jim Baxton. Saul Stark's back story is tied to Africa, emphasizing the racial conflict. Howard does attribute to Stark knowledge and powers unknown to white characters and describes him in a way that places him above the \"slaves\" and shows his disdain for the weak mindset of the \"dogs.\" Another character, The Bride of Damballah, is described in stereotypical manner as a black woman. Yet she is described in the same terminology as Howard's white heroines and villains, giving rise to a half-black female character as powerful and as beautiful as other female villains in Howard's works, be they black, white, or the queen of the Akkas. \"Black Canaan\" follows the aforementioned use of Atlantis by describing a dance that was \"ancient when the ocean drowned the black kings of Atlantis.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "334462",
"title": "Mago Barca",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Mago Barca (, ; 243–203BC), was a Barcid Carthaginian who played an important role in the Second Punic War, leading forces of Carthage against the Roman Republic in Iberia and northern and central Italy. Mago was the third son of Hamilcar Barca, was the brother of Hannibal and Hasdrubal, and was the brother-in-law of Hasdrubal the Fair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ogb97
|
why i can spend a night drinking 20 standard drinks made of spirits (mixed and shots) and be fine, but if i drink a bottle of red wine at 8 standard drinks i'm really drunk and have a horrible hangover?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hangovers aren't just about the amount of ethanol you drink. They're also a function of other chemicals, like methanol, higher alcohols, and other volatiles. \n\nRed wine is full of volatiles, so even though its not as alcoholic, it still gives a murderous hangover.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You probably have an intolerance for sulfites.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3187173",
"title": "Health effects of wine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Drinking more than the standard drink amount increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, stroke and cancer. Mixed results are also observed in light drinking and cancer mortality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337566",
"title": "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption",
"section": "Section::::Cardiovascular system.:Intermittent claudication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "A study found that moderate consumption of alcohol had a protective effect against intermittent claudication. The lowest risk was seen in men who drank 1 to 2 drinks per day and in women who drank half to 1 drink per day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7071407",
"title": "Russian traditions and superstitions",
"section": "Section::::Traditions for the use of alcohol in Russia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "BULLET::::- One should not put a glass with alcohol back on the table. However it refers only to shot-type strong alcohol which you are supposed to drink at once. Wine, long drink cocktails and beer do not fall under the rule as they are meant to be sipped.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1318497",
"title": "Liquor",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Long-term effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "The main active ingredient of distilled spirits is alcohol, and therefore, the health effects of alcohol apply to spirits. Drinking small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink per day for women and 2 drinks per day for men) is associated with a \"decreased\" risk of heart disease, stroke, diabetes mellitus, and early death. Drinking more than this amount; however, increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. The risk is greater in younger people due to binge drinking which may result in violence or accidents. About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2797132",
"title": "Alcohol and cardiovascular disease",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Epidemiological and short term experimental studies have shown drinkers who consume one to two drinks per drinking day have a beneficial association with ischemic heart disease compared to never-drinkers. Furthermore, regular consumption of light to moderate dose of alcohol (1 drink/day for women or up to 2-drinks/day for men) has shown to reduce the incidence of cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality in cardiovascular patients. However, cardiovascular patients who do not regularly consume alcohol are not encouraged to start drinking due to lack of controlled intervention studies and evidence. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47311778",
"title": "Len Deighton's Action Cook Book",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "The cookbook was mentioned in an episode of \"The Supersizers...\", focusing on the extremely high quantities of alcohol required for a 1970s cocktail party. Here Len recommends half a 70 cl bottle (35 cl) of hard spirit (e.g. rum, vodka, etc.) per person every two hours of a party, increasing to three-quarters (52.5 cl) of a bottle per person after 2 hours \"\"since drinking will increase if they haven't gone home by then\" \" (p126). This equates to 87.5 cl of spirits per person for a four-hour party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337566",
"title": "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption",
"section": "Section::::Alcohol-related death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "The observed decrease in mortality of light-to-moderate drinkers compared to never drinkers might be partially explained by superior health and social status of the drinking group; however, the protective effect of alcohol in light to moderate drinkers remains significant even after adjusting for these confounders. Additionally, confounders such as underreporting of alcohol intake might lead to the underestimation of how much mortality is reduced in light-to-moderate drinkers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4qw7mf
|
What was the motivation behind American Indian boarding schools?
|
[
{
"answer": "Thank you for asking this question. Far too often I see people making the boarding schools out to be something they are not.\n\nFirst, let me inform you that they were, for the most part, **not** peaceful. The actual intention of these schools was as you stated in your first paragraph: a colonial effort to destroy the Native American tribal identity. It was to force assimilation into American society and the churches, including the Catholics, were often instrumental in this process. The BIA own ups to this at the end of [their FAQ page by saying](_URL_5_) \"The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 introduced the teaching of Indian history and culture in BIA schools, which contrasted with the federal policy at the time of acculturating and assimilating Indian people through the BIA boarding school system.\" (Third paragraph from the bottom.) And even though the IRA of 1934 tried to stop this, the horrible boarding school experienced continued on for a number of decades. Even today, many natives still suffer from the time spent in those schools.\n\nNot only is this cultural genocide, [but it is legitimate genocide as well.](_URL_9_)\n\nThese schools did numerous things in order to erase the Indian culture of their students. Indian children were forcibly sent to these schools after the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, Daniel Browning, decided that Indian parents did not have the right to choose their child's education in 1896. Upon arrival, children were stripped of their native dress and given western clothing. They were given Christian names and were forbidden from speaking in their native tongue. If they did, they were beat. They were not allowed to practice their traditions or religion, but had to follow Christianity. Often they were severely punished for even the slightest error. They had to cut their hair and have a Christian style. This short paragraph does not do justice in describing what happened. And all of these happened often at the hand of Christian teachers, whether they be Catholic, Protestant, Baptist, or whatever.\n\n[**Children died at these schools.**](_URL_8_)\n\nWhat was the motivation? [I speak about the role Christianity played in another comment here.](_URL_4_) Christianity was used in multiple ways, but the goal was the same as the U.S. Government's goal: assimilate the Indian heathen. For the churches, it was so they could saved. It was to fix the so called \"Indian Problem.\" We can verify the motivation by looking at the words of figures during this time.\n\nThe main guiding principles used for the schools came from one man. His name is Henry Pratt, the founder of the Carlisle Indian School.\n\n > “Kill the Indian, and save the man.”\n\n[--U.S. Capt. Richard H. Pratt, 1879, on the Education of Native Americans](_URL_6_)\n\nAs put by this article that speaks on the boarding schools, [\"Carlisle Indian Industrial School was created in Carlisle, Pennsylvania under the direction of Richard Henry Pratt, a former Army officer. In a 1977 American Indian Law Review article, “The Evolution of the Termination Policy,” Charles Wilkinson and Eric Biggs give a brief insight into Pratt’s opinion on Indians; they recount that he once stated that “‘a great general has said that the only good Indian is a dead one. I agree with the sentiment, but only in this: that all the Indian there is in the race should be dead. Kill the Indian in him and save the man.'”\"](_URL_7_)\n\n[The Meriam Report of 1928](_URL_1_) exposed the high rate of neglect and abuse going on in these boarding schools. Evidently, these Christians were not so Christ-like. On pages 397-398, it makes these remarks about the role of Christian education in these schools (bold mine):\n\n > \"Pioneer Indian missionaries, both Catholic and Protestant, were conspicuous for their ability to live with the Indian people, know the lives of individual Indians, and build on what they found. This is the reason, doubtless, why some of the best missionary education still seen among Indians is the direct continuation of their work. Judged educationally, current religious efforts among Indians fall down at precisely this point; **knowing little of Indian religion or life, many missionaries begin on the erroneous theory that it is first of all necessary to destroy what the Indian has, rather than to use what he has as a starting point for something else.**\"\n\nAnd yet, Christianity is what was beaten into these children throughout their boarding school experience. [You can listen to natives who survived these schools and hear their experiences with your own ears. They suffered at the hands of Christians.](_URL_2_)\n\nSo, to break it down:\n\n > What I want to know is, what was the actual intention of these schools?\n\nAssimilation and extermination.\n\n > Was it us attempting to help the American Indians get a real education to help them advance their own society?\n\nThese schools did offer practical education in western ways. There are some reports of native children benefiting. However, the majority did not have a good experience. In the end, it wasn't to \"help them advance their own society.\" It was to suit the agenda of the U.S. It was to conquer a people they did not want. It was to \"solve\" the Indian Problem.\n\n > A way to destroy them culturally?\n\nWhen you ban their entire way of life and force them to live by your ways, yes.\n\n > The better alternative to outright extinction from repeated wars?\n\nThey were already doing that. Fortunately, we were resilient enough to cause some people to change their minds and others to just change their tactics.\n\n > Or was it the way we would \"make up\" for past instances of violence and resettlement?\n\nThese schools were one of the worst instances of violence and resettlement. If you want a good paper that provides *many* resources to study this further, I suggest these papers [here](_URL_0_) and [here.](_URL_3_)\n\n**Edit:** Added an additional reference point from the Meriam Report of 1928.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61163932",
"title": "Detribalization",
"section": "Section::::Retribalization.:Native Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "Since \"the relationship between parents and children was often broken because of long separation\" forced upon Indigenous families, so was the \"transmission of cultural and traditional knowledge.\" However, while the boarding schools were undeniably detrimental to Native Americans, their efforts to assimilate and erase tribal identities through forced \"education\" were unfulfilled, since \"instead of replacing their students' Indian identity with an American one as planned, the schools reinforced it while creating a pan-Indian identity alongside other tribal identities.\" The emergence of pan-Indianism as an effect of the off-reservation boarding schools unified Native American resistance to colonialism and served as an important \"tool for future unity and cohesion among Indians.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53581986",
"title": "Rapid City Indian School",
"section": "Section::::Indian boarding schools.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1032,
"text": "These schools were put in place by the government for two main reasons: to require the mastery of English and to \"civilize\" the Indians. There were roughly 100 Indian boarding schools that the US government operated, often forcing children away from their families for schooling. Twenty-five of these schools were off-reservation boarding schools in 1900, holding 7,430 students. Every day was filled with strict schedules and specific activities for girls and boys, home-making skills for the former and carpentry for the latter. Some students were forced against their will to go, others were in poverty and the boarding schools were a way out, and others wanted education and to meet other people from different tribes. Reports on these Indian boarding schools are largely negative, with most students found to be \"malnourished, overworked, harshly punished and poorly educated.\" While the conditions at the schools weren't ideal, they were better than the certain poverty that most children faced at home in their reservations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7721010",
"title": "Cultural assimilation of Native Americans",
"section": "Section::::Native American education and boarding schools.:Non-reservation boarding schools.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "An Indian boarding school was one of many schools that were established in the United States during the late 19th century to educate Native American youths according to American standards. In some areas, these schools were primarily run by missionaries. Especially given the young age of some of the children sent to the schools, they have been documented as traumatic experiences for many of the children who attended them. They were generally forbidden to speak their native languages, taught Christianity instead of their native religions, and in numerous other ways forced to abandon their Indian identity and adopt American culture. Many cases of mental and sexual abuse have been documented, as in North Dakota.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28777554",
"title": "Indigenous peoples of California",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 1130,
"text": "During the end of the 19th Century and the beginning of the 20th century, the government attempted to force the indigenous peoples to break the ties with their native culture and tribalism and assimilate with the white society. In California, the federal government established such forms of education as the reservation day schools and American Indian boarding schools. Some public schools would allow Indians to attend as well. Poor ventilation and nutrition (due to limited funding), and diseases were typical problems at schools for American Indians. In addition to that, most parents disagreed with the idea of their children being raised as whites: at boarding schools, the students were forced to wear European style clothes and haircuts, were given European names, and were strictly forbidden to speak indigenous languages. The Native American community recognized the American Indian boarding schools to have oppressed their native culture and demanded the right for their children to access public schools. In 1935 the restrictions that forbid the Native Americans from attending public schools were officially removed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25404845",
"title": "Fort Shaw",
"section": "Section::::Civilian use.:Fort Shaw Indian school.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "By the 1880s, the United States government undertook a major initiative to pacify Native American tribes through nonviolent means. A key element in this effort was the creation of boarding schools. These schools, sometimes on reservations but just as often not, were originally run by religious groups. By the 1890s, however, the schools had been largely secularized and were being run by government employees and government-employed teachers. The goal of Indian boarding schools was two-fold: First, to strip Native American children of their language and culture, teach them the English language, and instill in them the values and cultural ways of white Americans; and second, to teach them academic subjects, vocational trades, and other skills that were valued by white American business and society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39108393",
"title": "History of Native Americans in the United States",
"section": "Section::::19th century.:Education and Indian boarding schools.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "After the Indian wars in the late 19th century, the United States established Native American boarding schools, initially run primarily by or affiliated with Christian missionaries. At this time American society thought that Native American children needed to be acculturated to the general society. The boarding school experience often proved traumatic to Native American children, who were forbidden to speak their native languages, taught Christianity and denied the right to practice their native religions, and in numerous other ways forced to abandon their Native American identities and adopt European-American culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61163932",
"title": "Detribalization",
"section": "Section::::Retribalization.:Native Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "American Indian boarding schools, which were operational throughout the United States from the late nineteenth century until 1973, attempted to compel detribalization by forcibly instructing Indigenous children to abandon their \"tribal languages and traditions,\" which resulted in cross-generational trauma and detachment from community; \"detribalization was achieved in many ways like cutting the children's hair, giving them clothes typically worn by white people, forbidding them to speak their native languae, giving them a new American name, and, most of all, requiring them to speak English only.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2zho88
|
Why is there no snow/glaciers in some areas of the far north of Greenland?
|
[
{
"answer": "Northern Greenland's climate is somewhat similar to Antarctica's. Antarctica is technically a desert in that it gets only 6.5in of precipication in a year. Northern Greenland gets just 8in of precipitation a year.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14534679",
"title": "Climate of the Arctic",
"section": "Section::::Solar radiation.:Summer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "\"Greenland:\" The interior of Greenland differs from the rest of the Arctic. Low spring and summer cloud frequency and the high elevation, which reduces the amount of solar radiation absorbed or scattered by the atmosphere, combine to give this region the most incoming solar radiation at the surface out of anywhere in the Arctic. However, the high elevation, and corresponding lower temperatures, help keep the bright snow from melting, limiting the warming effect of all this solar radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12118",
"title": "Greenland",
"section": "Section::::Geography and climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "The extreme north of Greenland, Peary Land, is not covered by an ice sheet, because the air there is too dry to produce snow, which is essential in the production and maintenance of an ice sheet. If the Greenland ice sheet were to melt away completely, the world's sea level would rise by more than .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14534679",
"title": "Climate of the Arctic",
"section": "Section::::Precipitation.:Greenland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "The interior of the central and northern Greenland Ice Sheet is the driest part of the Arctic. Annual totals here range from less than 100 to about 200 mm (4 to 8 in). This region is continuously below freezing, so all precipitation falls as snow, with more in summer than in the winter time. (USSR 1985).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14534679",
"title": "Climate of the Arctic",
"section": "Section::::Temperature.:Greenland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Climatically, Greenland is divided into two very separate regions: the coastal region, much of which is ice free, and the inland ice sheet. The Greenland Ice Sheet covers about 80% of Greenland, extending to the coast in places, and has an average elevation of and a maximum elevation of . Much of the ice sheet remains below freezing all year, and it has the coldest climate of any part of the Arctic. Coastal areas can be affected by nearby open water, or by heat transfer through sea ice from the ocean, and many parts lose their snow cover in summer, allowing them to absorb more solar radiation and warm more than the interior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34061",
"title": "Winter",
"section": "Section::::Meteorological reckoning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Accumulations of snow and ice are commonly associated with winter in the Northern Hemisphere, due to the large land masses there. In the Southern Hemisphere, the more maritime climate and the relative lack of land south of 40°S makes the winters milder; thus, snow and ice are less common in inhabited regions of the Southern Hemisphere. In this region, snow occurs every year in elevated regions such as the Andes, the Great Dividing Range in Australia, and the mountains of New Zealand, and also occurs in the southerly Patagonia region of South Argentina. Snow occurs year-round in Antarctica.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "348869",
"title": "North Atlantic oscillation",
"section": "Section::::Winter of 2009–10 in Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "The probability of cold winters with much snow in Central Europe rises when the Arctic is covered by less sea ice in summer. Scientists of the Research Unit Potsdam of the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research in the Helmholtz Association have decrypted a mechanism in which a shrinking summertime sea ice cover changes the air pressure zones in the Arctic atmosphere and effects on European winter weather.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20026496",
"title": "Climate of the Nordic countries",
"section": "Section::::Global warming.:Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1513,
"text": "Greenland is one of the areas in both the Nordic region and the world most affected by climate change. A July 2006 study completed by \"\"The Journal of Climate\"\", determined that the melting of Greenland's ice sheets was the single largest contributor to global sea-level rise. The temperatures from the year 2000 to the present have caused several very large glaciers that had long been stable, to begin to melt away. Three glaciers that have been researched: Jakobshavn Isbræ, Helheim and Kangerdlugssuaq Glaciers, jointly drain more than 16% of the Greenland Ice Sheet. Satellite images and aerial photographs from the 1950s and 1970s show that the front of the glacier had remained in the same place for decades. In 2001, the ice sheet began retreating rapidly, retreating between 2001 and 2005. It has also accelerated from to a day. Western Greenland's Jakobshavn Isbræ is generally considered the fastest moving glacier in the world, and has been moving continuously at speeds of over a day with a stable terminus since at least 1950. The glacier's ice tongue began to break apart in 2000, leading to almost complete disintegration in 2003, while the retreat rate doubled to over per day. In the summer of 2005, the island of Uunartoq Qeqertoq was discovered off the eastern central coast of Greenland. Prior to 2005, many people assumed that Uunartoq Qeqertoq was actually a peninsula off Liverpool Land, however, the melting ice shelves revealed that it was only connected to the mainland by glacial ice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1c8l90
|
Is there a point where too much muscle is bad for your body?
|
[
{
"answer": "By working hard to sustain a certain level of muscle, are you referring to the extra work the heart must do to deliver blood to the added muscle mass, or that extra muscle is still extra weight for your body to carry around, thus inherently requiring the heart to do extra work (or both)?",
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},
{
"answer": "Everyone seems to be missing the point of the question, so I will rephrase in hopes have we can get an answer. I am also curious about this question. \n\nWhile maintaining a healthy body fat percentage, can a person build so much muscle it can effect their health? Why?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "841074",
"title": "Muscle fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Pathology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Muscle weakness may be due to problems with the nerve supply, neuromuscular disease (such as myasthenia gravis) or problems with muscle itself. The latter category includes polymyositis and other muscle disorders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "35152005",
"title": "Hardgainer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Difficulty building muscle is often associated with the ectomorph body somatotype, however other common reasons also include a lack of proper nutrition, suitable physical activity level or not allowing enough recovery time for the stressed muscles to regain their previous state and then grow bigger (overtraining).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36168126",
"title": "Iranian traditional medicine",
"section": "Section::::Choleric, sanguine, melancholic, phlegmatic.:Sanguine: warm and wet.:Lifestyle tips.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 222,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 222,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "BULLET::::- As they have muscular body and a body composition of larger proportion of muscle tissue rather than fat they need to exercise and lack of movement would cause waste products and other toxins to build up in their bodies. Therefore, they are more prone to develop high uric acid and cholesterol levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35152005",
"title": "Hardgainer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "For the true hardgainer, the issue lies deeper beneath any of the required elements of muscle gain listed above. Those are typically either diseases that affect muscles and/or protein synthesis, or there might be a genetic disorder that hinders protein synthesis and/or limits the maximum amount of muscles the body can hold to a relatively small amount for that person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5308641",
"title": "Muscle atrophy",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Differential diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "In addition to the simple loss of muscle mass (atrophy), or the age-related decrease in muscle function (sarcopenia), other diseases may cause structural defects in the muscle (muscular dystrophy), or by inflammatory reactions in the body directed against muscle (the myopathies).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14403502",
"title": "Catabolysis",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "The situation can become dire when one begins to lose muscle mass; this is a sign that the fat has been expended and the body is now metabolizing the muscle tissue. This results in muscle atrophy, a loss of strength and, ultimately, a depletion of muscular tissue completely. Muscle weakness is not necessarily a symptom of catabolysis: the muscles will normally feel fatigued when they are not receiving enough energy or oxygen. Ultimately, catabolysis can progress to the point of no return when the body's machinery for protein synthesis, itself made of protein, has been degraded to the point that it cannot handle any protein. At this point, attempts to correct the disorder by giving food or protein are futile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5308641",
"title": "Muscle atrophy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Muscle atrophy results from a co-morbidity of several common diseases, including cancer, AIDS, congestive heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, renal failure, and severe burns; patients who have \"cachexia\" in these disease settings have a poor prognosis. Moreover, starvation eventually leads to muscle atrophy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
28mmr7
|
what makes unix/linux more stable and secure than windows?
|
[
{
"answer": "Unix had privilege levels because it's originally a multi user system. You need root access to do any real damage to the system",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In UNIX/linux, the default security model has always been that normal users cannot mess with the system configuration. In windows, the default security model has long been that any user could do anything they desired to the system, and had access to all critical system configuration and other resources. Admittedly, this has changed in recent Windows versions, and the reputation continues.\n\nA second point of stability is that in UNIX/linux, the operating system and the graphical desktop are two completely separated systems. To the operating system, X (the window system of linux) is just another application running in user space. If X behaves badly, a sysadmin can kill it and restart it without having to reboot the system. In Windows, the graphical shell is integrated very closely with the operating system and run with admin privilege. This means that anything going wrong in the graphical shell has the ability to bring the whole system to a screeching halt, requiring a reboot.\n\nYet another consideration. UNIX/linux has traditionally been developed as a community effort (open source) and usually by people who knew what they were doing, because the roots of both the linux kernel and GNU lie in academia where the brightest minds competed for karma and not for money. Linux being open source means that the community as a whole is well equipped to research any bugs or strange behaviour encountered in the usage of it. In contrast, Windows has been developed traditionally by wage slaves and with the specific purpose to make money from it. It is closed source, and many of the techniques and protocols it uses are proprietary, meaning that if something goes wrong, you are unable to investigate and must rely on Microsoft to fix things. In general, the solutions and enhancements for Windows are decided from a cost/gain point of view, while solutions and enhancements in UNIX/linux tend to be chosen on the basis of technical excellence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Open Source.\n\nWhether or not being open source is good for security has been a long-gone debate in the IT industry. It allows everyone to view your code, find issues, report/fix them, but equally allows potential attacks to see under the hood - meaning you lose out on security through obscurity. \n\nIn terms of Unix - being so popular results in people that are specialized in security looking and fixing bugs in the source code whereas in Windows they're (sort of) sitting ducks until they get hacked. \n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Windows started as a single-user operating system. That had a lot of ramificartions as it basically meant that anyone sitting at the computer was its master in all affairs. So it didn't have permissions on the file system. That meant that every line of code run on the computer could do anything to it, like compromising files.\n\nIt also meant that there was no way to use word as a simple \"user\" and only switch to the admin account when doing actual administrating. So you couldn't even be careful if you wanted to.\n\nWhile Windows has cast off that legacy, many of its users still treat it that way, do everything as admin etc.\n\nAlso, Microsoft has not really internallised security, either.\n\nFor example, if you want to do something \"amin-like\" on Mac OSX, a popup asks you for your password. That prevents malicious software of doing malicious stuff unnoticed. Microsoft coppied it, but badly. It asks for permission too often and thus trained its users to allow everything. Also, it requires users to click on a button rather than entering a password. Cliking on buttons is easy and helped training users to do so all the time. It's also done without thinking. This is human nature and Microsoft failed to understand how humans act and thus designed a bad system.\n\nLastly, Microsoft has the habit to keep old stuff arounf so they don't annoy their customers. This means that old APIs, programming interfaces of the operating systems, are kept around for decades and still expose their architecture from decades ago, when security was not designed into them.\n\n**So, long story short:** Windows has caught up greatly. It's still not quite there and it still has a lot of old baggae around, though. Its users are - largy due to habits instilled and caused by Microsoft - overly careless. However, if you know what you do (and you have to be more knowledgable than for Unix in this regard), you can run Windows almost as securely as Unix / Linux nowadays.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unix can keep out velociraptors. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's a lot of disinformation in this thread. I am an IT professional and netsec is a part of my job. I want to point out a few things:\n\n1. Pretty much all modern OS's have the exact same model: userspace vs privileged space. Applications are in in user space and things like drivers run in privileged space. You need root/admin privs to affect those, install software, change the system, etc.\n\n2. The bad old days are long gone. Windows used to be a single-use system with no break between the two (dos, win 95/95) but since NT/2000 its been done in the modern style.\n\n3. Code quality is on par with all three (OSX, Win, Linux). No one claims one is vastly superior or inferior to any. \n\n4. In the end of the day, if the user has root/admin and has poor judgement, that person will get infected somehow.\n\n5. Windows suffers from being forced to support a lot of legacy items. legacy apps dont use certain security items (dep/sehop/aslr) because they wont work with them turned on. This is more of an edge case though.\n\nThe real problem is that a lot of malware today doesn't exploit anything, its just a trojan. You could get a file called important.doc.exe and run it using only user privileges. Now its encrypted your files and is asking for ransom. Whoops!\n\nIronically, most of our security issues are on our linux servers in regard to exploits in common libraries used in web applications. Our windows stuff is fairly locked down and the same way windows is targeted on the desktop, linux is targeted on the server-side. There's a recent outbreak of hackers installing coin mining software on vulnerable linux machines and of course we just had heartbleed.\n\nSo yes, market share is the largest differentiation in regards to practical security. If youre on a platform that's targeted then you're going to make a special effort to protect yourself. On windows its AV and on linux its things like apparmor, rootkit hunters, selinux, etc. On both is making sure you're getting updates and rolling them out in a timely manner.\n\nThis is why OSX is in such a sweet spot right now. As user friendly as windows but not remotely as targeted. Or why tablets are so popular. The end user doesn't have root/admin, he's just put in a sandbox where he can run approved apps. So malware is a non-issue.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Windows is big.\n\nLinux is pretty big too. But windows is really really really big. \n\nWhen you install a Linux kernel, you get very limited functions. You get input, output, process scheduling, memory management, networking, and generally the things that other things can use to interface with the hardware. \n\nEverything else you can put on individually. You want a shell, you have a shell. You want a web server, you add a web server. Now maybe you have a machine that has a shell and a web server, and maybe all you want to do is host websites.\n\nWith Windows, you have every single thing. You turn it on and you have a million services that start up, each OEM adds their own to the list, across all of these things are various potential security holes that might give access to your system. You don't know where things start up from. A program can be executed because it's told to in the registry in HKLM/Software/Microsoft/Windows/CurrentVersion/Run, it might be executed because it's in HKLM/Software/Microsoft/Windows/CurrentVersion/RunOnce, it might be executed because it's running as a scheduled task, it might be executed because within HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT/.exe there's an override that says to first run some malicious code then run the program. It might be executed because it's a service that's told to start on startup. It might be executed because it's loaded as a hidden system driver. It might be loaded because there's an exploit in another piece of software that you're loading that you aren't aware of. It might be loaded because it's defined in HKLM\\Software\\microsoft\\windows nt\\currentversion\\winlogon\\notify, it might be loaded because it's inserted as a DCOM application. It might be loaded because it's modified your winsock properties. Maybe there's a bogus print driver. Maybe there's a plug-in in your browser. Maybe there's 1000 other points of entry that I don't know about.\n\nThen there's the next question about how it can get on to your computer. Each program that runs by default might have some weakness, especially if they're network enabled. Your computer is already responding to various network requests, communicating by NETBIOS, sending and listening to topology information, listening for file sharing requests, possibly listening for remote access requests, downloading updates. Look at your default firewall settings, and see how many things that windows firewall explicitly allows. Each of those services might have some flaw that allows something to get through. \n\nThe real problem though is the first section. Windows is really big. So many things happen that Windows' own engineers have a hard time figuring out what's going on and they're actually quite smart. A user downloads a trojan horse, and once something's run, there's a million places that it can hide and run itself. \n\nOther problems are things like how many things interact with eachother and how this can impact stability. \n\nIf you run bad code on linux, it can do bad things too, but on windows, users are constantly expected to run untrustworthy code, users are running all sorts of third party code that can be abused to run untrustworthy code without users' knowledge, and there's just typically a ton of stuff going on so it's hard to know what's good and what's bad.\n\nIf you want to make a Web Server for Windows, you get all of this too. You use it differently, you secure it differently, but it's still really big, it still has a bunch of legacy support and execution points.\n\nIf you want to make a web server with linux, you have the kernel, the web server, and whatever few tools you need to administer it. The few things you want to run do, you need to worry about the security of the software you have but that can be audited. If you don't want a user interface, you don't even need one. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57455353",
"title": "Linux Malware Detect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Traditionally, Linux systems are generally regarded as very well-protected against, but not immune to, computer viruses and other malware. Whereas there are relatively many malware detection software packages like virus scanners for Windows systems, there are relatively few for Linux systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1042273",
"title": "NSA encryption systems",
"section": "Section::::NSA encryption by type of application.:Public systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "BULLET::::- Security-Enhanced Linux - not strictly an encryption system, but a recognition that in the 21st century, operating system improvements are more vital to information security than better ciphers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "243928",
"title": "Unix security",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Unix security refers to the means of securing a Unix or Unix-like operating system. A secure environment is achieved not only by the design concepts of these operating systems, but also through vigilant user and administrative practices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "243928",
"title": "Unix security",
"section": "Section::::Viruses and virus scanners.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Unix-like operating systems are immune to most Microsoft Windows viruses because binaries created to run on Windows generally won't run on other platforms. However, many Unix like installations provide file storage services to Microsoft Windows clients, such as through the use of Samba software, and may unintentionally become a repository for viruses stored by users. It is common for Unix servers to act as mail transfer agents; consequently; email virus scanning is often installed. The ClamAV virus scanner is available in source code form and may be used to scan Unix file systems for viruses which infect other operating systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3296619",
"title": "Secure by default",
"section": "Section::::Operating systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "OpenBSD claims to be the only operating system that is fully secure by default. This, however, does not mean it is inherently the most secure operating system, because that depends on the definition of an operating system. There are many operating systems that are not capable of networking with other systems, and, when considering the amount of network-based security compromises today, one can argue such an operating system is more secure. OpenBSD is a network operating system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3738839",
"title": "Features new to Windows Vista",
"section": "Section::::Security and safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Beginning in early 2002 with Microsoft's announcement of their Trustworthy Computing initiative, a great deal of work has gone into making Windows Vista a more secure operating system than its predecessors. Internally, Microsoft adopted a \"Secure Development Lifecycle\" with the underlying ethos of, \"Secure by design, secure by default, secure in deployment\". New code for Windows Vista was developed with the SDL methodology, and all existing code was reviewed and refactored to improve security.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20209624",
"title": "List of features removed in Windows 7",
"section": "Section::::Windows shell.:Windows Explorer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "BULLET::::- It is not possible to run the 32-bit version of Windows Explorer as a file manager or as the shell in 64-bit editions of Windows 7. 64-bit editions of Windows Vista and Windows XP allowed executing the 32-bit shell/Windows Explorer and making it the default for compatibility with shell extensions. As a result, all 32-bit shell extensions are incompatible with 64-bit versions of Windows 7.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6tcmm5
|
why do flags that have the union jack in the corner have different field colors?
|
[
{
"answer": "It comes from the different ensigns used by the Royal Navy in the past. Different squadrons of the navy used different ensigns, so dependent on where the squadrons patrolled new colonies and institutions would use the flag familiar to them.\n\nIt's all explained in this link:\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Speaking as a Kiwi, the only guess as to why we have the Jack still on our flag is because we're still part of the commonwealth, also we had a referendum to change our flag last year, it did fail obviously, you could find more information of the referendum [here](_URL_2_) and [here] (_URL_1_)\n\nI wanted [this](_URL_0_) as our flag personally.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7898132",
"title": "List of national flags by design",
"section": "Section::::Cross.:Union Jack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 200,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 200,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Additionally, the Union Jack features in many territorial and sub-national flags. These are often Red Ensigns (e.g., ) or Blue Ensigns (e.g., and ). A small number have backgrounds of other colours (e.g. and ) or a unique pattern in the field (e.g. and ). A small number put the Union Jack somewhere other than the canton (e.g. ). Unofficial flags, such as also use it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70760",
"title": "Union Jack",
"section": "Section::::Status.:South Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Under these arrangements, the Union Jack was subordinate to the National Flag. As the two flags had to be the same size, it meant that the Union Jack was made in the ratio 2:3 rather than the usual 1:2.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7023",
"title": "Confederate States of America",
"section": "Section::::National flags.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 266,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 266,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Because of its depiction in the 20th-century and popular media, many people consider the rectangular battle flag with the dark blue bars as being synonymous with \"the Confederate Flag\", but this flag was never adopted as a Confederate national flag. The \"Confederate Flag\" has a color scheme similar to the most common Battle Flag design, but is rectangular, not square. The \"Confederate Flag\" is a highly recognizable symbol of the South in the United States today, and continues to be a controversial icon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70760",
"title": "Union Jack",
"section": "Section::::Use in other flags.:Other nations and regions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "The Union Jack also appeared on both the 1910–1928 and 1928–1994 flags of South Africa. The 1910–1928 flag was a red ensign with the Union coat of arms in the fly. The 1928–1994 flag, based on the Prinsenvlag and commonly known as the \"oranje-blanje-blou\" (orange-white-blue), contained the Union Jack as part of a central motif at par with the flags of the two Boer republics of the Orange Free State and Transvaal. To keep any one of the three flags from having precedence, the Union Jack is spread horizontally from the Orange Free State flag towards the hoist; closest to the hoist, it is in the superior position but since it is reversed it does not precede the other flags.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50265039",
"title": "Batavian flag",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "The flag's colours and rows remained exactly the same (although the red and blue appear to have grown darker), but an important alteration was done by adding a jack in the upper left corner, several thumbs from the flagpole. This constituted a white rectangle, containing:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70760",
"title": "Union Jack",
"section": "Section::::Use in other flags.:Other nations and regions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "In former British colonies, the Union Jack was used semi-interchangeably with territorial flags for significant parts of their early history. This was the case in Canada until the introduction of the Maple Leaf Flag in 1965, but it is still used in the flags of a number of Canadian provinces such as British Columbia, Manitoba, and Ontario. Newfoundland and Labrador uses a modified version of the Union Flag, once the flag of the province.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20059418",
"title": "Penalty flag",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "The flag is colored orange in Canadian football. NFL penalty flags were colored white until 1965, when the color was changed to yellow. Penalty flags in college football were red until the 1970s, before also being changed to yellow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
339096
|
if ice destroys dna, how do seeds germinate successfully after being trapped in permafrost for thousands of years?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ice doesn't destroy DNA; rapid freezing does. If you cool it slowly, it can survive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are two aspects to this. One is, as someone pointed out, a bit of luck. Having DNA or other tissue not be damaged by the freezing process is scattershot. Essentially ice crystals form and cause tears on a molecular level, potentially shredding DNA, proteins and so forth. So when it comes to mammoths or other frozen animals, it's possible the damage didn't leave much to work with.\n\nThat said, there are billions of cells so there maybe be very large sections that have no damage scattered between these cells and with current scientific processes you can splice them together to potentially rebuild a genome. It would be like if a truck load of Ikea furniture crashed and you had to build a bookshelf. It's not impossible if you can take the good bits from every box.\n\nSeeds are a different matter entirely. Seeds (and in animals like some insects or other such creatures, cysts) have evolved to resist damage from cold. This is accomplished usually by having a minimal amount of free water (in fact water is often what signals the seed to wake up so to speak), having antifreeze proteins to control ice crystal formation or having special fat layers to help shield it from damage. In this case the freezing temperate is fine up to extremely low (unnatural) levels. In fact some cysts like those of tardigrades, a small 6 celled animal, can survive insane conditions like the vacuum of space or very high levels of gamma radiation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37263487",
"title": "Celtis koraiensis",
"section": "Section::::Seed Dormancy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Once the seeds of Celtis Koraiensis go dormant, a process of cold stratification along with the addition of Gibberellic Acid (GA(3)) can be done to germinate the seeds. Seeds were able to germinate to a maximum of 45.2% under the conditions of 400 mg GA(3) alternating 4/15 degrees C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "142181",
"title": "Seed bank",
"section": "Section::::Longevity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "In February 2012, Russian scientists announced they had regenerated a narrow leaf campion (Silene stenophylla) from a 32,000-year-old seed. The seed was found in a burrow under Siberian permafrost along with 800,000 other seeds. Seed tissue was grown in test tubes until it could be transplanted to soil. This exemplifies the long-term viability of DNA under proper conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9414336",
"title": "Oldest viable seed",
"section": "Section::::Carbon dated.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1186,
"text": "BULLET::::- The oldest carbon-14-dated seed that has grown into a viable plant was \"Silene stenophylla\" (narrow-leafed campion), an Arctic flower native to Siberia. Radiocarbon dating has confirmed an age of 31,800 ±300 years for the seeds. In 2007, more than 600,000 frozen mature and immature seeds were found buried in 70 squirrel hibernation burrows below the permafrost near the banks of the Kolyma River. Believed to have been buried by Arctic ground squirrels, which had damaged the mature seeds to prevent germination in the burrow; however, three of the immature seeds contained viable embryos. Scientists extracted the embryos and successfully germinated plants in vitro which grew, flowered and created viable seeds of their own. The shape of the flowers differed from that of modern \"S. stenophylla\" with the petals being longer and more widely spaced than modern versions of the plant. Seeds produced by the regenerated plants germinated at a 100% success rate, compared with 90% for modern plants. Calculations of the γ radiation dose accumulated by the seeds since burial gave a reading of 0.07 kGy, the highest maximal dose recorded for seeds that have remained viable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34822338",
"title": "Silene stenophylla",
"section": "Section::::Recovery of frozen remains.:Regeneration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 958,
"text": "In February 2012, a team of scientists from the Institute of Cell Biophysics of the Russian Academy of Sciences announced they had successfully regenerated specimens from fruit that had been frozen for 31,800 (±300) years according to radiocarbon dating. The accomplishment surpasses the previous record for the oldest plant material brought back to life, of 2000 years set by Judean date palm seeds. According to the BBC, the team led by David Gilichinsky used material recovered in 2007 by Stakhov et al. Gilichinsky, who was head of the Geocryology Lab, Institute for Physicochemical and Biological Problems in Soil Science at the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, for many years, died in February 2012, just before the paper was published. He was recognized by the team as a \"pioneer in studying microorganisms in Siberian and Antarctic permafrost, his achievement attracted scientists from all over the world to research on permafrost life systems.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37694",
"title": "Seed",
"section": "Section::::Germination.:Repair of DNA damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "During seed dormancy, often associated with unpredictable and stressful environments, DNA damage accumulates as the seeds age. In rye seeds, the reduction of DNA integrity due to damage is associated with loss of seed viability during storage. Upon germination, seeds of \"Vicia faba\" undergo DNA repair. A plant DNA ligase that is involved in repair of single- and double-strand breaks during seed germination is an important determinant of seed longevity. Also, in Arabidopsis seeds, the activities of the DNA repair enzymes Poly ADP ribose polymerases (PARP) are likely needed for successful germination. Thus DNA damages that accumulate during dormancy appear to be a problem for seed survival, and the enzymatic repair of DNA damages during germination appears to be important for seed viability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "97905",
"title": "Lake Vostok",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Biology results.:United Kingdom and United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "However, microbiologist David Pearce of the University of Northumbria in Newcastle, UK, stated that the DNA could simply be contamination from the drilling process, and not representative of Lake Vostok itself. The old ice cores were drilled in the 1990s to look for evidence of past climates buried in the ice, rather than for life, so the drilling equipment was not sterilized. Also Sergey Bulat, a Lake Vostok expert at the Petersburg Nuclear Physics Institute in Gatchina, Russia, doubts that any of the cells or DNA fragments in the samples would belong to organisms that might actually exist in the lake. He says that it is very probable that the samples are heavily contaminated with tissue and microbes from the outside world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16052279",
"title": "Bioprecipitation",
"section": "Section::::Plant pathogens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "Most known ice-nucleating bacteria are plant pathogens. These pathogens can cause freezing injury in plants. In the United States alone, it has been estimated that frost accounts for approximately $1 billion in crop damage each year. The ice-minus variant of \"P. syringae\" is a mutant, lacking the gene responsible for ice-nucleating surface protein production. This lack of surface protein provides a less favorable environment for ice formation. Both strains of P. syringae occur naturally, but recombinant DNA technology has allowed for the synthetic removal or alteration of specific genes, enabling the creation of the ice-minus strain. The introduction of an ice-minus strain of P. syringae to the surface of plants would incur competition between the strains. Should the ice-minus strain win out, the ice nucleate provided by P. syringae would no longer be present, lowering the level of frost development on plant surfaces at normal water freezing temperature (0°C).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
48kfx5
|
Historiography of Early Modern German Executioners
|
[
{
"answer": "Harrington's major secondary sources are nearly all in German (except Stuart). Still would be worth a perusal.\n\nSome stuff I can think of offhand in English:\n\n* Ulinka Rublack, *The Crimes of Women in Early Modern Germany* - bibliography is primarily German on Germany, but supplemented with English sources on Italy and England\n* Richard van Dülmen, *Theatre of Horror: Crime and Punishment in Early Modern Germany* (will not be as up-to-date as the 2010 edition of Theater des Schreckens, but hey, English!)\n\nAnd then work on specific crimes: sodomy, banishment, witchcraft, infanticide - using terms like those plus \"early modern germany\" in your searches will help flesh out your bibliography!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42530195",
"title": "Carl Gröpler",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Carl Gröpler (22 February 1868, Magdeburg – 30 January 1946, Magdeburg) was Royal Prussian executioner () from 1906 to 1937. Responsible for carrying out capital punishment in the Prussian provinces, he executed a total of at least 144 people, primarily by beheading with an axe, but also with guillotines. Gröpler was one of the most famous executioners in Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40157972",
"title": "Friedrich Reindel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Friedrich Reindel (6 September 1824, in Werben (Elbe) – 27 September 1908, in Magdeburg) was Royal Prussian executioner () from 1873 to 1898. Responsible for carrying out capital punishment in the Prussian provinces, he executed a total of 213 people by beheading with an axe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9827259",
"title": "Scharfrichter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "The term Scharfrichter (German for executioner, literally: \"sharp judge\") refers specifically to a tradition of executioners in the German states. Using a sword of execution, they had the responsibility of actually executing prisoners; his assistant, the \"Löwe\" (lion), would carry out tasks such as forcibly conveying prisoners to the presence of a judge (while roaring, hence the name), \"rubbish clearance\", burying unwanted bodies, and carrying out brandings. The Scharfrichter was a well-known figure nicknamed the \"Mate of Death\" and instantly recognizable in their traditional black frock coat and silk top hat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40157972",
"title": "Friedrich Reindel",
"section": "Section::::Executioner.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Popular European media showed ghoulish fascination with German executions, as with this illustration from Le Petit Parisien of the infamous executioner Reindel demonstrating his skill in Berlin Prison, 1891.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42530195",
"title": "Carl Gröpler",
"section": "Section::::Executioner.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1020,
"text": "Gröpler was first assistant to the main Prussian executioner Lorenz Schwietz. When the Prussian executioner Alwin Engelhardt was dismissed in 1906, Gröpler took over his duties. Together with his successor Ernst Reindel, Gröpler was one of the last executioners in Germany performing executions by beheading with an axe. Depending on local circumstances he also operated the guillotine. Once Gröpler to have said before an execution to a prison officer: \"Well, ... you passed an ugly night in the cell. Or don't you believe in God? I – yes! Otherwise I could not do that. Thou shalt not kill – who sheds blood, his blood shall be shed again – our laws are his (God's) laws –. In this knowledge I fulfill my duties.\" The prison officer been on death watch with a man condemned to death in his last night, discussing with him, prior to his decapitation, whether there was any sense in having a clergyman attending executions. Theodor Lessing nicknamed Gröpler (who had executed Fritz Haarmann in 1925) of \"the red judge\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70802",
"title": "Decapitation",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:German Fallbeil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "Contrary to popular myth, executions were generally not conducted face up, and chief executioner Johann Reichhart was insistent on maintaining \"professional\" protocol throughout the era, having administered the death penalty during the earlier Weimar Republic. Nonetheless, it is estimated that some 16,500 persons were guillotined in Germany and Austria between 1933 and 1945, a number that includes resistance fighters both within Germany itself and in countries occupied by Nazi forces. As these resistance fighters were not part of any regular army, they were considered common criminals and were in many cases transported to Germany for execution. Decapitation was considered a \"dishonorable\" death, in contrast to execution by firing squad.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25915036",
"title": "Lorenz Schwietz",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Lorenz Schwietz (25 July 1850 – May 1925, in Breslau) was Royal Prussian executioner () from 21 June 1900 to 29 January 1914. Responsible for carrying out capital punishment in the Prussian provinces, he executed a total of 120 to 123 people, primarily by beheading with an axe, but also with guillotines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3e5lot
|
why does the us distribute it's milk under refrigeration?
|
[
{
"answer": "mainly because of consumer acceptance. milk in usa has always come refrigerated. \n\nIn June 1993, Parmalat introduced its UHT milk to the United States.[12] In the American market, consumers are uneasy about consuming milk that is not delivered under refrigeration, and reluctant to buy it. To combat this, Parmalat is selling its UHT milk in old-fashioned containers, unnecessarily sold from the refrigerator aisle.[4] UHT milk is also used for many dairy products.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "UHT changes the flavor in a way that many do not like, and is more expensive to make. We in the US consume a large enough volume of milk that it is not economically beneficial to switch over to UHT.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "233884",
"title": "Ultra-high-temperature processing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "In the American market, consumers are uneasy about consuming milk that is not delivered under refrigeration, and reluctant to buy it. To combat this, Parmalat is selling its UHT milk in old-fashioned containers, unnecessarily sold from the refrigerator aisle. UHT milk is also used for many dairy products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "657067",
"title": "Powdered milk",
"section": "Section::::Food and health uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Powdered milk is also a common item in UN food aid supplies, fallout shelters, warehouses, and wherever fresh milk is not a viable option. It is widely used in many developing countries because of reduced transport and storage costs (reduced bulk and weight, no refrigerated vehicles). Like other dry foods, it is considered nonperishable, and is favored by survivalists, hikers, and others requiring nonperishable, easy-to-prepare food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Varieties and brands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 158,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 158,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Milk preserved by the UHT process does not need to be refrigerated before opening and has a much longer shelf life (six months) than milk in ordinary packaging. It is typically sold unrefrigerated in the UK, U.S., Europe, Latin America, and Australia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233884",
"title": "Ultra-high-temperature processing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "UHT milk has been sold since 2008 on American military bases in Puerto Rico and South Korea due to limited availability of milk supplies and refrigeration. UHT milk gained popularity in Puerto Rico as an alternative to pasteurized milk due to environmental factors. For example, power outages after a hurricane can last up to 2 weeks, during which time pasteurized milk would spoil from lack of refrigeration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Varieties and brands.:Spoilage and fermented milk products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 221,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 221,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "In order to prevent spoilage, milk can be kept refrigerated and stored between in bulk tanks. Most milk is pasteurized by heating briefly and then refrigerated to allow transport from factory farms to local markets. The spoilage of milk can be forestalled by using ultra-high temperature (UHT) treatment. Milk so treated can be stored unrefrigerated for several months until opened but has a characteristic \"cooked\" taste. Condensed milk, made by removing most of the water, can be stored in cans for many years, unrefrigerated, as can evaporated milk. The most durable form of milk is powdered milk, which is produced from milk by removing almost all water. The moisture content is usually less than 5% in both drum- and spray-dried powdered milk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Varieties and brands.:Distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 170,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 170,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Due to the short shelf life of normal milk, it used to be delivered to households daily in many countries; however, improved refrigeration at home, changing food shopping patterns because of supermarkets, and the higher cost of home delivery mean that daily deliveries by a milkman are no longer available in most countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "575131",
"title": "Raw milk",
"section": "Section::::Legal status.:North America.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Proponents of raw milk (in the U.S.) advance two basic arguments for unpasteurized milk. They state that pasteurization destroys or damages some of the milk's nutrients, and that while pasteurization may kill dangerous bacteria, it also kills off good bacteria that raw milk supporters have stated to have health benefits. The United States Food and Drug Administration has stated that this is false, and that pasteurizing milk does not destroy any of its nutritive value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4tc25v
|
if x-rays and gamma rays are the only ionizing radiation on the electromagnetic spectrum, how does uv light damage cells/dna?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some UV light can be ionizing. But radiation does not have to be ionizing to cause problems. Non ionizing radiation can still catalyze chemical reactions. In the case of UV light, it stimulates the bonding of two parts of DNA in a way they shouldn't be (production of thymine dimers for the interested) and this can still cause damage and mutation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First and foremost, it is both true and false that UV light does not fall into the ionizing part of the spectrum. \n\nIt is true that UV light is not potent enough to ionize single atoms, unlike X-rays and Gamma Rays. This however does not mean that it is not possible to affect molecules, including DNA. For example, the very \"powerful\" UV light emitted by the sun, ionizes the atmosphere so strongly, that it is absorbed before reaching the ground; thus allowing life on earth as we know it. \n\nAs far as skin cells are concerned, DNA mutations can be directly attributed to the effect of some of the UV light spectrum, called UVB and UVC. However, direct DNA damage is not the only reason skin cells can become malignant or otherwise sick. UVA radiation acts synergistically with the other two with a phenomenon called Indirect DNA damage. In short, UVA contributes in the production of free radicals, highly reactive chemical intermediates, which in turn can damage DNA. \n\nMoreover, UV radiation affects the entire function of the human body. The most common mechanism is the catalysis of Vitamin D production from the skin, which is an inherently important part in the bone structure. Another common example of cell damage is the eyesight impairment, in welders and mountaineers who are exposed to unusual amounts of UV radiation.\n\nUV radiation is not totally damaging. Absence of sufficient UV radiation can lead to a series of problems and people in places with limited sunlight, owing to pollution or geographical latitude, are often placed in UV therapy, as are people with certain skin conditions.\n\nAn iconic photo of children subjected to UV light can be found here _URL_0_\n\nAn interesting tidbit: Under some conditions, children and young adults can see ultraviolet down to wavelengths of about 310 nm and describe it as a \"whitish blue\" \n\nInteresting tidbit #2: A 2004 study published in the Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology found that soaking up UV rays is actually addicting!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34197",
"title": "X-ray",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "X-ray photons carry enough energy to ionize atoms and disrupt molecular bonds. This makes it a type of ionizing radiation, and therefore harmful to living tissue. A very high radiation dose over a short period of time causes radiation sickness, while lower doses can give an increased risk of radiation-induced cancer. In medical imaging this increased cancer risk is generally greatly outweighed by the benefits of the examination. The ionizing capability of X-rays can be utilized in cancer treatment to kill malignant cells using radiation therapy. It is also used for material characterization using X-ray spectroscopy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202522",
"title": "Ionizing radiation",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Indirectly ionizing.:Definition boundary for lower-energy photons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 1526,
"text": "As noted, the biological effect of ionizing radiation on cells somewhat resembles that of a broader spectrum of molecularly damaging radiation, which overlaps ionizing radiation and extends beyond, to somewhat lower energies into all regions of UV and sometimes visible light in some systems (such as photosynthetic systems in leaves). Although DNA is always susceptible to damage by ionizing radiation, the DNA molecule may also be damaged by radiation with enough energy to excite certain molecular bonds to form pyrimidine dimers. This energy may be less than ionizing, but near to it. A good example is ultraviolet spectrum energy which begins at about 3.1 eV (400 nm) at close to the same energy level which can cause sunburn to unprotected skin, as a result of photoreactions in collagen and (in the UV-B range) also damage in DNA (for example, pyrimidine dimers). Thus, the mid and lower ultraviolet electromagnetic spectrum is damaging to biological tissues as a result of electronic excitation in molecules which falls short of ionization, but produces similar non-thermal effects. To some extent, visible light and also ultraviolet A (UVA) which is closest to visible energies, have been proven to result in formation of reactive oxygen species in skin, which cause indirect damage since these are electronically excited molecules which can inflict reactive damage, although they do not cause sunburn (erythema). Like ionization-damage, all these effects in skin are beyond those produced by simple thermal effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9426",
"title": "Electromagnetic radiation",
"section": "Section::::Electromagnetic spectrum.:X-rays and gamma rays.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Electromagnetic radiation composed of photons that carry minimum-ionization energy, or more, (which includes the entire spectrum with shorter wavelengths), is therefore termed ionizing radiation. (Many other kinds of ionizing radiation are made of non-EM particles). Electromagnetic-type ionizing radiation extends from the extreme ultraviolet to all higher frequencies and shorter wavelengths, which means that all X-rays and gamma rays qualify. These are capable of the most severe types of molecular damage, which can happen in biology to any type of biomolecule, including mutation and cancer, and often at great depths below the skin, since the higher end of the X-ray spectrum, and all of the gamma ray spectrum, penetrate matter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9426",
"title": "Electromagnetic radiation",
"section": "Section::::Biological effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "Thus, at UV frequencies and higher (and probably somewhat also in the visible range), electromagnetic radiation does more damage to biological systems than simple heating predicts. This is most obvious in the \"far\" (or \"extreme\") ultraviolet. UV, with X-ray and gamma radiation, are referred to as ionizing radiation due to the ability of photons of this radiation to produce ions and free radicals in materials (including living tissue). Since such radiation can severely damage life at energy levels that produce little heating, it is considered far more dangerous (in terms of damage-produced per unit of energy, or power) than the rest of the electromagnetic spectrum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25856",
"title": "Radiation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "Gamma rays, X-rays and the higher energy range of ultraviolet light constitute the ionizing part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The word \"ionize\" refers to the breaking of one or more electrons away from an atom, an action that requires the relatively high energies that these electromagnetic waves supply. Further down the spectrum, the non-ionizing lower energies of the lower ultraviolet spectrum cannot ionize atoms, but can disrupt the inter-atomic bonds which form molecules, thereby breaking down molecules rather than atoms; a good example of this is sunburn caused by long-wavelength solar ultraviolet. The waves of longer wavelength than UV in visible light, infrared and microwave frequencies cannot break bonds but can cause vibrations in the bonds which are sensed as heat. Radio wavelengths and below generally are not regarded as harmful to biological systems. These are not sharp delineations of the energies; there is some overlap in the effects of specific frequencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25856",
"title": "Radiation",
"section": "Section::::Non-ionizing radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "The non-ionizing portion of electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves that (as individual quanta or particles, see photon) are not energetic enough to detach electrons from atoms or molecules and hence cause their ionization. These include radio waves, microwaves, infrared, and (sometimes) visible light. The lower frequencies of ultraviolet light may cause chemical changes and molecular damage similar to ionization, but is technically not ionizing. The highest frequencies of ultraviolet light, as well as all X-rays and gamma-rays are ionizing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8288876",
"title": "Virus processing",
"section": "Section::::Viral inactivation.:Ultraviolet (UV) inactivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "UV rays can damage the DNA of living organisms by creating nucleic acid dimers. However, the damages are usually not important due to low penetration of UVs through living tissues. UV rays can be used, however, to inactivate viruses since virus particules are small and the UV rays can reach the genetic material, inducing the dimerisation of nucleic acids. Once the DNA dimerised, the virus particules cannot replicate their genetic material which prevent them from spreading.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1i8e5f
|
stocks please
|
[
{
"answer": "Some of the details you are asking about depend on the specific plan you have or on the company that manages it for your employer.\n\n > I understand you put a portion of your check into buying stock and you make money from interest I think but is it money that you could possibly lose over time?\n\nThe stock that you get from stock options is the same kind of stock that you buy on the stock market. That is, owning that stock means you own a certain percentage of the company. If the value of the company goes up, then your stock will go up, if the value of the company goes down, your stock will go down. That means you can definitely lose money.\n\n > How can I keep track of how much money I've made? Is it in a separate account? Can I download an app for checking?\n\nUsually there will be some sort of website where you can check all this stuff. You should ask the people in your company that are in charge of handling the stock options about this.\n\n > How do I read the numbers and symbols?\n\nHere's an example. Let's take Amazon's stock on the Yahoo Finance website:\n_URL_1_\n\nI've got a labelled screenshot here: _URL_0_\n\nThe important bits are:\n\n1. **AMZN** - This is the stock ticker. It is a symbol that people use as shorthand for the name of the company and is what you would use when you want to look up information about the stock.\n\n2. **307.55** - This is the price of 1 share of the company's stock.\n3. **7.89(2.63%)** - This is the amount that the stock price has changed over the course of the day.\n4. **Prev Close, Open, Day's Range, 52wk Range** - These are the prices when the stock market closed yesterday, when it opened day, the range over which it varied today, and the range that it's varied over the past year, respectively.\n5. **Market Cap** - This is how much the whole company is worth. It is calculated as the price of a single share multiplied by the number of shares in existence.\n6. **Div/Yield** - Some stocks will pay a dividend, which means that every once in a while, people who own the stock will get some money from the company.\n\nThere are hundreds of other metrics that are used to evaluate how \"good\" people think the stock is to own. The ones listed on the page are beta (measures the volatility of the stock), p/e (the price of the stock divided by the company's earnings; ideally it measures if the stock is a good value), eps (earnings per share; used in a similar way to p/e).\n\nA great place to learn about this stuff is at /r/personalfinance. /r/investing is good too, but it's focused more on people who want to actively follow the stock market. Both subs have lots of guides on these things and are pretty friendly.\n\nI don't know if it's a good idea for you, personally, to invest in your company's stock options or not. One point of advice that I will give, though, is not to put all your eggs in one basket. If your paycheck and your savings are all dependent on the success of your employer, then if the company fails, you will lose everything. It's always a good idea to spread your savings out so that the failure of one investment won't cripple you (this is called diversification). A good example of this is Enron. The company looked to be doing very well, so lots of employees invested heavily in Enron stock options. When it suddenly failed, many of these people were suddenly and completely broke. Don't take this to mean that you shouldn't use your stock options, just that you should be careful. Often, you will be able to buy company stock at a price below the price the public would have to pay for it, so you can make instant profits, which is very nice.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38090833",
"title": "Stocks (shipyard)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Stocks are an external framework in a shipyard used to support construction of (usually) wooden ships. They are normally associated with a slipway to allow the ship to slide down into the water. In addition to supporting the ship itself, they are typically used to give access to the ship's bottom and sides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31860977",
"title": "Max Otte",
"section": "Section::::Books.:\"Investieren statt Sparen\" (investing rather than saving).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "The value of stocks is based on the present and future earnings of the organization. Otte divides stocks into several categories: ‘Meisteraktien’ (‘master stocks’: internationally renowned companies with global brands such as DaimlerChrysler, Coca-Cola, Siemens), ‘Kaufleuteaktien’ (‘trader stocks’: large corporations that are currently undervalued with a low price / earnings ratio; high earnings in spite of low market value), ‘Königsaktien’ (‘king stocks’: the world’s best mature large corporations and industry leaders that grow less quickly than revolutionary stocks), ‘Revolutionärsaktien’ (‘revolutionary stocks’: young growing companies with revolutionary, innovative ideas such as Google, Microsoft, Cisco Systems, etc.) and ‘Valueaktien’ (blue chips).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1974731",
"title": "Stock (firearms)",
"section": "Section::::Construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Traditionally, stocks are made from wood, generally a durable hardwood such as walnut. A growing option is the laminated wood stock, consisting of many thin layers of wood bonded together at high pressures with epoxy, resulting in a dense, stable composite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "338007",
"title": "Hedge (finance)",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Hedging a stock price.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "A stock trader believes that the stock price of Company A will rise over the next month, due to the company's new and efficient method of producing widgets. He wants to buy Company A shares to profit from their expected price increase, as he believes that shares are currently underpriced. But Company A is part of a highly volatile widget industry. So there is a risk of a future event that affects stock prices across the whole industry, including the stock of Company A along with all other companies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "875943",
"title": "Penny stock",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Penny stocks, also known as micro-cap stocks, nano-cap stocks, small cap stocks, or OTC stocks, are common shares of small public companies that initially trade at low prices per share. It is also a term for inexpensive stocks that subsequently become highly lucrative holdings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23815082",
"title": "Free stocks",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "In United States agricultural policy, free stocks refer to commodity stocks owned by farmers or others in agriculture trade, rather than owned or controlled by the government. Supplies in the Food Security Commodity Reserve are government-controlled and not considered free stocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3070778",
"title": "Margin of safety (financial)",
"section": "Section::::Application to investing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Using margin of safety, one should buy a stock when it is worth more than its price in the market. This is the central thesis of value investing philosophy which espouses preservation of capital as its first rule of investing. Benjamin Graham suggested to look at unpopular or neglected companies with low P/E and P/B ratios. One should also analyze financial statements and footnotes to understand whether companies have hidden assets (e.g., investments in other companies) that are potentially unnoticed by the market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
m3mp3
|
A lot of questions about the flu vaccine
|
[
{
"answer": "Basically the WHO monitors flu strains around the world and predicts which ones will be the most prevalent. This is discussed [here with a video](_URL_2_) and this [PDF summary](_URL_1_).\n\nThe amount of change depends on whether the virus \"drifts or shifts.\" The CDC does a good job of explaining that [here](_URL_0_).\n\nYes it is possible that we maintain partial immunity to newer strains as there could be cross immunity. This would depend on the similarity to prior strains the host has immunity. This is why if you get the flu shot and get infected with a strain not protected, you may have a milder course of illness with the cross-immunity.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "disclosure: I work on vaccines and immunotherapies, including Influenza vaccines.\n\nNow, to your answer...\n\nEach year, three strains are chosen for selection in that year's flu vaccine by the WHO Global Influenza Surveillance Network. The chosen strains are the H1N1, H3N2, and Type-B strains thought most likely to cause significant human suffering in the coming season. The World Health Organization coordinates the contents of the vaccine each year to contain the most likely strains of the virus to attack the next year. \n\nThere are 112 WHO National Influenza Centres (NICs) spread across the world. These NICs collect specimens in their country, perform primary virus isolation and preliminary antigenic characterization. They ship newly isolated strains to the WHO for high level antigenic and genetic analysis, the result of which forms the basis for WHO recommendations on the composition of influenza vaccine for the Northern and Southern Hemisphere each year. \n\nThe amount a given strain changes from year to year is highly variable. Sometimes it changes so little we don't have to alter one of the components of the vaccine (for example, the H1N1 of the seasonal flu vaccine is the same this year as it was last year).\n\nThe immune response that allows you to be protected from infection is an antibody response. In regards to antibody responses (and specifically responses that prevent an activity of the virus called hemagglutination) there is little crossreactivity between strains. Simply put - antibodies to one strain are most often not effective against other strains. T cells also respond to Influenza infection and while they dont PREVENT infection, they can limit the severity and duration of the illness. We know the T cells, unlike antibodies, are VERY cross-reactive. In fact, T cells raised to attack H5 flu can also attack H1 flu (I have seen this first-hand in the lab). So, in the scope of antibodies we generally dont maintain partial immunity to new strains (with the exception noted below). With T cells, responses to one strain can react against others.\n\nOne notable exception to the antibody specificity issue is actually connected to Novel H1N1 (also known as Swine Flu). Interestingly the HA protein of Novel H1N1 was very very similar to the HA protein of the 1918 Spanish Flu which killed nearly 40 million people globally. In this case, it has been shown that people who were infected with the 1918 Spanish Flu and survived (yes, they are very old but there are still some of them around) had antibodies that could bind to and block infection by Novel H1N1\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically the WHO monitors flu strains around the world and predicts which ones will be the most prevalent. This is discussed [here with a video](_URL_2_) and this [PDF summary](_URL_1_).\n\nThe amount of change depends on whether the virus \"drifts or shifts.\" The CDC does a good job of explaining that [here](_URL_0_).\n\nYes it is possible that we maintain partial immunity to newer strains as there could be cross immunity. This would depend on the similarity to prior strains the host has immunity. This is why if you get the flu shot and get infected with a strain not protected, you may have a milder course of illness with the cross-immunity.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "disclosure: I work on vaccines and immunotherapies, including Influenza vaccines.\n\nNow, to your answer...\n\nEach year, three strains are chosen for selection in that year's flu vaccine by the WHO Global Influenza Surveillance Network. The chosen strains are the H1N1, H3N2, and Type-B strains thought most likely to cause significant human suffering in the coming season. The World Health Organization coordinates the contents of the vaccine each year to contain the most likely strains of the virus to attack the next year. \n\nThere are 112 WHO National Influenza Centres (NICs) spread across the world. These NICs collect specimens in their country, perform primary virus isolation and preliminary antigenic characterization. They ship newly isolated strains to the WHO for high level antigenic and genetic analysis, the result of which forms the basis for WHO recommendations on the composition of influenza vaccine for the Northern and Southern Hemisphere each year. \n\nThe amount a given strain changes from year to year is highly variable. Sometimes it changes so little we don't have to alter one of the components of the vaccine (for example, the H1N1 of the seasonal flu vaccine is the same this year as it was last year).\n\nThe immune response that allows you to be protected from infection is an antibody response. In regards to antibody responses (and specifically responses that prevent an activity of the virus called hemagglutination) there is little crossreactivity between strains. Simply put - antibodies to one strain are most often not effective against other strains. T cells also respond to Influenza infection and while they dont PREVENT infection, they can limit the severity and duration of the illness. We know the T cells, unlike antibodies, are VERY cross-reactive. In fact, T cells raised to attack H5 flu can also attack H1 flu (I have seen this first-hand in the lab). So, in the scope of antibodies we generally dont maintain partial immunity to new strains (with the exception noted below). With T cells, responses to one strain can react against others.\n\nOne notable exception to the antibody specificity issue is actually connected to Novel H1N1 (also known as Swine Flu). Interestingly the HA protein of Novel H1N1 was very very similar to the HA protein of the 1918 Spanish Flu which killed nearly 40 million people globally. In this case, it has been shown that people who were infected with the 1918 Spanish Flu and survived (yes, they are very old but there are still some of them around) had antibodies that could bind to and block infection by Novel H1N1\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1045705",
"title": "Influenza vaccine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "Influenza vaccines, also known as flu shots or flu jabs, are vaccines that protect against infection by influenza viruses. A new version of the vaccine is developed twice a year, as the influenza virus rapidly changes. While their effectiveness varies from year to year, most provide modest to high protection against influenza. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that vaccination against influenza reduces sickness, medical visits, hospitalizations, and deaths. When an immunized worker does catch the flu, they are on average back at work a half day sooner. Vaccine effectiveness in those under two years old and over 65 years old remains unknown due to the low quality of the research. Vaccinating children may protect those around them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1045705",
"title": "Influenza vaccine",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "The CDC recommends the flu vaccine as the best way to protect people against the flu and prevent its spread. The flu vaccine can also reduce the severity of the flu if a person contracts a strain that the vaccine did not contain. It takes about two weeks following vaccination for protective antibodies to form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23224587",
"title": "2009 flu pandemic vaccine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "The 2009 flu pandemic vaccines are the set of influenza vaccines that have been developed to protect against the pandemic H1N1/09 virus. These vaccines either contain inactivated (killed) influenza virus, or weakened live virus that cannot cause influenza. The killed vaccine is injected, while the live vaccine is given as an interperineal nasal spray. Both these types of vaccine are usually produced by growing the virus in chicken eggs. Around three billion doses will be produced annually, with delivery from November 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40616100",
"title": "Live virus reference strain",
"section": "Section::::Annual Influenza vaccine development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Vaccine viruses are chosen to maximize the likelihood that the vaccine will protect against the viruses most likely to spread and cause illness among people during the upcoming flu season. WHO recommends specific vaccine viruses for influenza vaccine production, but then individual countries make their own decisions for licensing of vaccines in their country. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration determines what viruses will be used in U.S.-licensed vaccines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "595273",
"title": "Fact-checking",
"section": "Section::::\"Post hoc\" fact-checking.:Effects.:Correcting misperceptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "A 2015 study found evidence a \"backfire effect\" (correcting false information may make partisan individuals cling more strongly to their views): \"Corrective information adapted from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) website significantly reduced belief in the myth that the flu vaccine can give you the flu as well as concerns about its safety. However, the correction also significantly reduced intent to vaccinate among respondents with high levels of concern about vaccine side effects--a response that was not observed among those with low levels of concern.\" A 2017 study attempted to replicate the findings of the 2015 study but failed to do so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25069046",
"title": "Australian Vaccination-risks Network",
"section": "Section::::Activism.:Campaign against the swine flu vaccine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "In September 2009, AVN campaigned against the swine flu vaccine, calling it \"madness\" to use a vaccine which they claimed was \"laden with toxic mercury.\" Dorey further argued that more testing was needed on the vaccine before it was offered to the public and that it could prove to be more dangerous than the flu itself. She told the Australian Broadcasting Corporation that the swine flu should be treated no differently from the seasonal flu and that the government was wasting money by spending over a hundred million dollars on the vaccine. Dorey's claims were rejected by the Australian Medical Association and other medical experts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23224587",
"title": "2009 flu pandemic vaccine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "In studies, the vaccine appears both effective and safe, providing a strong protective immune response and having similar safety profile to the normal seasonal influenza vaccine. However, about 30% of people already have some immunity to the virus, with the vaccine conferring greatest benefit on young people, since many older people are already immune through exposure to similar viruses in the past. The vaccine also provides some cross-protection against the 1918 flu pandemic strain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ml8iu
|
why does politics make people so hostile?
|
[
{
"answer": "Politicians are marketers of themselves. They use morality, religion, anti-patriotism, xenophobia, and fear to draw the public support. When you argue politics with someone, those issues get swept up in an otherwise normal conversation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Politics places people on teams. Each team promotes how great and awesome their team is while saying how horrible the other is. When people that might otherwise get along find out they are on opposite teams, suddenly all those horrible things the pundits say about the other team applies to them personally.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everybody's your brother until the rent comes due.\n\nPolitics is where shit gets real. If a guy wants to levy a new tax that's going to cost you $5k a year, you're going to get emotional. If the other guy wants to cut a program that's important to your kids, you're going to get emotional about that too. There are real life things at stake that have a huge impact on people's lives and happiness.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16536081",
"title": "Political apathy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "Political apathy is a feeling of disinterest in the sense of politics or apathy towards politics. It can consist of interest apathy, voter apathy, and information apathy. It can be categorized as the indifference of an individual and a lack of interest in participating in political activities. This includes lack of interest in elections, political events, public meetings, and voting. Political apathy can lead to low voter turnout and stagnation in a state's government. Political apathy can lead to a loss of democracy and respondents mentioned it can also have social and psychological damage due to lack of personal political interaction According to \"North American Review\", lack of participation can lead to \"political ills\" such as corruption and dishonesty among politicians as they are not held accountable. Countries with mandatory voting has seen less occurrences of political and voter apathy. In Belgium political participation is at 87.2% while in Turkey, it is 84.3% \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27156802",
"title": "War of ideas",
"section": "Section::::In U.S. politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Thomas E. Mann and Norm Ornstein claim that the dysfunctionality of American politics is worse than it has ever been. \"The partisan and ideological polarization from which we now suffer comes at a time when critical problems cry out for resolution, making for a particularly toxic mix.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40856754",
"title": "Bdelygmia",
"section": "Section::::Examples in recent and contemporary culture.:Politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "When people disagree with one another, they often try to associate their opposition with negative connotations. Lynette Hunter describes rhetorical violence in politics as a way to persuade people through the negative criticism of another rather than through physical force – when, for example, one party, through their criticisms and/or expressions of hatred or criticism, persuades a group to believe that the other party is treacherous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "489743",
"title": "Demagogue",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Lying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "While any politician needs to point out dangers to the people and criticize opponents' policies, demagogues choose their words for their effect on their audience's emotions, usually without regard for factual truth or the real severity of the danger. Some demagogues are opportunistic, monitoring the people and saying whatever currently will generate the most \"heat\". Other demagogues may themselves be so ignorant or prejudiced that they sincerely believe the falsehoods they tell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8843988",
"title": "Indignation",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:In politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "Indignation has a large role in politics. This is because politicians hold the power to offend many people based the decisions that they make. The decisions that politicians make impact hundreds, thousands, or millions of people. Certain decisions they make may cause many constituents to feel indignant because they feel like those decisions go against what they stand for or believe in, especially if the constituents belong to the same party as the politician. Politicians themselves also feel indignant because if people are not in favor of their policies or are competing against them, they will attack their self-construct. For example, this can be seen when politicians are debating. The other politician typically questions their policies and procedures in hopes to make their competition feel indignant. By doing this, the hope would be that the debate would be stifled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "584318",
"title": "Political polarization",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "The implications of political polarization \"are not entirely clear and may include some benefits as well as detrimental consequences.\" While its exact effects are disputed, it clearly alters the political process and the political composition of the general public. Solomon Messing and Sean J. Westwood state that individuals do not necessarily become polarized through media because they choose their own exposure, which tends to already align with their views.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "686148",
"title": "Forced disappearance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "\"Disappearing\" political rivals is also a way for regimes to engender feelings of complicity in populations. The difficulty of publicly fighting a government that murders in secret can result in widespread pretense that everything is normal, as it did in the Dirty War in Argentina.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4i4o94
|
Why are large primes so desirable and hard to calculate?
|
[
{
"answer": "Can you tell me if 1000000000001 is prime? Well, it's not, 73 is a factor. 10000000000001 is divisible by 11. 100000000000001 is divisible by 7. Can you tell me if 10^(10000)+1 is prime? Most numbers of the form 10^(n)+1 will not be prime. We have a couple like this that were made to find primes, like [2^(p)-1](_URL_7_), but most of the time even this is not prime and the best algorithms we have to check whether or not one is prime take weeks to check even one of these numbers on multiple computes (see [GIMPS](_URL_4_)). But, prime numbers of the form A^(n)+B grow fast (exponentially fast), and we quickly get into numbers with millions of digits, which are not helpful for practical purposes.\n\nGenerally, there is no formula that we can just get lots of primes from. Some [functions](_URL_5_) can give us a *few* primes, but nothing very big. Moreover, how a number looks in base 10 will tell is very, very little about whether or not it is prime. Any number whose last digit is 1,3,7 or 9 is viable. Base 10 representations are not really that important, we can do [much better](_URL_0_).\n\nGenerally it is hard to check if something is prime because you have to check whether or not each number less than it is a divisor or not. There are ways to not check *every* number and [many different approaches](_URL_1_), but even [the fastest algorithm](_URL_3_) still takes a long time for large numbers. There are just too many numbers to check. The only [efficient algorithm](_URL_6_), that is actually fast, requires quantum computers which allows it to check numbers simultaneously. \n\nPractically, we want to find large primes because we use them in encryption. But these large primes are the secret keys to unlock the encryption, so we need to use large numbers that take a very, very long time to find for someone not-in-the-know. So if we all just used numbers like 10^(n)+1, then it would be pretty easy to figure out what kinds of primes we were using.\n\nEDIT: There is a [fast primality check algorithm](_URL_2_), though there's no quick way to factor a number n=pq.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4774316",
"title": "Industrial-grade prime",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Industrial-grade primes are sometimes used instead of certified primes in algorithms such as RSA encryption, which require the user to generate large prime numbers. Certifying the primality of large numbers (over 100 digits for instance) is significantly harder than showing they are industrial-grade primes. The latter can be done almost instantly with a failure rate so low that it is highly unlikely to ever fail in practice. In other words, the number is believed to be prime with very high, but not absolute, confidence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1083699",
"title": "Safe prime",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Apart from their low density, they are easier to find than strong primes, in that the programs are much simpler. It is not necessary to attempt the factorization of \"p\" − 1. (If \"p\" − 1 is difficult to factor, then \"p\" is rejected, and \"p\" + 2 is tried. This is repeated until \"p\" − 1 factors easily. This will happen sooner than \"p\" would become a safe prime, on average, because primes \"p\" for which \"p\" − 1 factors easily are fairly dense.) All of this is made possible by the fact that there are extremely fast probabilistic tests for primality, such as the Miller–Rabin primality test.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208732",
"title": "Highly composite number",
"section": "Section::::Related sequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Because the prime factorization of a highly composite number uses all of the first \"k\" primes, every highly composite number must be a practical number. Many of these numbers are used in traditional systems of measurement, and tend to be used in engineering designs, due to their ease of use in calculations involving fractions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39599",
"title": "Blum Blum Shub",
"section": "Section::::Security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "There is a proof reducing its security to the computational difficulty of factoring. When the primes are chosen appropriately, and O(log log \"M\") lower-order bits of each \"x\" are output, then in the limit as \"M\" grows large, distinguishing the output bits from random should be at least as difficult as solving the Quadratic residuosity problem modulo \"M\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56121084",
"title": "Pillai sequence",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Because the prime numbers become less dense as they become larger (as quantified by the prime number theorem), there is always a prime gap larger than any term in the Pillai sequence, so the sequence continues to an infinite number of terms. However, the terms in the sequence grow very rapidly. It has been estimated that expressing the next term in the sequence would require \"hundreds of millions of digits\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1083699",
"title": "Safe prime",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "These primes are called \"safe\" because of their relationship to strong primes. A prime number \"q\" is a \"strong\" prime if and both have some large prime factors. For a safe prime , the number naturally has a large prime factor, namely \"p\", and so a safe prime \"q\" meets part of the criteria for being a strong prime. The running times of some methods of factoring a number with \"q\" as a prime factor depend partly on the size of the prime factors of . This is true, for instance, of the p−1 method.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3843453",
"title": "Strong prime",
"section": "Section::::Definition in number theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1057,
"text": "It is possible for a prime to be a strong prime both in the cryptographic sense and the number theoretic sense. For the sake of illustration, 439351292910452432574786963588089477522344331 is a strong prime in the number theoretic sense because the arithmetic mean of its two neighboring primes is 62 less. Without the aid of a computer, this number would be a strong prime in the cryptographic sense because 439351292910452432574786963588089477522344330 has the large prime factor 1747822896920092227343 (and in turn the number one less than that has the large prime factor 1683837087591611009), 439351292910452432574786963588089477522344332 has the large prime factor 864608136454559457049 (and in turn the number one less than that has the large prime factor 105646155480762397). Even using algorithms more advanced than trial division, these numbers would be difficult to factor by hand. For a modern computer algebra system, these numbers can be factored almost instantaneously. A cryptographically strong prime has to be much larger than this example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4aoizv
|
when the large baby boomer generation begins to die and their homes flood the market, will real estate prices drop dramatically?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, because for the most part their homes will pass to their children (who are, for the most part, currently renting off other baby boomers)\n\nHopefully it will help to \"reset\" some of the mess the Baby Boomer generation has left the housing market in, where so many of them own multiple homes that they rent to each others kids for a profit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The problem with your theory is that it supposes that there will be a sudden big increase in the number of people dying.\n\nAlthough the number of baby boomers is a little higher than other generations (after all, that's where the name comes from), they won't all die together. Some will die early, along with people from the previous generation. Others will live much longer than average and not die until many people from the following generation die. And even if this weren't the case, they weren't all born at exactly the same time so there'd be a bit of a spread of deaths over quite a few years.\n\nBecause of this, any effect will be gradual and not sudden.\n\nBut even that is over-simplified. Many elderly people sell their houses many years before they die to fund nursing homes or similar. Many people will pass their houses onto their children and the houses might never even reach the open market.\n\nTL;DR - any effect will be very small, and spread over many years, so it probably won't be noticeable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Real estate in certain areas that have very high boomer populations might suffer some but it isn't like they are all going to drop dead on the same day. [Boomers are about 20% of the population](_URL_0_) (wow!) but they live all across the US and there is wide range of \"normal\" life expectency as well as untimely deaths that will \"smooth\" bumps out over in all but a few highly concentrated areas.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sadly, I don't think prices are coming down any time soon. As with most other sectors of the economy, consolidation and income inequality have resulted in higher prices. Each year there are fewer and fewer homeowners, and a greater number of individuals forced to [rent](_URL_0_). While more houses may become available in the coming years, they will almost certainly be bought by the wealthy few and rented out to the poorer majority.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Take in to account how outdated most of these homes will be; many will be renovated, thus increasing their value. Even with a (hypothetically) large influx of homes on the market, if they are properly \"flipped\", relative real estate prices will remain the same. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There will still be an over saturation in the real estate market. Boomers aren't going to start dying off en masse at an increased rate and most of the property they own will pass to their children. \n\nBoomers retiring should put upward pressure on wages, however, especially as younger workers move up into the positions Boomers occupied. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So the Baby Boomers aren't all ticking time-bombs? That's stupid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "there won't be a sudden dying off of mass numbers of baby boomers, and actually i think you'll find that many will sell their homes prior to dying, either to downgrade or to move into elderly communities. \n\nI am of the opinion that their homes will depreciate significantly, largely because of the state of the millenial generation. so many of us want to buy homes, but simply cannot due to lack of well-paying job, or perhaps any job at all - and boomers have done quite well for themselves and many own large suburban homes. I think you'll find that those boomers whom were counting on the sale of their large homes, or counting on rising real estate prices will have a rather sudden shock when they realize that the market for their homes simply does not exist; as a generation, millenials cannot afford to purchase the same types of home that boomers will be looking to sell.\n\nthe only other possibility is that millenials receive these homes via inheritance... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably not because they won't all die within a year or a few years of each other, even for a large population it's a rare event per person. The stock market will probably take (is probably taking) a hit due to sustained selling as they fund their retirements, though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "no there are more millenials than baby boomers and baby boomers made strange housing decisions like controlled communities far far away from city centers ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, because the Baby Boomers will never die. They stay animated through the sheer power of spite and will roam the earth until they have consumed everything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I wouldn't hold my breath waiting for them to die. They are going to be with us for a loooooong time. Think about how much healthier the boomers were than their parents who lived through the Great Depression. Think of all the medical advances that have been made. The oldest of the boomers have just entered their 70s - just entering *old* age. \n\nBut they are starting to retire, and probably thinking how they don't really need a large house when a cute condo would meet their needs. So you may be in luck.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I forsee a lot of vacant McMansions rotting. The houses that the Boomers seemed to favor don't match the style of living that seems to be popular with the younger generations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Baby Boomer Mortality Tables (shows when they all die, spoiler 2060): _URL_0_\n\n[Boomer Population Growth/Decline](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8210419",
"title": "Mid-twentieth century baby boom",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Greenwood, Seshadri, and Vandenbroucke ascribe the baby boom to the diffusion of new household appliances that led to reduction of costs of childbearing. However Martha J. Bailey and William J. Collins criticize their explanation on the basis that improvement of household technology began before baby boom, differences and changes in ownership of appliances and electrification in U.S. counties are negatively correlated with birth rates\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15985169",
"title": "Spending wave",
"section": "Section::::Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Some experts expect the worst consumer recession, since 1980, to occur when aging boomers start retiring, adding to rising unemployment, decline in house values, and declining stock prices. However other experts have suggested that immigration to the US and the rise of emerging economies will offset the baby boomer demographic impact. Still other experts have postulated that, due to the 2008 major stock market decline and home equity crash, many baby boomers will have lost so much equity that they will retire at a later age than was previously planned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239259",
"title": "Baby boom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "The market became a seller's market. Many families were adapting to popular culture changes that included purchasing TVs, opening credit card accounts, and buying mouse ears to wear while watching \"The Mickey Mouse Club\". Overall, the baby boom time period was a blessing but it also had its flaws once economists realized how many children were being born. Concern arose about enough resources being available, especially when those born in the baby boom time period started having kids of their own.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43730833",
"title": "Dream Home (play)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "It's obvious that the ease with which my generation moved into houses has disappeared... This generation it is extremely hard for them to get into real estate. I've watched all my kids struggling and it's almost true that unless the baby boomer parents use some of their ill-gotten gains to help the next generation it's almost impossible to get into a house... Life seemed a breeze... [in his early adult years]... Cheap houses, plenty of jobs and now the cutthroat competition to get jobs, to get a house, it's a different ball game for my kids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27393",
"title": "Economy of Spain",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "The downside of the real estate boom was a corresponding rise in the levels of personal debt; as prospective homeowners had struggled to meet asking prices, the average level of household debt tripled in less than a decade. This placed especially great pressure upon lower to middle income groups; by 2005 the median ratio of indebtedness to income had grown to 125%, due primarily to expensive boom time mortgages that now often exceed the value of the property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45253066",
"title": "Missing Middle Housing",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "“There’s a convergence of the demand created by Baby Boomers who are moving back, not just into city centers but into surrounding single-family neighborhoods, and the Millennials who want walkable urban living. The demand is just going to continue to grow,\" said Dan Parolek in an article on the National Association of Realtors website. “I find in my development work my primary buyers are empty nester Boomers who are selling the big house, the big lot, the kids are grown and gone, and they’re looking for more lifestyle freedom,” said Linda of The Cottage Company in the same article.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12033331",
"title": "United States housing market correction",
"section": "Section::::Market weakness, 2005–2006.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Others speculated on the negative impact of the retirement of the Baby Boom generation and the relative cost to rent on the declining housing market. In many parts of the United States, it was significantly cheaper to rent the same property than to purchase it; the national median mortgage payment is $1,687 per month, nearly twice the median rent payment of $868 per month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7n52i1
|
What do you feel are the best books on modern Orientalism, other than Edward Said's? Also on that point, what is your view on his book?
|
[
{
"answer": "Among historians, Said's critiques were generally taken to heart, and actually a lot of historians were already working to correct the field along the lines of Said's criticisms before Said even published *Orientalism*. The introductory chapter of Marshall Hodgson's *The Venture of Islam* (published in 1974, four years before *Orientalism*) jumps to mind.\n\nThe result is that I don't think you really can speak of a \"modern Orientalism\" (I assume you mean contemporary) after Said in the historiography of Islamic studies. Oriental Studies Departments (now often Islamic or Arabic studies departments) are far less white, male, and protestant than they would have been when Said was writing 40 years ago, for example. \n\nYou can certainly find books after Said that take much of the same approach to Orientalism and colonialism more generally. Timothy Mitchell's *Colonizing Egypt* jumps to mind.\n\nThere are, however, elements of Said's criticisms that I think have been rejected. His views on 19th and 20th century philology are misguided. However much Edward William Lane's views may have been incorrect, or his work misused by other's, *Lane's Lexicon* remains the best available classical English-Arabic dictionary 150 years later, for instance. The accusation that he ignored German Orientalism also hits home.\n\nThe result is that I think his greatest ongoing influence isn't in history at all, but as a literary critic, which is really what he was, a professor of Literature. So there are plenty of articles (scholarly and otherwise) written each year about Orientalism in contemporary popular culture, but they're not really about history or written by historians.\n\nIn general, the result is that I don't think Said is all that useful for studying Middle Eastern history. It's good to be aware of his arguments, and to think about them especially when you read older, sometimes explicitly colonialist sources, but unless you're really into Foucault and Derrida and post-colonialist literary theory and that kind of thing, I'm not sure Said is all that interesting.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2324835",
"title": "Robert Irwin (writer)",
"section": "Section::::Quotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "On Edward Said's work \"Orientalism\": \"I am a medievalist, but he hates the Middle Ages. Altogether he loathes the past, he does not have the ability to enter into the spirit of other ages. He lies about European novelists and twists their words; I am myself a novelist with great sympathy for some of those whom he denounces in his book. Finally, I am an orientalist, too, and his book is a long and persevering polemic against my subject, so I need to ask: is there anything at all to like in Said's book? – No. It is written far too quickly and carelessly. It abounds with misprints and mis-spelled names. It is an extremely polemic book, and throughout time many polemic books for or against Islam and the Muslim world have been written, but none have been taken seriously in the same way as Said.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2181738",
"title": "Aijaz Ahmad",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "The book also contains a lengthy critique of Edward Said's Orientalism which Ahmad argues reproduces the very Liberal Humanist tradition that it seeks to undermine in its selection of Western canonized texts that are critiqued for their Orientalism, as this upholds the idea that Western culture is represented in its entirety through those very texts. Furthermore, Ahmad asserts that by tracing Orientalist thought all the way back to Ancient Greece it becomes unclear in Said's work whether Orientalism is a product of Colonialism, or whether Colonialism is, in fact, a product of Orientalism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18328761",
"title": "Daniel Martin Varisco",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Orientalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1216,
"text": "In \"Reading Orientalism: Said and the Unsaid \"(2007) Varisco presents an in-depth, critical analysis of Edward Said’s seminal polemic \"Orientalism \"(1978), examining his rhetoric of persuasion as well as the credibility and accuracy of historical claims made in representing Orientalism as a Western discourse. The research for this study includes a comprehensive search for all the major reviews of \"Orientalism\" and relevant commentaries in journal articles, books and edited volumes. The bibliography contains more than 600 references, all but a handful of which were personally examined by the author. Drawing on this extensive discussion of \"Orientalism\", he develops a synthesis of the critical arguments pro and contra Said’s argument and style. The points made in \"Orientalism\" are contextualized with earlier and later texts written by Said, as well as his many published interviews. Varisco provides a critical analysis of Said's borrowing of the culture concept from Matthew Arnold and his lack of engagement with the variety of culture concepts current in anthropology since Edward Tylor in his \"Reading Against Culture in Edward Said's \"Culture and Imperialism\"\" (\"Culture, Theory and Critique\", 2004).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3473169",
"title": "Orientalism (book)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "As a public intellectual, Edward Said debated Orientalism with historians and scholars of area studies, notably, the historian Bernard Lewis, who described the thesis of \"Orientalism\" as \"anti-Western\". For subsequent editions of \"Orientalism\", Said wrote an \"Afterword\" (1995) and a \"Preface\" (2003) addressing criticisms of the content, substance, and style of the work as cultural criticism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5293648",
"title": "Jacques Berque",
"section": "Section::::Orientalism controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "In the literary sparrings between Bernard Lewis and Edward Said, who criticized Orientalist scholarship, claiming Lewis' work to be a prime example of Orientalism, in his 1978 book \"Orientalism\", Berque was among the scholars, such as Maxime Rodinson, Malcolm H. Kerr, Albert Hourani, and William Montgomery Watt, who maintained that Said's disregard for all the evidence that contradicted his narrative made \"Orientalism\" a deeply flawed account of Western scholarship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18247304",
"title": "Edward Said",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "As a cultural critic, Said is known for the book \"Orientalism\" (1978), a critique of the cultural representations that are the bases of Orientalism—how the Western world perceives the Orient. Said's model of textual analysis transformed the academic discourse of researchers in literary theory, literary criticism, and Middle-Eastern studies—how academics examine, describe, and define the cultures being studied. As a foundational text, \"Orientalism\" was controversial among scholars of Oriental Studies, philosophy, and literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39380347",
"title": "Encyclopedic knowledge",
"section": "Section::::Views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Edward Said, in his seminal postcolonial work, \"Orientalism\", examines the encyclopedic endeavor in great detail, revealing it to be an historically . Orientalists' \"unremitting ambition was to master \"all\" of a world, not some easily delimited part of it such as an author or a collection of texts.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7tvgf9
|
why is using horses for consumer meat viewed so negatively?
|
[
{
"answer": "Humans have relied on horses for thousands of years to do work and for transportation. People have a lot of feelings about them and a lot of attachment, similar to dogs and cats. Thus, there isn't much market for it. I also don't think it tastes particularly good due to being so muscular with very low fat. \n\nI don't think there is that much of a surplus of wild horses. There is also no shortage of meat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "933515",
"title": "Horse meat",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "A misconception exists that horses are commonly slaughtered for pet food. In many countries, such as the United States, horse meat was outlawed for use in pet food in the 1970s. American horse meat is considered a delicacy in Europe and Japan, and its cost is in line with veal, so it would be prohibitively expensive in many countries for pet food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "933515",
"title": "Horse meat",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1075,
"text": "As horses are relatively poor converters of grass and grain to meat compared to cattle, they are not usually bred or raised specifically for their meat. Instead, horses are slaughtered when their monetary value as riding or work animals is low, but their owners can still make money selling them for horse meat, for example in the routine export of the southern English ponies from the New Forest, Exmoor, and Dartmoor. British law requires the use of \"equine passports\" even for semi wild horses to enable traceability (also known as \"provenance\"), so most slaughtering is done in the UK before the meat is exported, meaning that the animals travel as carcasses rather than live. Ex-racehorses, riding horses, and other horses sold at auction may also enter the food chain; sometimes these animals have been stolen or purchased under false pretenses. Even prestigious horses may end up in the slaughterhouse; the 1986 Kentucky Derby winner and 1987 Eclipse Award for Horse of the Year winner, Ferdinand, is believed to have been slaughtered in Japan, probably for pet food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1830752",
"title": "Ardennais",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Today, the breed is used mainly for meat, due to its extensive musculature. Horse meat is a dietary staple in many European countries, including France, Belgium, Germany and Switzerland. However, they are increasingly used for farm, forest and leisure work. Their nimble action, stamina and good temper make them increasingly used for competitive driving across Europe, and they have also been used as mounts for therapeutic horseback riding. The breed is known for its ability to work in rough, hilly terrain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6016189",
"title": "Horse slaughter",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Food safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1336,
"text": "Horses in the United States are not bred or raised for meat. Nearly all equine medications and treatments are labeled, \"Not for horses intended for human consumption.\" Meat from American horses raises a number of potential health concerns, primarily due to the routine use of medications banned in food animals and a lack of tracking of such use. Unlike livestock raised for food (where all potential medications are tested for withdrawal times and vigilantly tracked), there is no way to guarantee which medications have been used in a particular horse. During November and December 2010 inspections of EU-regulated plants in Mexico which slaughtered horses for human consumption, the European Commission Food and Veterinary Office (FVO) uncovered violations. Most American horses destined for slaughter are transported to EU-regulated plants in Mexico and Canada. Horses, unlike traditional food animals in the United States, are not raised (or medicated) with the intent of becoming human food. Because American horses are not intended for the human food chain, they often receive medications banned by the Food and Drug Administration for use in food animals. Concern also exists that horse meat will be mixed with ground-beef products and sold improperly labeled in the US, as occurred during the European 2013 horse meat scandal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1045127",
"title": "Landrace",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "While many landrace animals are associated with farming, other domestic animals have been put to use as modes of transportation, as companion animals, for sporting purposes, and for other non-farming uses, so their geographic distribution may differ. For example, horse landraces are less common because human use of them for transport has meant that they have moved with people more commonly and constantly than most other domestic animals, reducing the incidence of populations locally genetically isolated for extensive periods of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "933515",
"title": "Horse meat",
"section": "Section::::Opposition to production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 902,
"text": "The killing of horses for human consumption is widely opposed in countries such as the U.S., UK and Australia. where horses are generally considered to be companion and sporting animals only. Almost all equine medications and treatments are labeled as being not intended for human consumption. In the European Union, horses intended for slaughter cannot be treated with many medications commonly used for U.S. horses. For horses going to slaughter, no period of withdrawal, the time between administration of the drug and the time they are butchered, is required. French former actress and animal rights activist Brigitte Bardot has spent years crusading against the eating of horse meat. However, the opposition is far from unanimous; a 2007 readers' poll in the London magazine \"Time Out\" showed that 82% of respondents supported chef Gordon Ramsay's decision to serve horse meat in his restaurants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47883354",
"title": "Horse welfare",
"section": "Section::::Disputed practices.:Slaughter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 1026,
"text": "The consumption of horse meat is an ethical question beyond that of the suffering of the animal. This ethical issue is invoked by animal-protection associations like the SPA, which state that retired horses are slaughtered for meat after having served humans. \"After being loved and carefully tended, whatever its merits, the brave horse will not experience a peaceful retreat: at its first failure, it becomes butcher's meat, and will be led to slaughter the very next day\". Horses intended for consumption are rarely killed where they lived. The question of equine welfare arises during the transport to slaughter as well as the slaughter itself. These horses often transit through \"cattle fairs\" where abuses (lack of food and water, beatings) are not uncommon. Breeders are responsible for the sale to slaughterhouses, particularly in the overproduction of racehorses, whereby three-quarters do not pass racecourse selection tests, and in the absence of withdrawal solutions to provide a \"second career\" to these animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4gpuf1
|
why is it that insurance is worth more than the car itself in uk and in many other countries?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, in many cases if you crash into someone with your car, your insurance company has to pay their medical bills, and/or pay to have their car repaired. If you kill someone, your insurance company may also need to pay legal fees, damages, etc. Or, if you damage public or private property, they might also have to pay for that too, but it's rarer.\n\nEven if you're a good driver, the company still needs a couple of years to verify that. Be a good driver, don't go running off if you crash into somebody, and you'll be fine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The actual value of your car is only one of many, many factors.\n\nHere in the US, insurance covers a lot more than just the cost of repairing your car. Insurance covers many of your medical bills if you get injured in an accident, it covers the cost of property damage if you damage someone else's property, and, most importantly, it covers other people's medical bills and property damage in the event you cause a serious accident. That type of stuff has nothing to do with whether you drive a crappy old Toyota or a brand new Mercedes.\n\nIf you're a new driver and/or a teenager, you are basically untrustworthy. The statistics show that teens and inexperienced drivers cause a lot of accidents. Insurance companies don't trust your entire demographic. A lot of insurance companies will start to offer discounted rates the longer you go without an accident or traffic tickets. You have to essentially prove that you are a responsible, trustworthy driver by not fucking up for years.\n\nThere are many types of policies with different costs. Crappy, cheap insurance will cover the absolute bare minimum in an accident. You'll pay less each month, but you'll also be completely fucked if you get into a bad accident. So, talk to a few different insurance agents and try to get the best insurance you can reasonably afford.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You aren't required to have insurance to cover damage to your car. You are required to carry liability insurance, which covers the damage you might do to someone else. So the cost is about the damage you could do, not about the value of your car.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25307503",
"title": "Accident management",
"section": "Section::::Accident management in the UK.:Motor insurance claims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "In 2008 the UK insurance industry paid out £18.4 million per day in private motor car claims, and more than one in six private drivers make a motoring claim each year, according to figures from the Association of British Insurers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50446794",
"title": "Gender-based price discrimination in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Gendered price disparities.:Vehicle insurance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Despite vehicle insurance typically costing men more, there is some research to suggest that women actually pay more under the fixed annual pricing system because men drive more miles and are involved in twice as many accidents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "567696",
"title": "Vehicle insurance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Vehicle insurance (also known as car insurance, motor insurance, or auto insurance) is insurance for cars, trucks, motorcycles, and other road vehicles. Its primary use is to provide financial protection against physical damage or bodily injury resulting from traffic collisions and against liability that could also arise from incidents in a vehicle. Vehicle insurance may additionally offer financial protection against theft of the vehicle, and against damage to the vehicle sustained from events other than traffic collisions, such as keying, weather or natural disasters, and damage sustained by colliding with stationary objects. The specific terms of vehicle insurance vary with legal regulations in each region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31576870",
"title": "Vehicle insurance in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Coverage generally.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Commercial insurance for vehicles owned or operated by businesses functions quite similar to private auto insurance, with the exception that personal use of the vehicle is not covered. Commercial insurance pricing is also usually higher than private insurance, due to the expanded types of coverage offered for commercial users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9227876",
"title": "Equal Treatment in Goods and Services Directive 2004",
"section": "Section::::Preventing insurers from using gender as a risk factor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Using the car insurance industry as an example, statistically speaking, men are generally involved in a higher number of serious traffic accidents and make more expensive claims than women. As a result, insurers were justified in using this exemption when calculating the price of an applicant’s policy. Therefore, women traditionally received cheaper car insurance quotes than their male counterparts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13673345",
"title": "Car",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "There are costs and benefits to car use. The costs to the individual include acquiring the vehicle, interest payments (if the car is financed), repairs and maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society include maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, and disposing of the vehicle at the end of its life. Traffic collisions are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "440246",
"title": "Corporate average fuel economy",
"section": "Section::::Active debate.:Economic arguments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Automakers have said that small, fuel-efficient vehicles cost the auto industry billions of dollars. They cost almost as much to design and market but cannot be sold for as much as larger vehicles such as SUVs, because consumers expect small cars to be inexpensive. In 1999, \"USA Today\" reported small cars tend to depreciate faster than larger cars, so they are worth less in value to the consumer over time. However, 2007 Edmunds depreciation data show that some small cars, primarily premium models, are among the best in holding their value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
62lfsf
|
How much time, money, and effort, went into making the elaborate clothes of the Marie Antoinette period?
|
[
{
"answer": "\"Marguerite!\" Nicholas, Comte d'Ogeras, stalked into his wife's dressing room. She did not pause, continuing to apply pomatum as he came to stand next to her toilette. \"Marguerite, what is this bill?\"\n\n\"*Je n'ai aucune idée*,\" she murmured. \"You ought to show it to me before you demand that I explain it. It's most unjust of you to expect me to describe a little piece of paper that you've crumpled up in your hand.\"\n\nWith some effort, Nicholas smoothed it out, then held it up to the light. \"From Bertin's workshop — for one of your *robes à la turque* to be trimmed, she is asking for two hundred twenty-four *livres*. Two hundred twenty-four! Trimmings of blonde lace, pink and white satin, and pearls — rows and rows of pearls! Sixteen *livres* for more blasted blonde lace on the gown! And fifty-six — *fifty-six* — for those little ruffles on your elbows!\"^1\n\nFinishing her task, Marguerite suddenly swung around to meet Nicholas's eyes. \"And?\" she demanded. \"I am not buying more than anyone else in our circle. Do you want me to look like a mere *bourgeoise*?\"\n\n\"Marguerite, these are excessive sums! Rose Bertin may be the queen's *modiste*, but her work is not worth so much.\"\n\n\"Indeed it is! You know nothing of fashion, obviously!\"\n\n—\n\nWhen the comtesse's striped velvet turque had arrived at *Le Grand Mogol*, it made very little impact on the majority of Rose Bertin's workers. Masterpieces of their art came in and out every day, and while one particularly hungry *modiste* might feel a pang of jealousy over the fact that just adding some ribbons and spangles to a worn gown could grant her employer more money than she herself would see in months, for the most part they were simply used to the finery they handled every day.\n\nJeanne was the hand assigned to sew a new lace edging to the gown. The work went fast, as she gathered the strip down the center and attached it as she went, although her tablemate, Marie, managed to finish the entire cap she was making in the same time.\n\n\"That looks very nice,\" Marie noted, snipping the end of a linen thread. \"What else is to be done with it?\"\n\n\"Just some pearls put on over the satin bands, I think. That's Annette's department, though — she has the eyes for it. I thought I'd do the satin petticoat next, but I can't see where it got to.\" She stood up and gazed around the room, at the other sets of girls working at tables strewn with bits and pieces of ribbon and gauze.\n\n\"Lise was given it, I think. Should I put a second set of ruffles on this?\"\n\n\"If you like, but it's fine as it is.\"\n\n— \n\nThe *robe à la turque* had been made months before in a workroom on the second floor of a shop that was much less well-regarded than *Le Grand Mogol*, a fact which never ceased to irritate the proprietress. The *ouvrières* sewed at a table in front of the one window, making use of the daylight as they bent over to make rows of neat, tiny backstitches through vibrant velvet and linen.\n\nDespite the technical skill Mme Oudot's workers required in order to put together gowns and caracos of varying styles, it was their lot to be considered only artisans, while Bertin and her ilk were \"artists\" whose mere suggestion and addition of excess frippery was worth, financially speaking, as much as the hours her girls spent at their tasks. It didn't matter that they had to fit a bodice to a woman, matching the height of her waist and the fullness of her bust, making allowances for thin arms and sloped shoulders, or that their work had to be strong enough to allow a gown to be worn over and over while the modistes' work was basted on and ripped off after a season.\n\nIt was true that the *marchandes des modes* weren't allowed to have a guild and weren't promised the same kind of legal protections as the seamstresses … but one of those protections was supposed to be that the *marchandes* had to be married to and working with husbands who were mercers! And was Bertin married, let alone to a mercer or even a draper?^2\n\n—\n\nWhen Marguerite visited the mercer's shop, the owner himself waited on her, which was most gratifying.\n\n\"*Madame la comtesse*!\" He wore very good selections from his own stock of silks, which was also pleasing — how could you be served well in matters of fashion by someone who dressed poorly? \"What sort of goods can I bring out for you today?\"\n\n\"I am in need of some new winter clothing before the snows hit,\" she announced. \"Perhaps something in that so-fashionable canary yellow.\"\n\n\"Ah, the yellow? In a satin, I suppose — so suitable for the season.\"\n\nMarguerite nodded as an assistant brought forth some samples. \"And some in puce, perhaps, to contrast with it.\" The mercer nodded, and more bolts of fabric were brought out to compare. \"Yes, I'll have these two. The yellow will make for an excellent pair of shoes as well. I don't suppose you have anything else to tempt me today, do you?\"\n\nHe looked around the shop, then leaned in conspiratorially. \"*Madame*, something very special has just come in, and I have set it aside for one of my most discerning customers.\" Intrigued, she smiled, and he sent the assistant to the back room with a wave. \"The only thing better for winter than satin — a most extraordinary velvet striped with pink and black. And the pink just so happens to happens to *exactly* match another satin I've got in stock. Perhaps for a redingote and petticoat … or something more exotic?\"\n\n1. Actual prices/items from a bill from Rose Bertin to the Comtesse d'Ogeras, February 1786, as reprinted in the 1912 edition of *Galerie des Modes*.\n\n2. For more on the sewing guilds and regulations, check out *Fabricating Women: The Seamstresses of Old Regime France* and *Credit, Fashion, Sex: Economies of Regard in Old Regime France* by Clare Haru Crowston. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10989545",
"title": "French fashion",
"section": "Section::::History.:18th century, the \"Rococó\" and early New classicism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The extravagant styles of the French Royal court racked up enormous debts to keep up its pace, at the peasants' expense. Such fashion sprees notably ruined Marie Antoinette’s reputation, and were one of the many factors paving the way for the French Revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7984172",
"title": "History of fashion design",
"section": "Section::::Before 1900.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Couture beginnings. Rose Bertin (July 2, 1747 – September 22, 1813) was the dressmaker to Marie Antoinette, Queen of France. Sometimes called sarcastically the \"Minister of Fashion\", she opened a shop in Paris and had a considerable influence on Parisian style, until this was drastically changed by the French Revolution, from which she fled into exile to London for some years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34987345",
"title": "1775–1795 in Western fashion",
"section": "Section::::Women's fashion.:Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "Marie Antoinette had a marked influence on French fashion beginning in the 1780s. Around this time, she had begun to rebel against the structure of court life. She abolished her morning toilette and often escaped to the Petit Trianon with increasing frequency, leading to criticism of her exclusivity by cutting off the traditional right of the aristocracy to their monarch. Marie Antoinette found refuge from the stresses of the rigidity of court life and the scrutiny of the public eye, the ailing health of her children, and her sense of powerlessness in her marriage by carrying out a pseudo-country life in her newly constructed hameau. She and an elite circle of friends would dress in peasant clothing and straw hats and retreat to the hameau. It was out of this practice that her style of dress evolved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2228278",
"title": "Rose Bertin",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Dressmaker to Marie Antoinette.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "Called \"Minister of Fashion\" by her detractors, Bertin was the brains behind almost every new dress commissioned by the queen. Dresses and hair became Marie Antoinette's personal vehicles of expression, and Bertin clothed the queen from 1770 until her deposition in 1792. Bertin became a powerful figure at court, and she witnessed—and sometimes effected—profound changes in French society. Her large, ostentatious gowns ensured that their wearer occupied at least three times as much space as her male counterpart, thus making the woman a more imposing presence. Her creations also established France as the center of the fashion industry, and from then on, dresses made in Paris were sent to London, Venice, Vienna, Saint Petersburg and Constantinople. This inimitable Parisian elegance established the worldwide reputation of French couture. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102282",
"title": "Sally Hemings",
"section": "Section::::Hemingses in Paris.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 984,
"text": "Sally Hemings remained in France for 26 months; slavery was abolished in that country after the Revolution in 1789. Jefferson paid wages to her and James while they were in Paris. He paid Sally Hemings the equivalent of $2 a month. In comparison, he paid his Parisian scullion $2.50 a month, and James Hemings $4 a month as chef in training. The French servants earned from $8 to $12 a month. Toward the end of their stay, James used his money to pay for a French tutor and learn the language. Sally Hemings also was learning French. There is no record of where she lived: it may have been with Jefferson and her brother in the Hôtel de Langeac on the Champs-Elysées, or at the convent Abbaye de Panthemont where the girls Maria and Martha were schooled. Whatever the weekday arrangements, Jefferson and his retinue spent weekends together at his villa. Jefferson purchased some fine clothing for Hemings, which suggests that she accompanied Martha as a lady's maid to formal events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53905978",
"title": "Louise-Emmanuelle de Châtillon, Princesse de Tarente",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Louise-Emmanuelle de Châtillon, known as \"Princesse de Tarente\" (1763-1814) was a French noble, memoirist and court official. She served as lady-in-waiting (\"Dame du Palais\") to queen Marie Antoinette of France from 1782 to 1792. Her memoirs about her life during the French revolution has been published.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58714006",
"title": "Mademoiselle Alexandre",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "She had a successful career and reportedly supplied fashion products to the aristocracy for forty years. She eventually supplanted Marie Madeleine Duchapt, known as \"La Duchapt\", who had been the leading fashion merchant in the 1730s- and 1750s. During the last years of Louis XV, Alexandre was described as the top fashion merchant in Paris alongside Le sieur Beaulard, and Sébastien Mercier in \"Tableau de Paris\" described her and Beulard and the two rulers of fashion. Her fame gave her international clients, and she was able to import and export her fashion products. She had clients within the ladies-in-waitings of the royal court, and was given the assignment of providing the French wardrobes of the princesses Marie Joséphine of Savoy and Maria Theresa of Savoy when the married in to the royal house in 1771 and 1773. She also became the regular dressmaker of the two princesses after their arrival.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1rrkfw
|
record player
|
[
{
"answer": "I'll start from the vibrating needle...\n\nThe end of the needle in the cartridge (at the end of the record player's arm) vibrates in the presence of a coil in a magnetic field (like a guitar string vibrating over a pickup). The current that the vibration induces in the coil is an audio signal that is sent on to a receiver to be routed, processed, and amplified. This signal is sent to speakers where it is turned back into vibrations that push a cone which pushes air which create the sound-wave.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24471",
"title": "Phonograph",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "After electrical disc-playing machines appeared on the market in the late 1920s, often combined with a radio receiver, the term \"record player\" was increasingly favored by the public. Manufacturers, however, typically advertised such combinations as \"radio-phonographs\". Portable record players (no radio included), with a latched cover and an integrated power amplifier and loudspeaker, were becoming popular as well, especially in schools and for use by children and teenagers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "140622",
"title": "Decca Records",
"section": "Section::::Technology developments.:The LP.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "The long-playing record was launched in the US in 1948 by Columbia Records (not connected with the British company of the same name at the time). It enabled recordings to play for up to half an hour without a break, compared with the 3 to 5 minutes playing time of the existing records. The new records were made of vinyl (the old discs were made of brittle shellac), which enabled the ffrr recordings to be transferred to disc very realistically. In 1949, in both the UK and the US, Decca took up the LP promptly and enthusiastically giving the British arm an enormous advantage over EMI, which for some years tried to stick exclusively to the old format, thereby forfeiting competitive advantage to Decca, both artistically and financially.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8975473",
"title": "LP record",
"section": "Section::::Format advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "At the time the LP was introduced, nearly all phonograph records for home use were made of an abrasive (and therefore noisy) shellac compound, employed a much larger groove, and played at approximately 78 revolutions per minute (rpm), limiting the playing time of a 12-inch diameter record to less than five minutes per side. The new product was a 12- or 10-inch (30 or 25 cm) fine-grooved disc made of PVC (\"vinyl\") and played with a smaller-tipped \"microgroove\" stylus at a speed of rpm. Each side of a 12-inch LP could play for about 22 minutes. Only the microgroove standard was new, as both vinyl and the rpm speed had been used for special purposes for many years, as well as in one unsuccessful earlier attempt to introduce a long-playing record for home use by RCA Victor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13591133",
"title": "World Record Club",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "The World Record Club Ltd. was the name of a company in the United Kingdom which issued long-playing records and reel-to-reel tapes, mainly of classical music and jazz, through a membership mail-order system during the 1950s and 1960s. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13714483",
"title": "Mister Disc",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Mister Disc (AT770) was a portable record player sold in the early 1980s by Audio-Technica. It was billed as being \"no bigger than a man's shoe\". It was battery operated, came with a set of fold-away headphones, and was able to play both 33 and 45 RPM records.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "896715",
"title": "Musician (video game)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Musician is cartridge number 31 in the official Magnavox/Philips line of games for the Philips Videopac. It came in a cardboard box roughly double the size of a standard Videopac game box, containing a keyboard overlay in the style of a piano keyboard; the cartridge, in a standard Videopac box with a single sheet where the manual would usually be; and a landscape format manual, over double the size of a standard game manual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12796728",
"title": "Turn on Me",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The vinyl also came with a special code that could be entered on to www.transgressiverecords.co.uk to receive a 'digital record player', a flash music player that streamed the entire track listing from \"Wincing the Night Away\". Users of the digital player can receive email updates about tracks that will be playing in the future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dtzj5x
|
how are humans able to focus at different depths even when one eye is shut?
|
[
{
"answer": "Each eye has its own lens that focuses like an autofocus camera lens. The only thing you lose with one eye is depth perception or stereoscopic vision. Hope that helps.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Focusing your eyes is done by little muscles inside your eye, stretching the lens. The lens is flexible, and stretching it out thins it and changes the focal length, determining whether near or far objects are in focus. \n \nUnless maybe you were actually asking about depth perception? That's a different thing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the question is about having/maintaining depth perception with one eye that boils down to visual cues that you brain is used to interpreting as far and close. Like if an object is obscured by another you know the obscured object is further away. Most optical illusions take advantage these in one way or another.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Focus have nothing to do with binocular vision. Binocular vision can help to determine distance. Knowing the distance can help but is not a requirement to get stuff in focus.\n\nYou focus a eye by using muscles to stretch out the lens and the effect is a lot like if you manual change the focus on a camera, You can manual focus a camera just change focus and look on the resulting image and determine if it get sharper or not. If it get sharper continue to change in that direction, if it get blurrier change direction. Continue to change it and the image get sharper and sharper. At the moment the sharpness of the image start to decrease you are in focus. The same can be done with your eyes.\n\nIf you know the distance to the object you can use that to quickly move to a approximate correct setting and fine tune from that. The brain can do the same and use information we have about distance to quickly get into focus.\n\nYou do not need binocular vision to determine the distance but it is a good way to do int for stuff that is relative close by. You can determine distance with one eye by the size of a object if the type of object is familiar, compare it position relative to other known object etc. The distance you get might be incorrect but work most of the time.\n\nSo distance help to get stuff in focus but the change the focus until maximum sharpness always work even if you have no idea of the distance to the object.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5209682",
"title": "Infant visual development",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Depth perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 969,
"text": "To perceive depth, infants as well as adults rely on several signals such as distances and kinetics. For instance, the fact that objects closer to the observer fill more space in our visual field than farther objects provides some cues into depth perception for infants. Evidence has shown that newborns' eyes do not work in the same fashion as older children or adults – mainly due to poor coordination of the eyes. Newborn's eyes move in the same direction only about half of the time. The strength of eye muscle control is positively correlated to achieve depth perception. Human eyes are formed in such a way that each eye reflects a stimulus at a slightly different angle thereby producing two images that are processed in the brain. These images provide the essential visual information regarding 3D features of the external world. Therefore, an infant's ability to control his eye movement and converge on one object is critical for developing depth perception.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1894873",
"title": "Eye movement",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Vestibulo-ocular system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "The brain must point both eyes accurately enough that the object of regard falls on corresponding points of the two retinas to avoid the perception of double vision. In most vertebrates (humans, mammals, reptiles, birds), the movements of different body parts are controlled by striated muscles acting around joints. The movement of the eye is slightly different in that the eyes are not rigidly attached to anything, but are held in the orbit by six extraocular muscles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6752609",
"title": "Underwater vision",
"section": "Section::::Focus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Water has a significantly different refractive index to air, and this affects the focusing of the eye. Most animals' eyes are adapted to either underwater or air vision, and do not focus properly when in the other environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5209682",
"title": "Infant visual development",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Depth perception.:Cues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1142,
"text": "From an infant's standpoint, depth perception can be inferred using three means: binocular, static, and kinetic cues. As mentioned previous, humans are binocular and each eye views the external world with a different angle – providing essential information into depth. The convergence of each eye on a particular object and the stereopsis, also known as the retinal disparity among two objects, provides some information for infants older than ten weeks. With binocular vision development, infants between four and five months also develop a sense of size and shape constancy objects, regardless of the objects location and orientation in space. From static cues based upon monocular vision, infants older of five month of age have the ability to predict depth perception from pictorial position of objects. In other words, edges of closer objects overlap objects in the distance. Lastly, kinetic cues are another factor in depth perception for humans, especially young infants. Infants ranging from three to five months are able to move when an object approaches them in the intent to hit them – implying that infants have depth perception.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "487910",
"title": "Vestibulo–ocular reflex",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "In other animals, the organs that coordinate balance and motor coordination do not operate independently from the organs that control the eyes. A fish, for instance, moves its eyes by reflex when its tail is moved. Humans have semicircular canals, neck muscle \"stretch\" receptors, and the utricle (gravity organ). Though the semicircular canals cause most of the reflexes which are responsive to acceleration, the maintaining of balance is mediated by the stretch of neck muscles and the pull of gravity on the utricle (otolith organ) of the inner ear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24990312",
"title": "Optics and vision",
"section": "Section::::Visual perception.:Human eye.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "As a conscious sense organ, the eye allows vision. Rod and cone cells in the retina allow conscious light perception and vision including color differentiation and the perception of depth. The human eye can distinguish about 10 million colors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9170159",
"title": "Binocular disparity",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Human eyes are horizontally separated by about 50–75 mm (interpupillary distance) depending on each individual. Thus, each eye has a slightly different view of the world around. This can be easily seen when alternately closing one eye while looking at a vertical edge. The binocular disparity can be observed from apparent horizontal shift of the vertical edge between both views.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3x9vuo
|
how different are each and every sperm? everyone is unique, but would a different sperm from the same man really change child anything close to drastically?
|
[
{
"answer": "One sperm vs. another sperm would definitely change the child (as would one egg vs. another egg) but \"anything close to drastically\" is in the eye of the beholder.\n\nThe children produced from two different sperm from the same father would be very similar and have many of the same genes, but they would be as different as any siblings you know. They might be practically twins or they might not even look particularly related.\n\nIf \"as different as two siblings\" is \"close to drastic\", then there's your answer. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One sperm might produce a boy while a different one would produce a girl. Is that a drastic difference?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the question is how different, you're sort of asking how many different combinations can be formed by meiosis, the process that makes the germ cells. There is already a first shuffle of the multiple decks of cards, deck for deck, when chromosomes split in meiosis, resulting in some number of combinations which I don't think is too high and may be 8. It doesn't really matter, because then there is a shuffling between the one you have from mom, and the one you have from dad, if you look at nearly any image showing you the cycle of meiosis, you could see that number of different combinations to count are a pretty big number. So how different? Maybe a crooked chin. Might be a chromosomal abnormality. The child may be born a ginger.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11495240",
"title": "Mixed twins",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Each sperm or egg cell possesses a random selection of genes from its mother or father. While not the most probable event, a sperm or egg may randomly acquire, for example, mostly alleles that confer light skin coloration or mostly alleles that confer dark skin coloration. In such cases, fraternal twins can differ from each other quite dramatically in terms of skin color or other physical characteristics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2324040",
"title": "Sperm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "Sperm is the male reproductive cell. In the types of sexual reproduction known as anisogamy and its subtype oogamy, there is a marked difference in the size of the gametes with the smaller one being termed the \"male\" or sperm cell. A uniflagellar sperm cell that is motile is referred to as a spermatozoon, whereas a non-motile sperm cell is referred to as a spermatium. Sperm cells cannot divide and have a limited life span, but after fusion with egg cells during fertilization, a new organism begins developing, starting as a totipotent zygote. The human sperm cell is haploid, so that its 23 chromosomes can join the 23 chromosomes of the female egg to form a diploid cell. In mammals, sperm develops in the testicles, is stored in the epididymis, and released from the penis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4722531",
"title": "Haplodiploidy",
"section": "Section::::Relatedness ratios in haplodiploidy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "In normal sexual reproduction, the father has two sets of chromosomes, and crossing over takes place between the chromatids of each pair during the meiosis which produces the sperm. Therefore, \"the sperms are not identical\", because in each chromosome of a pair there will be different alleles at many of the loci. But when the father is haploid \"all the sperms are identical\" (except for a small number where gene mutations have taken place in the germ line). So, all female offspring inherit the male's chromosomes 100% intact. \"As long as a female has mated with only one male\", all her daughters share a complete set of chromosomes from that male. In Hymenoptera, the males generally produce enough sperm to last the female for her whole lifetime after a single mating event with that male.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50412926",
"title": "Human sperm competition",
"section": "Section::::Intra-ejaculate sperm competition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1046,
"text": "If each sperm contains a chromatid from one of the two kinds of pre-meiotic tetrad, then we have, loosely speaking, two kinds of sperm. This does not account for crossing-over, of course. A sperm has half a chance of having a homologous chromatid as any random sperm. The relatedness among sperm is ½, but not in the sense that it is between human brothers. A human brothers has on average 50% of his brother's genes. A sperm has (not accounting for crossing-over) either 0% or 100% of its brother's genes. Still, on the level of the gene, the relatedness between two sperm and two human brothers is practically the same. From the point of view of a gene in a sperm cell, there is a 50% chance that another given sperm will share that gene. Likewise, from the point of view of an autosomal gene in a human male, there is a 50% chance that his sibling will share that gene. Therefore, on the level of the gene, a sperm cell has just as much incentive to be altruistic toward its brother as a human brother has to be altruistic toward his brother.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3315213",
"title": "Sex differences in human physiology",
"section": "Section::::Sex determination and differentiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "A human egg contains only one set of chromosomes (23) and is said to be haploid. Sperm also have only one set of 23 chromosomes and are therefore haploid. When an egg and sperm fuse at fertilization, the two sets of chromosomes come together to form a unique \"diploid\" individual with 46 chromosomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1475503",
"title": "Testis-determining factor",
"section": "Section::::Influence on sex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Embryos are gonadally identical, regardless of genetic sex, until a certain point in development when the testis-determining factor causes male sex organs to develop. Therefore, SRY plays an important role in sex determination. A typical male karyotype is XY. Individuals who inherit a normal Y chromosome and multiple X chromosomes are still male (such as in Klinefelter syndrome, which has an XXY karyotype). Atypical genetic recombination during crossover when a sperm cell is developing can result in karyotypes that do not match their phenotypic expression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50412926",
"title": "Human sperm competition",
"section": "Section::::Intra-ejaculate sperm competition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Even within ejaculates, sperm have adopted different morphologies. It has not been answered by the current scholarship if these different morphologies offer advantages in fertilization, but we can still model them as trade-offs (ATP expenditure vs. Longer tail) and as altruism (pairing) between sperm brothers. The next question ask is whether these differential strategies show any trends. If certain morphologies tend to become more common, it might mean that there is competition within sperm in the sense that not every sperm has the same chance of reaching the egg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6qrz8y
|
what is the difference between taking medicine in capsule form versus pill form. for over the counter medicine, what is the reason to take one over the other if they have the same dosage?
|
[
{
"answer": "IIRC capsules work faster because the medicine inside them is in liquid form (?) and the gel on the outside breaks down faster than the solid pill form.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4724514",
"title": "Rifampicin/isoniazid/pyrazinamide",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "The purpose of the fixed dose combination is to make it easier for people to take their medication; but also to ensure that if people forget to take one or two of their drugs, they do not then develop resistance to the remaining drugs. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3053322",
"title": "Capsule (pharmacy)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Since their inception, capsules have been viewed by consumers as the most efficient method of taking medication. For this reason, producers of drugs such as OTC analgesics wanting to emphasize the strength of their product developed the “caplet”, a portmanteau of “capsule-shaped tablet”, in order to tie this positive association to more efficiently-produced tablet pills, as well as being an easier-to-swallow shape than the usual disk-shaped tablet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39490884",
"title": "Liberation (pharmacology)",
"section": "Section::::Dissolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 958,
"text": "In a typical situation, a pill taken orally will pass through the oesophagus and into the stomach. As the stomach has an aqueous environment, it is the first place where the pill can dissolve. The rate of dissolution is a key element in controlling the duration of a drug's effect. For this reason, different forms of the same medication can have the same active ingredients but different dissolution rates. If a drug is administered in a form that is not rapidly dissolved, the drug will be absorbed more gradually over time and its action will have a longer duration. A consequence of this is that patients will comply more closely to a prescribed course of treatment, if the medication does not have to be taken as frequently. In addition, a slow release system will maintain drug concentrations within a therapeutically acceptable range for longer than quicker releasing delivery systems as these result in more pronounced peaks in plasma concentration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23876971",
"title": "Formulation",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 942,
"text": "In pharmacy, a formulation is a mixture or a structure such as a capsule, tablet, or an emulsion, prepared according to a specific procedure (called a “formula”). Formulations are a very important aspect of creating medicines, since they are essential to ensuring that the active part of the drug is delivered to the correct part of the body, in the right concentration, and at the right rate (not too fast and not too slowly). A good example is a drug delivery system that exploits supersaturation. They also need to have an acceptable taste (in the case of pills, tablets or syrups), last long enough in storage still to be safe and effective when used, and be sufficiently stable both physically and chemically to be transported from where they are manufactured to the eventual consumer. Competently designed formulations for particular applications are safer, more effective, and more economical than any of their components used singly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186625",
"title": "Antimalarial medication",
"section": "Section::::Combination therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "The combinations of drugs currently prescribed can be divided into two categories: non-artemesinin-based combinations and artemesinin based combinations. It is also important to distinguish \"fixed-dose\" combination therapies (in which two or more drugs are co-formulated into a single tablet) from combinations achieved by taking two separate antimalarials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25081142",
"title": "Treatment of cancer",
"section": "Section::::Types of treatments.:Chemotherapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Because some drugs work better together than alone, two or more drugs are often given at the same time. This is called \"combination chemotherapy\"; most chemotherapy regimens are given in a combination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5175930",
"title": "Pill splitting",
"section": "Section::::Cost savings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Pill-splitting can be used to save money on pharmaceutical costs, as many prescription pharmaceuticals are sold at prices less than proportional to the dose. For example, a 10 mg tablet of a drug might be sold for the same or nearly the same price as a 5 mg tablet. Splitting 10 mg tablets allows the patient to purchase half the number of tablets at a lower price than the same weight of 5 mg tablets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2od00e
|
how did blue and red become known as opposing colours?
|
[
{
"answer": "Blue and red aren't opposing, but bright basic blue and bright basic red are heavily visually contrasting. They're easy enough to differentiate in most visual situations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do you mean in Video games?\n\nI THINK it comes from the original Quake. One of the aspects of multilayer in Quake was that you were able to set the colors of your player skin. In normal deathwatch every player has his or her own color scheme so you could tell who was who (since everyone had to use the same player avatar, and color was the only variation). \n\nBut in team games your color was preset. While Quake was not the first game to offer team deathmatch, it was by far the game that popularized it. Give you 2 guesses what the preset color choices were for team games. Given Quakes massive influence on modern multilayer games, it's not surprising that some things have caught on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No doubt because water is blue and fire is red so cold and hot became associated with blue and red, thus making them \"opposite\" colors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4543",
"title": "Blue",
"section": "Section::::Science and nature.:Optics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "In painting and traditional colour theory, blue is one of the three primary colours of pigments (red, yellow, blue), which can be mixed to form a wide gamut of colours. Red and blue mixed together form violet, blue and yellow together form green. Mixing all three primary colours together produces a dark grey. From the Renaissance onwards, painters used this system to create their colours. (See RYB colour system.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "405803",
"title": "Complementary colors",
"section": "Section::::In theory and art.:In color theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 954,
"text": "In the early 19th century, scientists and philosophers across Europe began studying the nature and interaction of colors. The German poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe presented his own theory in 1810, stating that the two primary colors were those in the greatest opposition to each other, yellow and blue, representing light and darkness. He wrote that \"Yellow is a light which has been dampened by darkness; blue is a darkness weakened by light.\" Out of the opposition of blue and yellow, through a process called \"steigerung, or \"augmentation\" a third color, red, was born. Goethe also proposed several sets of complementary colors which \"demanded\" each other. According to Goethe, \"yellow 'demands' violet; orange [demands] blue; purple [demands] green; and vice versa\". Goethe's ideas were highly personal and often disagreed with other scientific research, but they were highly popular and influenced some important artists, including J.M.W. Turner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70764",
"title": "Flag of France",
"section": "Section::::Symbolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "Blue and red are the traditional colours of Paris, used on the city's coat of arms. Blue is identified with Saint Martin, red with Saint Denis. At the storming of the Bastille in 1789, the Paris militia wore blue and red cockades on their hats. White had long featured prominently on French flags and is described as the \"ancient French colour\" by Lafayette. White was added to the \"revolutionary\" colours of the militia cockade to \"nationalise\" the design, thus creating the tricolour cockade. Although Lafayette identified the white stripe with the nation, other accounts identify it with the monarchy. Lafayette denied that the flag contains any reference to the red-and-white livery of the Duc d'Orléans. Despite this, Orléanists adopted the tricolour as their own.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9677415",
"title": "National colours of Germany",
"section": "Section::::Black, white, and red.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "From the 1871 German unification until 1918, black, white, and red were widely accepted as the national colours of the German Empire, though they were not officially adopted as the imperial flag by law before 1892. Numerous German associations embraced the patriotic tricolour, and sports organisations that were founded prior to World War I often choose white with additional black and/or red as their colours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2295958",
"title": "Maritzburg College",
"section": "Section::::School crest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Debate has taken place as to why Holgate chose the combination of red, black and white for the school's colours. A popular belief is that they highlight the various skirmishes, battles and wars between the British and the Zulu that took place in the late 19th century (especially Isandlwana), with the colours representing the warring parties (white and black) and the blood that was shed between them (red).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "459177",
"title": "Flag of Lithuania",
"section": "Section::::History.:Creation of modern flag.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "The birth of the yellow, green, and red tricolor occurred during a drive by other European republics to change their flags. One example that gave life to the idea of the tricolor was the French blue, white, and red flag adopted after the French Revolution. The only tricolor that existed for Lithuania before the yellow, green, and red flag was a green, white, and red flag used to represent Lithuania Minor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1130657",
"title": "Red states and blue states",
"section": "Section::::Origins of the color scheme.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The colors red and blue also feature on the United States flag. Traditional political mapmakers, at least throughout the 20th century, have used blue to represent the modern-day Republicans, as well as the earlier Federalist Party. This may have been a holdover from the Civil War, during which the predominantly Republican north was considered However, at that time, a maker of widely-sold maps accompanied them with blue pencils in order to mark Confederate force movements, while red was for the union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5b81qg
|
how are international laws enforced? by who?
|
[
{
"answer": "International law can be enforced in a few different ways, but the most common is through treaties. A treaty is basically a piece of paper that two or more countries sign that says \"We REALLY promise not to break the rules of this treaty\". There is no technical retribution like a police force could do inside a single country (You can't really put a country in jail), but the breaking of a treaty can often ruin a country's reputation, and cause other problems like sanctions, so very few countries actually break them regularly. If in the case the treaty is broken an international body like the UN or EU can step in and basically negotiate and figure out what went wrong between the countries. If the two are member countries, they can even send in international troops to deal with the conflict, although that is almost never, ever, actually used, because it's hard to convince countries that their soldiers should be dying in a war their home country didn't fight.\n\nTL;DR: Laws are usually enforced through political means, International bodies with good negotiators and a small army to keep things in line just in case.\n\nEdit: Treaties don't so much create international law in writing, instead they create an environment where keeping to the terms of the treaty is preferable to breaking them, thus creating a form of indirect enforcement. Thanks to /u/Estellion for bringing that up. Cheers mate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They aren't really. There is no international police etc. and that actually causes some issues. There is nothing to stop the US, China, Russia etc., from ignoring international laws. And those three all do/have. \n\nInstead they're enforced softly by 'goodwill'. It's much like children playing a game. If I say I will play by the rules and don't, the other kids won't trust me as much next time. If I do it enough they'll stop wanting to play with me and might kick me out. It's really the isolation that is punishment. E.g., North Korea.\n\nIn country terms this isolation is mainly reflected in money. That can take a variety of forms, from sanctions (making trade with North Korea illegal) to people less likely to invest money. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8195726",
"title": "International law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "International law differs from state-based legal systems in that it is primarily—though not exclusively—applicable to countries, rather than to individuals, and operates largely through consent, since there is no universally accepted authority to enforce it upon sovereign states. Consequently, states may choose to not abide by international law, and even to break a treaty. However, such violations, particularly of customary international law and peremptory norms (\"jus cogens\"), can be met with coercive action, ranging from military intervention to diplomatic and economic pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8195726",
"title": "International law",
"section": "Section::::International relations.:Treaties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "International treaty law comprises obligations expressly and voluntarily accepted by states between themselves in treaties. Where there are disputes about the exact meaning and application of national laws, it is the responsibility of the courts to decide what the law means. In international law, interpretation is within the domain of the states concerned, but may also be conferred on judicial bodies such as the International Court of Justice, by the terms of the treaties or by consent of the parties. Thus, while it is generally the responsibility of states to interpret the law for themselves, the processes of diplomacy and availability of supra-national judicial organs routinely provide assistance to that end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8195726",
"title": "International law",
"section": "Section::::Courts and enforcement.:International bodies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Though states (or increasingly, international organizations) are usually the only ones with standing to address a violation of international law, some treaties, such as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights have an optional protocol that allows individuals who have had their rights violated by member states to petition the international Human Rights Committee. Investment treaties commonly and routinely provide for enforcement by individuals or investing entities. and commercial agreements of foreigners with sovereign governments may be enforced on the international plane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "294494",
"title": "Extraterritorial jurisdiction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "The phrase may also refer to a country's laws extending beyond its boundaries in the sense that they may authorise the courts of that country to enforce their jurisdiction against parties appearing before them in with respect to acts they allegedly engaged in outside that country. This does not depend on the co-operation of other countries, since the affected people are within the relevant country (or at least, in a case involving a person being tried \"in absentia\", the case is being heard by a court of that country). For example, many countries have laws which give their criminal courts jurisdiction to try prosecutions for piracy or terrorism committed outside their national boundaries. Sometimes such laws only apply to nationals of that country, and sometimes they may apply to anyone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11289068",
"title": "Incorporation of international law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "The incorporation of international law is the process by which international agreements become part of the municipal law of a sovereign state. A country incorporates a treaty by passing domestic legislation that gives effect to the treaty in the national legal system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4411561",
"title": "Diplomatic law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "It is also an accepted principle of customary international law and is recognised between countries as a matter of practicality. Diplomatic law is often strictly adhered to by states because it works on reciprocity. For example, if a country expels diplomats from another country, then its diplomats would most likely be expelled from the other country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8195726",
"title": "International law",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 154,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 154,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Also, since the bulk of international law is treaty law, binding only on signatories, then; 'If legislation is the making of laws by a person or assembly binding on the whole community, there is no such thing as international law. For treaties bind only those who sign them.' \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4t9zm9
|
What were the "mystery religions" of antiquity, specifically those practiced in the Greco-Roman world?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's difficult to say anything definitive about mystery cults compared to other ancient religions like Christianity or Judaism, because these cults did not leave much documentary evidence behind. The mystery was a central part of the ritual, and so we have passing comments from ancients about them and archaeological evidence from shrines, ritual sites, etc. So, in the case of Mithraea, scholars believe that (in the absence of literary evidence, which historians tend to value over archaeological evidence, but that's a post for another day) this cult found widespread acceptance among the Roman military, since mithraea are found near military camps and fortresses. \n\nI'll add a few mystery cults to your list: the cult of Magna Mater (Cybele) at Rome, the cult of Orpheus, the cult of Bacchus/Dionysius, and the cult of Isis. I'll add in detail about the first one, since that's the one I know most about; hopefully others can chime in as they see fit. \n\nThe cult of Magna Mater as it was celebrated at Rome was due to the Second Carthaginian War. Traditionally, the Romans encountered a series of prodigies (such as falling rocks) and decided to consult the Sibylline Oracles. The Oracle informed them that the \"Idaean mother\" could help defeat Hannibal, who was currently terrorizing the Italian countryside. The stone which represented Cybele was imported from the east, the Romans ended up defeating Hannibal and Carthage, and Cybele was enshrined within the *pomerium*, Rome's religious boundary denoting the sacred space of the city. The goddess was honored during the Megalesia, traditionally dated to April. There would be games honoring the goddess as well as processions through the streets of Rome by the goddess' priests. These priests, the *galli*, were ritually castrated during an ecstatic rite (so in this case, no, this mystery cult wasn't an excuse to bone). Roman citizens, while pleased with Cybele's intervention with Hannibal, were not allowed to become *galli* until Claudian lifted the ban (which Domitian reinstated). \n\nFinally, there is every indication that these religious cults were taken seriously. In 415 BCE, right before Athens launched an expedition to Sicily, a \"double sacrilege\" was committed: the herms were mutilated and the Eleusinian mysteries were somehow profaned. According to Thucydides (6.27-30), the mutilation of the herms was seen as an extremely bad omen for the expedition. The further revelation of the mocking/profaning of the mysteries by young men, including Alcibiades, the general in charge of the expedition, added more anxiety. He ended up being convicted *in absentia*, sentenced with death with his property seized, and while in exile, defected to the Spartans. (And then he came back, but that's a different story altogether). \n\nEdited to clean up 415 section. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Two good books for further reading might be Marvin Meyer's *The Ancient Mysteries,* which gives short summaries of the different cults accompanied by a few selections from ancient sources dealing with each cult; and Jan Bremmer's recent *Initiation into the Mysteries of the Ancient World,* which he [published as an open-access ebook through de Gruyter press](_URL_0_). \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I recommend to you the second chapter of Hans-Josef Klauck's The Religious Context of Early Christianity (English translation by Brian McNiel; T & T Clark, 2000). Although now a few years old, Klauck's study provides a convenient brief summary of the evidence for several cults (Eleusis, Dionysius, Attis, Isis, and Mithras), a general survey of the phenomenon, and helpful bibliographies for further research. Klauck mentions but does not discuss at length other mystery cults of which we have some evidence (e.g. Cabiri, Zeus Panamaros, Andania, etc.). You'll find much here to populate your list. \n\nIn his introductory comments (please forgive the simplified paraphrase that follows), Klauck contends that mystery cults are generally characterized by secrecy (albeit with imprecise boundaries), sequences of ritual performance and initiation, and the promise of some salutary benefit through participation in a mythical re-enactment. These myths refer not to historical events but to eternal patterns that recapitulated throughout history. \n\nYou asked about the specific aims of participation in these cults. Here's a passage that provides some answer to your question: \"Every cult is based on its own divine myth, which narrates what happens to a god; in most cases, he has to take a path of suffering and wandering, but this often leads to victory at the end. The rite depicts this path in abbreviate form and thus makes it possible for the initiand to be taken up into the story of the god, to share in his labors and above all in his victory. Thus there comes into being a ritual participation which contains the perspective of winning salvation (Gk. soteria). The hope for salvation can be innerworldly, looking for protection from life's many tribulations, e.g. sickness, poverty, dangers on a journey, and death; but it can also look for something better in the life after death. It always involves an intensification of vitality and of life expectation, to be achieved through participation in the indestructible life of a god\" (p. 88).\n\nIf Klauck's summary and the scholarly evidence on which it draws is accurate, it's safe to say that participation in these cults was taken seriously (perhaps even \"uber-seriously\"), though it's likewise safe to suppose that some were attracted to the \"intensification of vitality\" (which is one scholarly way of re-writing your less ethereal \"party, get drunk, and bone\"). \n\nI hope that helps. ",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "37004",
"title": "Greco-Roman mysteries",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Mystery religions, sacred mysteries or simply mysteries were religious schools of the Greco-Roman world for which participation was reserved to initiates \"(mystai)\". The main characterization of this religion is the secrecy associated with the particulars of the initiation and the ritual practice, which may not be revealed to outsiders. The most famous mysteries of Greco-Roman antiquity were the Eleusinian Mysteries, which were of considerable antiquity and predated the Greek Dark Ages. The mystery schools flourished in Late Antiquity; Julian the Apostate in the mid 4th century is known to have been initiated into three distinct mystery schools—most notably the mithraists. Due to the secret nature of the school, and because the mystery religions of Late Antiquity were persecuted by the Christian Roman Empire from the 4th century, the details of these religious practices are derived from descriptions, imagery and cross-cultural studies. \"Because of this element of secrecy, we are ill-informed as to the beliefs and practices of the various mystery faiths. We know that they had a general likeness to one another\". Much information on the Mysteries come from Marcus Terentius Varro.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2088800",
"title": "Sacred mysteries",
"section": "Section::::Greco-Roman mysteries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 621,
"text": "The mystery religions of antiquity were religious cults which required initiation of an \"initiate\" or new member before they were accepted, and sometimes had different levels of initiation, as well as doctrines which were mysteries in the sense of requiring supernatural explanation. In some, parts of the doctrine were apparently only known to priests. They included the Eleusinian Mysteries, Mithraism, the Cult of Isis, the Cult of Sol Invictus, and the Essenes. Mystery traditions were popular in ancient Greece and during the height of the Roman Empire, and parts of Early Christianity used secrecy in the same way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "274099",
"title": "Ancient Greek religion",
"section": "Section::::Mystery religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Some of these mysteries, like the mysteries of Eleusis and Samothrace, were ancient and local. Others were spread from place to place, like the mysteries of Dionysus. During the Hellenistic period and the Roman Empire, exotic mystery religions became widespread, not only in Greece, but all across the empire. Some of these were new creations, such as Mithras, while others had been practiced for hundreds of years before, like the Egyptian mysteries of Osiris.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31497818",
"title": "Golden Age",
"section": "Section::::The Golden Age in Europe: Greece.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1038,
"text": "The Orphic school, a mystery cult that originated in Thrace and spread to Greece in the 5th century BCE, held similar beliefs about the early days of man, likewise denominating the ages with metals. In common with the many other mystery cults prevalent in the Graeco-Roman world (and their Indo-European religious antecedents), the world view of Orphism was cyclical. Initiation into its secret rites, together with ascetic practices, was supposed to guarantee the individual's soul eventual release from the grievous circle of mortality and also communion with god(s). Orphics sometimes identified the Golden Age with the era of the god Phanes, who was regent over the Olympus before Cronus. In classical mythology however, the Golden Age was associated with the reign of Saturn. In the 5th century BCE, the philosopher Empedocles, like Hesiod before him, emphasized the idea of primordial innocence and harmony in all of nature, including human society, from which he maintained there had been a steady deterioration until the present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37004",
"title": "Greco-Roman mysteries",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
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"end_character": 581,
"text": "For this reason, what glimpses we do have of the older Greek mysteries have been understood as reflecting certain archaic aspects of common Indo-European religion, with parallels in Indo-Iranian religion. The mystery schools of Greco-Roman antiquity include the Eleusinian Mysteries, the Dionysian Mysteries, and the Orphic Mysteries. Some of the many divinities that the Romans nominally adopted from other cultures also came to be worshipped in Mysteries, for instance, Egyptian Isis, Persian Mithras from the Mithraic Mysteries, Thracian/Phrygian Sabazius, and Phrygian Cybele.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29977783",
"title": "Religious initiation rites",
"section": "Section::::Mystery religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "In the Greco-Roman world, the mystery religions were those that required initiation, as distinguished from public rites that were open to all; the Greek word for \"mystery\", \"mysterion\", comes from \"mystēs\", \"initiate.\" (The contemporary English meaning of \"something unknown or hard to know\" developed from the secrecy surrounding the arcane knowledge promised by these religions.) The most famous of the ancient mysteries, and the most important in Classical Greece, were the Eleusinian Mysteries. The mysteries known as Orphic, Dionysian or Bacchic pertained to the god Dionysus and his \"prophet\" Orpheus. In the Hellenistic period under Roman rule, the mysteries of Isis, Mithras, and Cybele were disseminated around the Mediterranean and as far north as Roman Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5689787",
"title": "Ordo Aurum Solis",
"section": "Section::::History.:Birth of the Golden Chain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Various initiatic traditions existed in ancient Greece. These were called \"Mysteries\". In Greece the Mysteries of Eleusis, Samothrace, Orpheus, and Dionysus were among the most important, and in ancient Rome and across its empire, the Mithraic and Isiac Traditions. These effectively combined the sacred Mysteries with the rationalism of Philosophy, which constituted the real genius of such esoteric traditions.\n",
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"meta": null
}
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}
] | null |
8qn79y
|
Could Ancient Greek women in Athens work as mercenaries?
|
[
{
"answer": "A simple answer would be that no they could not. Athenian women typically were always relegated to a domestic role in daily life. The Athenians were very conservative in regards to how they treated their women. Women were not allowed to be in public without male supervision nor allowed to attend plays at the amphitheater.\n\nIt was very taboo for Athenian women to interact with public life, even to the point that Athenian men would avoid even talking about their wives to men who were not relatives in order to protect their wives' virtue. However, an Athenian women would typically manage the domestic affairs of the household. She would be in charge of the slaves, and the daily management of the house; but the husband would have the final say even domestically if he disagreed with his wife. The only occurrences of an Athenian woman working out in the Agora would be if the family were extremely poor, and even this would be seen as great embarrassment for the husband or father. With that being said, Athenian women were extremely encouraged to take up the art of weaving, as she would be responsible for creating the clothes of her family, and the husband would frequently sell the works of his wife and daughters. Socrates famously told an Athenian man who had to care for several female relatives to \"put the relatives to work making and selling clothes\" to offset the cost of his care for them. Weaving also played a large role in an Athenian girl's religious life. A major festival called the Panathenaea featured an intricate woven cloth created by a couple of Athenian girls who were chosen for such an honor. The cloth would be draped over the statue of Athena on the Acropolis until the next festival.\n\nFor non-Athenian women living in Athens, lesser social constraints existed. Foreign women could market goods in the Agora without extreme social stigma. Female slaves also frequently went out in public running tasks for their masters such as getting water or delivering messages. Foreign women could also become Hetairai, high-class courtesans. This type of profession allowed foreign women to be rather economically successful and socially fluid. They often were companions of wealthy Athenian men and frequented symposiums with them. The most famous Hetaira was Aspasia, a woman who was the mistress of Pericles and mother of Pericles the Younger. Her home was famed for attracting the intellectual elite of Athens. Historians have argued about the political influence of Aspasia and how much she influenced Pericles decisions as Strategos. However, we cannot know what the Hetairai thought of their social position. They may have eagerly gave up their material wealth and social mobility in order to become an Athenian citizen and a domestic wife. One of the hardest parts of history is knowing what people thought and how they saw themselves in society.\n\n - Sarah Pomeroy, Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity, 1995\n - Peter Action, Poiesis: Manufacturing in Classical Athens, 2014\n - Lysias, On the Murder of Eratosthenes.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "57690153",
"title": "Ancient Greek mercenaries",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "There is evidence of mercenaries (\"misthophoroi\" in Greek) being hired in Ancient Greece from the 6th century BC. The tyrants of that time hired bodyguards from other city-states. It is not known if earlier Greek armies and navies, such as the Minoans and Mycenaeans, used mercenaries. \n",
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"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "51992830",
"title": "Athenian democracy",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 469,
"text": "BULLET::::- Likewise the status of women seems lower in Athens than in many Greek cities. In Sparta, women competed in public exercise – so in Aristophanes's \"Lysistrata\" the Athenian women admire the tanned, muscular bodies of their Spartan counterparts – and women could own property in their own right, as they could not at Athens. Misogyny was by no means an Athenian invention, but it has been claimed that Athens had worse misogyny than other states at the time.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "57690153",
"title": "Ancient Greek mercenaries",
"section": "Section::::5th century BC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 268,
"text": "Greek hoplites were widely admired for their skill as soldiers. The demand led many Greeks who faced poverty or exile to enlist as mercenaries in the pay of another state. Others, not so burdened with worry, became mercenaries through a desire for loot and adventure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145439",
"title": "Women's rights",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient history.:Greece.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1571,
"text": "Women in Classical Athens had no legal personhood and were assumed to be part of the \"oikos\" headed by the male \"kyrios\". Until marriage, women were under the guardianship of their father or other male relative. Once married, the husband became a woman's \"kyrios\". As women were barred from conducting legal proceedings, the \"kyrios\" would do so on their behalf. Athenian women could only acquire rights over property through gifts, dowry and inheritance, though her \"kyrios\" had the right to dispose of a woman's property. Athenian women could only enter into a contract worth less than the value of a \"\"medimnos\" of barley\" (a measure of grain), allowing women to engage in petty trading. Women were excluded from ancient Athenian democracy, both in principle and in practice. Slaves could become Athenian citizens after being freed, but no woman ever acquired citizenship in ancient Athens. In classical Athens women were also barred from becoming poets, scholars, politicians, or artists. During the Hellenistic period in Athens, the philosopher Aristotle thought that women would bring disorder and evil, therefore it was best to keep women separate from the rest of the society. This separation would entail living in a room called a \"gynaikeion\", while looking after the duties in the home and having very little exposure with the male world. This was also to ensure that wives only had legitimate children from their husbands. Athenian women received little education, except home tutorship for basic skills such as spin, weave, cook and some knowledge of money.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "57690153",
"title": "Ancient Greek mercenaries",
"section": "Section::::2nd millennium BCE.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "The term \"misthophoros\" originally applied to someone who worked in return for payment by salary. That included hired labour and the word was very soon applied to hired professional soldiers and sailors. Armed forces in Minoan Crete and Mycenae may essentially have been citizen armies and navies but, according to the Trojan War legend, the Mycenaeans relied heavily on their alliance with other Greek city-states. Whether or not either side employed mercenaries is open to speculation but what can be said is that complete details of the organisation and structure of Bronze Age armies are unclear to us and the employment of mercenaries cannot be excluded. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "25901867",
"title": "Women in ancient Sparta",
"section": "Section::::Matriarchal duties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "All Spartan women, not just the richest, would have taken advantage of helot labour to perform the domestic tasks that elsewhere in Greece would have fallen to free women. Activities such as weaving which were considered women's work elsewhere in Greece were not considered fit for free women in Sparta. Therefore, women were more preoccupied with governance, agriculture, logistics and other sustenance tasks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "10623787",
"title": "Immigration to Greece",
"section": "Section::::Migrant demographics.:Female migrants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1207,
"text": "Migrant women to Greece in particular are of note, and are particularly vulnerable to exploitation. Greek women continue to make strides in education and employment. Traditionally, the participation of Greek women in the labor force has been very low due to a lack of formal employment opportunities, an overabundance of unpaid activities in small family businesses or agricultural work, and prevailing cultural attitudes in Greece about the domestic role of women. Between 1971 and 1996, adult female participation in the paid labor force jumped from 31.2% to 47.5%. A rapid expansion of the Greek educational system, coupled with increased prosperity in Greece, lead to an increase in women in the workplace and a subsequent reduction of supply of labor for certain (usually unpaid) work mostly done by women. However, Greek cultural values regarding women's \"duties\" within the home has not changed as rapidly as female employment has—Greek women are increasingly taking on responsibilities outside the home while their domestic tasks remain largely unabated. This creates a demand for cheap, migrant labor in areas related to household and care work in Greece that is largely filled by female migrants.\n",
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77wsgh
|
what did Victorian prostitutes wear or look like?
|
[
{
"answer": "One interesting account that answers your question, at least for London, at least for some time in the period c.1870, comes from the infamous work by \"Walter\", *My Secret Life*, which discusses the author's extensive experience with prostitutes in the Victorian period. The original work was printed in a very short run by an Amsterdam pornographer in 1888.\n\nWhat makes this particular account interesting is that, while \"Walter\" has been considered a highly unreliable narrator, and possibly an out-and-out fantasist, in this instance it's possible to penetrate the author's usual maze of teasing references to identify some real people, significantly raising the likelihood that the interaction actually occurred - [see here for the step-by-step](_URL_0_), which is worthy of attention.\n\nAnyway, on to the description:\n\n > Going along L* * c * * t * r Square one evening I saw a shortish female in front of me. She had short petticoats (worn then), Balmoral boots, a small foot, and shapely calf. — The movement of haunches and legs told me she had the class of form I loved; I can tell by the pose of the foot, and the swing of the bum, what sort of thighs and rump are moving underneath petticoats — I passed and looked at her. She had a quite young, modest face, white and pink complexion, dark eyes, and looked healthy, fresh and enticing. I stopped, turned, and she passed me. She is modest I thought. — Bah! what does modesty do here by itself at eight o’clock p.m.? —So I accosted her, wondering at her steady bum swing which looked twenty-one at least, whilst her face looked but seventeen or thereabouts...\n",
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"answer": "Television and movies warp our image of women who engaged in sex work historically (and probably in the present day, but I don't know much about that) - the stereotypical Victorian prostitute on film is a haggard and often drunken woman in a tattered décollété, often sleeveless dress and an excess of makeup, cackling in a doorway, or alternatively a pretty girl in a corset and anachronistically filmy underthings residing in a high-end brothel. The reality was, as usual, more nuanced: prostitutes were not immediately marked out from the women around them. While they were considered outside of good society, they were not necessarily as hypersexualized as we imagine them to have been.\n\nThe basis for this depiction has its roots in Victorian fiction and illustrations, where prostitutes were shown as having a kind of uniform of \"showy finery inappropriate to their class, and flowing hair\".^(1) Thomas Hardy's poem, *The Ruined Maid*, states some of this quite explicitly:\n\n > — \"O 'Melia, my dear, this does everything crown! \n\n > Who could have supposed I should meet you in Town? \n\n > And whence such fair garments, such prosperi-ty?\" — \n\n > \"O didn't you know I'd been ruined?\" said she. \n\n > \n\n > — \"You left us in tatters, without shoes or socks, \n\n > Tired of digging potatoes, and spudding up docks; \n\n > And now you've gay bracelets and bright feathers three!\" — \n\n > \"Yes: that's how we dress when we're ruined,\" said she. \n\n(Read the whole of it [here](_URL_1_).)\n\nIt has to be noted that what was important to the Victorian reader was the fact that the prostitute was attracted to a style of clothing that she was not entitled to wear. Flowing hair was the province of little girls; teenagers started to wear their hair partially up or styled, and then wore a fully-up adult hairstyle when their parents felt they were eligible for courting. Etiquette books, advice in magazines, and fiction all made the point that dressing neatly within your means was preferable to wearing expensive clothing obviously unsuited to your surroundings. Inappropriate finery also played off the popular (and still extant) stereotype that women were frivolous and cared too much about dress, and the supposition that young women who worked long hours for dressmakers and milliners for low pay were seduced into prostitution because they so longed for the fancy garments they made and handled every day. \n\nWhile I'm not sure about the long, loose hair, over-fancy dress was also associated with prostitutes outside of fiction. Commentators complained about the presence of these women, poorly imitating the upper middle classes in \"dirty white muslin and greasy cheap blue silk,\" with cosmetics and without bonnets or shawls.^(2) Outside of respectable society, looking \"fine\" was more important than being \"neat\" - and of course catching the eye of men interested in their services was key, hence the lack of enveloping shawls and bonnets that hid the face from view at certain angles. In general, there was (had always been) a lot of concern about \"telling the mistress from the maid\" because of high-status clothing coming down in price, being purchased second-hand, or simply being bought new with money that \"should have\" been responsibly saved or spent on something more necessary; telling the *lady* from the *prostitute* was even more serious, because while it might be embarrassing to mistake a maid for her mistress, it would be disastrous for someone to be seen treating a prostitute as a lady and for a lady to be treated as a prostitute. And while for most the imitation of lady-hood would come off as a paltry failure, at least to an audience used to seeing women of the middle and upper classes, there certainly were more successful prostitutes who could imitate them to a much greater degree, leading to situations that seem unbearably fussy to us: for instance, in the 1883 novel *Wilfred's Widow*, the woman pretending to be Wilfred's widow turns out to have visited the opera without a male escort or group of friends, and even though she outwardly appears to be every inch the lady, her solitude is treated as highly suspicious.\n\nThat all being said, we have to remember that prostitution was not always a permanent occupation, and that \"prostitute\" isn't a simple category. Nineteenth-century physicians Alexandre Parent-Duchâtelet and William Acton and the writer Bracebridge Hemyng, all of whom conducted research among these women, found that in Paris and London, prostitution would often be an occupation for a short period of time, after which they would marry live as respectable housewives - as with every other feminine job.^(3) Many prostitutes also only worked seasonally: in the fashion industry, there were periods when more workers were needed (at the beginning of the social season, for instance), and when they were let go in the fallow times they had to do something to bring money in. Many came to it following domestic service, or used it to supplement their income from tending bar, cleaning houses, doing laundry, or factory work.^(4) My point here is that while \"tawdry finery\" is a well-attested common type of dress for nineteenth century prostitutes, there would likely have been a range of clothes representing the range of backgrounds and lifestyles of the women involved.\n\nAs to \"color\" ... there's very little evidence of specific colors being specific to prostitutes' dress, and none that I'm aware of in the nineteenth century. Sumptuary legislation for respectable vs. disreputable women dates back to the Middle Ages, for the reasons I explained above: it was vital for people to be able to tell them apart so as not to treat street-walkers as matrons and vice versa. In 1351, London prostitutes were banned from wearing fur linings in general, and the 1419 English book of common law prohibited them from wearing fur hoods: they were supposed to wear unlined hoods of striped fabric, a standard that was widely adopted across the country. Early sixteenth-century legislation prohibited workers in the Southwark stews from wearing aprons.^(5) Prostitutes in medieval Arles and Avignon were not allowed to wear veils, and those in Pézenas were not allowed to wear gowns with trains; in Castelnaudry, they had to wear cord belts, and in Castres, they had to wear a man's hat and a red belt; in Beaucaire and Toulouse, a mark on their left arms; in Nîmes, one sleeve of their gowns had to be made of a fabric of another color.^(6) By the nineteenth century, this kind of sumptuary legislation was long gone. Stories that yellow stockings, red shawls worn low on the arm, or the color green indicated a prostitute are reenactorisms that spring from misunderstandings and potentially a confusion of fact and fiction.\n\nThere are a lot of images of prostitutes from this period. [The Empty Purse](_URL_0_), by James Collinson ca. 1857, is generally considered to depict a working girl, and you can see that she looks much like any other woman of the period. [The works of Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec](_URL_2_) also frequently depict prostitutes. I'd recommend checking out the book *Painted Love: Prostitution in French Art of the Impressionist Era*, by Hollis Clayson, which contains a lot of reproductions of paintings and prints; many of them are nudes, which are beside the point, but the images of the women fully-dressed out-of-doors just look like ... women. They're dressed like any other ladies.\n\n1. C. M. Jackson-Houlston, \"The burial-place of the fashions: the representation of the dress of the poor in illustrated serial prose by Dickens and Hardy\" (*Textile History*, vol. 33, 2002)\n\n2. Judith R. Walkowitz, *Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class, and the State* (Cambridge University Press, 1982)\n\n3. Deborah Epstein Nord, *Walking the Victorian Streets: Women, Representation, and the City* (Cornell University Press, 1995)\n\n4. George Rosen, \"Disease, Debility, and Death\" (*The Victorian City: Images and Realities*, vol. 2, reprinted 2001)\n\n5. Ruth Mazo Carras, *Common Women: Prostitution and Sexuality in Medieval England* (Oxford University Press, 1996)\n\n6. Leah Lydia Otis, *Prostitution in Medieval Society: The History of an Urban Institution in Languedoc* (University Of Chicago Press, 1985)",
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"wikipedia_id": "27144883",
"title": "Tobacco and art",
"section": "Section::::Smoking, women, and art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
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"text": "Prostitutes were the first women in this time period to be depicted with pipes, cigars, or cigarettes as seen in artwork from Vincent van Gogh and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. The women used smoke and make-up (as seen from their very white faces) to attract male clients. Some artists wanted to change social norms and de-stigmatize smoking for women. Frances Benjamin Johnston was one notable woman who studied illustrating for many years in Paris and then discovered photography. Her piece titled \"Self- Portrait\" depicts her holding a cigarette in one hand and a beer stein in the other. She is not dressed provocatively like most females who were associated with alcohol and cigarettes during this time. Instead, she realistically captures aspects of her life and complicates the society's understanding of middle class women. Jane Atché commercially published color lithographs of women smokers without any sexual connotations. Her prints offered sophisticated woman who enjoyed cigarettes.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "3952114",
"title": "Sexuality in ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Sex, marriage, and society.:Prostitution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 194,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 194,
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"text": "Prostitutes appear in erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum, including wall paintings from buildings identified as brothels, in which they are often nude except for a strapless bra \"(strophium)\". The paintings illustrate various sexual positions that contradict some scholarly claims about the preferences of Roman men in heterosexual acts. Literary sources record that prostitutes wore distinctive clothing, often gaudy dresses of see-through silk. They were the only Roman women who wore the toga, the distinctive dress of a free Roman male. This crossing of gender boundaries has been interpreted variously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "186330",
"title": "Sumptuary law",
"section": "Section::::Medieval and Renaissance Europe.:Courtesans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
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"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "Special forms of dress for prostitutes and courtesans were introduced in the 13th century: in Marseille a striped cloak, in England a striped hood, and so on. Over time, these tended to be reduced to distinctive bands of fabric attached to the arm or shoulder, or tassels on the arm. Later restrictions specified various forms of finery that were forbidden, although there was also sometimes a recognition that finery represented working equipment (and capital) for a prostitute, and they could be exempted from laws applying to other non-noble women. By the 15th century, no compulsory clothing seems to have been imposed on prostitutes in Florence, Venice (the European capital of courtesans) or Paris.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40623944",
"title": "Merry company",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1063,
"text": "Scenes with prostitutes do not reflect the realities of 17th century prostitution in many ways, but offer a conventionalized visual code. The madam or (as art historians like to call them) \"procuress\" is always an aged crone, whereas court records for Amsterdam (the national centre for Dutch prostitution) show that most were still fairly young, and 40% in their twenties. The presence of a procuress figure is by itself sufficient to justify interpreting a painting as a brothel scene. Fine clothes (rented from the madam) and in particular feathers in headresses are said to be signifiers of prostitutes, as well as the more obvious loosened clothes, low cleavages, and a provocative frontal stance. But in the later part of the century demure downcast looks by the woman feature in many scenes thought to represent prostitution; in the famously ambiguous threesome \"The Gallant Conversation\" by Gerard ter Borch, the young woman is seen only from behind. Of one painting by Jacob Ochtervelt, (c. 1670, now Cleveland, illustrated at left) Wayne Franits says: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3750300",
"title": "Prostitution in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::History.:17th and 18th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1292,
"text": "The presence of prostitution in London during the 17th and 18th centuries is demonstrated by the publication of directories. \"The Wandering Whore\" was published during the Restoration period, and listed streets where prostitutes might be found and the locations of brothels. \"A Catalogue of Jilts, Cracks & Prostitutes\" was published towards the end of the 17th century and catalogued the physical attributes of 21 women who could be found about St Bartholomew's Church during Bartholomew Fair, in Smithfield. \"Harris's List of Covent Garden Ladies\" was published during the second half of the 18th century as a pocketbook. It described the physical appearance and sexual specialities of about 120–190 prostitutes who worked in and around Covent Garden (then a well-known red-light district) along with their addresses and prices. Bullough argues that prostitution in 18th-century Britain was a convenience to men of all social statuses, and an economic necessity for many poor women, and was tolerated by society. Nevertheless, a ban on brothel-keeping was included in the Disorderly Houses Act 1751 as part of legislation against public nuisance. Towards the end of the century, public opinion began to turn against the sex trade, with reformers petitioning the authorities to take action.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15157915",
"title": "Prostitution",
"section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "Sumptuary laws became the regulatory norm for prostitutes and included making courtesans \"wear a shoulder-knot of a particular color as a badge of their calling\" to be able to easily distinguish the prostitute from a respectable woman in society. The color that designated them as prostitutes could vary from different earth tones to yellow, as was usually designated as a color of shame in the Hebrew communities. These laws, however, proved no impediment to wealthier prostitutes because their glamorous appearances were almost indistinguishable from noble women. In the 14th century, London prostitutes were only tolerated when they wore yellow hoods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3750300",
"title": "Prostitution in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 969,
"text": "Some prostitutes worked in red-light districts, others in their own neighbourhoods. London's dockyards had a large population of prostitutes, and Granby Street, beside Waterloo Station, was well known for its \"half naked\" women in the windows. Prostitutes also found work within the armed forces, mainly due to servicemen's forced celibacy and the conditions of the barracks the men were forced to endure. The barracks were overcrowded and had a lack of ventilation and defective sanitation. Very few servicemen were permitted to marry, and even those were not given an allowance to support their wives, which occasionally lured them to become prostitutes as well. Regulating prostitution was the government's attempt to control the high level of venereal disease in its armed forces. By 1864, one out of three sick cases in the army was caused by venereal disease; admissions into hospitals for gonorrhoea and syphilis reached 290.7 per 1,000 of total troop strength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
emqrc3
|
why do leds work as a light sensor?
|
[
{
"answer": "LEDs are photodiodes that emit light when electricity is passed through them. Because of this, they are also sensitive to wavelengths of light that are slightly shorter than or equal to the light they emit when voltage is applied. A Green LED for instance will be sensitive to Blue light and will emit voltage in the opposite direction from when it's being used to create light. \n\nBecause LEDs function on only a specific wavelength of light, they aren't optimal sensors. They only respond to specific wavelengths (a Green LED can't see red light for example), and they are also heat sensitive).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let me just toss in that all diodes exhibit photovoltaic effects. Hard to shine a light inside 1N400x parts, but with glass diodes like 1N914 or 1N4148, the effect is easy to demonstrate in sunlight.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18290",
"title": "Light-emitting diode",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Other applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 163,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 163,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "The light from LEDs can be modulated very quickly so they are used extensively in optical fiber and free space optics communications. This includes remote controls, such as for television sets, where infrared LEDs are often used. Opto-isolators use an LED combined with a photodiode or phototransistor to provide a signal path with electrical isolation between two circuits. This is especially useful in medical equipment where the signals from a low-voltage sensor circuit (usually battery-powered) in contact with a living organism must be electrically isolated from any possible electrical failure in a recording or monitoring device operating at potentially dangerous voltages. An optoisolator also lets information be transferred between circuits that don't share a common ground potential.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18290",
"title": "Light-emitting diode",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Lighting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 151,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 151,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "LEDs are used for infrared illumination in night vision uses including security cameras. A ring of LEDs around a video camera, aimed forward into a retroreflective background, allows chroma keying in video productions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18290",
"title": "Light-emitting diode",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Machine vision systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 161,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 161,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "LEDs are useful for machine vision because they provide a compact, reliable source of light. LED lamps can be turned on and off to suit the needs of the vision system, and the shape of the beam produced can be tailored to match the systems's requirements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2549933",
"title": "Membrane switch",
"section": "Section::::Construction.:Backlighting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "The first option is using Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to back light. However, LEDs create bright spots and are not suitable for overall back lighting of a panel, but rather as indicator lights. LEDs can either be surface mounted to the circuit layer or be placed on a separate LED layer. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "184781",
"title": "Tempest (codename)",
"section": "Section::::Public research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "LED indicators on computer equipment can be a source of compromising optical emanations. One such technique involves the monitoring of the lights on a dial-up modem. Almost all modems flash an LED to show activity, and it is common for the flashes to be directly taken from the data line. As such, a fast optical system can easily see the changes in the flickers from the data being transmitted down the wire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18290",
"title": "Light-emitting diode",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Other applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 164,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 164,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Many sensor systems rely on light as the signal source. LEDs are often ideal as a light source due to the requirements of the sensors. The Nintendo Wii's sensor bar uses infrared LEDs. Pulse oximeters use them for measuring oxygen saturation. Some flatbed scanners use arrays of RGB LEDs rather than the typical cold-cathode fluorescent lamp as the light source. Having independent control of three illuminated colors allows the scanner to calibrate itself for more accurate color balance, and there is no need for warm-up. Further, its sensors only need be monochromatic, since at any one time the page being scanned is only lit by one color of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13751214",
"title": "FreeTrack",
"section": "Section::::Point model.:Active points.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Common LEDs, like those found in remote controls, have a narrow, highly focused beam which is not suitable for optical motion tracking. They can be easily turned into wide angle LEDs by filing their lens tips down flat. Alternatively, wide angle LEDs can be purchased from specialist electronics retailers, like the infrared Siemens/Osram SFH485P, with a half-angle of 40 degrees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1kzk9w
|
How did Carter's foreign policy on human rights increase tensions and undermine vital alliances?
|
[
{
"answer": "There was a thread about his attempts to keep the world peaceful. It should be a good jumping off point for you. \n\n[\"We never dropped a bomb. We never fired a bullet. We never went to war\" - Jimmy Carter. Is Carter's assertion true? Was his administration as peaceful as he claims?\n](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61255225",
"title": "Foreign policy of the Jimmy Carter administration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "Upon taking office, Carter reoriented U.S. foreign policy towards a new emphasis on human rights, democratic values, nuclear proliferation, and global poverty. Carter ended U.S. support for the Somoza regime in Nicaragua and cut back or terminated military aid to Augusto Pinochet of Chile, Ernesto Geisel of Brazil, and Jorge Rafael Videla of Argentina, all of whom he criticized for human rights violations. He negotiated the Torrijos–Carter Treaties, which provided for the return of the Panama Canal to Panama in 1999. In an effort to end the Arab–Israeli conflict, he helped arrange the Camp David Accords between Israel and Egypt. He also became the first U.S. president to visit Sub-Saharan Africa, a reflection of the region's new importance under the Carter administration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14458921",
"title": "Presidency of Jimmy Carter",
"section": "Section::::Foreign affairs.:Cold War.:Human rights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1284,
"text": "Carter believed that previous administrations had erred in allowing the Cold War concerns and Realpolitik to dominate foreign policy. His administration placed a new emphasis on human rights, democratic values, nuclear proliferation, and global poverty. The Carter administration's human rights emphasis was part of a broader, worldwide focus on human rights in the 1970s, as non-governmental organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch became increasingly prominent. Carter nominated civil rights activist Patricia M. Derian as Coordinator for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs, and in August 1977, had the post elevated to that of Assistant Secretary of State. Derian established the United States' Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, published annually since 1977. Latin America was central to Carter's new focus on human rights. The Carter administration ended support to the historically U.S.-backed Somoza regime in Nicaragua and directed aid to the new Sandinista National Liberation Front government that assumed power after Somoza's overthrow. Carter also cut back or terminated military aid to Augusto Pinochet of Chile, Ernesto Geisel of Brazil, and Jorge Rafael Videla of Argentina, all of whom he criticized for human rights violations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61255225",
"title": "Foreign policy of the Jimmy Carter administration",
"section": "Section::::Cold War.:Human rights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1284,
"text": "Carter believed that previous administrations had erred in allowing the Cold War concerns and Realpolitik to dominate foreign policy. His administration placed a new emphasis on human rights, democratic values, nuclear proliferation, and global poverty. The Carter administration's human rights emphasis was part of a broader, worldwide focus on human rights in the 1970s, as non-governmental organizations such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch became increasingly prominent. Carter nominated civil rights activist Patricia M. Derian as Coordinator for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs, and in August 1977, had the post elevated to that of Assistant Secretary of State. Derian established the United States' Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, published annually since 1977. Latin America was central to Carter's new focus on human rights. The Carter administration ended support to the historically U.S.-backed Somoza regime in Nicaragua and directed aid to the new Sandinista National Liberation Front government that assumed power after Somoza's overthrow. Carter also cut back or terminated military aid to Augusto Pinochet of Chile, Ernesto Geisel of Brazil, and Jorge Rafael Videla of Argentina, all of whom he criticized for human rights violations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "278419",
"title": "History of the United States (1964–1980)",
"section": "Section::::Carter Administration.:Foreign affairs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "The high point of Carter's foreign-policy came in 1978, when he mediated the Camp David Accords between Egypt and Israel, ending the state of war that had existed between those two countries since 1967.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58418",
"title": "Zbigniew Brzezinski",
"section": "Section::::National Security Advisor.:Major policies.:Afghanistan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 1450,
"text": "In the aftermath of the invasion, Carter was determined to respond vigorously to what he considered a dangerous provocation. In a televised speech, he announced sanctions on the Soviet Union, promised renewed aid to Pakistan, and committed the U.S. to the Persian Gulf's defense. The thrust of U.S. policy for the duration of the war was determined by Carter in early 1980: Carter initiated a program to arm the mujahideen through Pakistan's ISI and secured a pledge from Saudi Arabia to match U.S. funding for this purpose. U.S. support for the mujahideen accelerated under Carter's successor, Ronald Reagan, at a final cost to U.S. taxpayers of some $3 billion. The Soviets were unable to quell the insurgency and withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989, precipitating the dissolution of the Soviet Union itself. However, the decision to route U.S. aid through Pakistan led to massive fraud, as weapons sent to Karachi were frequently sold on the local market rather than delivered to the Afghan rebels; Karachi soon \"became one of the most violent cities in the world\". Pakistan also controlled which rebels received assistance: Of the seven mujahideen groups supported by Zia's government, four espoused Islamic fundamentalist beliefs—and these fundamentalists received most of the funding. Years later, in a 1997 CNN/National Security Archive interview, Brzezinski detailed the strategy taken by the Carter administration against the Soviets in 1979:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "278419",
"title": "History of the United States (1964–1980)",
"section": "Section::::Carter Administration.:Foreign affairs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "In foreign affairs, Carter's accomplishments consisted of the Camp David Accords, the Panama Canal Treaties, the creation of full diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China, and the negotiation of the SALT II Treaty. In addition, he championed human rights throughout the world and used human rights as the center of his administration's foreign policy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61255225",
"title": "Foreign policy of the Jimmy Carter administration",
"section": "Section::::Middle East.:Iranian Revolution and hostage crisis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "The Carter administration's new demands for human rights angered the Shah, and split the Carter administration. Vance and the State Department made it a high priority, while Brzezinski warned that it would undermine the strength of America's most important ally in the region. The State Department's Bureau of Human Rights took an activist approach, under the leadership of the outspoken Patricia Derian. Carter did allow the sale of riot control equipment to suppress increasingly vocal and violent protests, especially from the religious element.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
324gvk
|
given the growing consensus on climate change - why has there not been an adverse impact on real estate proprotities prices in costal areas?
|
[
{
"answer": "Never underestimate the short sightedness of humans. China is set to suffer the most of any single country from global warming and they're one of the worst offenders. Florida will cease to exist but plenty of people who fully accept global warming move to Florida every year. The problem is even if you intellectually recognize the threat of global warming it's hard to shift that to an emotional acceptance of the danger.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even fairly aggressive climate change models don't predict huge disruptions for the next century or so. Most people don't care very much if the house they buy now will be in good shape for their grandchildren.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because 30 years(a typical mortgage, 7 years is average time a family stays in a house before selling) may seem long to a human being, but it is nothing in the grand scale of things. Climate change is happening but even if we're pumping pollution full blast like we used to, it's not going to drastically change the coastal area within the next 30 years. Those places are more concerned with water level and that takes a lot to raise ocean level by several inches. \n\nYou can see the affects of climate change easily by observing the wine industry. Since the grapes used to make wine are sensitive to rain and temperature, even a .5 degree increase in average temp or 1 less inch of rain will affect its taste. Today, the ideal land for vineyards are moving more and more towards the north. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just to add context IRC the international panel on climate change predicts a sea level rise of 0.2m-1.0m by 2100. The range in projections comes from different models. These different models predict how humans react to climate change. In the best case scenario, humans do everything we can to stop climate change so we end up with a sea level rise closer to 0.2m by 2100. In the worst case scenario humans continue to emit greenhouse gasses at an even more alarming rate, and thus we end up with a sea level rise closer to 1.0m by 2100. My guess is that we are heading down towards a path of 1.0m. \n\nNow that doesn't seem like much but it is enough to severely flood certain island nations in the S.E. Pacific - whole countries just taken right off the map. The next biggest impact of a 1m sea level rise will be poor nations with very low coast lines, like Bangladesh. About 1/5th of that country plus about 15 million+ people will be negatively impacted by rising sea level. Unfortunately they don't have the infrastructure in place, nor the money to really get big projects going to protect their country, unlike for example the Netherlands. The Netherlands, while very low-lying, are in a much better position to be able to mitigate the effects a 1m sea level rise will have on their country because to put it frankly they are rich and have already been doing this for centuries. Individual costal cities will be able to withstand the rise because it is easier to project a city (e.g. New Orleans) than a state (e.g. Louisiana's Coast). \n\nTherefore because these problems are 60-80 years in the future, and because it will effect different people and even people within a country differently then I expect that little will be done to protect individual home-owners. Most people in poor countries will only have one option: move.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because any climate change is slow. Any effects will be in the form of a \"worst ever storm\", which is more noticeable and memorable than low tide increasing by a few inches a year or decade.\r\rThe other observation I have is that consensus has many different levels. If you survey people asking \"Do you think global warming is human caused?\" you might get a larger number. On the other hand, if you ask \"Would you support a law that triples gas prices, but stops global warming?\" you put a *cost* on their beliefs, and support drops materially.\r\rTo use you example, we believe in Global warming, just not enough to really **do** anything about it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17781704",
"title": "Tourism in Costa Rica",
"section": "Section::::Environmental and social impacts.:Beachfront developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "In many beach areas, but especially in the towns of Tamarindo and Jacó, a real estate boom took place when many foreigners from developed countries began buying beachfront properties and building holiday and vacation houses and condominiums. These developments completely changed the life style in these towns, and property prices are now so high that it became prohibitive for Costa Ricans to own beach front properties. Also, the lack of planning for these developments is having a negative social impact on small communities, as in some cases they are forced to move to places with less adequate infrastructure and where not enough job opportunities exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53131443",
"title": "Gary Smith (economist)",
"section": "Section::::Notable contributions.:The Housing Market.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "A widely cited Brookings paper, co-authored with his wife Margaret H. Smith, applied this reasoning to ten U. S. metropolitan areas in 2005 and concluded that there was not a nationwide real estate bubble. In cities like Indianapolis and Dallas, residential real estate looked like a terrific long-run investment in that the rent savings were much larger than the expenses. A follow-up study by Smith found that, not only in these 10 metropolitan areas, but in cities throughout California, areas with relatively low price/rent ratios were the most resistant to the drop in home prices between 2005 and 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25673564",
"title": "Chinese property bubble (2005–11)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Rising fears of a bubble.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "However, trends of increasing urbanization and rising incomes in China that could continue to support real estate prices. The World Bank stated in a November 2009 report that Chinese home prices had not outpaced increases in incomes on a nationwide level, which dispelled worries of a looming bubble. However, in its 17 March 2010 quarterly report, the group said China needed to raise interest rates to contain the risk of a property bubble. In China, there were comparatively conservative mortgage lending practices, particularly in contrast to those at the height of the United States housing bubble\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1286212",
"title": "The World (archipelago)",
"section": "Section::::Project difficulties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "The world economic recovery from the Great Recession has resulted in a rebound for the Dubai real estate market: it has been reported that \"residential prices [in Dubai] rose by 17.9% from August 2012 to 2013, while rents soared by 14.9% in the same period.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38504789",
"title": "Ecotourism in Costa Rica",
"section": "Section::::Effects on the environment.:Costs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Visitor overcapacity is one of the biggest threats to Costa Rica’s natural environments. Although policies in Costa Rica direct eco-tourists into areas designated specifically for that purpose, thereby alleviating the pressure on other more fragile environments, the fact is that even the ecotourism designated environments are becoming more and more fragile. That reality is precisely one of the reasons so many people converge to such areas; they cannot experience such unadulterated nature in their own countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11291672",
"title": "Robert J. Shiller",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "On CNBC's \"How to Profit from the Real Estate Boom\" in 2005, he noted that housing price rises could not outstrip inflation in the long term because, except for land restricted sites, house prices would tend toward building costs plus normal economic profit. Co‑panelist David Lereah disagreed. In February, Lereah had put out his book \"Are You Missing the Real Estate Boom?\" signaling the market top for housing prices. While Shiller repeated his precise timing again for another market bubble, because the general level of nationwide residential real estate prices do not reveal themselves until after a lag of about one year, people did not believe Shiller had called another top until late 2006 and early 2007.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21671420",
"title": "2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis",
"section": "Section::::Employment crisis.:From immigration to emigration.:Tourism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "As the financial crisis was getting started in Spain, it was already underway in the United States and other western countries. The decrease in disposable income of consumers led to a sharp decrease in Spain's tourist industry, a rarity in a country with so many coastal towns. Indeed, the EU as a group saw a decline in tourists coming to their countries in 2008 and 2009, with -13% tourism growth in coastal Spain. Despite its traditional popularity with Korean and Japanese tourists, the relatively expensive cost of holidaying in Spain led many to pursue \"sun and beach\" Mediterranean getaways in Turkey, Spain's tourism rival.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yn0ep
|
trans genital surgery
|
[
{
"answer": "Which one? There are a bunch.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "517391",
"title": "Sex reassignment therapy",
"section": "Section::::Sex reassignment surgery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Sex reassignment surgery (SRS) refers to the surgical and medical procedures undertaken to align intersex and transsexual individuals' physical appearance and genital anatomy with their gender identity. SRS may encompass any surgical procedures which will reshape a male body into a body with a female appearance or vice versa, or more specifically refer to the procedures used to make male genitals into female genitals and vice versa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "927942",
"title": "Intersex medical interventions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Intersex medical interventions or intersex genital mutilations (IGM) are surgical, hormonal and other medical interventions performed to modify atypical or ambiguous genitalia and other sex characteristics, primarily for the purposes of making a person's appearance more typical and to reduce the likelihood of future problems. The history of intersex surgery has been characterized by controversy due to reports that surgery can compromise sexual function and sensation, and create lifelong health issues. Timing, evidence, necessity and indications for surgeries in infancy, adolescence or adult age have been controversial, associated with issues of consent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2611038",
"title": "Eliezer Waldenberg",
"section": "Section::::Medical opinions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Waldenberg ruled sex reassignment surgery to be permissible in the case of a baby born androgynous where one set of organs were more developed. After careful halachic and medical consideration, Waldenberg ruled that a transsexual women following sex reassignment surgery is a halachic woman. He wrote, \"The external anatomy which is visible is what determines the halakha\" in the present tense..\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "517391",
"title": "Sex reassignment therapy",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1067,
"text": "The Merck Manual states, in regard to trans women, \"In follow-up studies, genital surgery has helped some transsexual people live happier and more productive lives and so is justified in highly motivated, appropriately assessed and treated transsexual people, who have completed a 1- to 2-year real-life experience in a different gender role. Before surgery, transsexual people often need assistance with passing in public, including help with gestures and voice modulation. Participation in support groups, available in most large cities, is usually helpful.\" With regards to trans men, it states, \"Surgery may help certain [trans men] patients achieve greater adaptation and life satisfaction. Similar to trans women, trans men should live in the male gender role for at least 1 yr before surgery. Anatomic results of neophallus surgical procedures are often less satisfactory in terms of function and appearance than neovaginal procedures for trans women. Complications are common, especially in procedures that involve extending the urethra into the neophallus.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20595460",
"title": "Penis removal",
"section": "Section::::Penis removal in medicine and psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Genital surgical procedures for trans women (transgender or transsexual women) undergoing sex reassignment surgery, do not usually involve the complete removal of the penis; part or all of the glans is usually kept and reshaped as a clitoris, and the skin of the penile shaft may also be inverted to form the vagina. When procedures such as this are not possible, other procedures such as colovaginoplasty are used which do involve the removal of the penis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "82385",
"title": "Sex reassignment surgery",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "People who pursue sex reassignment surgery are usually referred to as transsexual. A trans woman assigned male at birth and seeking feminizing surgery may have one or more of the procedures used for trans women, which go by various names, such as \"feminizing genitoplasty\", \"penectomy, orchiectomy, or vaginoplasty\". A trans man assigned female at birth and seeking masculinizing surgery may undergo one or more procedures, which may include \"masculinizing genitoplasty\", \"metoidioplasty\" or \"phalloplasty\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "82385",
"title": "Sex reassignment surgery",
"section": "Section::::Surgical procedures.:Bottom surgery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 983,
"text": "The array of medically indicated surgeries differs between trans women (male to female) and trans men (female to male). For trans women, genital reconstruction usually involves the surgical construction of a vagina, by means of penile inversion or the sigmoid colon neovagina technique; or, more recently, non-penile inversion techniques that make use of scrotal tissue to construct the vaginal canal. For trans men, genital reconstruction may involve construction of a penis through either phalloplasty or metoidioplasty. For both trans women and trans men, genital surgery may also involve other medically necessary ancillary procedures, such as orchiectomy, penectomy, mastectomy or vaginectomy. Complications of penile inversion vaginoplasty are mostly minor; however, rectoneovaginal fistulas (abnormal connections between the neovagina and the rectum) can occur in about 1–3% of patients. These require additional surgery to correct and are often fixed by colorectal surgeons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2p2rox
|
When were the economies of the USSR and the US most equal?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, let's take a look at some graphs!\n\n[Here](_URL_1_) we have the USSR's economic history from 1970-1990. They peaked at ~1 trillion dollars ~1980.\n\nThis is lower than any point of the US during that same period. [Same source](_URL_0_).\n\nAt no point in time was the economy of the USSR close to that of the US during the Cold War. They peaked below the GDP of the US in 1970. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At no point in time was the USSR's economy equal in any way to that of the US.\n\nBut in many ways, the threat to the US, from an economic point of view, was the pace of growth and the \"sturdyness\" of the Soviet economy. The two sweetspots when these advantages were more evident were during the Great Depression and during the first two decades of the Cold War. From 1970 onwards the USSR started to falter and falter with regards to the US economy, until its final demise in 1991.\n\nThat being said, it would have been nothing short of a miracle for the Soviet economy to match the US one, considering how the latter has a higher population and started its industrialization centuries before Russia did.\n\nDuring the Great Depression what was surprising was how all of the staunchly capitalist Great Powers (US, UK, France) were basically on their knees, with incredibly high unemployment, virtually no growth and the social maladies that appear whenever these two are present.\n\nMeanwhile, the USSR was posting gains and beginning its brutally harsh industrialization. The Soviet economy, completely isolated from world markets, was able no navigate the 1930's untouched by the troubles that the capitalist countries were experiencing. It is worth noting, that underscoring the improbability of the Soviet industrialization is the fact that a mere 10 years before, Russia was in the midst of a bloody and brutal civil war in which (to Russia's humiliation) all of the (now ailing) powers had participated (US, UK, France, etc) against the Bolsheviks.\n\nThe second sweet spot was during 1945-1970 during which Russia continued its heavy industrialization, and helped its Eastern European clients do the same. In fact, in Europe the communist economies as a whole grew faster than capitalist ones. Such growth was what attracted a lot of leaders of third world countries to the communist camp. Many of these leaders were heads of recently independent countries, and they were eager to industrialize and modernise their economies.\n\nUltimately, the Soviet economy's strength was also its weakness. In many ways, the USSR froze after the death of Stalin and remained in that form until its collapse. Its economy was centrally planned and decision making power was concentrated in a single authority. And while this made it very forward-driven, it also meant that it was very inflexible and unable to adapt to changing circumstances.\n\nWhile during the first two decades of the Cold War, the USSR mainly exported capital goods and manufactured products. By the time the 1970 came it was mainly exporting fuel (gas, oil) due to the rising oil prices (courtesy of OPEC), its manufacturing sector being unable to compete even against the industries inside its own block. It started exporting what usually third world countries export: raw materials.\n\nAll in all, the threat to the US came, after the 1970, solely from the Soviet military. The Stalinist centrally-planned economy was woefully inadequate to compete with a capitalist one.\n\nSource: Hobsbawm, The Age of Extremes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a curiosity point, was the economy of *Russia* ever matched with that of the early U.S? If so, when did we overtake them?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7720531",
"title": "Criticism of communist party rule",
"section": "Section::::Areas of criticism.:Economic policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 1655,
"text": "Nevertheless, some countries under communist rule with socialist economies maintained consistently higher rates of economic growth than industrialized Western countries with capitalist economies. From 1928 to 1985, the economy of the Soviet Union grew by a factor of 10 and GNP per capita grew more than fivefold. The Soviet economy started out at roughly 25 percent the size of the economy of the United States. By 1955, it climbed to 40 percent. In 1965, the Soviet economy reached 50% of the contemporary United States economy and in 1977 it passed the 60 percent threshold. For the first half of the Cold War, most economists were asking when, not if, the Soviet economy would overtake the United States economy. Starting in the 1970s and continuing through the 1980s, growth rates slowed down in the Soviet Union and throughout the socialist bloc. The reasons for this downturn are still a matter of debate among economists, but one hypothesis is that the socialist planned economies had reached the limits of the extensive growth model they were pursuing and the downturn was at least in part caused by their refusal or inability to switch to intensive growth. Further, it could be argued that since the economies of countries such as Russia were pre-industrial before the socialist revolutions, the high economic growth rate could be attributed to industrialization. Also while forms of economic growth associated with any economic structure produce some winners and losers, anticommunists point out that high growth rates under communist rule were associated with particularly intense suffering and even mass starvation of the peasant population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "97477",
"title": "Eastern Bloc",
"section": "Section::::Economies.:Economic growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 152,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 152,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "There was significant progress made in the economy in countries such as the Soviet Union. In 1980, the Soviet Union took first place in Europe and second worldwide in terms of industrial and agricultural production, respectively. In 1960, the USSR's industrial output was only 55% that of America, but this increased to 80% in 1980.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33526804",
"title": "Authoritarian socialism",
"section": "Section::::Economics.:Systematic economic challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 2304,
"text": "The Stalinist economic model in which the socialist economies were based did not allow for a decrease in growth rates. It did not allow for the flexibility needed to keep up with growing economies. Despite these shortcomings, the Soviet Union's growth in GDP per capita compared favorably with Western Europe. In 1913, the former Soviet Union had a GDP per capita of $1,488 in 1990 international dollars which grew 461% to $6,871 by 1990. Following the fall of the Soviet Union in December 1991, this figure fell to $3,893 by 1998. By comparison, Western Europe grew from a higher base of $3,688 international dollars by a comparable 457% to $16,872 in the same period and reached $17,921 by 1998. It is also claimed that such economies provided a better quality of life and human development than market economies at the same level of economic development in nearly all cases. For instance, it has been noted that such states compared favorably with Western states in some health indicators such as infant mortality and life expectancy, making some significant gains and that \"one thought [...] bound to occur is that communism is good for poverty removal\". The dissolution of the Soviet Union was followed by a rapid increase in poverty, crime, corruption, unemployment, homelessness, rates of disease and income inequality, along with decreases in calorie intake, life expectancy, adult literacy and income. Finally, it has been argued that the establishment of welfare states in the West in the early 20th century could be partly a reaction by elites to the Bolshevik Revolution and its violence against the bourgeoisie which feared violent revolution in its own backyard. The welfare states gave rise to the post-war consensus and the post-war economic boom, where the United States, the Soviet Union and Western European and East Asian countries in particular experienced unusually high and sustained economic growth, together with full employment. Contrary to early predictions, this high growth also included many countries that had been devastated by the war such as Japan (Japanese post-war economic miracle), West Germany and Austria (Wirtschaftswunder), South Korea (Miracle of the Han River), France (Trente Glorieuses), Italy (Italian economic miracle) and Greece (Greek economic miracle).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41585753",
"title": "Economy of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::History.:1970–1990.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "One of the greatest strengths of Soviet economy was its vast supplies of oil and gas; world oil prices quadrupled in the 1973–1974 and rose again in 1979–1981, making the energy sector the chief driver of the Soviet economy, and was used to cover multiple weaknesses. During this period, the Soviet Union had the lowest per-capita incomes among the other socialist countries. At one point, Soviet Premier Alexei Kosygin told the head of oil and gas production that \"things are bad with bread. Give me 3 million tons [of oil] over the plan\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11818766",
"title": "Industrialization in the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Soviet propaganda claimed that economic growth was unprecedented. On the other hand, in a number of modern studies, it is proved that the growth rate of gross domestic product in the Soviet Union (the above-mentioned 3–6.3%) were comparable with the similar figures in Germany in 1930–38 (4.4%) and Japan (6.3%), although they were significantly superior to those of countries such as United Kingdom, France and the United States that were experiencing the Great Depression at that time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1609192",
"title": "Post-Soviet states",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1110,
"text": "Most of the formerly Soviet states began the transition to a market economy from a command economy in 1990-1991 and made efforts to rebuild and restructure their economic systems, with varying results. In all, the process triggered severe economic declines, with Gross Domestic Product (GDP) dropping by more than 40% overall between 1990 and 1995. This decline in GDP was much more intense than the 27% decline that the United States suffered in the wake of the Great Depression between 1930 and 1934. The reconfiguration of public finance in compliance with capitalist principles resulted in dramatically reduced spending on health, education and other social programs, leading to a sharp increase in poverty and economic inequality. The economic shocks associated with wholesale privatization resulted in the excess deaths of roughly 1 million working age individuals throughout the former Soviet bloc in the 1990s. A study by economist Steven Rosefielde asserts that 3.4 million Russians died premature deaths from 1990 to 1998, partly as the result of \"shock therapy\" imposed by the Washington Consensus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33526804",
"title": "Authoritarian socialism",
"section": "Section::::Economics.:Centrally planned economies.:Soviet economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 932,
"text": "Nevertheless, the Soviet Union's growth in GDP per capita compared favorably with Western Europe. In 1913, prior to both World War I and the Russian Revolution, the former Soviet Union had a GDP per capita of $1,488 in 1990 international dollars which grew 461% to $6,871 by 1990. After its dissolution in December 1991, this figure fell to $3,893 by 1998. By comparison, Western Europe grew from a higher base of $3,688 international dollars by a comparable 457% to $16,872 in the same period and reached $17,921 by 1998. From the Stalin era to the early Brezhnev era, the Soviet economy grew faster than the United States and maintained itself as the second largest economy in both nominal and purchasing power parity values for much of the Cold War until 1988. Furthermore, it is claimed that the Soviet model provided a better quality of life than market economies at the same level of economic development in nearly all cases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2zswr4
|
why does the snow only accumulate in these parking spaces??
|
[
{
"answer": "Cars haven't parked there. Where the main aisle for the spaces is (that dark patch between sets of spaces) the pavement is still very warm, so it just melts snow when it hits.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because there are no cars parked there and no one is driving though them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1376956",
"title": "Snow removal",
"section": "Section::::Clearing by municipalities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Snow removal impacts the design of city infrastructure. Where possible, street boulevards are wider to accommodate the windrows and sidewalks are not right next to the street. Fire hydrants will have tall flags to locate them under the windrows. Reflective traffic lane markers embedded in the roadbed is not possible (or much harder) due to risk of damage by plows. Access to snow dumping locations (e.g. ravines) by heavy equipment is also planned.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4968065",
"title": "Gammelstad Church Town",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Because the buildings are built from timber, regular maintenance is required to prevent rot; surveys have been carried out to document the extent of existing rotting, and snow is cleared regularly during the winter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3983225",
"title": "Snow country (Japan)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Frequently snow is so deep in some places that buildings have a special entrance on their second story; people must remove snow from their roofs to prevent its weight from crushing their homes, and special care is taken to protect trees from the snow's weight. In some towns, people used to tunnel paths to one another's homes, and streets were lined with covered sidewalks to ensure that people could get around. Today in areas where temperatures are high enough to make it practical, many roads are equipped with sprinklers using warm ground water to keep them passable by melting the snow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30553391",
"title": "1967 Chicago blizzard",
"section": "Section::::Disposal of the snow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "Disposing the snow collected by plows posed challenges on account of the drifting and the quantity of snow and so many roads blocked by abandoned vehicles. Some was put on a train in refrigerated cars to Florida so children there could see what snow looked like. Other railroads disposed of snow on their own property by melting it, or if they had freight trains heading south, loaded a few cars with snow that would melt en route. The city of Chicago resorted to dumping it in the Chicago River, a practice no longer used, for bad effects on river water quality; instead it has designated locations throughout the city for dumping excess accumulations. The city also had a few vehicles that melted the snow in the truck, greatly reducing its volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26153097",
"title": "Parking chair",
"section": "Section::::Use in inclement weather.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "In snowstorms, vehicle owners with such a need mark the space as their own that their vehicle previously occupied after digging out the heavy snow that covered the vehicle and blocked them in. The legality and level of enforcement of existing laws pertaining to this practice varies by location. Generally, curbside parking spaces are public property and are available to vehicles on a first-come, first-served basis. Still, respecting these makeshift markers has been accepted by citizens as a common courtesy during snowstorms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47172601",
"title": "Snow farm",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "A snow farm is a large pile of snow that is formed after dumping large quantities of snow into one place. Its creation is preceded by a large snowfall, and is built when municipalities run out of room to store it, such as street corners or the sides of roads. They are often filled with debris and trash, which are picked up in an attempt to remove the snow. During the 2014-2015 winter in Boston, one snow farm had trash being removed well in July, as the melting snow revealed more debris.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26153097",
"title": "Parking chair",
"section": "Section::::Use in inclement weather.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The idea of the practice is that the person reserves the space from which they have freed their vehicle for future parking during the remainder of the storm and as long as snow remains on the ground. It is generally a Lockean recognition that the effort of the physical exertion of digging provides an entitlement to the space where the vehicle was previously located. But in some instances, spaces get reserved in this fashion even before a snowstorm starts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
11wx9x
|
Is it possible to translate an alien language like in prometheus? And if not, how would we communicate with them?
|
[
{
"answer": "Cryptographing is like find out a new language. Once you find out the structure and rules of the language you might be able to decode it. Also, they could have software that detects language on our computers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If I remember correctly, it's stated in the movie that all of Earths languages descended from the Engineers language. Which means it's not a truly alien language. But assuming one day we come across an alien that communicates in the same fashion as us, it would be incredibly hard. Imagine you only speak English. You get thrown into a room with a person who only speaks Mandarin. You can try to start by picking up an empty blue mug and pointing at it and saying \"mug\", but how would the person know what you're referring to. As far as the other person knows, you could be saying \"empty\" \"handle\" \"round\" \"blue\" \"drink\" \"thirsty\" \"cup\" or anything else. And while the two of you may have completely different cultures, it's still closer then whatever alien culture the alien has. Even counting could be difficult. What if they use base 14 instead of 10? Sure you can use the \"dot\" system of counting, but that wont get far. You won't be able to express complex math until you get some basics down.\n\nAnd this is all assuming they can \"talk\" to you. What if they communicate via pheromones? What if they talk in a frequency above what we can hear? What if they communicate via bright colours? What if they're psychic?\n\nIf and when we do find some intelligent aliens, it will be a long process of trying to say \"hello\", let alone anything of meaning.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1446922",
"title": "Alien language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Noam Chomsky (1983), basing on his theory of the existence of a genetically-predetermined universal grammar of human languages, holds that it would be impossible for a human to naturally learn an alien language because it would most probably violate the universal grammar inborn in humans. Humans would have to study an alien language by the slow way of discovery, the same way as scientists do research in, say, physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1446922",
"title": "Alien language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Alien languages, i.e. languages of extraterrestrial beings, are a hypothetical subject since none have been encountered so far. The research in these hypothetical languages is variously called exolinguistics, xenolinguistics or astrolinguistics. The question of what form alien languages might take and the possibility for humans to recognize and translate them has been part of the linguistics and language studies courses, e.g., at the Bowling Green State University (2001).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1446922",
"title": "Alien language",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Linguist Keren Rice posits that basic communication between humans and aliens should be possible, unless \"the things that we think are common to languages—situating in time [and] space, talking about participants, etc.—are so radically different that the human language provides no starting point for it.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52581728",
"title": "Alien language in science fiction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "BULLET::::- Some stories, however, have alien beings speak near-unpronounceable tongues. Clark Ashton Smith, in one tale, has the sorcerer Eibon struggle to articulate the name of an alien, Hziulquoigmnzhah.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52581728",
"title": "Alien language in science fiction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "BULLET::::- In \"Futurama\", a language exists called Alienese, which originates from an unspecified extraterrestrial source. At least one character has achieved an academic degree in xenolinguistics, which gives her the apparently rare skill of knowing how to translate between English and Alienese.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10853",
"title": "Fictional language",
"section": "Section::::Alien languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "The problem of alien language has confronted generations of science fiction writers; some have created fictional languages for their characters to use, while others have circumvented the problem through translation devices or other fantastic technology. For example, the Star Trek universe makes use of a 'universal translator', which explains why such different races, often meeting for the first time, are able to communicate with each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52581728",
"title": "Alien language in science fiction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "In other cases, the question of language is dealt with through the introduction of a universal language via which most, if not all, of the franchise's species are able to communicate. In the Star Wars universe, for example, this language is known as Basic and is spoken by the majority of the characters, with a few notable exceptions. Other alien species take advantage of their unique physiology for communication purposes, an example being the Ithorians, who use their twin mouths, located on either side of their neck, to speak in stereo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1j8iy9
|
Day of Reflection | July 22-28
|
[
{
"answer": "Woo, Day of Reflection! I was waiting for this, cause I just found a new guy on here who's my new BFF! (Sorry Arty. I'm breaking up with you and taking the cat and the house and the car. You can have the couch though!) \n\nSo I noticed a user I'd never seen before in a [couple](_URL_1_) of [threads](_URL_0_) this week, and I was all o.o Cause honestly, this guy makes me feel crazy inadequate. So I went ahead and checked out /u/ScipioAsina's post history, and I was *completely blown away.* He sources EVERYTHING he says rather extensively, he makes EXTREMELY good, involved posts, and they're never less than interesting! If you have some time, I *highly* recommend heading to his profile and just giving it a read, or if you're more interested in the specific threads, the two that I linked earlier are as follows :)\n\n[What Were the Factors that Lead to Rome Completely Destroying the City of Carthage, when it Could Have Been an Asset?](_URL_0_)\n\n[What are our primary sources for the history of Carthage?](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I enjoyed the [back](_URL_0_) and [forth](_URL_1_) between /u/yodatsracist and /u/gent2012 in this week's Theory Thursday post. It was a great example of how a simple question... isn't simple.",
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"answer": "I, too, thought /u/ursa-minor-88 knocked it out of the park [on The Art of War](_URL_3_).\n\n/u/MomsChooseJIF did a stellar job [detailing Italian martial successes in WWII.](_URL_2_) The three part answer was excellent, and the answer to the followup question proved a septh of knowledge on the subject.\n\n[In a thread about losing your mainmast](_URL_4_) there were two stellar answers. One from /u/kombatminipig and another from /u/jschooltiger. Both answers were excellent, and they each took the time to answer followup questions that showcased their depth of knowledge. As I knew very little on the subject, both users enlightened me.\n\nI also thought /u/agentdcf gave a good answer to the [question regarding sweets for dessert](_URL_0_). \n\nFinally, /u/TheTheoryJackBuilt and /u/Assorted_Bits give some [excellent tips on using reverse image searching to assist your research.](_URL_1_) If you are not familiar with this process, I urge you to go check it out!",
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"answer": "I thought /u/Ambarenya totally killed it in [this thread](_URL_0_) about medieval cities with his or her description of the city of Constantinople. Stellar work, and followed up really well on all the questions.",
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"answer": "I'm gonna shill for my fellow /r/linguistics mod /u/l33t_sas and shamelessly promote [his answer on the origins of the Polynesians](_URL_0_). It's good stuff.",
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"answer": "* *Algernon_Asimov* on [Why is the year divided in 12, awkwardly arranged months instead of 13 months with 28 days each based on the lunar cycles?](_URL_0_)\n\n* *snickeringshadow* and *Qhapaqocha* on [Were there any areas in which the New World civilizations were more technologically advanced than the Old World civilizations?](_URL_3_)\n\n* *Bufus* on [When the Motion Picture Production Code (1930) and the Comics Code Authority (1954) began regulating the moral content of so much American popular culture, did anyone strongly object?](_URL_4_)\n\nAs a bonus, my Day of Reflection **NSFW** edition:\n\n* *1Tw03Four* helps out with pictorial evidence in [How did girls of the 60's avoid flashing in their miniskirts?](_URL_2_)\n\n* *LordKettering* over in /r/badhistory reviews [the adult movie \"The British Are Cumming\"](_URL_1_)",
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"answer": "There's been a couple of Swiss threads that have been fun. As someone on their way to becoming naturalised in Switzerland, I'm always amused when the place pops up, and there were two good threads this week. Some interesting points came up in [this thread on neutrality in WW2](_URL_1_) and the more recent [clock making thread](_URL_0_) was a great read.",
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"answer": "I can't believe no one commented on the best comment of the week, /u/itsallfolklore commenting on [on miniskirts in the 60's](_URL_5_).\n\n[The funniest moment](_URL_10_) of the week had to be /u/NMW interacting with /u/ablatner.\n\nMore serious goodness:\n\n * /u/irishfafnir describes [what was offensive in the early American Republic](_URL_9_). He also gave a [pithy but informative answer](_URL_7_) on alternative names that were considered for the US.\n\nI want to bring attention to two \"feature\" threads this week: I loved **[Theory Thursday](_URL_6_)**, and I really appreciated my exchanges with /u/gent2012 (already pointed out) and with /u/Abaum2020, which were brought on by good questions by /u/abuttfarting and /u/caesar10022, respectively. Similarly, I thought the **[Monday Mysteries](_URL_2_)** thread this week was just outstanding. There are 49 comments on that thread and it looks like I upvoted about 90% of them.\n\n * Holy crud was /u/restricteddata's [AMA](_URL_1_) good (so I guess three great feature threads this week). Here are [two](_URL_1_cb9hp2s?context=1) of the [many](_URL_1_cb9ghzo?context=1) answers I found interesting.\n\n * Though I've never seen the show, I thought /u/GeeJo's [reflections on](_URL_11_) on what time periods various aspects of *Game of Thrones* are taken from was quite interesting.\n\n * /u/volt-aire's pretty straightforward answer to [what caused the dramatic rise of violent crimes and urban decay in the mid-to-late 1960s?](_URL_4_). They dealt with a sensitive topic quite well, and the only way to do that is thoroughly. (did /u/volt-aire used to have flair and ditch it, btw? Or are they just an unrecognized quality contributor?)\n\n * I can't remember if this was mentioned last week, but /u/Whoosier (who I am always a fan of) wrote a short piece on [Medieval border crossings](_URL_0_) (check out the daughter comments as well for at least three interesting follow ups).",
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"text": "The Sophomore Day of Reflection is held at Our Lady of the Holy Spirit Center in Norwood, OH. They focus on reconciling with others. The day is facilitated by the senior class Emmaus retreat leaders and faculty members and is designed to help the sophomores reflect on their past and present relationships and see how God is calling them to action in those relationships. \n",
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"text": "Reflections of a Summer Day is an outdoor 1974 painted steel sculpture by Duane Loppnow, installed near the entrance to the Jordan Schnitzer Museum of Art on the University of Oregon campus in Eugene, Oregon, in the United States. The sculpture was given to the University of Oregon by the sculptor, a graduate of the university.\n",
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2u31mg
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why have i learned so much about the holocaust and the war crimes committed by the nazis, but i have never learned anything about the japanese war crimes during wwii?
|
[
{
"answer": "My understanding (in the US) is that post-war, Japan grew to become a vital trading partner with the US. As such, it would be better to avoid touching on \"controversial\" topics such as Japanese atrocities during the war, or the US's Japanese internment camps. \n\nOn the other hand, Germany kind of embraced a cultural shame about the Holocaust, forcing extensive education on the subject in an effort to prevent it ever happening again. I think everyone else basically followed suit with that.",
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"answer": "- Japan was a Western ally during the Cold War, and countries tend to downplay the negative sides of allies; additionally, the crimes were largely committed against enemies of the West.\n- Western education has traditionally focused very heavily on the Western world, so events involving Western Europe get more attention than events involving Asia.\n- The Holocaust was unique in that it was a carefully controlled and planned attempt by a modern nation to systematically destroy an entire race, while the Rape of Nanking (the most notorious Japanese war crime) was in comparison a short-lived and chaotic rape-and-pillage, something that unfortunately has been seen on various scales throughout history.",
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"answer": "Someone will inevitability explain it better, but my understanding is that it was much down to the number of allies against communism we had in Asia versus in Europe at the time. In Europe, there was a coalition of Western allies teamed up against the spread of Soviet influence, with divided and occupied Germany as a main battleground. We were able to simultaneously punish and rebuild Germany while also dictating their foreign policy towards the Eastern Bloc. In Asia, Japan was the only power we had influence over that was really firmly opposed to the spread of communism. We \"reversed course\" from punishment and demanding reparations in order to keep them on our side while China and Korea and others were falling to the communists. So basically, different strategies were needed to maintain an influence in these regions, one allowed us to see the process of punishment through while the other forced us to let it go early on.",
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"answer": "Yes and it still goes on today when you see the stark difference between the West's willingness to act when 17 people were killed by militants in France and virtually ignoring the 2000 slaughtered in Africa by Boko Haram as well as the 37 dead and 66 injured in an al-Qaeda bomb blast in Yemen that occurred on the same day and went virtually unnoticed and unreported. ",
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"answer": "Yes, most of the Japanese war crimes were not committed against 'Westerners.' The holocaust was committed by white Europeans against their own population.",
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{
"answer": "Because, bluntly speaking, in the grand scheme of things, the war crimes committed by Japan are not considered to be at the same level of atrocity as the crimes committed by the Nazis. What Japan did was absolutely unforgivable, but there are many similar inicidents throughout history of countries committing atrocities against peoples that they conquer. On the other hand, the reason that you hear about the Nazi war crimes is that there had never been anything as ruthless, cruel, and calculated as the german methodical, industrial attempt to eradicate a race of people from the earth.\n\nThe consensus on reddit though is that the U.S tried to sweep the Japanese war crimes under the rug after the war because they pardoned many of the war criminal (scientists) in exchange for their research, and Japan has never apologized for their misdeeds since. It's not at all factually accurate, but it does make for a good story though. \n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": "Other than the fact you live in the West and are presumably not Far East Asian,\n\n1. The Germans butchered their **own** people as well as many others with the goal of ethnic cleansing on a grand systematic scale.\n\n2. The Japanese \"only\" went to war with other nations. War *is* atrocity. The rules that apply in it are only those of your own world view and the Japanese have always had a very unique and isolated world view.\n\n3. The Japanese have absolutely zero cultural shame from their war endeavours, other than a general strong pacificist tendency (unsurpising after having not one but two nuclear bombs dropped on them). By contrast, from the day they are born to the day they die, Germans are continually reminded of their past via education, media, events and others. This has a deep cultural psyche impact.\n\n4. The history books are written by the victors and the victors will naturally choose to reinforce their moral support for going to wars by war crimes of the enemy before and during them. The only war crime the US needed to justify starting a war was the direct attack on Pearl Harbor.\n\n5. Japan was effectively rebooted to act as an autonomous region under the auspices of the victorious US efforts in WW2. They retain a sizeable US military presence and became *the* key ally in the Pacific region, which is heavily occupied by countries that are either independent or hostile to US interests. You are not going to aggressively antagonise such an ally.",
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"answer": "Probably because you are under a rock, honestly",
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{
"answer": "The Japanese were absolutely brutal in WWII. Aside from the treatment of American soldiers, some of whom were eaten alive, the Japanese destroyed many Chinese cities and raped and murdered millions of Chinese peasants. Many of these atrocities didn't come to light until many years after the war. There was a theory that A) the extent of the atrocities wasn't fully known and B) what was known was deemed too horrifying to send home to American families. Traditional battlefield horrors were easier to stomach than many of the things going on in the Pacific. There was a major cultural difference and, if I remember correctly, many generals in the war elected to withhold some of the things happening at the hands of the Japanese.\n\nThe Japanese cause and mentality in WWII is extremely interesting. I recommend reading any books you can find about it. There was a deep underlying religious element behind it. However, be warned that many of what has come out is extremely graphic and disturbing. \"Fly Boys\" by James Bradley is a great intro to the Pacific theater.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "You just haven't read about it? The information is there. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Schooling is managed by the state, not the federal government. Education is...well it depends on how you spend your time. It's not that anyone is covering up Japanese war crimes. In fact that was recently a major Hollywood movie made called Unbroken that depicts them.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Because (and I'm assuming you're in the United States) public school history curricula are some of the most politicized and least comprehensive issues in today's society. ",
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{
"answer": "This. I just learned about the comfort women for the first time *earlier this week* in a Korean film class. It was horrible what the Japanese did to these thousands (possibly hundreds of thousands) of women, abducting them and forcing them into sexual slavery, and yet if I didn't take this one specific college course I bet I never would have heard about it.\n\nIt's fucked up.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "There are lots of good answers here. Another thing to consider is who the Japanese mistreated so badly. The Chinese were one of the main victims, but after WW2 we were not very chummy with them. Korea was a victim, but not too long after WW2 they had other problems to worry about. The Philippines and other Southeast Asia nations don't have nearly the social contacts with the US. \n\nWe just didn't have that many people telling us the stories of Japanese War Crimes. Plus, after WW2 Japan and The US were BFF, so we didn't want to hear it. Mostly all we heard about was the Bataan Death March.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "For the same exact reason you've learned so much about the slave trade in the US but you have never learned anything about the far more brutal and prolific eastern slave trade that took place during the same period of time.\n\nBecause if the bad guys weren't white, it's alright.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I learned about the Rape of Nanking, an event so brutal that it made a researcher kill herself after learning so much. Maybe it's the differences in school or time that caused you to not learn about it. Japan also still denies this event unlike the Germans who embraced the shame that comes with the Holocaust. If American schools had purposely omitted this information, it could be because Japan still denies it and are our allies. An important note is that much of Japanese war crimes such as the Rape of Nanking were eclipsed by Nazi war crimes. The Rape of Nanking affected 300,000 Chinese, and had happened before WW2, the Holocaust was 6 million Jews throughout Europe and happened during WW2 which was caused by Nazis as well. The Japanese certainly made up for their lack of atrocities though by being incredibly atrocious. It can definitely be argued that the Japanese were far more brutal than the Nazi's. Nevertheless, if the information was omitted in school, it isn't omitted on the internet and there is a book on the Rape of Nanking called \"The Secret Holocaust\", I think, if you are truly interested. ",
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"answer": "We spent about 2-3 weeks learning about the war in high school history, we spent about 1 week on Japan and then the rest of the time on Germany. Granted what we learned about Japan was a lot less we still spent a significant amount of time on it, so I suppose it may come down to what exactly the specific school is willing to teach. We were taught about pearl harbour and Japans treatment of the Chinese but they almost totally neglected to mention the things Japan did to Korea. I think that as long as you are taught the bare essentials its up to you to learn the rest. ",
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"answer": "In part because we had to invent entirely new procedures and laws. The Japanese committed common war crimes which fell under then current international law. The Germans? that was wholly out of left field from a legal standpoint and its often studied because it was an utter shock to the system. Oddly it was one of the few things that both the Western Allies and Soviet Union could agree on was how fucked up it was \n\nThis special fucked upness which is unique on itself helped coloured the entire cold war which is the second part.\n\nFor example:\n\nThe comparison to US segregation and other racial laws by the Soviet Union to the holocaust was common in Soviet Russia in the post war period. To win the propaganda war the US corrected this. It is not a coincidence that civil rights movements had an effect after ww2 to be frank there were similar leaders in the pre war period who utterly failed. East and West side played the other off as \"equally evil\" to the nazi's and their acts were equal to the holocaust and the result was that it permeated the cultures. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The Nazi's kept better records. They documented every monstrous act, and industrialized genocide. They ran it like a publicly traded company with documents, and reports, and files.\n\nThe Japanese were old school. They just did what armies have done for millennia, and didn't bother keeping track.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "A few things really,\n\nA lot of the evidence was actively buried and destroyed by the KMT (Nationalist Chinese) and the Communists - who during the conflict in China also got up to heinous shit against their own citizens. During the rape of Nanjing for example, the KMT were also complicit with Japan in allowing it to happen, so were very reluctant to open up about it. Also much of the controversial chemical warfare units, were also destroyed and kept under wraps by the Russians and Americans who wanted to keep the research for themselves in order to develop their own chemical warfare programme and not allow anyone else to profit from it in anyway. \n\nThe KMT and post-war Japan were also key partners with the US and so the Americans under MacArthur, actively censored much of Japan's role in region in order to bring them under their sphere of influence. Had Japan's citizens been made fully aware of it had done, then there would have been a great desire to make amends with Russia and China - which would have been unthinkable to the USA at the time.\n\nAlso China fell into the second stage of its civil war after Japan left Manchuria, which further devastated the country and allowed the communists to take control of the entire country. This gave China very little breathing space and era of peace in order to come to terms with the atrocities that had taken place when Japan had invaded and occupied. (The same theory can also be applied to Korea.)\n\nEurope as a whole required itself to come to terms with its past because in the Cold-war era, the entire place was economically devastated and was in no position to start another round of arguments and war. However Japan, was not required to come to terms with its Asian neighbours - because, as I've said before, America did not want it to, and actively used Japan as a bulwark against communism in the region.\n\nThink of it this way. If we learned about Japan's role during the war, we would become more sympathetic to the Chinese who they killed - and that would have meant becoming sympathetic to communists. Its the exact same reason why we tend to gloss over the 20m Russians killed during WWII and instead focus entirely on the sacrifices of the US-UK-French troops.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The Japanese had done a lot of brutal medical experiments that included biological and chemical warfare. The doctors and scientists involved had saved all their research to use for barginning. The scientists were up on war crime charges and faced the death penalty. \n\nThe scientists offered the Americans a deal and that was all the research in exchange for amnesty. After a lot of deliberations the US decided to accept the offer. The US got a lot of medical research and the Japanese scientists went on to live normal lives.\n\nAt the time this was a big secret so the US made a decision to not discuss a lot of Japanese war crimes to avoid answering the question: whatever happened to the perpetrators. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": " > Why have I learned so much about the Holocaust and the war crimes committed by the Nazis, but I have never learned anything about the Japanese war crimes during WWII?\n\nI don't know why? I'm a white guy living in the western world and in my schooling when learning about WW2 it was split equally between the european and pacific theaters. Maybe you just didn't pay attention or went to a bad school?",
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"answer": "You can find many examples of how an army massacres civilians. There is not much of a lessen there. People can be evil.\n\nOn the other hand. The German population was manipulated. Hitler tried to outright kill Jews in the beginning. The German population did not like it. Hitler had to use propaganda to tell the German population he was simply moving the Jews so the Germans didn't have to deal with them. The first concentration camp was a very nice place. Hitler showed the population the \"nice\" concentration camp, while more Jews were sent to far away, hidden concentration camps where they were murdered. By the time the population was aware of what was going on, it was too late. Speaking up at that point was a crime and could get you killed.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Because you didn't read books that weren't put in front of you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nobody ever mentions the Russian casualties in great depth either. An estimated 27,000,000 Russian casualties over the course of the Second World War. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "You could also study Russian war crimes... which are ample... just like the US... UK... Austraila. The first casualty of war is innocence.\n\nWW2 just seems so far away you might identify better with The Vietnam Conflict, as I do. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The Japanese did holocaust-esque experiments on the Chinese. I guess they aren't as mentioned in the US because the holocaust hit closer to home.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "You didn't take any history classes that cover it. \n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Probably because of how systematic and thoroughly documented the Holocaust was. We went over both in AP US History, but there's far more information available about the Holocaust than instances such as the massacre at Nanking.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Because you're uncultured. I'm Jewish, so obviously I was brought up with European/Jewish WWII history, but I was also educated about other things and aspects of the war.\n\nYou're lucky you learned what you did, many kids don't learn and grow up not knowing who Hitler was.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "We dropped 2giant bombs on Japan. This may have to do with it.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Most also know very little of how horrifically blacks were treated just in the last century and think smallpox was the worst thing settlers did to the native americans.\n\nTo answer your question, yes.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Two reasons, one forgivable. \n\nThe camps were liberated in part by Western armies, accompanied by Western journalists, forming both a vivid image and an irrefutable record. \n\nAlso, the Holocaust was done _to_ white people _by_ white people. That made the whole thing more shocking to the West. ",
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"answer": "Because history remembered is history people talk about and people talk about movies. It is a known fact that Jews are very influential in Hollywood. Nazis continue to be a staple villain in Hollywood movies sometimes in wierd rediculous ways when the truth is much more horrifying. The average person knows about the 6 million Jews that were murdered but have know idea that the total death toll is no less than 11 million with estimates up to 17 million. Jews were the targeted for genocide during the holocaust but we're not the only group to be so. when we learn history from movies that only mention the 6 million Jews then we have downplayed the atrocities committed.\n_URL_1_\nAlso, the nazis weren't the only ones efficient at executing people\n_URL_0_\n_URL_2_\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I learned a lot about japan atrocities during the war from school. Side note: my grandfather was a Japanese POW until he past away a few years back",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "On the other hand, Chinese educations are heavily filled with Japanese crimes during WW2, pre-WW2 and post-WW2, while they barely touch on the topics of Holocaust.\n\nSource: grew up in China",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Think about this: what have you learned about Allied warcrimes?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "History books tend to gloss over Italys involvement in WWII they talk about Mussolini then move on plenty of Allied forces including my grandad's brother were killed in Italy but thier involvement is briefly talked about like Japan",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Everyone in this thread is really trying to think to hard about this. The US education system until college is EXTREMELY western/euro-centric. That's the biggest part.",
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"answer": "I remember being so confused as a kid the first time I leaned we dropped on a nuke on japan. \n\nThe whole war happened and then Pearl Harbor so we dropped a nuke on Japan. I kinda get it now but it still confuses me. Like how did that happen? ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "With Germany you had the \"Nazi\" regime which took the fall essentially, hence why a lot of times people will refer to it as \"Nazi war crimes\". On the other hand in Japan (at least from my understanding) the blame was essentially shifted on to the Japanese military (ie. Germany \"tricked\"/\"controlled\" by Nazi party, Japan \"tricked\" by the Japanese military).\n\nNow I will admit my understanding of Japan during WW2 is not the greatest. However at the very least from what I have read the Japanese Emperor (Hirohito) had a pretty good understand of what was going on. Not to mention this is the guy that made a PSA encouraging suicide. Any ways... long story short the US backed him after WW2. Would look pretty bad if people realized the guy you were allied with agreed to all of that stuff right?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Because we gave them amnesty in return for the information and research they collected. Unit 731 for example was for the most part \"forgotten\" s Japan agreed to hand over their research in exchange for immunity in war crimes.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Better question is why aren't children taught about the horrible things America did to Japanese-Americans during the same time period. ",
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"answer": "I believe that to some extent it has to do with the fact that the entire world had to come together to take care of the Nazis but with Japan it was really only the US, Aussies, China, and to some extent the USSR and Great Britain that fought them. Also, keep in mind as others have probably said that a lot fewer nationalities were affected in some way by the Japanese than by the Nazis so there is a less attention on Japanese acts.",
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},
{
"answer": "Because we are incredibly biased. Like in World War I, we put all the blame on Germany. Nobody mentions that Russia killed 40 million. Nobody mentions that we also had (non-lethal) concentration camps. ",
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{
"answer": "I thought I was the only one. I found out about those war crimes just a few months ago. It was never part of my history growing up. ",
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"answer": "Some states with large Jewish populations have laws on the books requiring schools teach the Holocaust, but not Japanese crimes. Schools often only have time to teach required stuff, and not much more. \n\n_URL_0_",
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{
"answer": "You got it somewhat right. It's because you grew up in the western world and the Holocaust was of bigger interest to people who live around the area.\n\nI grew up in Asia. We learn a lot about the Japanese war crimes. Interestingly, We also learn about the Nazis. They get about the same amount of recognition. Well, maybe the Japanese get a little bit more focus when in school. ",
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"answer": "Its because if you start talking about the Japanese atrocities you have to talk about those of America against the Japanese. Then you need to mention what the British/Americans did to Dresden. Then the numerous things the Soviets were doing at the time. Then people realise there were no \"goodguys\". Its a can of worms they dont want to open. All sides did horrible things, the Nazis were the worst of course because of industrialization of the death camps. But that doesnt make what the other nations did less bad.",
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"answer": "I would say yes. I am Indonesian and I learn a lot about Japanese atrocities during world war II. On contrast, I think I didn't know that much about Holocaust. We did study it, but we only spent short time on it. ",
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{
"answer": "I think it has to do with the fact that you are from the western world. I was born and raised in Asia. I know all about the Japanese war crimes. It was all over the history textbooks and literatures. Most grandparents know about them first hand and the info got passed along to us. \n\nI on the other hand knew nothing much about the Nazi and the Holocaust until I moved to the States. I knew some from The Sound Of Music, some from Western history textbooks. But that's about it. It's not part of our history, so people don't talk about it much. But we know damn well what the Japanese had done to us. That's why we are so upset about them trying to erase their history from their textbooks. Westerners probably think that we are overreacting. ",
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"answer": "Jews are white. Chinese, Filipino, Korean, and Vietnamese people are not.",
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"answer": "As a Chinese American, hearing what my Dad and his side of the family had to struggle through with Japanese Imperialism in Hong Kong during WWII, I really do feel more attention needs to be brought to this subject. \n\nThough it was technically before WWII, [The Nanking Massacre] (_URL_0_) is one of the [worst modern day atrocities] (_URL_1_) that you never hear about. I personally feel like it's not brought up because the Chinese are a proud culture, and don't like to admit the extent of their defeat by the Japanese during this period. They are also very pragmatic culture and believe that harping on the subject isn't going to change anything so why waste time talking about it; monetary growth is more important than history.\n\n\n\n",
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"answer": "Because whilst Japanese war crimes were horrific, the Holocaust was a systematic genocide. Never before had people been placed in chambers and slaughtered like animals. ~~Also the Holocaust was the largest genocide in history before or since.~~ Crimes of the Nazis and the Japanese Empire were horrible, but I think the cold, calculated way the Nazis carried out the Holocaust makes it that much worse. \n\nEDIT: I'm an idiot.",
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{
"answer": "Find a Korean.\n \nAsk them about the Japanese war crimes.",
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{
"answer": "Japan became very Westernized after the war. I imagine that the US didn't want to ruin relationships and their influence over Japan. ",
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{
"answer": "Don't forget Allies atrocities during WWII either. You think concentration camps were exclusive to Germans then think again.",
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{
"answer": "The Nazis are the perfect enemy. They have everything and get zero sympathy. The US won a deceive victory (ignoring the fact that the red army did the majority of the fighting and took almost all of the allied losses), all the top Nazi's died. You can make everything from comedy to realistic drama to horror movies with Nazis.\n\nSo you will hear about them in school, because the narrative is a hollywood wet dream. Simple as that.",
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{
"answer": "Because that leads to a focus on American war crimes.",
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{
"answer": "google comfort women philippines or korea. japanese soldiers systematically raped and killed thousands of women from those countries. documents of the institutionalization of this military plan have surfaced. it's all very sad.",
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{
"answer": "In other news why do we not learn about war crimes committed by the allied powers suing WWII? (Obviously I know the answer it's just ironic) ",
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{
"answer": "Probably same reason you don't really hear about American interment camps where we snatched up American citizens who were of Japanese descent.",
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"answer": "[Red Sorghum](_URL_0_) is a great Chinese novel (with good English translation) highlighting some of the atrocities that happened between the Japs and the Chinese during WW2 (and just before)... \n\nThe Japs did some really effed up things in the [2nd Chinese-Japanese war](_URL_1_), which is one of those non-US conflicts you don't learn about in American schools",
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"answer": "Probably because you grew up in a country that didn't really deal with Japan back then. In the Netherlands, \"jappenkampen\" are almost as famous as Nazi concentration camps. WW2 still marks diplomatic relations with Japan to this day, thanks to everything that happened in Indonesia. Germany is still more prominently featured, of course, they are our neighbours after all and they terrorised the entire country during WW2. ",
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"answer": "Look for the movies Philosophy of a Knife and Men Behind the Sun. They depict the horrors of Unit 731 one of Japan's most infamous concentration camps in China.\n\nThere are also plenty of data to search about mass raps in China and other human rights violations commited by Japan in the archives of international tribunals, specifically the International Military Tribunal for the Far East.",
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"answer": "As someone, who lives in Poland, I pass at least 3 memorial plates in memory of people killed by Nazis when going to school and nothing, that would remind me, that Japanese even took part in WW2.",
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{
"answer": "What war crimes?\n\n\n-Japan",
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{
"answer": "To be honest, I think white westerners were shocked that other whites would do something so barbaric. Something like that happening in Asia probably wasn't so shocking and seemed farther away from home.\n\nRacism is shitty, but its a real way of explaining things.",
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{
"answer": "The holocaust really scared everyone in europe/US because it was white europeans doing it to other white europeans. America may be in america but its cultural roots are firmly in europe. Its actually sort of forgivable to not be taught about that genocide because its a sad fact that shit like this happens all the time, and even moreso the further back you go. And this one (japanese/chinese) was two peoples pretty unlike your own doing shit for reasons which probably seem alien to most americans (japanese culture and ideas about rape in war, women etc etc). The holocaust hit home a bit more probably because the perpatrators were not easily written off as foriegn primatives. \n\nAlso the US has a pretty large and culturally involved jewish community who keenly remember it for obvious reasons. Maybe also the fact China went communist and was sort of written out of the US narrative of WW2.\n\nI mean the chinese haven't forgotten and are thourghly up for vengance the first chance they get. Its actually scary how much they consider it to not be in the past.\n\n",
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"answer": "English here, and even we have noticed the hard-on that the history channel has for hitler. \n\nGranted, there is the belief that history was written by the victors, but let's imagine if the history channel did not exist for a moment and how much more rounded information we would learn?",
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"answer": "I think that part of it is that Japan has kind of built a victims' narrative around getting nuked. They're the only country to get nuked, and as such, that is the payback for anything bad they may have done during the war, so there's no real need to talk about it. ",
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{
"answer": "There where also several war crimes perpetrated by the allied forces including the British, USA and Russia that you won't hear about unless looking for this particular subject. Indoctrination, they call it. Make sure to look at the reasons why the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor and the rules of what constitutes a war crime and an \"act of war\".",
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{
"answer": "The same reason you don't hear much about the war crimes committed by Israel today. (it benefits the Jews)",
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{
"answer": "It's because your school had a poor quality curriculum.\n\nLearned lots about Nanking, interment camps in AP US History.",
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{
"answer": "Conspiracy theorists I used to know would answer it like this, \"Jews!\".",
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"answer": "History Major here and my emphasis as an undergrad my senior project was on the treatment of POW's in the Pacific Theater of war. The short answer is, media. \n\nThe long answer is reading about both the percentage of casualties in the European Theater was in the low single digits percentages for captured troops. Meanwhile the Japanese had a percentage rate for deaths of POW's north of 25% by even conservative estimates. Some estimates have deaths in POW camps as high as 75% for the dutch indies. \n\nTwo great books on this are \"Surviving the Sword\" by Brian MacArthur, and \"The Rape of Nanking\" by Iris Chang. \n\nThe second book i had to stop and take \"happy breaks\" after a few pages sometimes because of the horrific things described. \n\nTragedies like the massacre of POW's at Palawan and other camps are just the ones that are recorded. The basic problem is that why we were rebuilding Europe, for the most part the Germans were embarrassed and somewhat repentant for what happened, at least those that survived. \n\nMeanwhile China became communist and we couldn't seem to come to grips with holding Japan accountable while facing the threat of spreading communism. It was a political crap fest and they had to keep up appearances in the face of the godless commies.",
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"answer": "Because jews are big in TV and movies and academia, so they shove NAZI war crimes down everyones throat at every opportunity. Thats also why you hardly hear anything about the persecution of the Romani, even though they occupied the same ghettoes and consentration camps as the jews. The Chinese and pacific islanders have no one to tell their story in the west. No one who runs a TV network or a Movie studion or is dean of a university.",
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"answer": "It is about overshadowing, if I pinched your arm and you began beating my family and I with a crowbar. The many stories told would focus on your wrongs, but little on mine.\n\nJapan did not round up its own \"inferior\" citizens and begin execution on a mass scale. They did horrible things, but nothing on scale with Nazi's\n\n",
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"answer": "Okay, let me clear a couple of things up, because sorting by controversial I'm seeing a lot of naive or outright wrong explanations (as expected).\n\n* \"History is written by the victors.\"\n\nDon't give me this crap. Sure, history is written by the victors initially, and in the immediate aftermath of a major conflict the losers are going to get a lot of hate and bias against them. But as the decades pass, historians start going back and revising the histories to remove evident bias or in light of new discoveries. An example of this would be the Stuart dynasty of England. The Puritan Parliamentarians who overthrew them in the mid-17th century were of course big-time haters when they wrote their history books, and their second overthrow in the Glorious Revolution plus their pretenders remaining a constant nuisance during the 18th century did not win them many points among their former subjects. Nor did their Scottish roots or rumored closet Catholicism. But since then the histories have been revised, and the Stuarts aren't viewed in quite such a negative light.\n\n* \"The US committed horrible atrocities against the Japanese and Japanese-American population. So we didn't want to be the pot calling the kettle black.\"\n\nYeah, the US bombed the shit out of Japan. We also dropped two atomic bombs on them. Whether or not you think these are justified because total war or horribly immoral atrocities is irrelevant, this is not the reason. We bombed the shit out of the Germans too. And someone said the US military during the war had an official stance that all surrendering Japanese should be immediately executed. That's not true. I'm certain that individual soldiers may have had personal policies of \"Kill all Japs\" but that can't be blamed on the US government. Additionally, while the Japanese were signatories to the 1929 Geneva Conventions, they DID NOT ratify them; however, the US did and treated what few prisoners they took fairly. Finally, probably the biggest single reason there were few Japanese POWs is that the Japanese by and large fought to the death. Their civilians even killed themselves en masse after the US started taking islands closer to the home islands because they had been brainwashed into believing the US troops would rape and slaughter them without mercy.\n\nSecondly, yeah, the US interned their Japanese-American population during the war in the paranoid fear that they would act as infiltrators. It was a gross violation of civil rights that is abhorrent to us today. But I see a lot of redditors constantly comparing it to atrocities like the Nazi concentration camps (DAE USA is literally Hitler?), and that's just being dishonest. It was a violation of civil rights, not an atrocity. Leave it at that.\n\n* \"Japan became a very important Cold War ally to the US.\"\n\nYeah, and so did West Germany.\n\n* \"DA JOOS control Western media.\"\n\nGo back to /r/conspiracy and /r/WhiteRights, you nut.\n\nLook, before I go into my own pet theory, let me make something clear. Japanese atrocities have not been \"swept under the rug.\" The sources and information are most definitely there and widespread, you just have to look for them.\n\nWith that said, my pet theory for why the Holocaust is more culturally widespread than Japanese war crimes has a lot of factors, as most complicated issues do. Let's go over them:\n\n* China became an extremely hostile and closed-off/isolated geopolitical rival of the USA\n\nIt's not that Japan was a US Cold War ally. West Germany was too. It's because of China. I'm not sure if people my age who haven't studied history realize it, but China was not the vital trading partner with close ties to the USA for quite some time after they went red. From 1949 to the late 1970s, the Chinese isolated themselves from and were isolated by the West. They were *extremely* hostile to Western and by extension \"capitalist\" values and viewed the USA as equivalent to the devil.\n\nYou see, when a nation that was the site of a lot of atrocities closes itself off to Western academia, it tends to stifle any investigations into the truth. You might argue that Soviets were also geopolitical rivals of the US, so why do we know so much about the Holocaust, the sites of which were mostly in land behind the Iron Curtain? The USSR wasn't nearly as closed off as the Chinese. They knew how to play the political game with the West, and actually *wanted* to play - the Grand Alliance of WWII had finally granted the USSR the respect and recognition from the West they'd felt they'd always deserved. The USSR was ecstatic to collaborate to (rightfully) vilify their former nemesis - they just didn't want those Western academics or inspectors snooping after the skeletons in their own closet (or their nuclear arsenal).\n\n* The Holocaust was unique as far as genocides go.\n\nA lot of people have already posted this one so I'll keep it brief. the Holocaust was a carefully-orchestrated, truly industrial genocide. All those literary metaphors and horror stories in Western culture about a factory that becomes a slaughterhouse for humans? That fantasy is basically *what actually happened in real life*. It's a truly horrifying concept to wrap your mind around.\n\n* The Japanese themselves do not like talking about it\n\nI saw a post by someone else here that the Germans basically wear the Holocaust as their national badge of shame, so they always remember how far they had fallen and to warn them about following that path again. The Japanese prefer to sweep their old shame under the rug. It is extremely difficult to get any sort of official apology for their WWII atrocities out of their leaders.\n\n* It's part of the history of the Western world while events in the Far East are not\n\nWe focus on the history of the Western world because news flash, we *are* the Western world!\n\nSo those are the big four factors in my own pet theory. This post got extremely long-winded very fast. Sorry if I didn't exactly explain it like you were 5.",
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{
"answer": "Because the United States wants to remind its citizenry why we let Israel do whatever it wants and why we allow its leaders to occasionally dictate our own policy.",
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{
"answer": "So, the historians in this thread say it's complicated and the race baiters say its the jews. I suggest that one of the above groups need to read a book.",
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{
"answer": "_URL_0_ \n\nthis is just one example \n",
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{
"answer": "isn't it something to do with so many important Jews living in America?\n",
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{
"answer": "In addition to the political motivations at play, it is worth noting that the Holocaust was a cold, calculated, premeditated plan to exterminate various races and groups. Japanese soldiers definitely committed war crimes, but for the most part they were spur of the moment type things. Doesn't excuse it of course, but it's a big distinction.",
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"answer": "One viewpoint: I'm in the midst of reading \"The Rising Sun\", John Toland ('The Decline & Fall of the Japanese Empire 1936 - 1945'). His description of the Bataan 'Death March' suggested that the highest levels of command (General Homaa) actually ordered fair treatment for American and Filipino captives and were incensed when it became clear that their orders were ignored. It is suggested that an oral order from one Col. Tsuji had the effect of stirring up the radical elements in the army (of which there were many) that resulted in many atrocities. But many more commanders (Ikuta & Imai spring to mind) refused to follow the order. Homaa himself was relieved of command later partially for not having prosecuted the Philippine campaign more vigorously (ie. for treating the enemy honorably in defeat.) I guess point being that the Bataan incident was war, there were twice as many POWs as expected, it was freakin' hot, the facilities and transportation weren't properly accommodating and elements of the army fought against command... Not an apologist, just my take on one view of one incident. War sucks, best to avoid.",
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{
"answer": "To me, it seems like Japanese war crimes have been forgiven by the U.S., having suffered and paid the ultimate price by having two Nukes dropped on them and surrendering unconditionally. \n\nAlso, the fact that what Hitler did was beyond barbaric. ",
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{
"answer": "We also don't hear much about the absolute barbarity and horror happening in the USSR and Eastern Europe under Stalin.\n\nA lot of it hasto do with Israel and its affiliated Jewish organizations in the West, especially in the USA, that use the Holocaust as a weapon against those that would disagree with its policies.",
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"answer": "I think there are 2 reasons. \n\n1) The fact that the world responded to the Holocaust by establishing the country of Israel drove what the Nazis did deeper into the Zeitgeist than what the Japanese or Stalin did or for that matter what the Europeans did to native peoples and imported slaves in the Americas & Australia. \n\n2) The fact that Germany responded by public repudiation of the Nazi attrocities (even going so far as to outlaw publication of Hitler's writings and hate speech). Much more so than the official response to any of the other attrocities. \n\n ",
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{
"answer": "For that matter the Soviets. They were not nice to German civilians, or they're own people.",
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{
"answer": "My guess is because we basically let Unit 731 off provided they give the US all the documents from their horrific studies.",
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{
"answer": "The reason you never heard about Japanese war crimes is because they didn't kill Jews. I mean that in a completely respectful way, but none the less, true. The Chinese didn't create an anti-defamation league after 'The Rape of Nanking'. It all boils down to who had the better PR for their holocaust.",
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{
"answer": "It is because the shit the Nazis did was 104938423904 times worse",
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{
"answer": "Because Nazis are an extremist group, whereas Japanese are a race. They exist today. Also, US held innocent Japanese in internment camps, which was something that the US did wrong. Talking about Japanese wrongdoings would draw attention to the US's wrongdoings.\n\nUS doesn't wanna look bad.",
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{
"answer": "I live in Belgium and we would learn about the atrocities committed by the nazis or by Colombus and his following to the native Americans, poverty and abuse in South-America, genocides in Africa and Asia,... but nothing more than an anecdote of what Leopold II (former Belgian king) and \"his people\" did to Congo and how the people were abused out of lust for power. It should be mandatory in Belgian schools.",
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{
"answer": "Because you haven't been on Reddit more than 2 weeks, which is about the timeframe between each time they reach the front page. \n",
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{
"answer": "I am saddened, horrified, and angered by the fact that the most upvoted explanation in this thread is simply that Japan was a \"trade partner.\"\n\nNo. That's not the reason why you never hear about the Rape of Nanking or Unit 731. \n\nThe reason are multiple:\n\n1. The Holocaust hit closer to home. In a time when American culture was still mostly composed of Polish, German, English, and French immigrants, something like the Holocaust resonates much, much more strongly with them than Chinese, Koreans, Filipinos, Malaysians, or Thai being slaughtered wholesale. This is not to say that they weren't sympathetic-- it's just that the proximity of the pain and loss revolved around the Holocaust and not the Pacific episode of the War. \n\n2. There's a massive Jewish population in the US, at least in comparison to say, the Chinese or Korean immigrant population in the US. Jewish people have always been a subjugated and oppressed group-- given this fact, and the fact that the US was less Anti-Semitic than many other European countries, populations here were much larger and maintained much more clout than other Jewish populations elsewhere. As evidenced by billions of aid the US funnels to Israel to this day-- this is still the case. Also note here that Americans had much more involvement in rescuing the actual Holocaust survivors, and these are the stories that they bring home. \n\n3. I can't speak for other cultures, but Chinese culture practices the long and tried art of 'forgetting.' That is to say-- whenever a national or traumatic tragedy takes place, their coping mechanism involves forgetting the past and trying to avoid all possible mention of it where possible. Given that this was the case as well for the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution, two more recent iterations of this 'forgetting' syndrome, many redditors may simply say that this was just China being Communist. But please be more understanding in that different cultures do have different ways of dealing and coping with national tragedies. \n\n4. Japan remained a vital 'trade partner' as the top comment says, but this isn't the only reason why the Pacific episode and the atrocities committed by the Japanese remain forgotten or overlooked. It was because the US stood vehemently against East Germany and the ideology that it represented in the Cold War, that being Communism. This feeds into the lessons that we learn and remember to this day-- the Holocaust was bad, and we must remember it for fear of allowing it to happen again. On the other hand, modern Japan, as with modern Korea, are really creations of American dogmatism during the Cold War Era. Both countries were to be gleaming symbols of capitalism and democracy, and this was meant to combat the rise of communism in China. In this way, many of the atrocities of the Japanese were often ignored and instead you have the US demonizing Chinese ideology and not Japanese war wrongs. \n\nThese are just some of the reasons, but I really hope people seek out other answers for themselves. It is a very complicated issue and it's important that we don't just overlook the explanation for it by providing just one simple answer. \n\n ",
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{
"answer": "Related question: why did we only ever talk about the European fronts, particularly with Germany and not so much Italy? There was all sorts of shit going on in Italy and Africa at the time, and I'm pretty sure even some stuff in South America, but we just don't ever acknowledge it.",
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"answer": "Lots of reasons. But also because many Jewish Americans felt that it was important to remember what happened to their own history. Many films and books are written by influential Jewish Americans. \n\nI suppose to a large degree, its human nature to think your own culture and peoples more significant. ",
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{
"answer": "I'm surprised at how many people don't know about the Nanking Massacre (Rape of Nanking)... The Japanese killed over 200,000 Chinese civilians in 6 weeks, such a sad time in history.",
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{
"answer": "Because of the Jewish influence in the West. It keeps the Holocaust regularly on the public's minds. Just think about how many times a week you'll see a mention/joke about the Nazis, Hitler, or Holocaust and think how often these have been referenced in popular media over the years",
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"answer": "Well here in south west Florida it's due to our high Jewish population. I hear it's more common in states like Hawaii and California due to their higher Asian population. Basically, if your community is white you'll learn about white (European) history and if your community is African you'll learn about our prison system. Wait.....what....no, no,........ oh never mind that's about how it goes. ",
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{
"answer": " Hi there,\n\n Long time reader of reddit and first time poster.\n\nA big reason I have never posted is because I only read the first page every 24 hours and someone has already contributed anything necessary. Amazingly... I know a fair amount about this topic.\n\n There are many reasons that Japanese atrocities in WWII are discussed in far smaller doses as compared to the the Germans. I don't even know where to start...\n\n The Nuremberg trials were a world showcase in which the allies (Americans) could showcase their victory over the enemy and make it a point to never commit such atrocities every again. After this \"lengthy\" trial the point was made. The pacific war took longer to wrap up and, as it became increasingly clear, it was extremely difficult to not only prosecute the Japanese but also even deciding who.\n\n The Japanese war crime trials were so incredibly complicated and fucked up that it took over twenty years to figure all that shit out. The Japanese were incredibly proficient at burning a massive quantity of documents about \"war crimes\" they had committed (please note, many of the crimes they were prosecuted for we're not, in fact, war crimes but, the allies created the laws and then charged them for it). There was such a vast amount of people to charge that they had to divide it in to 3 categories:\n\n War Crime Trials A, B, and C.\n\n The A criminals were the highest priority including generals, Tojo Hideki (prime minister) and etc. note that the Emperor at the time, Hirohto, was never charged because they knew that if they indicted him that the people would fight without weapons until they were eradicated.\n\n The crimes they were charged with were... Well.. Pretty much everything. Oh, except human medical experimentation because they forked over all data to the USA to strike the charges.\n\n Death marches (check sandakan for a read if you're bored) and genocide are just a few. Number of deaths within Nanking is extremely varied. China says 300,000 plus, Japan says 0-20,000 and USA determined somewhere in between depending on which expert you spoke to. Problem was finding the graves.\n\n The trials were actually popular and informative.... For the first few years the court house was packed. 20 years later no one gave a shit. Many of the trials became extremely delayed because of trial methods. The Japanese lawyers were not steeped in European and Western law (which is what they were tried under). They introduced ever inch incorrectly and were doing their best to prove that the other side created hardships on Japan which provoked reprisals that were acceptable (this was alright in Japanese law as a reason).\n\n I'm replying on a phone and am struggling to keep in line with what I've said. Long story short the amount of time it took to deal with the trials, executions, and wrapping it up it was... Mainly forgotten. It was seen as an incredible shame and is highly controversial in Japanese society. Some refuse to believe they did anything wrong and some believe they need to be constantly reminded...\n\n I am sorry if this is partially untrue or if anyone finds direct contradictions with what I have said but within the first 100 comments i noticed it has greatly diverged from original topic.\n\n Sources: some 30 plus. I wrote a thesis entitled Vae Victis: Tokyo War Crime Trials After WWII. Vae Victis (according to professor) translate to \"Victors Justice\" it was infuriating to learn about the trials, honestly. I have no idea about war crimes trials B and C as many of the documents are scattered or in Japanese. There are three lesson specialists on the topic and two I could not get ahold of. The third is a female professor in New York I believe who would not return my emails.\n\n TL;DR: CONSPIRACY",
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{
"answer": "Whoever wins the war gets to right the history. ",
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},
{
"answer": "As a kid I was told (Social Studies teacher and my Grandpa who was a doctor in WWII, Korea and Nam) that the Japanese were considered savages to a degree--less than human as another poster stated. You can see it in a lot of the propaganda posters of the time on /r/PropagandaPosters and on the other hand the Germans were \"like us\". They were civilized. I can't remember if it was my history teacher or grandpa that said this but it always stuck with me: (paraphrased) They were like us. Had the same values as us. They were modern and at the forefront of western society. They gave us Motzart for god's sake. Nobody could imagine that such a civilized country could do such a horrible thing. \n\nOn the flip side with the Japanese it was more of an \"of course they did, they are barbarians\". Also, I've read that a lot of the Japanese scientists were given a pass in the war crimes in exchange for the findings from all the horrible human testing they did. The US Gov got all that research and it would have probably looked very poorly to have taught in schools how our leaders turned a blind eye to justice to receive information on experiments they could never have done themselves. \n\nI used to live in Japan and there is almost no discussion about the war crimes the Japanese committed. When I was there a publisher (author?) was murdered for trying to mention just a short bit about it in high school history books. It's considered a huge disrespect to the Japanese Imperial soldiers and one of the most faux pas topics you can bring up. They literally do not accept it (as a generality). Instead they see themselves as the greatest victims of the war. Why? They were nuked. Nobody else was. that's how they see it. And for a Japanese to have a relative in the bloodline of someone at Hiroshima or Nagasaki is as bad as death--that blood line will forever be unclean. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Japanese are not ethnically white, and in modern society it's only proper to regale ourselves of atrocities past if the perpetrators were white. The Germans were white, so it's much more politically correct to warn people about those atrocities. Anything else is racist, and will hurt peoples feelings.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You probably never heard of Armenian genocide either.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the Japanese didnt harm Jews. Jews control many things, and they want you to pity them... it gives them power.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Would Jews be the baited answer?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No Chinese lobby in the US that is comparable to the Jewish lobbies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some of us in our 50s in Australia are all too fucken aware of them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not so long ago: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A certain chosen people own Hollywood, so a lot of bias goes towards their perspective and thus effects what you're learning more about in school as it it seems more important to teach.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the Jews have such huge influence in Movies and Television. The Japanese medical experiments were more perverse than that of the Germans. The Japanese dropped bombs with plague carrying fleas. Read about the rape of Nanking. Every violent perversity imaginable was committed. But the Chinese don't have Hollywood so it's all been pretty much swept under the rug.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's because certain rich, influential people want to indoctrinate the average Joe in the United States into sympathizing with their people so we look the other way at the crooked shit they do and to ensure our continued support of Israel.\n\nI'll never forget when the Bernie Madoff case broke out, and one journalist slipped their tongue and said, \"It's really unusual for Jews to rob other Jews like that!\"\n\nWay to implicate yourself. Damn.\n\nFYI, a lot of people haven't heard of the Armenian Holocaust either, or the other atrocities committed in various wars, especially World War II. The Jewish people were not the only ones to have suffered.\n\nI would really argue for Holocaust curriculums in the US to be reduced. First of all, it seems ridiculous to brainwash students into thinking that genocide of any kind is wrong. I mean, this is a fact of life in any armed conflict; people die. Obsessing over one disrespects all the others, as well as discredits the people involved by ignoring their grievances in favor of one side.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here is a question: Why don't we learn about Allies war crimes?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have a theory, and it's a VERY *general, vague theory*... There may have been so much more reporting on the Nazi holocaust because Jewish people were the majority being persecuted, and a lot of the American media (news, book printing companies) is controlled by Jewish interests. \n\nI also remember hearing something about the American president or high-ranking general at the time visiting some of the sites, and ordering that all the carnage was captured on video and film. This individual thought it was so horrible, that the world would not believe what happened unless they saw the photographic evidence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It may sound conspiratorial but American mass media is headed by mostly people of jewish ancestry, its not surprising they would push forth lessons and warnings about the holocaust. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its kinda like when you and your brother do something bad but he got hurt and is bleeding from the event. Your mom only yells at the OK child because the other child has been through enough already.\n\nOK Child=Germany \nCut bleeding child=Japan \nCut/blood=Atom Bombs",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the media is controlled by the very people that were hurt most by Nazi Germany... It is in their best interests to advertise it as much as possible. \n\n As sick as it is, they are \"milkin' it for all its worth\" even today. Whenever especially egregious acts are committed by Israel against its neighbors and Palestinians, there always seem to be some big Holocaust anniversary that takes over the news headlines.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm a History teacher and spent a little time in South Korea. It's true that much like we don't hear about Japanese atrocities they also don't hear about the German ones. I no shit found a copy of Anne Frank the Diary of a Young Girl in a fiction section in Gimpo underground mall once, and Seoul used to have a Nazi-themed bar and hoff called 1939. They don't get that the Holocaust stuff really happened or that it was potentially worse than what Japan did. Same with slavery in the US, students often didn't get the concept unless you compared it to what Japan did, then they'll condemn it. \n\nI feel like in the US there's a sense that we may have gone a bit apeshit with the whole firebombing on Tokyo, and use of atomic weapons in addition to general shame of some of our own fairly racist policies and propaganda against the Japanese and Japanese-Americans. I think we do a poor job here of teaching about Japanese atrocities because we're a bit hyper-sensitive about race and our past racism, not that the Japanese weren't/aren't pretty racist themselves. Shinzo Abe (Japan's President) has come under a lot of criticism in Asia for visiting cemeteries where war criminals are buried, so I feel like they really haven't culturally accepted guilt the way the Germans have. I feel the Japanese feel that by turning their country around so substantially and moving away from their ideas of an Asian empire they think they're cool with the world. Sex slavery and systematic rape was pretty rampant in territory Japan controlled. That's still a huge hot-topic in Korea. \n\nAlso, South Korea might be one of the only countries where a significant number of people seem to think the US is awesome because we nuked Japan. Actual exchange follows.\nKorean kid- \"I love USA!\"\nMe- \"Why do you love it?\"\nKorean kid- \"USA made A-bomb, Japan BOOM! Bwahahaha! Then Japan go away from Korea.\"\n\nOther Asian countries might still hold a grudge.....",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hey Timmy, you know how when you beat bobby at tag during recess you get to make fun of him the rest of the day? \n\nWar crimes work the same way. Whoever is the biggest loser. Gets made fun of by all their bad things getting announced. They also have to pay the most reparations. ( they have to pay money to those that won)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a first generation Japanese-American who went through the American public school system, I have to say that I would have loved to hear about this during my K12 days. Hell, I would have been happy to hear anything about Asian history. If you were to go by the history books we had (laughably called \"World History\"), you'd probably be under the impression that Japan didn't even exist until 1854 when Commodore Matthew Perry forced the Japanese to open their ports. \n\nAbsolutely nothing happened from 1854 until December 7, 1941 when the attack on Pearl Harbor occurred. Then, two nukes were dropped on Japan and they surrendered. \n\nThe European campaign was outlined in painful detail - going over everything from the blitzkrieg, Luftwaffe, troop losses (Russian especially), and the Holocaust. Chapters and chapters worth of information. The Pacific Theater basically started with Pearl Harbor and ended with the Fat Man and Little Boy. If you had a really detailed chapter, you might have learned about things like Guam and the sinking of the USS Indianapolis. Oh, and of course you had to learn about kamikaze pilots. \n\nI went to a huge school system - in fact, most of my classes were overcrowded. Anywhere from 25-30 children per period in a single class. Each teacher was probably responsible for ~200 children. Having said that, I could probably have counted the number of Asians on two hands. Asian history - both good and bad - was simply not something that the student body would have related to. We live in a Western culture, so that's what we get educated on. I'm sure the kids whose families were predominantly Native American, Middle Eastern, or Eastern European felt the same way. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think growing up in the Western world is part of the reason. People in Asia are aware of Japanese atrocities and are still bitter over them. Another possible reason is that the Nazis engaged in systematic extermination of an entire race of people. The Japanese did not. \n\nI'm Chinese-American, and my family feels more strongly against Communist China than the Japanese. The members of my family who stayed in China lost more (basically everything) and suffered more under Communism than under the Japanese. My grandparents actually moved to Japan in 1949 to escape the Communists because they had business interests in Japan. My dad was educated in Japan, and his parents didn't really talk to him about it, so he is not well informed about Japanese war crimes. During WWII, he was alive in China, but was not really affected by anything. He even believes that some Japanese war crimes are exaggerated and makes excuses for them. However, he does blame the Japanese for making it easier for the Communists to take over China by distracting the Nationalists.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Reason 1: History is, even today, a thing of regional character. \nAn American might find the Civil War very important, a lot of historical literature and science is about the Civil War - in the U.S.\nIn Europe it is not a very important topic.\nThe Holocaust happened in the western world. Therefore it is more important for the western world, historians have more interest in it than in Japanese war-crimes, since the Holocaust affected the west way more.\n\nReason 2: The victims were jewish. This is a special situation. A rather big part of the jewish world population was killed. The Japanese were nowhere near of killing off a whole people, whereas the Jews in Europe were almost exterminated. The Japanese killed a lot of chinese and other asian people. But none of these nations was near extinction.\n\nReason 3: Zionism plays a huge role. Zionism is an ideology which is older than the Holocaust, but it became extremely established after WW2. With the Holocaust the Zionists saw their biggest fear become real. They now needed a jewish state under any circumstances. Therefore the Holocaust was a main argument, is a main argument for the existence of Israel to this very day.\n\nReason 4: Hollywood. The Holocaust is a money maker. It is very sad, but a lot of people used WW2 and especially the Holocaust to make a lot of money. I don't want to name any speacial producer or writer, but WW2 is still a guarantee for money today. The saddest thing about this is, how black and white, how unrealistic many of these movies are. \n\nReason 5: Most of the perpetrators in the Holocaust were Germans. Especially this shocked. It did not happen in some third world country where cruelty was a rather common thing but in one of the leading countries in science, a country of many great philosophers, a country which before the 20th century was rather victim of other nations expansions than the other way around\n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I just want to add here that the Japanese conducted live human experimentation on POWs and large numbers of Chinese civilians in the pursuit of developing biological and chemical weapons; what is known now is that General Douglas MacArthur, head of the Allied occupation of Japan, made a deal with many of the higher up perpetrators of these atrocities, giving them immunity from prosecution in exchange for all of the data on biological weapons gained from what they did. Of course, the U.S. wanted all of this information preserved and wanted exclusive access to it, which is what MacArthur achieved here, even though it was at the cost of these Japanese war criminals never seeing justice. This is obviously a huge reason that human experimentation, really only one of many Japanese war crimes, is not as well-known today as it should be: it's not as well-known as other Japanese war crimes like the Rape of Nanking, etc., and even those aren't as well known as they should be. And, as other people have already commented, this is largely due to the heavy postwar American involvement with the Japanese, of which trade was a significant factor. These more subtle motivations, like keeping bioweapons research out of the hands of the Soviets (and in the hands of Americans), were also factors, though.\n\n[The wikipedia article on the secret Unit 731] (_URL_0_) in the Japanese army, which conducted all of these experiments, explores a lot of this but also the exact details of what they did in their laboratories. I warn anyone who reads this article or the larger wikipedia article on Japanese war crimes in general that this subject and its particulars are very dark, hard to fathom and should be avoided by the easily disturbed. These were acts that literally make Joseph Mengele (who inspired a lot of the Japanese scientists) look like fucking Mr. Rogers. This article also explains how virtually none of the scientists, due to their deal with MacArthur, ever saw prosecution, even years later in the 20th century when more information was available to the world. This, to me, is one of the greatest travesties of recent history, as is the general lack of attention Japanese war crimes get in history classes in the West, as this ELI5 post has highlighted. I would think perhaps European school systems and curricula go over this part of history more than American equivalents but I don't know enough to say for certain. \n\nAnd just for further reference, many of the crimes the article explores, but more importantly the information on MacArthur's secret deal with the Japanese, are from Hal Gold's book *Unit 731 Testimony*, but also many other sources all listed on the Wikipedia page.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Having lived on three continents, North America, Europe and Asia, I do think there's a strong, ahem (no pun intended) ... whitewashing, as to why Japanese war atrocities were just mere mentions in American and European history books. The focus was just fixated on German and Russian cruelty at the time but death camps, massacres and biological experiments were also widespread in the Pacific theater. This was of little interest or had little cultural impact to the early writers of history books in the Western Hemisphere. \nOn the other end, the Japanese government and throne have also provided very little acknowledgement, let alone express regret for any war atrocities, up to this day. \nTip: learn from history - read all that you can. \nReminder: the Japanese viewed themselves as liberators and bringers of \"freedom\" to colonial Asia. Many still have this view ... up to today. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ask yourself how many people of Chinese descent held important positions in western media during the 50s, 60s and 70s.\n\nThen ask yourself how many people of Jewish descent held such positions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "History is written by the victors. Its simple as that. The people who decide on what the people learn about in school is decided by people who have policies and agendas.\n\nMost of the major powers in the last century committed atrocities and war crimes but you don't hear about your own countries actions in schools with much detail. Hell, education glosses over anything that paints the country in a bad light, or makes an heroic leader to be anything less than that \n\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm a Filipino, and in Primary school History classes, we learn a lot about what WWII-era Japan did to our country and our people.\n\nSo, yeah, it probably has a lot to do with where you live, and how much Japan has affected your country (negatively, especially) over the years.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it's because nobody really cared, i know it sounds harsh, but it was kind of the perception at the time that the Japanese and Chinese were on the lower end of the evolutionary scale and that what they were doing was no worse than animals killing each other. On the other side of the war, the European front, we were looking at the most advanced civilizations killing each other and exterminating a full race of people. Although to be fair the perception of the Jews up to World War 2 wasn't very much better than the Chinese or Japanese, maybe even worse. You probably haven't heard much about what was going on at the Russian front either until \"Enemy at the Gate\" came out but some of the worst things to happen in the war happened on that front.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've read a lot of the top level comments, and I believe most of them are wrong. The few that come close to an accurate answer sound a little too conspiratorial and racist. \n\nThe way I've heard it is that the main reason that we have heard about the Holocaust is because the Jewish people made sure that it lived on in Western memory, as a way of ensuring \"never again\". They developed NGOs that would promote public awareness of the Holocaust, found museums about the Jewish experience under the Nazis, and in general keep the memory of the horrors of the Holocaust alive as a warning sign for people, so no one would begin to think that it wasn't as bad as the history books made it seem. \n\nThe Chinese and the Russians didn't have this sort of propaganda support, in large part because of the Cold War. I'm pretty sure the Nanking Massacre was reported in the West, but the memory was lost in all the other horrors of the war. \n\nIt also didn't hurt that the (West) Germans themselves did a lot to make reparations to the nations for the effects of the war. With the threat of the Soviet Union against ALL of Western Europe, they needed their allies to support them, which was not guaranteed. This included giving money every year to Israel as reparations for the Holocaust. \n\nJapan, on the other hand, had no strong anti-Communist allies in Asia that they had to appease. South Korea didn't become a country to be reckoned with until the 80s, really, and while Japan had ties with countries in Southeast Asia that were lead by anti-Communist leaders, they didn't have militaries strong enough to matter. So they only had to worry about US opinions about Japan, and the US was willing to overlook Japan's past atrocities to take care of their then-current enemy, the Communist world. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For the same reason why Charlie Hebdo's victims took billions hours of tv space and made a giant international case while Boko Haram thousands of victims are *well, lol, sry*.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it has a lot to do with the effort made by the Jewish community in America to do just that; educate you about it. I remember in grade school the parents of the Jewish kids would come in during class every so often to teach us about Hanukah and dreidels and all that. A very organized effort has been made to educate non-Jews about Israel and Jewish culture. Not so much Chinese culture. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "China was communist. Russia was communist. We didn't care about communists. Why would the US lament all of the Russian soldiers who died during the war when the governments were at war?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think American schools tend to focus more on European events. And western European at that. You don't hear too much about the eastern front from WW2 and that was far more intense then the west. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2140913",
"title": "Germany–Japan relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:Rapprochement, Axis and World War II (1920–1945).:Formation of the Axis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "On a similar note, both countries would continue to conceal any war crimes committed by the other side for the remainder of the war. The Holocaust was systematically concealed by the leadership in Tokyo, just as Japanese war crimes, e.g. the situation in China, were kept secret from the German public. An example would be the atrocities committed by the Japanese Army in Nanking in 1937, which were denounced by German industrialist John Rabe. Subsequently, the German leadership ordered Rabe back to Berlin, confiscating all his reports and prohibiting any further discussion of the topic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1120226",
"title": "Japanese war crimes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "War crimes were committed by the Empire of Japan in many Asia-Pacific countries during the period of Japanese imperialism, primarily during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II. These incidents have been described as an \"Asian Holocaust\". Some war crimes were committed by Japanese military personnel during the late 19th century, but most Japanese war crimes were committed during the first part of the \"Shōwa Era\", the name given to the reign of Emperor Hirohito, until the surrender of the Empire of Japan in 1945.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53874903",
"title": "The Holocaust in textbooks",
"section": "Section::::Didactic approaches.:Exculpatory appropriation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "By defining crimes committed during the Holocaust as ‘genocide’ while defining local crimes euphemistically (as ‘cruel acts’, for example), some Japanese textbooks play down the moral and legal repercussions of crimes committed locally. Thus ‘exculpatory interpretations’ of the Holocaust may be used as a ‘measure’ or ‘benchmark’ of the putatively relatively minor significance of local persecution, by which attention is detracted from those responsible for comparable crimes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240900",
"title": "World War II casualties",
"section": "Section::::Human losses by country.:German war crimes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "Nazi Germany ordered, organized and condoned a substantial number of war crimes in World War II. The most notable of these is the Holocaust in which millions of Jews, Poles, and Romani were systematically murdered or died from abuse and mistreatment. Millions also died as a result of other German actions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6520920",
"title": "German war crimes",
"section": "Section::::World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "More significantly, The Holocaust of the Jews and Poles, the Action T4 killing of the disabled and the Porajmos of the Gypsies are the most notable war crimes committed by Nazi Germany during World War II. Not all of the crimes committed during the Holocaust and similar mass atrocities were war crimes. Telford Taylor (The U.S. prosecutor in the German High Command case at the Nuremberg Trials and Chief Counsel for the twelve trials before the U.S. Nuremberg Military Tribunals) explained in 1982:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8906597",
"title": "The Responsibility of Intellectuals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "The topic was inspired by articles of Dwight Macdonald published after the Second World War who \"asks the question: To what extent were the German or Japanese people responsible for the atrocities committed by their governments? And, quite properly, ... turns the question back to us: To what extent are the British or American people responsible for the vicious terror bombings of civilians, perfected as a technique of warfare by the Western democracies and reaching their culmination in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, surely among the most unspeakable crimes in history.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6520920",
"title": "German war crimes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "The governments of the German Empire and Nazi Germany ordered, organized and condoned a substantial number of war crimes in World War I and World War II respectively. The most notable of these is the Holocaust in which millions of Jews, Poles, and Romani were systematically murdered or died from abuse and mistreatment. Millions also died as a result of other German actions in those two conflicts. The true number of victims may never be known, since much of the evidence was deliberately destroyed by the perpetrators in an attempt to conceal the crimes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
51a5hl
|
why is not standing for the us national anthem so offensive?
|
[
{
"answer": "It isn't. There is no written rule, unless you are in the military, that you have to stand for the national anthem. \n\nThe day everyone is forced to stand for the flag/anthem is the day people should be worried.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because most baby boomers are arm chair patriots who have never set foot outside of the US.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44751865",
"title": "Black Lives Matter",
"section": "Section::::Timeline of notable US events and demonstrations.:2016.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "Beginning in August, several professional athletes have participated in the 2016 U.S. national anthem protests. The protests began in the National Football League (NFL) after Colin Kaepernick of the San Francisco 49ers sat during the anthem, as opposed to the tradition of standing, before his team's third preseason game of 2016. During a post-game interview he explained his position stating, \"I am not going to stand up to show pride in a flag for a country that oppresses black people and people of color. To me, this is bigger than football and it would be selfish on my part to look the other way. There are bodies in the street and people getting paid leave and getting away with murder,\" a protest widely interpreted as in solidarity with the Black Lives Matter movement. The protests have generated mixed reactions, and have since spread to other U.S. sports leagues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38465005",
"title": "2016 NFL season",
"section": "Section::::Notable events.:National anthem protests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "In 2016, several professional athletes have protested the United States national anthem. The protests began in the NFL after San Francisco 49ers' quarterback Colin Kaepernick sat during the anthem, as opposed to the tradition of standing, before a preseason game.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51676196",
"title": "U.S. national anthem protests (2016–present)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "The people of the United States are divided on the intended meaning of the anthem. Some believe it salutes military and police officers who have died on duty; for others, it honors the United States generally. Between 2012 and 2015, the Department of Defense gave $6.8 million to teams across all major sports in exchange for holding various military and patriotic events at their games, including the performance of the national anthem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "322830",
"title": "Radical centrism",
"section": "Section::::Radical centrism as dialogue and process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "In 2017, former American football player and Green Beret soldier Nate Boyer suggested that his \"radical middle\" stance could help address the issues and resolve the controversy surrounding U.S. national anthem protests at football games.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34950838",
"title": "Social media and television",
"section": "Section::::Professional sports and social media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1213,
"text": "The national anthem protests during the 2017–2018 football season, where NFL players knelt for the American national anthem drew the attention of social media users. The protests began with former quarterback of the San Francisco 49ers, Colin Kaepernick, who refused to stand during the playing of the national anthem before the start of the game. Kaepernick told NFL Media, \"I am not going to stand up to show pride in a flag for a country that oppresses black people and people of color. To me, this is bigger than football and it would be selfish on my part to look the other way. There are bodies in the street and people getting paid leave and getting away with murder.\" This has caused a lot of controversy within the NFL and across the US. Fans, players, and people all over the country had different reactions, using their social media accounts to voice their opinions and their personal reasons for protesting or for honoring the flag. Some of the most famous athletes that currently play in the NFL, like Tom Brady and Aaron Rodgers, shared Instagram posts supporting their teammates. Social media is a way for athletes to get their message across to their fans as quickly and efficiently as possible. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35621155",
"title": "National Football League controversies",
"section": "Section::::Player conduct.:Player politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 1281,
"text": "BULLET::::- As mentioned above, during the 2016, 2017, and 2018 seasons, many NFL players from all 32 NFL teams have protested the national anthem due to police brutality, racial inequality, and other controversies around the nation surrounding politics and authority. Players have been caught on camera kneeling, sitting, staying in the locker rooms, and raising their fists while the national anthem was played before kickoffs of games. This led to dropped ratings throughout the NFL, with most fans and critics calling the protests disrespectful. Many videos on YouTube showed fans showing their anger towards players by burning merchandise such as hats, jersies, pictures, and other things. Though the incidents have died down during the 2018 season, they still continue to happen throughout the league. Aside from the NFL, other sports leagues have joined in the protests, such as high school football. This lead to President Donald Trump lamenting \"Get that son of a bitch off of the field right now! He's gone! He's fired! Fired!\" This line has been both praised and criticized by fans and media alike, with some agreeing that anyone who kneels should be banned, while others say it is too harsh. Ultimately, in 2018, the NFL introduced a policy revolving around the issue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43426300",
"title": "Timeline of the San Francisco Bay Area",
"section": "Section::::21st century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 1225,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1225,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "BULLET::::- San Francisco 49ers quarterback Colin Kaepernick \"(pictured)\" refuses to stand for the national anthem at a preseason football game, in protest of police brutality and racism in the United States\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2gw184
|
How long did it take the population of the USSR to recover after the Second World War?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Here](_URL_0_) is the data for the Soviet Union for the 20th century. (Second link in contents will take you to a graph and a spreadsheet)\nYou can see the effects of the Russian revolution and subsequent NKVD purges. And you can see the effect of WWII.\nHowever, the figures for recovery might not be exactly fair as the USSR expanded its borders during WWII.\n\nSo [here](_URL_1_) (third link in contents will take you to spreadsheets the first two columns of which show year and respective total population) is similar data for Russia alone. Again, the impact of WWII is pretty noticeable and as you can see the population recovers in number sometime in the mid 50s. \n\nHowever, due to the sheer volume of wars and other shit that Russia went through during the 20th century, the population is still plagued by a gender imbalance, so in that sense, you could say it's still recovering.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1487120",
"title": "Droughts and famines in Russia and the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::1930s.:Demographic impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "Estimates of Soviet deaths attributable to the 1932–1933 famine vary wildly, but are typically given in the range of millions. Vallin et al. estimated that the disasters of the decade culminated in a dramatic fall in fertility and a rise in mortality. Their estimates suggest that total losses can be put at about 4.6 million, 0.9 million of which was due to forced migration, 1 million to a deficit in births, and 2.6 million to exceptional mortality. The long-term demographic consequences of collectivization and the Second World War meant that the Soviet Union's 1989 population was 288 million rather than 315 million, 9% lower than it otherwise would have been. In addition to the deaths, the famine resulted in massive population movements, as about 300,000 Kazakh nomads fled to China, Iran, Mongolia and Afghanistan during the famine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "19017269",
"title": "World population",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "The first half of the 20th century in Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union was marked by a succession of major wars, famines and other disasters which caused large-scale population losses (approximately 60 million excess deaths). After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia's population declined significantly – from 150 million in 1991 to 143 million in 2012 – but by 2013 this decline appeared to have halted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10467798",
"title": "Soviet Census (1989)",
"section": "Section::::Statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "The last two national censuses (held in 1979 and 1989) showed that the country had been experiencing an average annual increase of about 2.5 million people, although it was a slight decrease from a figure of around 3 million per year in the previous intercensal period, 1959-1970. This post-war increase had contributed to the USSR's \"partial\" demographic recovery from the significant population loss that the USSR had suffered during the Great Patriotic War (the Eastern Front of World War II), and before it, during Stalin's Great Purge of 1936-1938. The previous postwar censuses, conducted in 1959, 1970 and 1979, had enumerated 208,826,650, 241,720,134, and 262,436,227 inhabitants respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20084130",
"title": "World War II casualties of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Total population losses.:Demographic studies of the population losses.:Studies by Andreev, Darski and Kharkova.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 1884,
"text": "BULLET::::- According to Andreev, Darski and Kharkova (ADK) the total population loss due to the war was 26.6 million(1941-1945) They maintain that between 9-10 million of the total Soviet war dead were due to the worsening of life conditions in the entire USSR, including the region that was not occupied. The total loss of 26.6 million is based on the assumptions that the wartime increase in infant mortality was 1.3 million and that persons dying of natural causes declined during the war. Overall the annual Mortality rate (persons dying of natural causes) declined from 2.17% in 1940 to 1.58% in 1946 The decline in persons dying of natural causes during the war was due to the fact that a disproportionate number of adults, especially men were killed during the war, than those persons under 18 and women who survived. The figure for births during the war is based on a post war survey of the Total fertility rate which put the number of births during the war at about one half of the prewar level. The main areas of uncertainty were the estimated figures for the population in the territories annexed from 1939–1945 and the loss of population due to emigration during and after the war. The figures include victims of Soviet repression and the deaths of Soviet citizens in German military service. Michael Haynes noted, \"We do not know the total number of deaths as a result of the war and related policies\". We do know that the demographic estimate of excess deaths was 26.6 million plus an additional 11.9 million natural deaths of persons born before the war and 4.2 million children born during the war that would have occurred in peacetime, bringing the total dead to 42.7 million. At this time the actual total number of deaths caused by the war is unknown since among the 16.1 million \"natural deaths\" some would have died peacefully and others as a result of the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7062377",
"title": "Aftermath of World War II",
"section": "Section::::Immediate effects.:Soviet Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "The Soviet Union suffered enormous losses in the war against Germany. The Soviet population decreased by about 27 million during the war; of these, 8.7 million were combat deaths. The 19 million non-combat deaths had a variety of causes: starvation in the siege of Leningrad; conditions in German prisons and concentration camps; mass shootings of civilians; harsh labour in German industry; famine and disease; conditions in Soviet camps; and service in German or German-controlled military units fighting the Soviet Union. The population would not return to its pre-war level for 30 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21619085",
"title": "Soviet Union in World War II",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath and damages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 918,
"text": "American experts estimate that the Soviet Union lost almost all the wealth it gained from the industrialization efforts during the 1930s. Its economy also shrank by 20% between 1941 and 1945 and did not recover its pre-war levels all until the 1960s. British historian Clive Ponting estimates that the war damages amounted to 25 years of the Soviet Gross National Product. 40% of the Soviet housing was damaged or destroyed. Out of 2.5 million housing dwellings in the German occupied territories, over a million were destroyed. This rendered some 25 million Soviet citizens homeless. The German occupation encompassed around 85 million Soviet citizens, or almost 45% of the entire Soviet population. At least 12 million Soviets fled towards the east, away from the invading German army. The Soviet sources claim that the Axis powers destroyed 1,710 towns and 70,000 villages, as well as 65,000 km of railroad tracks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26779",
"title": "Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Excess deaths over the course of World War I and the Russian Civil War (including the postwar famine) amounted to a combined total of 18 million, some 10 million in the 1930s, and more than 26 million in 1941–5. The postwar Soviet population was 45 to 50 million smaller than it would have been if pre-war demographic growth had continued. According to Catherine Merridale, \"... reasonable estimate would place the total number of excess deaths for the whole period somewhere around 60 million.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eapdok
|
how are uk prime ministers chosen?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Prime Minister is normally the head of the largest party able to get the confidence of the house. They will still represent their constituents.\n\nThe UK does not have a written constitution so there's nothing saying what happens if the leader loses their seat. Bare in mind though that before the 60s most PMs weren't MPs.",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "24150",
"title": "Prime Minister of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Authority.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1226,
"text": "The Prime Minister is the head of the United Kingdom government. As such, the modern Prime Minister leads the Cabinet (the Executive). In addition, the Prime Minister leads a major political party and generally commands a majority in the House of Commons (the lower House of the legislature). The incumbent wields both significant legislative and executive powers. Under the British system, there is a unity of powers rather than separation. In the House of Commons, the Prime Minister guides the law-making process with the goal of enacting the legislative agenda of their political party. In an executive capacity, the Prime Minister appoints (and may dismiss) all other Cabinet members and ministers, and co-ordinates the policies and activities of all government departments, and the staff of the Civil Service. The Prime Minister also acts as the public \"face\" and \"voice\" of Her Majesty's Government, both at home and abroad. Solely upon the advice of the Prime Minister, the Sovereign exercises many statutory and prerogative powers, including high judicial, political, official and Church of England ecclesiastical appointments; the conferral of peerages and some knighthoods, decorations and other important honours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "31717",
"title": "United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Politics.:Government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "The position of prime minister, the UK's head of government, belongs to the person most likely to command the confidence of the House of Commons; this individual is typically the leader of the political party or coalition of parties that holds the largest number of seats in that chamber. The prime minister chooses a cabinet and its members are formally appointed by the monarch to form Her Majesty's Government. By convention, the monarch respects the prime minister's decisions of government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31726",
"title": "Politics of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Executive.:The United Kingdom Government.:The Prime Minister and the Cabinet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "The Prime Minister is the most senior minister in the Cabinet. They are responsible for chairing Cabinet meetings, selecting Cabinet ministers (and all other positions in Her Majesty's government), and formulating government policy. The Prime Minister being the de facto leader of the UK, he or she exercises executive functions that are nominally vested in the sovereign (by way of the Royal Prerogatives). Historically, the British monarch was the sole source of executive powers in the government. However, following the lead of the Hanoverian monarchs, an arrangement of a \"Prime Minister\" chairing and leading the Cabinet began to emerge. Over time, this arrangement became the effective executive branch of government, as it assumed the day-to-day functioning of the British government away from the sovereign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31726",
"title": "Politics of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Executive.:The United Kingdom Government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 991,
"text": "The monarch appoints a Prime Minister as the head of Her Majesty's Government in the United Kingdom, guided by the strict convention that the Prime Minister should be the member of the House of Commons most likely to be able to form a Government with the support of that House. In practice, this means that the leader of the political party with an absolute majority of seats in the House of Commons is chosen to be the Prime Minister. If no party has an absolute majority, the leader of the largest party is given the first opportunity to form a coalition. The Prime Minister then selects the other Ministers which make up the Government and act as political heads of the various Government Departments. About twenty of the most senior government ministers make up the Cabinet and approximately 100 ministers in total comprise the government. In accordance with constitutional convention, all ministers within the government are either Members of Parliament or peers in the House of Lords.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2152548",
"title": "List of Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1143,
"text": "The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of the Government of the United Kingdom, and chairs Cabinet meetings. There is no specific date for when the office of Prime Minister first appeared, as the role was not created but rather evolved over a period of time through a merger of duties. However, the term was regularly if informally used of Walpole by the 1730s. It was used in the House of Commons as early as 1805, and it was certainly in parliamentary use by the 1880s. In 1905 the post of Prime Minister was officially given recognition in the order of precedence. Modern historians generally consider Sir Robert Walpole, who led the government of Great Britain for over twenty years from 1721, as the first Prime Minister. Walpole is also the longest-serving British prime minister by this definition. However, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman was the first and Margaret Thatcher the longest-serving Prime Minister officially referred to as such in the order of precedence. The first to use the title in an official act was Benjamin Disraeli, who signed the Treaty of Berlin as \"Prime Minister of her Britannic Majesty\" in 1878.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9778229",
"title": "Gen 75 Committee",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "The Government of the United Kingdom is directed by the cabinet, a group of senior government ministers led by the Prime Minister. Most of the day-to-day work of the cabinet is carried out by cabinet committees, rather than by the full cabinet. Each committee has its own area of responsibility, and their decisions are binding on the entire cabinet. Their membership and scope is determined by the Prime Minister.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32443",
"title": "Vanuatu",
"section": "Section::::Government.:Politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The Prime Minister, who is the head of government, is elected by a majority vote of a three-quarters quorum of the Parliament. The Prime Minister, in turn, appoints the Council of Ministers, whose number may not exceed a quarter of the number of parliamentary representatives. The Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers constitute the executive government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
6y5ti8
|
the old testament, new testemant, and the koran all have passages denouncing and prohibiting the practice of collecting interest on loans, so when and how did this practice become accepted in society?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not quite that extreme -- notably the Old Testament only said not to charge interest to the poor, or within the Jewish community. This left Jews free to charge interest to others.\n\nIt became more permissible over time, as the definition of usury moved from \"charging any interest\" to \"charging an unfair amount of interest.\"\n\nIt is still not acceptable under Islamic law, though, not even today.",
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"answer": "The Western World's view on interest changed during the reneissance, when loans were used for production rather than consumption as had been the case in the past. There's the practical reality that it is very difficult for a modern economy to exist without lending. Without interest lending cannot exist on a wide scale. I have no incentive to loan a stranger 100 dollars, if the best case scenario is I get my money back, and the worst case scenario is I lose some or all of my money, if the debtor fails to pay me back.",
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"answer": "There's a chapter in Tim Kuran's The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East (it takes a scholarly look at the legal and financial institutions of Islam, I promise it isn't some garbage Islamophobic apology for western imperialism) that deals with this question and compares how the Abrahamic religions' different responses to the injunction against usury affected Muslims, Jews and Christians and the development of civilizations.\n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": "The Knights Templar were a very devout Christian group that charged an admin fee of sort to not directly charge interest. From what I understand, they are the predecessors to our modern banks. \n\nThis short article mentions Jewish bankers being allowed to charge interest, but I'm not sure of its trustworthiness as it lacks citing. \n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": "Where does it say that in the New Testament?",
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{
"answer": "For Christians , Muslims and Jews it was a sin to loan money in order to collect interest\n\nExcept for Jews it was a sin to loan *to Jews* for interest, anyone else was fair game\n\nSome Christians would have Jews loan money on their behalf as a loophole \n\nThis is likely the origin of Jewish banker stereotype",
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"answer": "OP, if you are interested in this subject, I strongly advise you to read \"Debt: the first 5000 years\".",
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{
"answer": "I would assume that a lot of people didn't like giving out loans as they didn't get anything in return. So people probably wanted a loan and said something like can I borrow $5, then the person would say no then they would say something like \"I will repay you $5 plus $1 if you let me borrow the money now\". Then it probably just happened a lot and when the sums got bigger so did the amounts you would have to payback on top.",
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{
"answer": "Islam still doesn't allow interest. \n\nIn an Islamic mortgage, the bank buys the house at the agreed price from the seller. The bank then immediately sells it to the person who is actually buying it for higher than the agreed price, to be paid in smaller amounts, often each month as in a normal mortgage. In that way, the bank is getting an extra payment for having put up the big amount of money to make the purchase, but is not getting interest on a loan: it is getting the price of the house as agreed between seller and buyer, but in parts rather than all at once. \nEDIT: not an expert on the detail. Please direct follow-ups to your local middle eastern bank. ",
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"answer": "Pretty sure it's not accepted in Muslim society, but they follow their scripture a bit more literally. It was so nice when I was visiting Egypt, though. No ATM fees withdrawing from my bank account no matter how many times I did it! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pretty sure the Jews made bank during the Renaissance, literally.\n\nAll other religions poo-pooed interest, but the Jews were cool with it and apparently started loaning money during the Renaissance.\n\n\"Bank\" is apparently derived from 'banc', which means 'bench' (as in a park bench). This is where they conducted the transactions. ",
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"answer": "/r/askhistorians?\n\nThough if all of those religious texts prohibited the practices of collecting interest on loans, it was probably accepted in society before they were written, so there's a good chance your answer is \"since time immemorial\".",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "The answers below stating that charging interest in Islam is still prohibited are not full answers. \n\nSpecifically, Islam prohibits “ربا” (riba). It translates more or less to “usury,” but people have never agreed exactly what it constitutes. Today, Muslims generally agree that “riba” means interest, and that interest is therefore prohibited, but that’s not always been the case, and there are still scholars that disagree. More broadly, “riba” means something like unjust gains, and charging interest can be considered one form of unjust gains.\n\nAs evidence to the fact that there is no definitive meaning of “riba” and there never has been, the second Rashidun Caliph, who lived from 584 to 644 C.E., is quoted as having said: \n\"There are three things. If God's Messenger had explained them clearly, it would have been dearer to me than the world and what it contains: kalalah, riba, and khilafah.\" \n\nThe first term refers to inheritance for individuals without heirs. The last word means Caliphate, which in the simplest, broadest definition is an Islamic polity ruled by a Caliph. As one might envision, none of these are very easy to concepts define or tackle, which is why “riba” is included among them. They have always confused people and caused debate, and continue to do so. (E.g., ISIS or Da’ish claims it is a Caliphate, but most people disagree.) \n\nLastly, as has been mentioned elsewhere in the comments, there are Islamic banks today that differ in the way they loan money to people. They don’t technically charge interest. In effect, however, they charge interest. They just give it a different name and set up repayment agreements a little bit differently than we’re used to. \n\nSo in sum, it’s not totally clear that Islam prohibits interest, but people today broadly agree, as a matter of consensus, that it does.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Muslim here..\n\nI suppose the whole thing was directed at loan sharks and those that abuse the system through compound interest..\n\nOr those that provide loans to those unable to repay or sustain them.\n\nAs it is i find little difference between being charged a higher monthly price for something.. after it is bought on your behalf (trade)\n\nOr paying a fixed percentage increase until the term is fulfilled (interest)\n\n...no clue what happens if you cant make payment though.\n\nIronically here is one of the largely relating passages from the quran.\nThose who consume interest cannot stand [on the Day of Resurrection] except as one stands who is being beaten by Satan into insanity. That is because they say, \"Trade is [just] like interest.\" But Allah has permitted trade and has forbidden interest. So whoever has received an admonition from his Lord and desists may have what is past, and his affair rests with Allah. But whoever returns to [dealing in interest or usury] - those are the companions of the Fire; they will abide eternally therein.\n\n\n",
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"answer": "In Christian Middle Ages technically you didn't pay \"interest\", you just repaid the loan, plus an agreed upon fee for banking services. Which _just so happened_ to amount to the same thing.\n\nAfter centuries of basically doing that, people got used to it, and stopped bothering with the distinction.\n\nMany Muslims still use those loans with pretend-it's-not-interest interest - in practice there's really no difference, and many mainstream banks offer those, they just differ in terminology used.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "In all zero/extreme low growth societies interest must be hindered or prohibited as it will be practically impossible to ever pay it of. Religion does among other things function as an ideology to restrict certain forms of behaviour detrimental to society. Interest is in basically all cases detrimental to society in precapitalist social relations. Most religions will adapt to the change in social relations thus allowing it as it's not really a problem in the same way anymore. Beacuse it's quite reasonable to expect an increase in relative wages (or profits) over time in a growing economy interest is not that bad. In many Islamic countries it is still not allowed but as someone else commented they have a system that adapts. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Most people in my city are muslims, including myself, and I'm not even that educated on the matter. However, from what I've learned it is technically prohibited to take out loans/pay interest, but many people look past it here because if someone needs house for a family or even just for themselves, it's not always easy to come up with money on the spot and sometimes there's no way around avoiding a loan/interest since being homeless isn't really an option. This is just anecdotal and from my experience in the United States so I can't speak for countries in the middle east or even all muslims in general.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Historically the Jews couldn't loan Jews money with interest. However non Jews were fair game. So Jewish communities since the Romans made their incomes doing just that. It is also one of the primary reasons that Jewish groups were thrown out of countries over 100 times through history, because it was easier to remove the creditors than pay them. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Can only speak for Sharia (read Islamic law). It doesn't ban interest, it bans \"usury\". Usury is never very clearly defined in the Qauran, so it is really open to interpretation. As a result you have banks that won't even offer credit cards, all the way to home loans with 5% interest. Really runs the gambet. \n\nOne result of these types of banks and the loans they typically supply, is that they are heavily involved, and take a really hands-on approach to make sure the loan is paid back. Much more similar to how local banks in the US dealt with loans 50+ years ago. Also more expensive to scale (for the bank, not for society).",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The Medici Bank was basically what's called accounts receivable factoring, where they bought amounts die to someone else in the future for a discounted price today.\n\nFlorence got a papal sanction to compel its people to buy bonds that paid interest to fund wars. The Vatican allowed it because the people weren't choosing to lend at interest, so it wasn't a sin.\n\nBanking evolved from there. I highly recommend Niall Ferguson's *The Ascent of Money* if you've got an interest in the history of how the financial system evolved.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "What I have been told is that this is the result how the three monotheist groups have understood it :\n\nJudaism : They can collect interest from non Jews because of their status. \n\nChristianity : They do not collect but have no problem paying interest since they're not receiving it.\n\nIslam : They can't be part of any step of it whether it's charging or paying interest because in both cases you'll be keeping the usury system running, so they're accountable in both cases.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "It's not a practice that pays off in your favour. It's enriching an unknown \"organism\", so that that organism can continue to enrich itself. Basically you're building pyramids for your unknown Pharaohs and it doesn't magically trickle back down to you. It's hard to build a house without a mortgage but it probably shouldn't be set up this way either. \n\nNo one can convince me though that giving up twice your wealth for something worth half that is somehow fair or justifiable. It's just something we've been socialized in to believe is normal, but it's not a \"normal\" aspect of society to let yourself give away all you've worked for so that some random dude you'll never meet gets to buy himself another yacht.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Answer with an emphasis on Christianity. It's important to note that for Christianity, and I believe for all three, usury is banned, not \"charging interest on loans.\" The definition of usury is the key question.\n\n1. Islam still does not permit charging interest.\n\n2. In Judaism it was permitted to charge interest to outsiders, at least. More complete answers have been given.\n\n3. Christianity specifically says no usury. This was interpreted as \"no interest\" up until the Reformation. Not sure if this only applied to fellow Christians, but since nearly everyone was nominally Christian, the effect was a total ban in Europe. \nAfter the Reformation, Protestant theologians questioned many Catholic doctrines, to eventually include the definition of usury. Where before it was interpreted as charging any interest, it was now interpreted as charging excessive interest. This allowed Christians to loan money to each other and charge interest. This did not happen immediately, but it did happen over time. \nAdditionally, most Protestant states eventually began to separate church and state to avoid the issues they saw with the previous system under Catholicism and to protect the many new shades of theology that were coming into being under the freedom Protestantism gave the individual believer to read and think about scripture themselves. This meant that religious law was less likely to be state law, and so the question of what amount of interest was excessive became more and more a question of personal conscience, rather than of law.\n\nAs a note, a previous commenter named the secular Renaissance as the reason for the changing rules. This is incorrect, though the Reformation and the Renaissance occupy similar points in time, often resulting in effects of the Reformation being attributed to the Renaissance, which is more in vogue with society today.\n\nAlso, it was under the old definition that Jews developed a reputation as moneylenders. Their rules allowed charging interest to Christians, and Christians seeking loans could only get them from Jews (because without interest, no Christian had incentive to lend to others). Jewish bankers/moneylenders became an important part of the economy, albeit a popular reviled one, as bankers often are. This system extended past the actual Reformation - see the fact that the Jewish stereotype still existed when Shakespeare was writing - but over time the new interpretation of usury did take hold across Christianity, and it did so as a result of the Reformation.\n\nedit: formatting. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I'm currently reading Yuval Harari's \"Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind\" and I believe that he may have an answer to your question. \n\nHis answer is that when those texts were written, people generally didn't believe in progress and that next week could be better than this week because in order to improve your livelihood (slice of the pie), people believed that you would have to impact someone else's livelihood by taking a slice of their pie. Hence they believed that the \"size of the pie\" was fixed. But when people started to believe in progress, the \"pie\" could grow and anyone with enough resources and new inventions could create more pie without taking it from someone else. This was all closely linked to the Scientific Revolution. Without the idea of a better future, loans were often small, short-term, and high-interest. That's when these texts were written. Once progress became the accepted norm, individuals could more easily obtain large, long-term, and low-interest loans.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "The book \"Sapiens\" discusses this as a function of our changing views on capital and growth- before the advent of capitalism innovation and growth were viewed completely differently and therefore all lending was seen as generally equivalent to what we consider predatory lending today, and often was.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "[Usury](_URL_0_), the charging of interest on personally-guaranteed loans, is and always has been forbidden by the Catholic Church. Aquinas describes it as trying to sell something and the use of the thing separately; selling wine and permission to drink the wine, because money is something that is \"consumed in its use.\"\n\nIn other words, if I rent you a car, you can use the car without consuming it - when you're done you still have the car. This applies for many things - houses, tools, etc. But if I rent you *money* - that money's whole purpose is to be *used up* - so if I am charging interest (usury) I am asking for rent for something that doesn't exist - because the money has been spent.\n\nIt is interesting (haha) to consider that the debt crisis of 2008 couldn't have happened if usury had still been prohibited.",
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"answer": "I'm guessing it became accepted before the old testament, new testament and the Koran were written. Otherwise, why would they even bother with the warning?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Paying and receiving interest for a Muslim is a sin. Doesn't matter if he pays or receives from a non Muslim.\nUsury is one of the greater sins in Islam along with putting up equals to Allah (God), murder, fornication, practice of black magic. Usury is in there too (along with some more things)\n\nSome verses regarding usury:\n\n2:275\n\nالَّذِينَ يَأْكُلُونَ الرِّبَا لَا يَقُومُونَ إِلَّا كَمَا يَقُومُ الَّذِي يَتَخَبَّطُهُ الشَّيْطَانُ مِنَ الْمَسِّ ۚ ذَٰلِكَ بِأَنَّهُمْ قَالُوا إِنَّمَا الْبَيْعُ مِثْلُ الرِّبَا ۗ وَأَحَلَّ اللَّهُ الْبَيْعَ وَحَرَّمَ الرِّبَا ۚ فَمَنْ جَاءَهُ مَوْعِظَةٌ مِنْ رَبِّهِ فَانْتَهَىٰ فَلَهُ مَا سَلَفَ وَأَمْرُهُ إِلَى اللَّهِ ۖ وَمَنْ عَادَ فَأُولَٰئِكَ أَصْحَابُ النَّارِ ۖ هُمْ فِيهَا خَالِدُونَ\n\nThose who eat Riba (usury) will not stand (on the Day of Resurrection) except like the standing of a person beaten by Shaitan (Satan) leading him to insanity. That is because they say: \"Trading is only like Riba (usury),\" whereas Allah has permitted trading and forbidden Riba (usury). So whosoever receives an admonition from his Lord and stops eating Riba (usury) shall not be punished for the past; his case is for Allah (to judge); but whoever returns [to Riba (usury)], such are the dwellers of the Fire - they will abide therein.\n\n\n2:278\n\nيَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا اتَّقُوا اللَّهَ وَذَرُوا مَا بَقِيَ مِنَ الرِّبَا إِنْ كُنْتُمْ مُؤْمِنِينَ\n\nO you who believe! Be afraid of Allah and give up what remains (due to you) from Riba (usury) (from now onward), if you are (really) believers.\n\n----\n\n2:279\n\nفَإِنْ لَمْ تَفْعَلُوا فَأْذَنُوا بِحَرْبٍ مِنَ اللَّهِ وَرَسُولِهِ ۖ وَإِنْ تُبْتُمْ فَلَكُمْ رُءُوسُ أَمْوَالِكُمْ لَا تَظْلِمُونَ وَلَا تُظْلَمُونَ\n\nAnd if you do not do it, then take a notice of war from Allah and His Messenger but if you repent, you shall have your capital sums. Deal not unjustly (by asking more than your capital sums), and you shall not be dealt with unjustly (by receiving less than your capital sums).\n\n---\n\n2:280\n\nIf the debtor has a hard time paying his debt:\n\nوَإِنْ كَانَ ذُو عُسْرَةٍ فَنَظِرَةٌ إِلَىٰ مَيْسَرَةٍ ۚ وَأَنْ تَصَدَّقُوا خَيْرٌ لَكُمْ ۖ إِنْ كُنْتُمْ تَعْلَمُونَ\n\nAnd if the debtor is in a hard time (has no money), then grant him time till it is easy for him to repay, but if you remit it by way of charity, that is better for you if you did but know.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "A lot of what other people have been saying about Islam applies to pretty much every Abrahamic religion. Judaism prohibits \"רבית\", which is also interest, but hundreds if not thousands of years ago people were circumventing these prohibitions by technical \"loopholes\", like making the loan technically an investment and stuff like that.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "It never became accepted, just very profitable and now normal. People sin all the time in temptation for lust and greed. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Not a direct and complete answer, but with easy consumer bankruptcy usury is less serious than when these faiths began. With problematic bankruptcy or debtor's prison, usury is a way for people with money to get absolute power over people without money. \n\nMuch of Europe has difficult (by US standards) bankruptcy. Much of the rest of the world, even developed economies such as Dubai, either have debtor's prison today or have only recently limited it. \n\nTL;DR Easy bankruptcy limits the damage usury can do, there is more than a little wisdom in banning usury where bankruptcy is difficult or impossible. ",
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"answer": "**Old Testament on Usury**\n\nEven though you were allowed to charge a neighbor usury on the OT you were still not allowed to defraud them.\n\n**Deu 23:20** Unto a stranger thou mayest lend upon usury; but unto thy brother thou shalt not lend upon usury: that the LORD thy God may bless thee in all that thou settest thine hand to in the land whither thou goest to possess it. \n\n**Lev 19:13** Thou shalt not defraud thy neighbour, neither rob him: the wages of him that is hired shall not abide with thee all night until the morning. \n\n**New Testament on Usury**\n\nYou cannot serve God and money (Mammon). You are to love your neighbor as yourself. Just like the old testament it is still wrong to oppress the poor.\n\n**Mat 22:39** And the second is like unto it, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. \n\n**Matthew 5:42** Give to the one who asks you, and do not turn away from the one who wants to borrow from you.\n\n**Luke 6:34-35** And if you lend to those from whom you expect repayment, what credit is that to you? Even sinners lend to sinners, expecting to be repaid in full. But love your enemies, do good to them, and lend to them without expecting to get anything back. Then your reward will be great, and you will be children of the Most High, because he is kind to the ungrateful and wicked.\n\n**Luke 6:38** Give, and it will be given to you. A good measure, pressed down, shaken together and running over, will be poured into your lap. For with the measure you use, it will be measured to you.\n\n**Mat 6:24** No man can serve two masters: for either he will hate the one, and love the other; or else he will hold to the one, and despise the other. Ye cannot serve God and mammon. \n\n**Answer of the question**\n\nTo answer your question how did this become accepted in both Jewish and Christian societies. When man chooses money over God and the love of his neighbor then he is in the wrong. It has never been acceptable to serve money this way. But through the hardness of men's hearts it has been allowed even at the times it was specifically wrong. Because humans have always been basically the same. Some people have always loved money more than their neighbors.",
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"answer": "Surprised nobody mentioned Calvin yet. In Christianity usury was prohibited—most the Christian mediaeval canons were strictly oppositional to all interests—until John Calvin penned his *Letter of Advice on Usury* (De Usuris Responsum) in 1545 directing the precept \"lend hoping for nothing in return\" away from being a bar on usury but toward an encouragement to help the poor: \n\n > Now we are accustomed to lending money where it will be safe. But we ought to help the poor, where our money will be at risk. For Christ’s words far more emphasize our remembering the poor than our remembering the rich. Nonetheless, we need not conclude that all usury is forbidden.\n\nThe letter, given its overall conservative tone, has been interpreted and reinterpreted, but incontrovertible is the fact that it sees usury as not a vice but a practice that needs to be reviewed. (Note that in his *Commentaries on Psalm 15:5* he goes on to distinguish between lawful and unlawful usury.) Other people, of course, had penned similar letters to Calvin's, but Calvin's, given its conservative tone, was the one to be accepted by the ecclesiastic. Nonetheless, the acceptance of this letter by the ecclesiastic is one of the more radical (i.e. fundamental) changes in the Christian outlook, but is in line with what was happening at the time and what went on happening for the next few centuries (until now)—namely the reappropriation of the figure of the devil and sins in Christendom. (William Blake's *Marriage of Heaven and Hell* is a prime example of this. In the most general terms, Blake urges that one must triumph through, rather than completely abstain from, sins in order to feel God.)\n\nThis, of course, is the often proselytised view of the \"whose mistake was it!\" game that academia plays. I'm not Christian, nor am I a Divinity scholar. Just thought somebody should bring this up.",
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{
"answer": "I just can't help but to feel that the bible and how we apply it to every day life is sort of a \"best fit\" type of situation. Which is why there are so many interpretations of it and how some parts are taken more seriously than others. \n\nThe bible mentions homosexuality as being bad in passing. Never is it a pillar of Christianity. Yet this is hyper focused on while other, more important, teachings are ignored or looked over. \"Thou shall not commit adultery\" is a pretty big rule. I mean so big in fact that the bible lays out 10 specific commandments. Like ten rules that are more important than all others. Nowhere in those 10 does it say homosexuality is bad. It does however say that adultery is bad. There were 10 rules. Ten rules that god said \"these are the 10 most important rules\" yet nobody vilifies the guy cheating on his wife. They rather wish to do away with the gays. \n\nThis is just another rule of convenience. The bible said don't take interest on loans. People were like, well this is like a metric shit ton of money we are missing out on. Let's take another gander at this one and see if there is some loophole. \n\nThere are a lot of teachings of the bible that were taken very literally and turned into law for periods of time in many civilizations. It's just that like many religions, the teachings are interpretations of words and passages written thousands of years ago. In the context of a time long past. We must interpret the stories and teachings into our modern day lives. Just how our constitution is interpreted. Problem is, we are humans and tend to attach out bias to things. If one rule proves to be more of a burden on our lives it is changed or adapted to what some might interpret as following the bible. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Funny thing is, one of the signs before the day of judgement is the increase of people dealing in \"riba\" which is interest in Arabic, in Islam there are minor sings and then follow major signs, and the prophet pbuh said that when the major signs come, they'll be as fast as a pearl necklace with the pearls dropping off, in other words they'll come one after the other.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "It is interesting to know that before the rise of industrial capitalism (around 1760 in England) all economies which ever existed had no natural growth. Economies were static, in Jesus time, but also in the Middle Ages. The only way to expand your economy was to conquer new land or to exploit more slave-labourers (one small exception was trading with far away cultures). It's a weird fact, but a farmer in 16th hundred France wasn't richer than a Roman peasant around 200BC. Today a modern farmer is 40times richer than his old counterparts (300 years of capitalism! Yeah! ;)...\n\nBecause economies didn't grow back then, every profit was the loss of someone else. That's why interests are forbidden by all holy books. Interests on loans could be catastrophic for the normal populace and bankrupt them pretty easily. Today interests are not a big problem, because they are covered by growth. Back then the loaner got way richer, and the farmer bankrupt. \n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "historically seen if they have passages forbidding the practice then said practice must already have been known and relatively widespread",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "6510049",
"title": "Ki Teitzei",
"section": "Section::::Readings.:Fourth reading — Deuteronomy 23:8–24.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "In the continuation of the reading, Moses forbade the Israelites to charge interest on loans to their countrymen, but they could charge interest on loans to foreigners. A closed portion (, \"setumah\") ends here.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2671675",
"title": "History of banking",
"section": "Section::::Religious restrictions on interest.:Judaism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "It was the interpretation that interest could be charged to non-Israelites that would be used in the 14th century for Jews living within Christian societies in Europe to justify lending money for profit. As this conveniently side stepped the rules against usury in both Judaism and Christianity as the Jews could lend to the Christians as they are not Israelites and the Christians were not involved in the lending but were still free to take the loans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "8066513",
"title": "Loans and interest in Judaism",
"section": "Section::::In classical rabbinical literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "The Mishnah forbids the drawing of interest and dividends from investments, arguing that people should instead buy land and draw income from it. The Mishnah also counts gifts, which aim to encourage the offering of loans, to be a form of interest, paid in advance; similarly, gifts given in thanks for a loan, are another form of interest, according to the Mishnah, even if the loan is repaid when the gift is offered. It even goes so far as to forbid the loaning of things other than money since by the time the loan had to be repaid, the market value of the loaned thing could have risen, which effectively constituted interest; likewise, the exchange of labour between two individuals was forbidden by the Mishnah, if the work by one of the individuals would be more laborious than the other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234706",
"title": "Usury",
"section": "Section::::Hebrew Bible.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Israelites were forbidden to charge interest on loans made to other Israelites, but allowed to charge interest on transactions with non-Israelites, as the latter were often amongst the Israelites for the purpose of business anyway; but in general, it was seen as advantageous to avoid getting into debt at all, to avoid being bound to someone else. Debt was to be avoided and not used to finance consumption, but only taken on when in need; however, the laws against usury were among many laws which the prophets condemn the people for breaking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2671675",
"title": "History of banking",
"section": "Section::::Religious restrictions on interest.:Judaism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Israelites were forbidden to charge interest on loans made to other Israelites, but allowed to charge interest on transactions with non-Israelites, as the latter were often amongst the Israelites for the purpose of business anyway, but in general, it was seen as advantageous to avoid debt at all, to avoid being bound to someone else. Debt was to be avoided and not used to finance consumption, but only when in need. However, laws against usury were among many the prophets condemn the people for breaking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8066513",
"title": "Loans and interest in Judaism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The subject of loans and interest in Judaism has a long and complex history. In the Hebrew Bible (the Old Testament of the Christian Bibles), the Book of Ezekiel classifies the charging of interest among the worst sins, denouncing it as an abomination and metaphorically portraying usurers as people who have shed the borrower's blood. The Talmud dwells on Ezekiel's condemnation of charging interest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234706",
"title": "Usury",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "Originally, usury meant the charging of interest of any kind and, in some Christian societies and even today in many Islamic societies, charging any interest at all was considered usury. Some of the earliest known condemnations of usury come from the Vedic texts of India. Similar condemnations are found in religious texts from Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (the term is \"riba\" in Arabic and \"ribbit\" in Hebrew). At times, many nations from ancient Greece to ancient Rome have outlawed loans with any interest. Though the Roman Empire eventually allowed loans with carefully restricted interest rates, the Catholic Church in medieval Europe banned the charging of interest at any rate (as well as charging a fee for the use of money, such as at a bureau de change). Religious prohibitions on usury are predicated upon the belief that charging interest on a loan is a sin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2k6ypw
|
why does the us currently not have a surgeon general?
|
[
{
"answer": "In name only, the acting Surgeon General is Boris Lushniak. The Senate must vote to confirm such an appointment and good luck on that these days.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We do, just not a permanent one. The previous Surgeon General, Regina Benjamin, resigned last year; currently [Boris Lushniak](_URL_0_) is filling the position until the President appoints (and Congress confirms) a replacement.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Congress wont approve the nominee as the NRA objects and the Republican House members take their orders from the people with the money. Many federal judge appointments are also vacant for political reasons. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "219354",
"title": "Surgeon General of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The surgeon general of the United States is the operational head of the U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps (PHSCC) and thus the leading spokesperson on matters of public health in the federal government of the United States. The surgeon general's office and staff are known as the Office of the Surgeon General (OSG) which is housed within the Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "219354",
"title": "Surgeon General of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "The U.S. surgeon general is nominated by the president of the United States and confirmed by the Senate. The surgeon general must be appointed from individuals who (1) are members of the Regular Corps of the U.S. Public Health Service, and (2) have specialized training or significant experience in public health programs. The surgeon general serves a four-year term of office and, depending on whether the current assistant secretary for health is a Public Health Service commissioned officer, is either the senior or next most senior uniformed officer of the commissioned corps, holding the rank of a vice admiral. The current surgeon general is Jerome Adams, having taken office on September 5, 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "637136",
"title": "Surgeon general",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "In the United States, the chief public health officer is the Surgeon General of the United States and many states have their own state surgeons general. Moreover, three of the U.S. military services have their own surgeon general, namely the Surgeon General of the United States Army, Surgeon General of the United States Navy, and Surgeon General of the United States Air Force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7129124",
"title": "Surgeon General of the United States Army",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "The Surgeon General of the United States Army is the senior-most officer of the U.S. Army Medical Department (AMEDD). By policy, the Surgeon General (TSG) serves as Commanding General, U.S. Army Medical Command (MEDCOM) as well as head of the AMEDD. The surgeon general's office and staff are known as the Office of the Surgeon General (OTSG) and are located in Falls Church, Virginia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219354",
"title": "Surgeon General of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Service rank.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 865,
"text": "The surgeon general is a commissioned officer in the U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps, one of the seven uniformed services of the United States, and by law holds the rank of vice admiral. Officers of the Public Health Service Commissioned Corps are classified as non-combatants, but can be subjected to the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) and the Geneva Conventions when designated by the commander-in-chief as a military force or if they are detailed or assigned to work with the armed forces. Officer members of these services wear uniforms that are similar to those worn by the United States Navy, except that the commissioning devices, buttons, and insignia are unique. Officers in the U.S. Public Health Service wear unique devices that are similar to U.S. Navy staff corps officers (e.g., Navy Medical Service Corps, Supply Corps, etc.).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23614653",
"title": "State Surgeon General",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "A State Surgeon General is the operational head and senior spokesperson on public health in a single state of the United States of America, the state equivalent of the Surgeon General of the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219354",
"title": "Surgeon General of the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Some surgeons general are notable for being outspoken and/or advocating controversial proposals on how to reform the U.S. health system. The office is not a particularly powerful one, and has little direct statutory impact on policy-making, but Surgeons General are often vocal advocates of precedent-setting, far-sighted, unconventional, or even unpopular health policies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6wzxql
|
How will the waters actually recede from Harvey, and how do storms like these change the landscape? Will permanent rivers or lakes be made?
|
[
{
"answer": "I Googled this yesterday cause I was afraid to ask on here. I am curious of the actual paths it takes to get to the gulf. The only thing I can imagine is how a tsunami rapidly recedes back to the ocean but I know that isn't how this works. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would like to piggyback on this question if I could...\n\nWould draining the 2 reservoirs they're having problems with (the Addicks and Barker) before the hurricane hit not have kept the water out of the Bayou and out of those neighborhoods close by?\n\nWhy would they not have done this beforehand?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The way waters recede is two fold, the first is the simplist to understand, the ground is porus and the water is absorbed into the porus ground. The second is the water flow, water always flows to the lowest point. So as the water either is absorebed into the ground or into lakes or rivers that then flow into the gulf. As that water is moved the rest of the water follows. \n\nAnd while we had some rough patches here in houston, the fact taht the ground was not saturated with water made everything a whole lot better as the floow waters mostly stayed while it was raining but receded fairly quickly after the rain stopped.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Dams, levees, and storm water drainage systems are usually piles of dirt covered in specifically chosen breeds of grass and clay that form a really durable root system that acts as a self-healing water barrier. Or they use concrete. \n\nUnless pumped, water will always flow down hill. Houston sees predictable amounts of rain, so every street and development has a drainage system that plugs into a municipal system. Everything points downhill and gets there eventually. \n\nHowever, this all only works if the \"end\" of the system is lower than everything else. Right now, that isn't true in Houston. Where ever their collective wastewater is supposed to be going is now higher or equal to what drains into it, so the water doesn't flow. \n\nIf you have 2ft of water in your house, when that drainage basin lowers by 2ft your house will no longer be flooded. Kinda. ",
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"answer": "Water will recede in basically same way as in the normal, non-flooding rain. \n\nThere are two (three) types of [runoff](_URL_1_) (= outflow/discharge). We have direct runoff and basic runoff. \n\nOne part of direct runoff is surface runoff: water is no longer being soaked up by soil, because soil is fully saturated, therefore water can only flow on the surface. \n\nOther type of direct runoff is hypodermic runoff - water is [infiltrated](_URL_2_) to the soil, but above groundwater level, only in soil capillaries, where it's flowing away.\n\nAbout basic runoff, this is the [groundwater runoff](_URL_0_), where water in zone of saturation(=aquifier), beneath the groundwater level, flows off.\n\nWhen you have flood, all soil is fully saturated even in aeration zone, above groundwater level, so soil is not able to soak up water and water is not able to infiltrate into the soil, so it stays on the ground. Or there is precipitation so strong, water cannot infiltrate into the soil in time. But, in time, all that water flows away, because groundwater is basically connected system of water bodies, so excess water is distributed to other areas via basic runoff and via basic runoff, especially surface runoff, it flows back to terrain depression, rivers and other areas with low altitude. In this area it's the gulf of Mexico for most of this excess water.",
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"answer": "One issue that is more prevalent in Louisiana is when cemeteries are flooded, the coffins come up. There are many small family cemeteries, some centuries old. \n\nThey found coffins months after Hurricane Rita just piled up in some rural wooded areas. \n\n[story](_URL_0_)\n",
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"answer": "I'm a semester away from graduating with a degree in soil science, so I'll answer this as it pertains to soil.\n\nThe most important concept to understand before I delve into this is that everything moves through soil via water. This includes nutrients, pollutants, minerals, etc.\n\nThe large scale scope of a flood like this is pollution and soil erosion. When soil is flooded to the point that water can no longer infiltrate, it begins transporting the top 2 layers of soil. This is the organic layer (such as leaf litter) and the surface layer (topsoil). These are the two most nutrient rich layers of soil, and often the most polluted (by pesticides, foreign chemicals, or trash). This is not good for a few reasons:\n\n1. The main source of nutrients have now been stripped from the plants.\n\n2. The sub-surface layers are exposed, and from what I understand about Texan soil, this is mostly clay.\n\n3. Pollutants are now being transported and dumped into waterways or varying soil environments. \n\nSome of the nutrients will be returned to soil elsewhere, but most of these nutrients will flow to waterways and into the ocean. This will not be good for the Gulf, as it is already hypoxic (lack of dissolved oxygen due to nutrient runoff. Essentially, the large amount of nutrients results in algae blooms which deprives the water of oxygen). The reduction of plant matter will also reduce the stability of the soil, meaning it will be more likely to erode in the future. \n\nThe second portion of this is that clay now becomes the surface layer. Because clay is so small, it takes water significantly longer to move through the soil profile, thus lowering the hydraulic conductivity. This means water runoff will now become a large problem in the affected areas for months or years to come.\n\nThe third portion is pollutants. Chemicals and trash are now being transported to different soils and waterways. Not good.\n\nAs for the smaller scope impacts, soil horizons will become disrupted. Soil stability will be negatively impacted. Nutrients will be forced through the horizons quicker, leaving a deprived soil. Many soil microbes (the most important indicator of soil health, depending on who you ask) will be killed off.\n\nSo, yeah. It's disastrous for soil and the overall environmental health of the area.\n\nEDIT: Also, as for plants, many can survive being submerged for up to a weekish. Many cannot. The flooding will inhibit root nutrient uptake, which will result in decay. Water-logged roots are also more susceptible to organisms that specialize in root-rot. \n\nEDIT2: /u/BadBadger42 asked a question about highly expansive clays. These are what we call shrink-swell soils. The clay fraction is expanded in area when water-logged, which causes extra stress on infrastructure. This is the leading cause of flooding basements, and why many buildings in Texas do not have basements. Taking a look at [this soil map of Texas](_URL_1_), most of the area effected is Vertisol. I'm sure you've all noticed a vertisol before, when it dries it looks like [this](_URL_0_). The \"swell\" of the soil is caused by the micropores between the clay particles becoming over-saturated - and when it dries (\"shrinks\") those cracks are left behind. Vertisol is the shrink-swell classification of soil. I would imagine that the effects of shrink-swell on infrastructure will be exacerbated by the flooding. ",
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"answer": "As a flood engineer i wish i came here sooner to answer a few questions. \n\nBut the main thing is that a number of vectors will remove the water due to gravity. Namely sewers, ground drains, good old evaporation, lay of the land, local ground geology, tidal differences to name a few. Once the hurricane has passed though then levels will drop fairly quickly.\n\nThe biggest problem will be both the environmental (mobilised sewage etc...) and physical property damage that has occured.\n\nLots of standing water means mozzies and vermin. Contaminated waters means polluted ground water sources, damaged agriculture infrastructure, dead livestock, crops wiped out and quarantined/destroyed (certain crops absorb harmful nasties). \n\nInfrastructure wise lots of work gutting out the drainage system and clearing hurricane damage will take place. Damaged electricity/phone/gas infrastructure will need checking too. \n\nNow let's talk about the houses that are damaged. \n\nThere are typical damage assessments that can be done but there are 2 typical factors that ultimately determine damage costs and severity - the depth of water and the time water stays around (ok and type of building materials used)\n\nAnything typically above 400mm for a day or 2 means that the lower floor needs gutting and requires a complete rework.\n\nNow think of this in terms of demands locally. Every homeless person will need rehousing, every house will require skilled trades to repair them(and they WILL be in demand). It will take years for all affected properties to be repaired by all trades.\n\nBut as a starter for then why not google what happened during hurricane katrina or the 2005 flooding carlisle in the UK. Some of the stats are just mindblowing and heartbreaking.\n\nPs also google the lake levels rises during hurricane Katrina due to the low air pressure alone. It makes for amazing reading.\n\nSource : i am really a flood engineer 😊\n\nEdit: Thank you for my first ever gold(s!!!) and all your messages.",
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"answer": "There's a lot of climate science being discussed by those who I suspect are not climate scientists. I'm not one of them either. But I do have some questions for both climate scientists and civil engineers if any see this and are willing to answer- \n\n1) Is the urban landscape of Houston contributing to or lessening the effects of the flood? I.e.- is the freeway system, neighborhood structure, sewer systems a player here? Is there a optimal way to build- besides putting everything on stilts, that could abate this kind of flooding?\n\n2) Whether or not Harvey can be attributed to AGW, are there local climate effects that exacerbate or mitigate these kinds of storms, such as the heat island effect?\n\nThanks!",
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"answer": "I'm a Professional Engineer in Pennsylvania who consults in stormwater management.\n\nQ1: Water will recede just like any other storm, it will just take MUCH longer. In an urban setting like Houston, it will flow into storm drains along the curb, into small pipes like 18” diameter, then those feed into larger pipes like 48” or even concrete box culverts which might be 15’ wide by 4’ high (the possible dimensions are endless). Those large pipes/culverts drain into the streams and rivers. Everything eventually keeps draining downhill to the ocean, bay, bayou, etc. \n\nQ2: In general, this probably won’t change much regarding the landscape. It will look like the same place as it did before, except structures around main drainage channels may have washed away.\n\nQ3: No permanent lakes or rivers will be made. Everything will drain naturally in a matter of days. If there is a low spot that doesn’t drain by gravity to a storm sewer, channel, stream, etc., that depression could hold water longer but it will eventually infiltrate into the soil and/or evaporate.\n\nUp here in Pennsylvania, we design pipes/culverts to carry up to the 100-year storm which would be like 8” of rain in 24 hours. Not sure what they design for down south, but their 100-year storm is probably like 12”+ of rain in 24 hours. This hurricane is dumping 4+ feet in some areas so there’s no way to drain that much water very quickly. Just have to wait.",
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"answer": "The sediment portion of river bottoms exist in a state of equilibrium with deposition and removal rates. Generally, as the flow of water increases it will expand upwards and/or flow faster, whichever requires the least mechanical energy. \n\nAs the speed of water flow increases, its competence, or ability to carry sediment increases. Erosion rates will increase, and deposition rates will decrease on a section of river. Thus, during an increased flow event, the river will carve downwards as well as along the banks. \n\nFlow rate competencies differ by py particle size. Silt sized phyllosilicates are the most easily eroded. Clay particles, which are even more fine, tend to resist erosion more up to a certain threshold, but they stay longer in suspension and so travel farther. Sand, pebbles and boulders all require greater competence to move, but they often move by skipping along the bottom, increasing erosion more than water alone would. \n\nWhen flow rates start to decline, deposition rates will increase relative to erosion rates, but with the new channel shape, some of the removed material may be replaced due to slower flow rate with the normal amount of available surface water. \n\nAs to the geomorphology component of the question, when water overflows a river bank, it slows down. When this happens, it's competence is reduced, and sediment starts to fall out of suspension. The larger particles fall out first, overall nearest the bank of the river. This creates a slope leading away from the river into the flood plain. This slope is known as a natural levee.\n\nOver very large spans of time, rivers tend to flow fastest at the outer bend of a meander, and slowest at the inner side. The effect of competence causes the inner point bar to grow, while the outer portion of the meander erodes the cutbank, which expands. Sedimentary basins, when viewed from above, tend to be littered with old meander scars. ",
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"answer": "If you want a good example of a change that occurred due to a storm, look at the inlet at Ocean City, MD. While it was made permanent due to human intervention, its creation came about due to a storm that hit Maryland's eastern shore.",
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"answer": "They'll recede the same way normal rain does... through any natural \"drain\" feature to a lower elevation. It will just take longer since there's more water.\n\nIf you dump water slowly into your tub with the drain open, the tub will not collect any water. If you dump it in fast enough, the tub will fill/flood/overflow. But it will still drain, and once you stop adding water it will eventually empty. Until it finishes draining though, the flood will remain standing.\n\n > Will permanent rivers or lakes be made?\n\nNo matter how much water you add, or how fast, you won't ever permanently fill the tub, unless of course the water being added is so forceful that it changes the landscape, i.e. it collapses your tub and causes broken rubble to fill in the drain hole.\n\nLikewise, if there is some closed container where water collects after the hurricane, then it also would have collected there after a normal rain. Because it's a closed container. Not because of how much water fell.",
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"answer": "Our modernity has caused us all to believe that the people came first, and not the environment. But incidentally, the water is more natural to this flood plain than the people, and that is the challenge here. From an urban planning and development zoning perspective, there are many advocates who attempt to shy away from development in zones and regions where water in natural flooding events is the norm and not the exception. For thousands of years, this region was naturally channeled by waterways, and drainage streams which directed the tidal waters 'to and fro' in and out of the Houston area. Sadly, humanity has plugged all the natural paths water would have taken out to the ocean. Galveston Bay is less than twenty miles in some cases from many parts of the Houston Metroplex.\n\nHumanity has paved over much of the land, land which others have commented on soils and drainage. Parking lots for shopping centers, hospitals, work centers have left once porous fields shielded from the earth. These concrete and asphalt masks on the earth are what stops the water from being naturally absorbed and redistributed back into the lower laying water laded areas of the geographic region. (The same happens in high temperature areas, where asphalt traps heat, and causes *heat islands* where once 'no infrastructure' allowed the heat to dissipate more quickly, so too, in the concrete jungles of Houston and New Orleans, and other areas near the ocean prone to hurricanes.)\n\n*How will the waters recede from Harvey?* Quite naturally via gravity. From highest to lowest, and sometimes via your basement, but all the water will reach the ocean, save for the delay it takes to get over the parking lots, the tract housing basements and other impediments to its flow. Again, water is King. \n\n*How do storms like these change the landscape?* One hopes that the flooding will cause people to rethink rebuilding in flood prone areas, and especially in the middle of floodplains, but these events are once in a decade, and thus cause complacency in the residents of these homes and residences who gamble as to when the next one will occur and rebuild. \n\n*Will permanent rivers or lakes be made?* Only if the cities affected (*affected* verses *effected* by hurricane events and post-flooding) by it, insist on it. Otherwise they aren't learning from this event, and don't make drastic changes in planning and zoning law, to remove habitable residential and business areas from the floodplain, or at least mitigate the odds that it will happen sooner or later, at great costs to those who don't mind the floodplain pattern. But again, since these events are cycles of 10 to 100 years, the necessity will only be delayed so long as everyone can be soothed into another false sense of security. Look to New Orleans, which is the neighboring city to Houston, to understand the dynamics of this hurricane prone region. Where once cities would pack up and move inland to spare them the future fate of such natural occurrences we find ourselves repeating history, instead of in New Orleans, at Houston (and again, the humans in these areas have only been around for less than 130 years on the grand scale, so of course these communities would be shocked at such a level of devastation.) But this is urban planning, and if urban planners ruled the government, perhaps homes would be spared because they wouldn't be sited where water rules the landscape.\n\nedit;Syntax.spelling. ",
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"answer": "After the Great Flood of 2016 in the Baton Rouge area, many areas remain fully saturated today because of broken culverts and debris in canals. Doesn't help, we depend on the water flow to filter South, where flooding is now occuring (which can cause a wave of water to flow up...think of waves coming and going) Harvey's passing through now has left standing water now that is not fully draining, but not really flooding. Most homes (estimated at 60%) are not fully finished due to lack of qualified contractors and lack of building supplies. Of those 60%, only 30% are living in their not fully finished homes, leaving the rest displaced and looking for housing in a market with low inventory. Hurricane season is no joke and more serious than taken.",
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"answer": "Something similarly horrifying (albeit part human error) happened with the [Salton Sea] (_URL_0_). \n\nit's got quite an errie vibe. Hot In SoCal, deserted trailers from the 50's halfway buried in sand. A law chair, somehow, still planted where its long dead owner once placed it. The Dunes don't deserve a second blink, untill your get close enough to get it in between your toes. Its not sand, but rather decades of stocking fish in a toxic lake caused the entire sediment layer to be a mass grave. \n\ncool shit. ",
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"answer": "Civil Engineer here, storm sewers will/are flowing at full capacity towards their outfall (pond, creek, river), and depending on where you live and what your municipal standards are, there are storm drainage systems that will naturally infiltrate rain water back into the soils water table. But seeing the capacity of the flood, and everything flowing at full capacity there could be problems of the amount of water in the soil causing the storm sewers to settle & could potentially crack/rupture. \n\n",
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"answer": "I can say this as I lived in Houston for many many years and was there during Allison. One of the biggest and hardest things I remember to recover from then was the tunnels in Houston. \n\nDowntown Houston is interconnected by a series of tunnels that go from building to building all over downtown. This is where a majority of us ate , occasionally shopped and used to get from building to building all around. \n\nThe amount of mold , stench and rot that covered downtown for probably a solid year if not two. The entire downtown had pumps and huge fans constantly removing water and trying to air out the tunnels to try to dry them. The smell , the damage and rot was unbearable at time and I can't remember exactly how long it took them to rebuild this. \n\nThe damage done to houses and buildings and hwys is only complicated by the fact Houston sits at I believe 100 feet above sea level. There is no place for the water to \"run off\" too so it's a slow drain that allows for standing water to continue to fester. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "19202482",
"title": "Kimberley–Perth Canal",
"section": "Section::::Water source.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "To prevent damage to the river, the surrounding environment and fish, surplus wet-season flood flow would be pumped from the river inland from the coast and transported by canal, avoiding interference with the eco-sensitive flood plain, then stored by aquifer recharge in and re-gathered from the La Grange Aquifer – a long natural underground lake – to provide a variable wet-season buffer supply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "70117",
"title": "Floodplain",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "The floodplain during its formation is marked by meandering or anastomotic streams, oxbow lakes and bayous, marshes or stagnant pools, and is occasionally completely covered with water. When the drainage system has ceased to act or is entirely diverted for any reason, the floodplain may become a level area of great fertility, similar in appearance to the floor of an old lake. The floodplain differs, however, because it is not altogether flat. It has a gentle slope downstream, and often, for a distance, from the side towards the center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "383793",
"title": "Lake Peipus",
"section": "Section::::Topography and hydrography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The lake water is fresh, with a low transparency of about due to plankton and suspended sediments caused by the river flow. Water currents are weak ; they are induced by the wind and stop when it ceases. However, during the spring flood, there is a constant surface current from north to south \"(it does not make sense)\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "40630",
"title": "Beach",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "If storms coincide with unusually high tides, or with a freak wave event such as a tidal surge or tsunami which causes significant coastal flooding, substantial quantities of material may be eroded from the coastal plain or dunes behind the berm by receding water. This flow may alter the shape of the coastline, enlarge the mouths of rivers and create new deltas at the mouths of streams that had not been powerful enough to overcome longshore movement of sediment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "703561",
"title": "Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta",
"section": "Section::::Effects of the levee system and freshwater diversion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Diversions located at the southern end of the Delta, however, have negated some of the benefits of upstream dams. The powerful pumps that supply water for the Central Valley Project and State Water Project cause water in the Delta to flow from north to south instead of the natural direction of east to west. This has caused multiple environmental issues, such as the disruption of fish migration and salinity buildup in the eastern Delta, where salts can no longer be flushed to the sea by natural river flows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "293199",
"title": "Hollandse IJssel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "If the North Sea floods, the Hollandse IJssel allows water through the Rotterdam Waterway to flood low-lying land east of Rotterdam. The Delta Works included a steel barrier that can be lowered within minutes to block the waterway. The sea protection constructions were built at the mouth of the Hollandse IJssel in 1957.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4866758",
"title": "Merwede",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "During a second flooding event (the St. Elizabeth floods) a major breach in the coastal dunes of Holland created an inlet that would eventually reach the Merwede, thus creating a new, more southerly and shorter path to the sea. Most of the flow of the river Meuse, and a considerable part of the flow of the Rhine (by means of the Waal), were rerouted to this new pathway (the current Biesbosch, Hollands Diep and Haringvliet). From that time on, the Oude Maas and Nieuwe Maas received little water from the Meuse. In recent centuries the influence of the Meuse has decreased even further, to the point that the major stretches of river called Oude Maas and Nieuwe Maas have been essentially cut off from the river Meuse completely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1w9lvn
|
how did an oppressive nation get picked for the winter olympics?
|
[
{
"answer": "The IOC do not make hosting decisions lightly. Ru$$ia mu$t have had an excellent pre$entation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How the hell did China get picked for Summer Olympics? The same way, promising freedom and reforms at selection time, then letting the money filter through its corrupt, rotten bureaucracy up through the opening games while instituting no real reforms. Then they get to put The Olympics on their national resume without shifting the slightest towards more humane ideals. (In fact, human rights in Russia have probably suffered in Russia since Sochi was selected. Pussy Riot, Anti-gay laws...)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You do realize the Olympics were literally held in Nazi Germany, right? They don't generally care about the human rights status of the host country, and even if they did, there are far worse nations than Russia.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While I appreciate the nature of the question, I feel it fair to ask two questions in return:\n\n1) Can it be stated with a degree of certainty that an \"oppressive country\" being *allowed* to host the Olympics would make them *more oppressive* (in comparison to a less oppressive country)?\n\n2) Can it be stated with a degree of certainty that an \"oppressive country\" being *disallowed* to host the Olympics would make them *less oppressive* (in comparison to a less oppressive country)?\n\nIf the answer is no to both, then what point would be served by not allowing them to host the Olympics?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34069",
"title": "Winter Olympic Games",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 866,
"text": "The Winter Olympic Games have been hosted on three continents by twelve different countries. They have been held four times in the United States (1932, 1960, 1980 and 2002), three times in France (1924, 1968 and 1992) and twice each in Austria (1964 and 1976), Canada (1988 and 2010), Japan (1972 and 1998), Italy (1956 and 2006), Norway (1952 and 1994) and Switzerland (1928 and 1948). Also, the Winter Olympic Games have been held just once each in Germany (1936), Yugoslavia (1984), Russia (2014) and South Korea (2018). The IOC has selected Beijing, China, to host the 2022 Winter Olympics and the Italian cities of Milan and Cortina d'Ampezzo to host the 2026 Winter Olympics. , no city in the Southern Hemisphere has applied to host the cold-weather-dependent Winter Olympic Games, which are held in February at the height of the Southern Hemisphere's summer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49369",
"title": "1928 Winter Olympics",
"section": "Section::::Participating nations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Athletes from 25 nations competed at these Games, up from 16 in 1924. Nations making their first appearance at the Winter Olympic Games were Argentina (first participation of a delegation coming from a country belonging to the Southern Hemisphere), Estonia, Germany, Japan, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, and Romania.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15533114",
"title": "List of participating nations at the Winter Olympic Games",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "This is a list of nations, as represented by National Olympic Committees (NOCs), that have participated in the Winter Olympic Games between 1924 and 2018. The Winter Olympic Games have been held every four years (once during each Olympiad) since 1924, except for the cancelled Games of 1940 and 1944, and in 1994 when the Winter Games were moved to the middle of the Olympiad, two years after the previous Games. 119 NOCs (110 of the current 206 NOCs and 9 obsolete NOCs) have participated in at least one Winter Games, and twelve nations (Austria, Canada, Finland, France, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Poland, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States) have participated in all twenty-three Winter Games to date. Including continuity from Czechoslovakia, the Czech Republic and Slovakia have also been represented in every edition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44301409",
"title": "Colonialism and the Olympic Games",
"section": "Section::::Land disputes, poverty and cultural appropriation at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver, British Columbia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1054,
"text": "Again building on lessons learned from previous Olympic Games held in Canada, the 2010 Winter Games saw an unprecedented level of involvement by and collaboration with indigenous people, namely in the form of the Four Host First Nations (FHFN). Composed of representatives from the Lil'wat, Musqueam, Squamish, and Tsleil-Waututh First Nations from the Vancouver and Whistler areas, the FHFN was created to ensure that \"their cultures and traditions are respected and showcased throughout the planning, staging, and hosting of the 2010 Winter Games\". But former Neskonlith chief Arthur Manuel has argued that the FHFN was created to \"divide and rule over indigenous peoples in Canada\" and that \"Canada is deliberately trying to buy its way around its terrible human rights record by creating a media spin behind the Four Host First Nations\". Calling the FHFN a \"cheap and shallow scheme\", he points out that in 2007 Canada was one of only four countries to vote against the adoption of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15533114",
"title": "List of participating nations at the Winter Olympic Games",
"section": "Section::::History.:Recent Games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "In October 1986, the IOC had voted to hold the Olympic Winter Games halfway through the four-year Olympiad, rather than in the same year as the summer Games, and this change started with the XVIIth Olympic Winter Games in 1994 in Lillehammer, Norway. A total of 67 nations took part, including the Czech Republic and Slovakia as independent teams, and each of the ex-Soviet nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34069",
"title": "Winter Olympic Games",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.:1984 to 1998.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Sapporo, Japan, and Gothenburg, Sweden, were front-runners to host the 1984 Winter Olympics. It was therefore a surprise when Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, was selected as host. The Games were well-organised and not affected by the run-up to the war that engulfed the country eight years later. A total of 49 nations and 1,272 athletes participated in 39 events. Host nation Yugoslavia won its first Olympic medal when alpine skier Jure Franko won silver in the giant slalom. Another sporting highlight was the free dance performance of British ice dancers Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean; their \"Boléro\" routine received unanimous perfect scores for artistic impression, earning them the gold medal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2195309",
"title": "Bids for Olympic Games",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "What follows is a list of the cities that have bid to host any of the Summer and Winter Olympics. 50 cities (including repeats) have been chosen to host the Olympics since their \"rebirth\"; two in Eastern Europe, five in East Asia, one in South America, two in Oceania and the remainder in Western Europe and North America. No Central American, African, Central Asian, Middle Eastern, South Asian, or Southeast Asian city has ever been chosen to host an Olympics. That is a result of the fact that Western countries are more prepared to host the Olympics and are able to stage profitable Games. Furthermore, Western countries are democracies, and that is also a factor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
18k8lm
|
Is it actually possible to increase your alcohol tolerance?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sadly yes. Alcohol tolerance proceeds pretty slowly, and it can take years to build up an appreciable tolerance, unless drinking is very heavy. Tolerance occurs mostly because of a diminished number of GABA receptors. The worst part about this particular tolerance is that those receptors are responsible for nerve attenuation. In the extreme forms of alcoholism this means that abrupt cessation of alcohol intake can lead to cardiac or pulmonary arrest, strokes, seizures, and therefore death.\n\nEdit: To rephrase, yes, you can raise your tolerance, but the process is called alcoholism and is terribly bad for your body and an extremely dangerous thing to flirt with",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2990841",
"title": "Alcohol tolerance",
"section": "Section::::Consumption-induced tolerance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Alcohol tolerance is increased by regular drinking. This reduced sensitivity requires that higher quantities of alcohol be consumed in order to achieve the same effects as before tolerance was established. Alcohol tolerance may lead to (or be a sign of) alcohol dependency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337566",
"title": "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption",
"section": "Section::::Other systems.:Rheumatoid arthritis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The researchers noted that moderate alcohol consumption also reduces the risk of other inflammatory processes such as cardiovascualar disease. Some of the biological mechanisms by which ethanol reduces the risk of destructive arthritis and prevents the loss of bone mineral density (BMD), which is part of the disease process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4031803",
"title": "Social inhibition",
"section": "Section::::Reduction.:Alcohol consumption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1240,
"text": "Alcohol consumption also has the ability to lower inhibitions in a positive way. Research has been conducted looking at the way an intoxicated person is more inclined to be helpful. Researchers were of the same opinion that alcohol lowers inhibitions and allows for more extreme behaviors, however, they tested to see if this would be true for more socially acceptable situations, such as helping another person. The researchers acknowledged that, generally, an impulse to help another is initiated but then inhibitions will cause the potential helper to consider all factors going into their decision to help or not to help such as, lost time, boredom, fatigue, monetary costs, and possibility of personal harm. The researchers suggest that while one may be inhibited and therefore less likely to offer help when completely sober, after consuming alcohol enough damage will be done to their inhibitory functioning to actually increase helping. While this suggestion differs from socially negative behaviors that are seen after social inhibitions have been lowered, it is consistent with the idea that alcohol consumption can lower inhibitions and, as a result, produce more socially extreme behaviors when compared to a sober counterpart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2990841",
"title": "Alcohol tolerance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Alcohol tolerance refers to the bodily responses to the functional effects of ethanol in alcoholic beverages. This includes direct tolerance, speed of recovery from insobriety and resistance to the development of alcoholism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337566",
"title": "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "The best available current evidence suggests that consumption of alcohol (chemically known as ethanol) does not improve health. Previous assertions that low or moderate consumption of alcohol improved health have been deprecated by more careful and complete meta-analysis. Heavy consumption of ethanol (alcohol abuse) can cause severe detrimental effects. Health effects associated with alcohol intake in large amounts include an increased risk of alcoholism, malnutrition, chronic pancreatitis, alcoholic liver disease and cancer. In addition, damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur from chronic alcohol abuse. Even light and moderate alcohol consumption increases risk for certain types of cancer. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51805386",
"title": "Subjective response to alcohol",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical models.:Low Level of Response Model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "The Low Level of Response Model proposes that individuals who are less sensitive to the effects of alcohol are at greater risk for developing alcohol use disorder. One explanation for this phenomenon is that the experiences of elevated intoxication constitutes a feedback mechanism, which prompts drinking cessation. Low-level responders need to consume more alcohol than high responders to achieve a similar level of intoxication and experience the aversive effects of alcohol; consequently, these individuals must consume more alcohol to trigger the negative feedback loop. Escalating alcohol consumption may ultimately contribute to the development of tolerance, which further dampens sensitivity to alcohol's unpleasant effects. Notably, there is no population-level demarcation separating low from high responders and so level of response is arbitrarily defined (generally in terciles) within a given sample.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4031803",
"title": "Social inhibition",
"section": "Section::::Reduction.:Alcohol consumption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Social inhibition can be lowered by a few different factors, one of them being alcohol. Alcohol consumption can be seen to lower inhibitions in both men and women. Social inhibitions generally act to control or affect the way that one conducts themselves in a social setting. By lowering inhibitions alcohol can work to increase social behaviors either negatively or positively. Importantly, one must remember that the higher the dosage of alcohol, the greater the damage it will cause to inhibitory control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
281mt1
|
Why not 1024bit encryption or beyond?
|
[
{
"answer": "512 bit encryption gives you about 10^154 possible keys. If you took every single atom in the known universe and somehow turned every single one of them into the fastest supercomputer ever build, it would still take an unimaginable many times the age of the universe to try all possibilities. While quantum computers lower that number, it doesn't really change the overall message. Forget about it. \n\nThe only caveat is where there are better attacks than simply trying all possibilities. Eg. RSA do use 1024 and higher bit encryption.\n\n**Edit: No**, I did not mix up symmetric and asymmetric encryption. I explicitly wrote that if you can do better than simply trying all keys the first argument does not apply. And even used RSA as an example. If an attacker wants to find the prime factors by simply trying all primes (simple brute force) he essentially has to go through all possible numbers of up to the length of the key. \n\nYou point out he can skip composite numbers. But by the prime number theorem about every log(N) number is a prime, so for 1024 bit keys that's about every 1000 integer. So that only gives you something like 10 bits of security less.\n\nAnd that's even ignoring the problem of how an attacker knows if a number is prime or not. He could skip even numbers and perhaps a few other tricks, but in reality that would not gain him much. The main reason RSA keys are so long is because we have much better attacks than brute force.\n\nThis has nothing to do with symmetric or asymmetric in particular. I could make a symmetric scheme that was secure but still had better than brute force attacks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4132805",
"title": "BitLocker",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "BitLocker is a full volume encryption feature included with Microsoft Windows (Pro and Enterprise only) versions starting with Windows Vista. It is designed to protect data by providing encryption for entire volumes. By default, it uses the AES encryption algorithm in cipher block chaining (CBC) or XTS mode with a 128-bit or 256-bit key. CBC is not used over the whole disk; it is applied to each individual sector.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7247692",
"title": "Security and safety features new to Windows Vista",
"section": "Section::::Encryption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "BitLocker, formerly known as \"Secure Startup\", this feature offers full disk encryption for the system volume. Using the command-line utility, it is possible to encrypt additional volumes. Bitlocker utilizes a USB key or Trusted Platform Module (TPM) version 1.2 of the TCG specifications to store its encryption key. It ensures that the computer running Windows Vista starts in a known-good state, and it also protects data from unauthorized access. Data on the volume is encrypted with a Full Volume Encryption Key (FVEK), which is further encrypted with a Volume Master Key (VMK) and stored on the disk itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4132805",
"title": "BitLocker",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "BitLocker is a logical volume encryption system. (A volume spans part of a hard disk drive, the whole drive or more than one drive.) When enabled, TPM and BitLocker can ensure the integrity of the trusted boot path (e.g. BIOS and boot sector), in order to prevent most offline physical attacks and boot sector malware.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53039",
"title": "Key (cryptography)",
"section": "Section::::Key sizes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "A key length of 80 bits is generally considered the minimum for strong security with symmetric encryption algorithms. 128-bit keys are commonly used and considered very strong. See the key size article for a more complete discussion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3395256",
"title": "Disk encryption theory",
"section": "Section::::Problem definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "The second property requires dividing the disk into several \"sectors\", usually 512 bytes ( bits) long, which are encrypted and decrypted independently of each other. In turn, if the data is to stay confidential, the encryption method must be \"tweakable\"; no two sectors should be processed in exactly the same way. Otherwise, the adversary could decrypt any sector of the disk by copying it to an unused sector of the disk and requesting its decryption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "487403",
"title": "40-bit encryption",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "40-bit encryption refers to a key size of forty bits, or five bytes, for symmetric encryption; this represents a relatively low level of security. A forty bit length corresponds to a total of 2 possible keys. Although this is a large number in human terms (about a trillion, nearly two hundred times the world's human population), it is possible to break this degree of encryption using a moderate amount of computing power in a brute-force attack, \"i.e.\", trying out each possible key in turn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2289648",
"title": "Windows Vista",
"section": "Section::::New or changed features.:Security-related.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 1305,
"text": "Whereas prior releases of Windows supported per-file encryption using Encrypting File System, the Enterprise and Ultimate editions of Vista include BitLocker Drive Encryption, which can protect entire volumes, notably the operating system volume. However, BitLocker requires approximately a 1.5-gigabyte partition to be permanently not encrypted and to contain system files in order for Windows to boot. In normal circumstances, the only time this partition is accessed is when the computer is booting, or when there is a Windows update that changes files in this area, which is a legitimate reason to access this section of the drive. The area can be a potential security issue, because a hexadecimal editor (such as dskprobe.exe), or malicious software running with administrator and/or kernel level privileges would be able to write to this \"Ghost Partition\" and allow a piece of malicious software to compromise the system, or disable the encryption. BitLocker can work in conjunction with a Trusted Platform Module (TPM) cryptoprocessor (version 1.2) embedded in a computer's motherboard, or with a USB key. However, as with other full disk encryption technologies, BitLocker is vulnerable to a cold boot attack, especially where TPM is used as a key protector without a boot PIN being required too.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2dhkhg
|
how do they film the scenes where an explosion-esque event happens, the movement pauses, and the camera moves through?
|
[
{
"answer": "Multiple cameras at different angles. If you set a bunch of cameras up in a row and record with all at once you can move to the same timestamp in each camera and have a different view of the same second.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bullet time is great for orbiting an object.\n\n To move through an object, you'd probably use a combination of bullet time and 3d projection mapping depending on how much panning and rotation you want to do with the camera. With 3D projection mapping you're essentially pasting parts of the 2d image onto boxes/planes in a 3d space. Let me put it this way, let's say you have a scene of people walking away from a blowing up car that you want to truck through. Essentially you'd have a projector for each charactor, a projector for the car, and a couple of projectors for several layers of the explosion. When you put them at different depths (the car the furthest back, then the layers of the explosion and then the people), you can then stop the frame and 'walk' in between all of them. For the background footage, you'd just record with a high-speed camera at a large resolution). If you need further explanation, I can make a quick graphic for it. Some examples of this can be found here: _URL_0_\n\nThe Phillips Carosel used a combination of projection mapping, and a ton of wire-work or steps to keep the actors in place as seen in the making of:_URL_1_\n\nIf it's purely CGI, then 'stopping time' is very easy do because you CAN stop 'time' (or animations) for anything but the camera.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3328486",
"title": "I Stand Alone (film)",
"section": "Section::::Style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "The camera is usually stationary throughout the film, but this trend is sometimes contrasted by abrupt, rapid movements of the camera. The sudden movements are always accompanied by a loud sound effect, usually an explosive gunshot. A notable exception is the final crane shot, which moves gently away from the Butcher's window and turns to look down an empty street.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33278282",
"title": "Intentional camera movement",
"section": "Section::::Relation to motion blur.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "A special case occurs when the camera is moved during exposure while keeping it pointed at a moving target, so as to hold its projection on the recording medium steady. The stationary environment (usually mainly background, but possibly also some foreground) then is subjected to ICM and appears streaked in the final image.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2748709",
"title": "Brick (film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Special effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Filming a car driving slowly in reverse, then playing the footage backwards at a higher speed gives the illusion of a car quickly approaching as the camera darts in front of it stylishly. Clever fades give the impression of time changes while smash cuts add tension to a scene in which the protagonist wakes up after passing out. Certain edits were also introduced to the film to time footage to different dialogue, adding certain information and leaving other information out. These edits are noticeable, as the actors' mouths are not always moving in sync with their dialogue. One particular scene, in which de Ravin's character floated toward the camera, used a green screen, but it was edited out of the film before its completion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4535769",
"title": "The Gunpowder Plot: Exploding the Legend",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "For the interior filming, fifteen small digital cameras were used, including PD150s. For the external shots of the explosion, a slow motion camera was used, not the type typically used in television filming. Advanitca used them to study the explosions frame by frame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30007",
"title": "The Matrix",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Visual effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "The film is known for popularizing a visual effect known as \"bullet time\", which allows a shot to progress in slow-motion while the camera appears to move through the scene at normal speed. Bullet time has been described as \"a visual analogy for privileged moments of consciousness within the Matrix\", and throughout the film, the effect is used to illustrate characters' exertion of control over time and space. The Wachowskis first imagined an action sequence that slowed time while the camera pivoted rapidly around the subjects, and proposed the effect in their screenplay for the film. When John Gaeta read the script, he pleaded with an effects producer at Mass.Illusion to let him work on the project, and created a prototype that led to him becoming the film's visual effects supervisor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74535",
"title": "Plane Crazy",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "This was the first animated film to use a camera move. The POV shot from the plane made it appear as if the camera was tracking into the ground. In fact, when they shot this scene, they piled books under the spinning background to move the artwork closer to the camera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53730257",
"title": "One (Casualty)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "The pre-title sequence, which features a house explosion, was filmed separately to the rest of filming for practical reasons, although Shipton stated that everything after the opening sequence is \"48 minutes of continuous filming\". The explosion was also filmed in one take and at a similar time to studio filming. Julian Spencer, the episode's stunt coordinator, found the explosion sequence challenging due to the one-shot element, although he thought it went well and said that it was \"raw\". Neighbours to the house used for filming the explosion were warned about possible \"disturbance\" during filming beforehand and the two houses facing the stunt house had their windows covered to avoid debris from the explosion breaking them. Eyewitnesses to the explosion said that film-makers made the explosion appear \"authentic\". Sen labelled the stunt \"a big explosive − in every sense of the word − beginning\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14mrmi
|
Are the Bosnian pyramids man-made or nature-made?
|
[
{
"answer": "None of the actual experts take it seriously. It's a natural hill, and the people who in their ignorance refuse to accept this have wrecked genuine sites of archaeological interest in their random digging.\n\nThere's nothing to this claim, it is pseudo-archaeology of the rankest sort.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3777541",
"title": "Bosnian pyramid claims",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "The 'Bosnian pyramid complex' is a pseudoarchaeological notion to explain the formation of a cluster of natural hills in central Bosnia and Herzegovina. Since 2005, Semir Osmanagić, also known as Sam Osmanagich, a Bosnian businessman now based in Houston, Texas, has claimed that these hills are the largest human-made ancient pyramids on Earth. His claims have been overwhelmingly refuted by scientists but he has proceeded to promote the area as a tourist attraction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4852080",
"title": "Semir Osmanagić",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Semir Osmanagić (born 1 June 1960, Zenica, SFR Yugoslavia), also known as Sam Osmanagich, is a Bosnian businessman, based since 1992 in Houston, Texas, United States. He is best known for promoting his pseudo-archaeological project in central Bosnia (near the town of Visoko) related to the so-called \"Bosnian pyramids\". Osmanagić claims that a cluster of natural hills in central Bosnia and Herzegovina are the largest human-made ancient pyramids on Earth. He has conducted extensive marketing about the site and promoted tourism there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4852080",
"title": "Semir Osmanagić",
"section": "Section::::Bosnian pyramids claim.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "The 'Bosnian Pyramid' project is alleged to have done considerable damage to the archaeological heritage of the area, which contains ruins of a medieval capital, Roman observation post, and earlier remains. Anthony Harding, Professor of Archaeology at Exeter University and then-president of the European Association of Archeologists, said that, \"Osmanagić is conducting a pseudo-archaeological project that, disgracefully, threatens to destroy parts of Bosnia's real heritage.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4852080",
"title": "Semir Osmanagić",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "An enthusiast of pyramids, Osmanagić completed a doctorate in social sciences but does not have a science background in any archaeological field. Professional geologists, archaeologists and other scientists have directly refuted his claims about the central Bosnian hills; they have concluded — after direct analysis of the site, its known history, and excavations — that the hills are common natural formations known as flatirons with no signs of human construction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4852080",
"title": "Semir Osmanagić",
"section": "Section::::Bosnian pyramids claim.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "In April 2005, Osmanagić was invited to visit Visočica and its fortress ruins. During the visit Osmanagić noticed the pyramidal shape of Visočica hill. He subsequently wrote a book promoting the claim that the hill was the remains of an ancient, man-made pyramid, which he claimed was one of five colossal stone structures in the shape of a pyramid with an extensive prehistoric tunnel network. He named those structures \"Bosnian pyramids\", and established a charitable foundation, the 'Archaeological Park: Bosnian Pyramid of the Sun Foundation', to fund the promotion and investigation of the site. Osmanagić claimed that he wished to excavate in order to \"break a cloud of negative energy, allowing the Earth to receive cosmic energy from the centre of the galaxy\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36474009",
"title": "Pyramid G1-d",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "All the stonework of the pyramid core had been removed in ancient times. What remains of the superstructure core is two courses of stone. There was also a substructure which was U-shaped but this was destroyed in antiquity. During the excavation the actual apex stone of the pyramid, a single piece of fine Tura-quality limestone, was found. It is the second oldest pyramidion ever found, the earliest belonging to the North Pyramid of Sneferu discovered by Rainer Stadelmann at Dahshur. This rare find has been left in place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4967387",
"title": "Visočica hill",
"section": "Section::::Pyramid claims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "All scientific investigations have concluded that Visočica hill and the surrounding hills are natural geological formations known as a flatirons, and no scientific study has demonstrated the existence of man-made pyramids in Bosnia. Archaeologists have criticised the Bosnian authorities for supporting the pyramid claim saying, \"This scheme is a cruel hoax on an unsuspecting public and has no place in the world of genuine science.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1tqt6u
|
How accurate is the history in the Master and Commander Series?
|
[
{
"answer": "hi! not discouraging anyone from contributing any more info - especially a general assessment - but FYI, there have been several questions on various aspects of this series. Check out these posts for previous responses\n\n[What would happen if you are a PoW during the Napoleonic wars and escape, go back into service, and then captured again?](_URL_7_)\n\n[How were 18th/19th century marines kept separate from sailors?](_URL_6_)\n\n[How much did the officers of Nelson's Navy actually eat?](_URL_5_)\n\n[How did banks work before telegraphs/phones became available?](_URL_0_)\n\n[What sort of treatment could an impressed American sailor expect in the Royal Navy?](_URL_1_)\n\n[Why did mutinous sailors in the 18th-19th century British Royal Navy roll cannonballs?](_URL_3_)\n\nthe film\n\n[How accurate is Master and Commander's portrayal of 19th century naval warfare/life at sea?](_URL_4_)\n\n[How accurately do movies such as \"Master and Commander\", portray naval combat in the late 1600- early 1800s? What was naval combat like from a crewman's perspective and was it really as deadly as the movies?](_URL_2_)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "145627",
"title": "Master and Commander",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Master and Commander is a nautical historical novel by the English author Patrick O'Brian, first published in 1969 in the US and 1970 in UK. The book proved to be the start of the 20-novel Aubrey-Maturin series, set largely in the era of the Napoleonic Wars, that O'Brian continued working on up until his death in 2000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56727562",
"title": "The Commanders",
"section": "Section::::Premise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "\"The Commanders\" was described by History as an \"anthology scripted series envisioned as an annual television event ranging from four to 10 hours in length. It will dramatize pivotal moments in U.S. history that defined the legacy of the men who served as Presidents of the United States — from the first one, George Washington, to No. 42, Bill Clinton.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "370858",
"title": "Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "Master and Commander: The Far Side of the World is a 2003 American epic period war-drama film co-written, produced and directed by Peter Weir, set in the Napoleonic Wars. The film's plot and characters are adapted from three novels in author Patrick O'Brian's Aubrey–Maturin series, which includes 20 completed novels of Jack Aubrey's naval career. The film stars Russell Crowe as Jack Aubrey, captain in the Royal Navy, and Paul Bettany as Dr. Stephen Maturin, the ship's surgeon. The film, which cost $150 million to make, was a co-production of 20th Century Fox, Miramax Films, Universal Pictures, and Samuel Goldwyn Films, and released on November 14, 2003. The film grossed $212 million worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145627",
"title": "Master and Commander",
"section": "Section::::Literary significance and criticism.:Later reviews.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Although \"Master and Commander\" and its immediate sequels had received at first a somewhat muted reception in the US, in Britain and Ireland the voices of praise continued to increase and gradually became dominant. By 2000, O'Brian's reputation was such that his American biographer Dean King was able to place \"Master and Commander\" at the start of what he called the author's magnum opus, a twenty-novel series that has become perhaps the best-loved \"roman fleuve\" of the twentieth century: \"[an] epic of two heroic yet believably realistic men that would in some ways define a generation\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2104328",
"title": "Twenty-Four Generals of Takeda Shingen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "The Twenty-Four Generals (武田二十四将, \"Takeda Nijūshi-shō\") were just one of many historically famous groupings of battle commanders from Japan's Sengoku Period. These Twenty-Four were the most trusted companions of Takeda Shingen. A third of them died at the famous Battle of Nagashino in 1575 when they led the Takeda forces against Oda Nobunaga.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56727562",
"title": "The Commanders",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1040,
"text": "On March 21, 2017, History announced that they were developing an anthology drama series entitled \"The Commanders\" that focuses on different pivotal moments in U.S. history that defined the legacies of the men who served as President of the United States. The first installments of the series were said to focus on Bill Clinton, Ronald Reagan, Theodore Roosevelt, James Madison and Thomas Jefferson. As part of the development process, History had optioned several biographies as source material for \"The Commanders\" including \"The Breach: Inside the Impeachment and Trial of William Jefferson Clinton\" by Peter Baker, \"Theodore Rex\" by Edmund Morris, \"Thomas Jefferson and the Tripoli Pirates\" by Brian Kilmeade, \"The Invisible Bridge: The Fall of Nixon and the Rise of Reagan\" by Rick Perlstein, and \"Alliance: The Inside Story of How Roosevelt, Stalin & Churchill Won One War & Began Another\" by Jonathan Fenby. The series was set to be produced by A+E Studios with each season being overseen by different production staffs and writers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7726323",
"title": "Trevor N. Dupuy",
"section": "Section::::Military career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1142,
"text": "It is as a military historian and a theorist that Trevor Dupuy would make a lasting mark on the world. He is perhaps best known for his massive book \"The Encyclopedia Of Military History\" (co-written, like many of his books, with his father R. Ernest Dupuy). Starting from the beginning of history and going up the present day the book tries to cover all the major (and minor) military conflicts in world history. Usually each entry (arranged chronologically and by region) gives little more than the names of the commanders and (often) very rough estimates for the size of the forces involved in the campaigns. Dupuy was not afraid of expressing an opinion and he classified some of his subjects as Great Captains (such as Alexander the Great, Hannibal, Julius Caesar, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, Frederick II of Prussia and Napoleon). The book focuses mainly on the American and Western European experiences but offers some coverage of other regions of the world. The Encyclopedia Of Military History has been revised (and updated) several times, most recently in 1993. It can be found in the reference section of most American libraries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2xj9pr
|
what does it mean to be jewish?
|
[
{
"answer": " > So my question is if it is a religion or an ethnic group?\n\nIt is both, and used interchangeably for either.\n\n > And what about people like Adam Sandler?\n\nHe is ethnically Jewish but not particularly religious.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1040159",
"title": "Who is a Jew?",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "\"Who is a Jew?\" ( ) is a basic question about Jewish identity and considerations of Jewish self-identification. The question explores ideas about Jewish personhood, which have cultural, ethnic, religious, political, genealogical, and personal dimensions. Orthodox Judaism and Conservative Judaism follow Jewish law (Halakha), deeming a person to be Jewish if their mother is Jewish or they underwent a halakhic conversion. Reform Judaism and Reconstructionist Judaism accept both matrilineal and patrilineal descent. Karaite Judaism predominantly follows patrilineal descent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1422130",
"title": "Jewish identity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Jewish identity is the objective or subjective state of perceiving oneself as a Jew and as relating to being Jewish. Under a broader definition, Jewish identity does not depend on whether a person is regarded as a Jew by others, or by an external set of religious, or legal, or sociological norms. Jewish identity does not need to imply religious orthodoxy. Accordingly, Jewish identity can be cultural in nature. Jewish identity can involve ties to the Jewish community. Orthodox Judaism bases Jewishness on matrilineal descent. According to Jewish law (halacha), all those born of a Jewish mother are considered Jewish, regardless of personal beliefs or level of observance of Jewish law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1040159",
"title": "Who is a Jew?",
"section": "Section::::Ethnic definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "\"Ethnic Jew\" is a term generally used to describe a person of Jewish parentage and background who does not necessarily actively practice Judaism, but still identifies with Judaism or other Jews culturally or fraternally, or both. The term \"ethnic Jew\" does not specifically exclude practicing Jews, but they are usually simply referred to as \"Jews\" without the qualifying adjective \"ethnic\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25955086",
"title": "Jews",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Jews ( , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and a nation, originating from the Israelites and Hebrews of historical Israel and Judah. Jewish ethnicity, nationhood, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the ethnic religion of the Jewish people, while its observance varies from strict observance to complete nonobservance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25955086",
"title": "Jews",
"section": "Section::::Who is a Jew?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "Judaism shares some of the characteristics of a nation, an ethnicity, a religion, and a culture, making the definition of who is a Jew vary slightly depending on whether a religious or national approach to identity is used. Generally, in modern secular usage Jews include three groups: people who were born to a Jewish family regardless of whether or not they follow the religion, those who have some Jewish ancestral background or lineage (sometimes including those who do not have strictly matrilineal descent), and people without any Jewish ancestral background or lineage who have formally converted to Judaism and therefore are followers of the religion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1422130",
"title": "Jewish identity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Jews who are atheists may have a Jewish identity. While the absolute majority of people with this identity are of Jewish ethnicity, people of a mixed Jewish and non-Jewish background or gentiles of Jewish ancestry may still have a sense of Jewish self-identity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1040159",
"title": "Who is a Jew?",
"section": "Section::::Traditional interpretation and variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "The definition of who is a Jew varies according to whether it is being considered by Jews on the basis of religious law and tradition or self-identification, or by non-Jews for other reasons, sometimes for prejudicial purposes. Because Jewish identity can include characteristics of an ethnicity, a religion, or peoplehood, the definition depends on either traditional or newer interpretations of Jewish law and custom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bxtylw
|
what causes foods like radishes, horseradish, and ginger to taste spicy?
|
[
{
"answer": "Allyl isothiocyanate in radishes and zingerone, shogaol and various gingerols in in ginger.\n\nAll of them(and piperine from black pepper) act on the same receptors as capsaicin, but weaker and for a shorter time. This is why they don't have the same lasting heat feeling.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " < Looks to see we're in ELI5 > \n\nRadishes, horseradish, and ginger have different chemicals that work kind of like capsaicin, but not as strong, and for a shorter time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54929",
"title": "Ginger",
"section": "Section::::Composition and safety.:Chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "The characteristic fragrance and flavor of ginger result from volatile oils that compose 1-3% of the weight of fresh ginger, primarily consisting of zingerone, shogaols and gingerols with [6]-gingerol (1-[4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl]-5-hydroxy-3-decanone) as the major pungent compound. Zingerone is produced from gingerols during drying, having lower pungency and a spicy-sweet aroma. Shagoals are more pungent and have higher antioxidant activity but not found in raw ginger, but is formed from gingerols during heating, storage or via acidity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23524983",
"title": "Damassine",
"section": "Section::::Eau de vie.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "The aromas are very complex, composed of different kinds of ingredients. The scents of wild prune dominate, with herbal and almond touches. The latter can easily be explained by the fruit morphology (proportion of kernel and flesh). The herbal touches must come from the fact that it has to be gathered once falling onto the ground. The secondary scents and aromas are those of the other similar kernel fruits (cherries, Mirabelle), sweetness (honey, dried banana) and spices (coriander, cloves with a little touch of cinnamon).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2443818",
"title": "Gingerol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Cooking ginger transforms gingerol via a reverse aldol reaction into zingerone, which is less pungent and has a spicy-sweet aroma. When ginger is dried or mildly heated, gingerol undergoes a dehydration reaction forming shogaols, which are about twice as pungent as gingerol. This explains why dried ginger is more pungent than fresh ginger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26897",
"title": "Spice",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Most herbs and spices have substantial antioxidant activity, owing primarily to phenolic compounds, especially flavonoids, which influence nutrition through many pathways, including affecting the absorption of other nutrients. One study found cumin and fresh ginger to be highest in antioxidant activity. These antioxidants can also act as natural preservatives, preventing or slowing the spoilage of food, leading to a higher nutritional content in stored food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25003876",
"title": "Pungency",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:In foods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The pungent sensation provided by chili peppers, black pepper and other spices like ginger and horseradish plays an important role in a diverse range of cuisines across the world, such as Korean, Persian, Turkish, Tunisian, Ethiopian, Hungarian, Indian, Burmese, Indonesian, Laotian, Singaporean, Malaysian, Bangladeshi, Mexican, Peruvian, Caribbean, Pakistani, Somali, Southwest Chinese (including Sichuan cuisine), Sri Lankan, Vietnamese, and Thai cuisines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "294127",
"title": "Aframomum melegueta",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "The pungent, peppery taste of the seeds is caused by aromatic ketones, such as (6)-paradol (systematic name: 1-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-decan-3-one). Essential oils, which are the dominating flavor components in the closely related cardamom, occur only in traces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38643976",
"title": "Schleswig-Holstein cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Taste characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Many typical dishes feature this ‘broken-sööt-taste’ due to their preparation such as Holsteiner Sauerfleisch or Rübenmalheur. This impression mainly emerges from the association of tangy meat dishes with sweet side dishes such as in the famous stew Birnen, Bohnen und Speck. In this stew the sweetness of pears is combined with the hearty and rich bacon broth. In some dishes this taste combination is accomplished by stewing meat for a long time together with vegetables and is then being served e.g. with caramelized potatoes or some sugar to add and adjust sweetness after the cooking process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
q451w
|
Book/online resource request for learning historical evolution of technology and culture
|
[
{
"answer": "If you have specific interests in the History of Technology I would be happy to suggest things. Most of the very broad histories of technology I find to be severely lacking and I have little patience for these books that attempt to apply a sweeping theme to the technological history of a whole era.\n\nFor example if you are interested in the history of nuclear power look at Hecht's work. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43114042",
"title": "Media Technology and Society",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Media Technology and Society: A History from the Telegraph to the Internet is a 1998 book by Brian Winston. The book's central thesis is that technology, rather than developing in relatively discontinuous revolutions, evolves as part of a larger evolutionary pattern. It was named 'Best Book of 1998' by the American Association for History and Computing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48565424",
"title": "Media art history",
"section": "Section::::Focus of research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "Hence, scholars stress that the technological advances in current media cultures are best understood on the backdrop of an extensive media and art history. Contributions to this field are widespread and include, among others, researchers who have disciplinary focuses such as the history of science (Lorraine Daston, Timothy Lenoir), art history and image science (Oliver Grau, Barbara Stafford, Dieter Daniels, Slavko Kacunko, Edward A. Shanken, Gunalan Nadarajan, Linda Henderson, Andreas Broeckmann, Jonathan Crary, Horst Bredekamp, Peter Weibel, Hans Belting), media studies and media archaeology (Friedrich Kittler, Erkki Huhtamo, Jussi Parikka, Wolfgang Ernst, Siegfried Zielinski, Stephan Oettermann, Lev Manovich), sound studies (Douglas Kahn), film studies (Sean Cubitt, Ryszard Kluszczyński), as well as computer science (Frieder Nake).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29827292",
"title": "Gerard Goggin",
"section": "Section::::Research history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Goggin has lectured at workshops, including the Communication and Media Studies Program at Murdoch University in 2010, Internet Research 8.0 Learning and Research in the Second Life Workshop, Internet Histories 2: Australia and the Asia-Pacific in 2008, The Role of New Technologies in Global Societies in 2008.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46253875",
"title": "Engineering and Technology History Wiki",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "The Engineering and Technology History Wiki (ETHW) is a MediaWiki-based website dedicated to the history of technology. It consists of articles, first-hand accounts, oral histories, landmarks and milestones and started operating in 2015.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1714551",
"title": "Ronald Wright",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "In 2004 he moved from Ontario to one of the Gulf Islands in British Columbia. Wright traces the origins of the ideas behind \"A Short History of Progress\" to the material he studied while writing \"A Scientific Romance\" and his 2000 essay for \"The Globe and Mail\" titled \"Civilization is a Pyramid Scheme\" about the fall of the ninth-century Mayan civilization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30418030",
"title": "Robert Jacobus Forbes",
"section": "Section::::Work.:Other publications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "With E. J. Dijksterhuis in 1963 Forbes published a \"History of Science and Technology\" with Penguin Books in two volumes. The first volume covered Ancient Times to the Seventeenth Century, and the second the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries. Two of his latests works were \"The principal works of Simon Stevin\" published in 1966, and \"The Conquest of Nature: Technology and Its Consequences\" published in 1968.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12088454",
"title": "Keith Hart (anthropologist)",
"section": "Section::::Principal publications.:Articles include.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "BULLET::::- Agrarian civilization and world society, in D. R. Olson and M. Cole (eds), \"Technology, Literacy and the Evolution of Society: Implications of the work of Jack Goody\" (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2006), pp. 29–48.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6mc23b
|
why does science denialism appear to be on such an upswing lately?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think there's always been those kinds of people, but the information age has given them a loud voice",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "those who actually dont deny, wont shout out their lungs out like the people who deny on the internet. so you hear a lot about science denialism than those people who support science.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It may not be that it is on the upswing, but may that they have a bigger platform. Think vaccines are satan's serum? There is a FB group for that with 1,000 other people agreeing and posting bogus crap to support your idea. Social media has now given everyone a voice and niche to belong to, so this may be more of an issue of a loud voice now versus an actual rise in incidence. Either that orrrrr I could hypothesis there is a disconnect and distrust between the scientific community and the general public. News outlets bastardizing scientific work may be a giant issue, since most average people won't take hours of their life to read and sift through the jargon of a scientific journal of actual publications, and will believe a 5 word headline explain a complex study and then 12 more deny that initial study. Example: \"Chocolate causes cancer\" and then three weeks later \"Chocolate, in moderation, prevents cancer\". \n\nJust some ideas from my experience, I am finishing up degrees in psych and biomedical microbiology and have focused a lot on ethics and the communication of science to the public and these are main points that come up a lot when it comes to denialism. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I suspect that it comes from two places. First and foremost, feeling like you're one of few who knows the truth makes you feel smart. Second, it seems to mirror the populist trends in US politics, ie distrust of experts or insiders, trusting instead politicians who seem more like they speak common sense etc. It seems like science is associated with \"the man\" now, and things like GMOs have already undermined people's trust in it. If you call science bullshit you mock our entire paradigm, which I imagine feels powerful. \n\nAlso there's parts of science that will always invite armchair \"scientists\" to criticize even the best work. The thing about inductive logic is that it is rarely final. When you look at whether or not vaccines cause autism, you can literally never prove they don't, because you can't prove a negative. \"There's no evidence\" is as good as it gets. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I cannot remember the actual quote by how Neal Degrasse Tyson once put it \"These people have always been around and always will be but the internet gives them the power and support of knowing there are other people just as crazy as them our there\" ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ease of communication. (Largely, although not solely, due to the internet).\n\nThere have always been crazy people/conspiracy theorists etc. But the with advent of technology, especially the internet, it's both easier to find likeminded views, and easier to get your message out.\n\nYou can literally reach millions of people by spending 10minutes setting up a website.\n\nIn the past, you had to publish, which wasn't cheap. For all their flaws, TV/newspapers set some sort of barrier to entry to keep the chaff out. That's no longer there. Even if you could publish, you probably only had access to your local market- maybe a city, or a county, or whatever.\n\nIf you spend a bit more than 10 minutes, you can easily make your website look pretty legitimate, and not just \"random joe's blog xD\". It's not that hard to make a professional looking website.\n\nYou also have access to others to help you hone your argument (so you can keep the more believable parts). Last, you have access (or can make up) massive amounts of data which can be presented misleadingly, but gives a veneer of legitimacy. If you have xyz papers from a trusted journal, and say it says B (when it really says C), it can be very hard for a layperson to disprove that.\n\nedit:\n\nOn a much lesser scale, there's also been a decline of trust in institutions. The world is increasingly complex and scary. Things like the 2008 recession or terrorist attacks will make people more open to alternative theories. The desire to understand/control current events is strong, and that can weaken trust in institutions. That has a feedback effect and makes people more open",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a complicated issue that has shifted over decades. For some it's just an argument from ignorance. They don't know anything about the subject, but don't want to admit to being ignorant or wrong, so they very quickly come to know everything about it.\n\nTwo main things that have shifted it is that everyone is carrying cameras now, so the old 'sightings' of things have trailed off. This led to a shift in focus for believers to new conspiracies supported by groups.\n\nThere has also been an increase in news gaslighting, outlined in a Nixon paper that led to [Roger Ailes](_URL_1_) creating Fox News to support the Republicans, plus related tabloids and then later online sources like Breitbart popping up.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThis article mentions how the best way to fight it is not to try and prove the issue, but to simply educate people about the tactics used to mislead them. In effect, train them to be skeptics.\n\n > In short, the more we explain the techniques of science denial and misinformation, the more people will become inoculated against them. When we’re exposed to examples of people using cherrypicking or fake experts or false balance to mislead the public, it becomes easier to recognize those techniques, and we’re less likely to fall for them in the future.\n\n_URL_2_\n\nThis article does a good job of outlining the basics, particularly mentioning that these are all issues without immediate threats. Climate Change happens on the scale of decades and centuries. Vaccines are so effective that most modern people don't know disease. Space? Never been.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The internet. \n\nPrior to the internet, in order to spew your ~~stupid~~ unscientific ideas about the geometry of the Earth to an audience you'd need to go through a university publication, scientific journal, newspaper, magazine or go through an aggressive self publishing campaign. \n\nDuring any one of these processes there are peers, editors, technical writers, fact checkers going over your work and saying \"you're an idiot, get out of my office\" and that's that. It used to be much more difficult to publish unsubstantiated garbage, not to say that it wasn't published. While the barriers to publishing your ideas and being heard is lower than ever, it's has some negative externalities we didn't anticipate as a society.\n\n[Yellow Journalism](_URL_3_) did, of course, happen in your tabloid rags, but the public view on these were similar to the views we have of tabloids today. They're great kindling, but that's about it. Occasionally you have an older person that subscribes to the tabloids, but there was never much mainstream push behind it. \n\nWith the internet we have two problems...\n\nFirstly, everything is 'equal'. Consider this Google search of \"[NASA approval rating](_URL_4_)\". One of these is *not* like the others. \n\nPart of this is due to how advertising priorities have changed. Tabloid newspapers weren't terribly popular among the wealthy and educated, an advertisement in them didn't go very far, even if the people reading it would believe what you're selling, so advertisers stuck to more popular mainstream news outlets. Today, those motivators don't exist on the internet. Advertisers care less about the kind of people viewing their ads and instead are more focused on raw numbers and clicks; engagement. They don't care from whom or from where, so to advertisers Breitbart and the Wall Street Journal might as well be the same. \n\nEquality extends to appearances as well, tabloids have gotten much better at legitimizing themselves online and appearing more mainstream. \n\n[The New York Times](_URL_1_) has won 122 Pulitzer Prizes and is a 165 year old journalistic institution. \n\n[The New York Post](_URL_2_) is tabloid. \n\nTelling between the two is somewhat difficult if you aren't up to snuff on the history and credibility of journalistic institutions. \n\nThis leads quite well into the second problem. \n\n*Human beings aren't very good at evaluating objective facts.*\n\nTo begin with, we have [cognitive biases](_URL_5_), like confirmation bias. \n\nSomeone with more objectivity and were less attached to Flat Earth theory they might google 'is the Earth flat?', while someone more invested in Flat Earth theory might google 'Flat Earth proof'. Google is *fantastic* for someone who wants to confirm things they already believe. \n\nOur emotional investment into our beliefs and facts makes us resistant to things that disagree with our world view and more receptive to things that enforce our world view. This isn't a partisan thing, this is a *human* thing. \n\nSo you have given creatures that are emotionally, psychologically, sometimes financially, invested in their believes a tool that allows them to find information that confirms their ideas and other people that *also* believe their ideas. \n\nBeing surrounded by a homogeneous group is an *INCREDIBLY* powerful way to condition people to behave/believe along with the group. Human beings are, at their most fundamental level, social creatures that feel compelled to be liked and included in groups, and disagreeing with the group is very difficult for a social creature. This is how you can condition perfectly normal Germans to genocide millions of Jews. This is how you get a normal person to [shock someone to death in the name of science](_URL_0_). \n\nWell, we gave people a tool to find and create whatever communities they like, and they behaved exactly how our psychological models expected them to. ",
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"answer": "Some of this has to do with time, and some are about unexamined assumptions, but there's a third component. \n\nFirst, time. When we discovered vaccines, the world was a very different place. It was not unusual for most children to die from disease. Whole generations might be decimated by disease. This happened only 100 years ago, I'm not talking about the Middle Ages. \n\nSo when we invented vaccination, it saved a whole generation. It was treated as a miracle drug. For the generations who grew up with disease, the prospect of raising the next generation without it was...its impossible to overstate how *important* it was to the folks who grew up with disease to make sure their children were vaccinated.\n\n But those people weren't *smarter* than us. They (by and large) did not *understand* how vaccines work. They just believed the doctors, and they could see the results. But it's not like these people were somehow smarter or wiser than us. \n\n The next couple of generations were still able to talk to the parents, and then eventually grandparents who grew up without vaccines. So there was this generational knowledge that vaccines were hugely important. Again, these later generations did not *understand* herd immunity, or how vaccines work, but the world before vaccines was still part of living memory. So they listen to their parents, and grandparents, and vaccinate their kids.\n\nBut now there's almost no one left from that last generation that grew up without vaccines. So now we have still widespread ignorance about how vaccines work, that's not new, but we also have no one left alive who paid the price of living without vaccines. No grandparents who can just say, \"shut up and vaccinate your kids.\"\n\n So to this new generation, the whole idea of vaccination is essentially no different from superstition. And there's a deep distrust running through America towards doctors and science but will get to that after the unexamined assumptions. \n\n Second, unexamined assumptions. Most Americans living today, grew up during times of unparalleled prosperity. Especially if you have parents or grandparents who were alive in the 50s and 60s, where America was the only industrial power left in the world. Literally every other industrial center in the world, outside America, has been bombed during World War II. So Americans were crazy rich compared to other countries. Even normal middle-class people could afford cars, gas was cheap, everything was cheap.\n\n Now starting around the 1970s the oil companies started to realize that they were having a profound, negative, and therefore dangerous effects on the environment. But, doing anything about it would've been hideously expensive. So they just cover it all up. You know, none of them are going to live long enough to see the results of pouring sulfur and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. So whatever. \n\nTime passes and it starts to be obvious there's a problem, but the scope of it is not obvious. We have smog, so we create the EPA in the 1970s (thanks Nixon!) and actually the smog problem is nowhere near as bad as it used to be. So that's a problem solved right?\n\n In the 1980s, we discover there's a hole in the ozone layer. You haven't heard about that a while? Well that's because we banned Chlorofluorocarbons and replaced them with hydrochlorofluorocarbons. And that basically solved the problem! We should be proud of these things, they show how the federal government is able to affect change. And many of the state governments! Los Angeles had the worst smog in America, so California enacted the most strict emissions policies. But the point is if we work together we can solve these problems.\n\nHowever, none of these things really required people to do anything different. It's just required some corporations to spend a little more money than they normally spend. Most of the stuff happened without most people knowing about it! It was perfectly plausible to live through the 1980s and never hear about the hole in the ozone layer, never know what a CFC is how it's different from an HCFC. \n\n Toward the end of the 1980s, it started to become obvious that there was a problem with the global temperature. I remember this because I was in college in the late 1980s and I did a report on global warning. Almost 30 years ago we were talking about this. James Burke, a BBC science reporter did a whole special called After the Warming in like 1989 about what the future was going to look like if we didn't do something. So this isn't a new problem. 'Climate change' is a new term that people invented in attempt to cover up how bad the problem is. Everything getting hotter is obviously bad. But everything merely changing? Well doesn't the climate do that anyway? \n\n The problem with this is, doing something about it it's going to be hugely expensive. It's gonna be expensive on the scale the likes of which no one has ever dealt with before. And it's going to force people to change their lifestyles. They're going to have much less access to things like not just Gasoline, but like plastics. All plastics come from petroleum.\n\n Part of the solution to this is going to be getting people to be mindful of how they consume things. But we've now had several generations of Americans who did not have to worry about being mindful about consumption. And these people do not like the idea that the thing they've been doing for several generations, is actually bad. They've lived with this unexamined assumption: it's ok to consume as much of anything as we want, and waste as much as we want. And they do not want to examine that assumption now, for fear it will turn out to have been wrong! \n\nAnd, like vaccines, the climate is a big complex thing that most people do not understand. They do not understand the problem. So they hear other people saying \"there's a problem with the climate, you need to change how you behave,\" all they hear is one group of people trying to control another group of people. And that's not a fantasy, human beings have been doing that to each other throughout all of human history. The question isn't \"do people do that?\" The question is are these climate change fanatics actually trying to control how people behave?\n\n So finally, and then I think we get some good news, we have this basic problem that Americans have never liked science. Isaac Asimov wrote back in the 40s that there's a deep deep anti-intellectual streak running through America. There's a great Frank Zappa quote about how Americans fundamentally distrust anything that doesn't have obvious practical value. This includes distrusting science and art. We love technology! Technology is something you put your hand on and see how it solves problems. We love knowing how much movies make! We know that money has practical value, so that's what most of our artistic discourse is about. But very rarely do you ever hear anyone in the news talking about a painting for the sake of the painting. You only ever hear people talking about paintings, when they sell at auction for a lot of money. \n\nThere was a thing in Europe called the Enlightenment, where Europeans were discovering science and it seemed as though science was gonna save the world. But some Europeans, especially a group called the Puritans in England, really did not like the enlightenment and left England to come to America where they could live a simpler, godly life. They came to America seeking a life that was much less pluralistic. So they didn't have to share a country with, for instance, Catholics. \n\n The Puritans believed the simple life was good. They believed that suffering was good! To the Puritans, disease was sent by God to punish people for wickedness! This is an archetype that we don't really have in America. We tend to view our Puritan ancestors as noble and enterprising. But that's because we are the descendants of those Puritans! If you watch, for instance, Blackadder from the BBC, they show a much more comical and derisive view of the Puritans. This is the way the people the Puritans left behind thought of them.\n\nSo Americans are essentially a nation founded by rich white guys, but settled by religious nutjobs. The Puritans were OK with technology, technology would do things like increase crop yield, and that is obviously good. They were not super comfortable with science, and as a result of Americans are still deeply distrustful of science. \n\n There have been times in our history when that was less obvious than it is now! Because we confuse technology and science. They are related, but they are not the same thing. During the space race two whole generations of American kids grew up idolizing astronauts, and wanting to be engineers. Engineers, very practical. But actual scientists? Hmmm...not sure what those guys do, exactly.\n\n So I don't think it's accurate to say we are now, mysteriously, more distrustful of science. We have always been distrustful of science. \n\nWhen it comes to climate change the good news is that Americans are still affected by what the pope says. Which is kind of amazing for country founded by Puritans, but there you are. And the pope is actually smart dude who went to college and worked as a chemist. So when the pope recently came out and said, climate change is real, it's going to screw almost everyone, and it's really really going to screw poor people way way worse than rich people , Americans actually listened. The tide of opinion is changing. \n\nIt's one of the reasons Donald Trump was gobsmacked by the reaction he got to pulling out of the Paris accord. He actually expected a lot of people in America to be very happy with him. He thought he was doing with those people wanted. What he did not realize, is that public opinion has changed.",
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"answer": "I'm not sure where your claims that it's on the rise come from in the first place. Climate change is more accepted than ever before, anti vaxx numbers are dwindling, and only a few crazies ACTUALLY believe flat earth the rest are just trolls who like to mess around",
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{
"answer": "It's very simple. It is hard to get human beings to act against their own interests, especially when it comes to money. We've gone down a wrong road that needs to end with fossil fuels. No one who has been reaping the rewards of that system wants to get off the gravy train, so they deny. It's greed.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "One more explanation: The world changes faster than most non-subject matter expert humans can adapt to it. One coping mechanism is to deny that the change is happening.\n\nPrior to the Renaissance, every farmer farmed the way his father taught him. The world changed slowly if at all.\n\nA example of the world changing too fast: most scholars concur that Copernicus completed his book on the heliocentric theory of the solar system *[On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres](_URL_1_)* around 1530. However Copernicus waited until just before his death (1543) to publish it. Why? Because Copernicus thought it would not be accepted and he didn't want to face the resulting sh#t storm from the Catholic Church.\n\nSimilarly, Albert Einstein never fully accepted the probabilistic nature of Quantum Mechanics.\n\n\"A new scientific truth does not triumph by convincing its opponents and making them see the light, but rather because its opponents eventually die, and a new generation grows up that is familiar with it.\"\n[Max Plank](_URL_0_)\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": " > we've never been to space\n\n:O\n\nThis is why it is so critical that \"science\" clean house. This is the natural result when you push out to the public half-baked studies, shaky preliminary results, and fantastical hypotheses presented as fact.\n\nFurther, science foolishly ignored the growth of postmodernist garbage on the other side of campus, over the last few decades. It should have been pushing back aggressively against even permitting these departments to remain in the university system, if their standards were going to be so low.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "u/mattcolville gave an excellent response which covers most of it, but another big part of it is the echo chamber effect.\n\nPre-internet, if you decided that vaccines were a hoax, the moon landing was faked or any believed any other anti-science conspiracy theory, you were pretty much on your own. \n\nBasically, go to your workplace, stand up and say \"The earth is flat\" and you're going to have a lot of people pointing and laughing at you.\n\nNow, type 'flat earth' into Google and you'll find hundreds of thousands of sites claiming the earth is flat. You'll find forums full of people talking about it and congratulating themselves on how smart they are for not being 'sheeple'. \n\nThen you have search engines and social media platforms that are based on algorithms that serve you the most 'relevant' content based on your browsing habits and search history...and in this context 'relevant' also means 'the point of view you agree with'.\n\nIn other words, if I google 'vaccination effectiveness', I'm going to see more results and articles debunking the idea that vaccines are dangerous. An avid anti-vaxer making the same search is going to see more results supporting the idea that vaccines are harmful... or to put it more simply, anyone online is going to get the impression that most people agree with them.\n\nHence the echo chamber. Your own point of view is constantly fed back to you and anything challenging it is ignored.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48420139",
"title": "Climate Change Denial: Heads in the Sand",
"section": "Section::::Contents summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "The authors discuss the broader concept of denial using social science theory, noting its occurrence appears in society when individuals are frightened or ashamed of their actions. They write that these motivations, when expanded from an individual to wider society, present themselves as a form of disease. The book identifies climate change denial itself as a pathology afflicting the culture of the planet. The authors lament that an inverse relationship exists between an increasing scientific consensus regarding climate change, and a simultaneous increase in denial within the greater public about the same issue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7746391",
"title": "Denialism",
"section": "Section::::Scientific.:Climate change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "In the context of consumer protection, denialism has been defined as \"the use of rhetorical techniques and predictable tactics to erect barriers to debate and consideration of any type of reform, regardless of the facts.\" The Bush Administration's replacement of previous science advisers with industry experts or scientists tied to industry, and its refusal to submit the Kyoto Protocol for ratification due to uncertainties they asserted were present in the climate change issue, have been cited by the press as examples of politically motivated denialism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12474403",
"title": "Climate change denial",
"section": "Section::::Arguments and positions on global warming.:Taxonomy of climate change denial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "The National Center for Science Education describes climate change denial as disputing differing points in the scientific consensus, a sequential range of arguments from denying the occurrence of climate change, accepting that but denying any significant human contribution, accepting these but denying scientific findings on how this would affect nature and human society, to accepting all these but denying that humans can mitigate or reduce the problems. James L. Powell provides a more extended list, as does climatologist Michael E. Mann in \"six stages of denial\", a ladder in which deniers have over time conceded acceptance of points, while retreating to a position which still rejects the mainstream consensus:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12474403",
"title": "Climate change denial",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Climate change denial can also be implicit, when individuals or social groups accept the science but fail to come to terms with it or to translate their acceptance into action. Several social science studies have analyzed these positions as forms of denialism and pseudoscience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9793475",
"title": "Michael Specter",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "His 2009 book, \"Denialism: How Irrational Thinking Hinders Scientific Progress, Harms the Planet, and Threatens Our Lives\", explores the ways in which people in the United States and Europe have increasingly rejected scientific truths, backed by impressive data. They instead are embracing what often seem to be more comfortable fictions about issues such as the value of organic food, vaccine safety, and personal genomics. He recently delivered a talk titled \"The danger of science denial\" at TED 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12474403",
"title": "Climate change denial",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "In addition to \"explicit denial\", social groups have shown \"implicit denial\" by accepting the scientific consensus, but failing to come to terms with its implications or take action to reduce the problem. This was exemplified in Kari Norgaard's study of a village in Norway affected by climate change, where residents diverted their attention to other issues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7638",
"title": "Consilience",
"section": "Section::::Deviations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "Science denialism (for example, AIDS denialism) is often based on a misunderstanding of this property of consilience. A denier may promote small gaps not yet accounted for by the consilient evidence, or small amounts of evidence contradicting a conclusion without accounting for the pre-existing strength resulting from consilience. More generally, to insist that all evidence converge precisely with no deviations would be naïve falsificationism, equivalent to considering a single contrary result to falsify a theory when another explanation, such as equipment malfunction or misinterpretation of results, is much more likely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
465sk0
|
how does wireless data transfer works with so many devices receiving information from one source?
|
[
{
"answer": "In addition to UntitledDocument37's info on addressing, I would like to add some more information about how this complex process works.\n\nThe main thing to realize is that your phone can only \"yell\" so loud to the tower. There may only be a couple of towers that can even \"hear\" your phone nearby.\n\nYou must also realize that your phone doesn't so much \"yell\" at the towers the way we would, it more chirps. It sends an incredibly fast burst of data to the tower. The tower can be set up to only listen at specific time slots, and the phones know this.\n\nSo all the phones are chirping at different times to make sure they aren't chirping all at once. Frogs do this in a swamp when they are croaking to find a mate. If everyone talked at once, nobody could hear anything at all.\n\nNot only are all of our phones chirping at the towers at different time slots, they can also be using a different \"pitch\" or frequency.\n\nThe tower's \"Ear\" can selectively listen to a small frequency range, or \"Pitch\", kinda how you can tune someone out when they are asking you to take out the garbage and you are listening to a video or song instead.\n\nImagine how much different a piano song would sound if you could only hear two or three individual notes. If everyone could only hear their own few note range, a piano tune would sound COMPLETELY different to all of them. \n\nThese are gross simplifications of what the towers do to get your data to you and not have it collide with someone else's data.\n\nTLDR: Phone's don't broadcast that loud and try to talk on different frequencies at different times to avoid collisions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46512648",
"title": "Electronic scoring system",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Data transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Data can be transferred either wirelessly or through cables. Cables are often used for permanent installations, while wireless radio transmissions are used for targets placed provisionally in the field and for running targets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41871",
"title": "Wireless mobility management",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "One use of this is wireless push technology, by pushing data across wireless networks, this coordinates the link transfers and pushes data between the backend and wireless device only when an established connection is found.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185868",
"title": "Wireless",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Data communications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Wireless data communications are used to span a distance beyond the capabilities of typical cabling in point-to-point communication and point-to-multipoint communication, to provide a backup communications link in case of normal network failure, to link portable or temporary workstations, to overcome situations where normal cabling is difficult or financially impractical, or to remotely connect mobile users or networks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "713497",
"title": "Wireless mesh network",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "computation can converge and delivery of data to their destinations can occur. Hence, this is a low-mobility centralized form of wireless ad hoc network. Also, because it sometimes relies on static nodes to act as gateways, it is not a truly all-wireless ad hoc network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "570662",
"title": "Wireless power transfer",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Wireless power transfer may be used to power up wireless information transmitters or receivers. This type of communication is known as wireless powered communication (WPC). When the harvested power is used to supply the power of wireless information transmitters, the network is known as Simultaneous Wireless Information and Power Transfer (SWIPT); whereas when it is used to supply the power of wireless information receivers, it is known as a Wireless Powered Communication Network (WPCN).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16922980",
"title": "Real-time geotagging",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Wireless data transfer allows real-time mapping of media. Transferring images from cell phones to social networking sites is gaining popularity. Applications for real-time mapping include travel, real estate, geosocial networking, people tracking, security, and geofencing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27416836",
"title": "Mobile data offloading",
"section": "Section::::Wi-Fi.:Cellular and Wi-Fi network interworking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "The most straightforward way to offload data to the Wi-Fi networks is to have a direct connection to the public Internet. This \"no coupling\" alternative omits the need for interworking standardization. For majority of the web traffic there is no added value to route the data through the operator core network. In this case the offloading can simply be carried out by switching the IP traffic to use the Wi-Fi connection in mobile client instead of the cellular data connection. In this approach the two networks are in practice totally separated and network selection is done by a client application. Studies show that significant amount of data can be offloaded in this manner to Wi-Fi networks even when users are mobile. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
atve3h
|
What is the process to fix deep and wide sinkholes? I'm thinking of the ones have hundreds of feet deep that simply can't be filled.
|
[
{
"answer": "Very often they are ignored. It's no something exactly hard to do, but is very expensive.\nBut if they are in a place that is convenient and worth enough to the huge cost to repair, they can use infills from three different resources.\n\nThe first, very common in my country (Brazil) is demolition disposal. Is an cheap and resistant king of infill.\nThe second is dirt, sand and rocks taken from other construction places, where you needed to dig from.\nThe last and more expensive is from raw material, like sand, dirt, rocks and concrete from the industry.\n\nThe way you do it is not very different from an construction foundation. You just have to be more careful with the soil compaction, to avoid the sink hole to resurge.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A 50 foot deep sinkhole opened in front of a house in our neighborhood. The cause was determined to be an old mineshaft that had simply been covered over before the subdivision was established. It was filled with approximately 50 dump truck loads of a gravel and concrete mix. The final repair cost to her was around $40K. Of course that doesn't include the decrease in the worth of her very nice house.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7938190",
"title": "Hydrodemolition",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Partial depth removal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Partial depth removal involves the selective removal of deteriorated concrete to a certain depth or of a concrete overlay to a depth exceeding 3/4\". It is usually done in the case of concrete restoration projects where embedded objects such as rebar are substantial and need to be preserved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13745047",
"title": "Natural hazard",
"section": "Section::::Geological hazards.:Sinkhole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "A sinkhole is a localized depression in the surface topography, usually caused by the collapse of a subterranean structure such as a cave. Although rare, large sinkholes that develop suddenly in populated areas can lead to the collapse of buildings and other structures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22740176",
"title": "Suction excavator",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Vacuum excavation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Depending on the machine used and soil conditions, a 12-inch-square 5-foot-deep pothole can be completed in 20 minutes or less. Most models are capable of digging deeper, but utility potholes seldom need to be more than six feet deep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39180080",
"title": "2010 Guatemala City sinkhole",
"section": "Section::::Collapse and aftermath.:Filling in the sinkhole.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Immediately after the sinkhole's collapse, there were plans to fill it in with a soil cement made from cement, limestone, and water known locally as \"lodocreto\" (\"mudcrete\"). This substance was also used to fill in the 2007 Guatemala City sinkhole. However, another technique, which geologists call the graded-filter technique, in which the sinkhole is filled with successive layers of boulders, smaller rocks, and gravel, could possibly be a better solution. This is because filling the hole in with cement diverts water runoff to other areas, potentially increasing the risk of sinkholes occurring in other parts of the city. The graded-filter technique, on the other hand, allows water to seep through.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186193",
"title": "Sinkhole",
"section": "Section::::Formation.:Artificial processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Sinkholes can also form when natural water-drainage patterns are changed and new water-diversion systems are developed. Some sinkholes form when the land surface is changed, such as when industrial and runoff-storage ponds are created; the substantial weight of the new material can trigger a collapse of the roof of an existing void or cavity in the subsurface, resulting in development of a sinkhole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186193",
"title": "Sinkhole",
"section": "Section::::Formation.:Natural processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "The formation of sinkholes involves natural processes of erosion or gradual removal of slightly soluble bedrock (such as limestone) by percolating water, the collapse of a cave roof, or a lowering of the water table. Sinkholes often form through the process of suffosion. For example, groundwater may dissolve the carbonate cement holding the sandstone particles together and then carry away the lax particles, gradually forming a void.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16964628",
"title": "Ponor",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Whereas a sinkhole is a depression (doline) of surface topography with a pit or cavity directly underneath, a ponor is kind of a portal where a surface stream or lake flows either partially or completely underground into a karst groundwater system. Steady water erosion may have formed or enlarged the portal in (mainly limestone) rock, in a conglomerate, or in looser materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
aiuo9h
|
What methods are used by historians to answer counterfactuals?
|
[
{
"answer": "Historians generally do not try to answer such sweeping counterfactuals. There are too many \"variables\" in such approaches, and you end up in totally speculative territory.\n\nNarrow counterfactuals are much more common, and are arguably implicit in every statement of causation (if I say _X_ was important, I am implying things would be really different in some way without _X_). These are still arguably speculative, certainly interpretive, and work best when they are aimed at pointing out the historian's view of contingency and chance. They are arguments, not proofs.\n\nA small example: I found it interesting, awhile back, to ask, \"[if Albert Einstein had never been born, would it have affected the date that the atomic bomb was created?](_URL_1_)\" The stakes for asking this question are fairly clear: most people associate Einstein with the atomic bomb's development for several reasons (E=mc^2 and his letter to FDR). My argument, which you can read, instead tries to look at what specific scientific developments led to the atomic bomb, and conclude that Einstein's absence probably didn't matter (nuclear fission was the result of a very different set of discoveries and scientific \"path\" than the one Einstein had been on, and it is likely that many of Einstein's key insights would have been worked out by others in the intervening time anyway since they were \"in the air\" already). I also conclude that the US bomb project was less affected by Einstein's letter than most people realize, because its real impetus came from elsewhere (the MAUD report). So my basic answer is to say: Einstein's life or death mattered less for this than you might think, so I doubt it would have changed historical trajectories much.\n\nThis is, again, an interpretive argument. Other historians might disagree with me. But you can see that I'm not just making it for fun, and in trying to answer the counterfactual I'm trying to isolate a specific historical trajectory, and what I think \"mattered\" for it. So it is really a complex argument about causation, when phrased this way. \n\nAs you move to scenarios with greater and greater numbers of variables, of divergences, of possibilities, it starts to get more and more disconnected from any specific facts. It doesn't mean you can't do it, but it does mean that your interpretation will be less grounded and less persuasive, and look more like a product of your own imagination than a work of actual historical engagement.\n\nThere is no really rigorous way of doing this, but there isn't for really anything historians do. We are highly interpretive. For better and worse.\n\n[This review of a book on counterfactual history by Cass Sunstein](_URL_0_) makes for interesting food for thought on this topic, I think. I haven't read the book he reviews.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "72208",
"title": "Counterfactual history",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1034,
"text": "Few further attempts to bring counterfactual history into the world of academia were made until the 1991 publication of \"Plausible Worlds: Possibility and Understanding in History and the Social Sciences\" by the Cambridge sociologist Geoffrey Hawthorn, who carefully explored three different counterfactual scenarios. This work helped inspire \"\" (1997), a collection of essays exploring different scenarios by a number of historians, edited by the historian Niall Ferguson. Ferguson has become a significant advocate of counterfactual history, using counterfactual scenarios to illustrate his objections to deterministic theories of history such as Marxism, and to put forward a case for the importance of contingency in history, theorizing that a few key changes could result in a significantly different modern world. A series of \"What If?\" books edited by Robert Cowley presented dozens of essays by historians or prominent writers about \"how a slight turn of fate at a decisive moment could have changed the very annals of time.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72208",
"title": "Counterfactual history",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Most historians regard counterfactual history as perhaps entertaining, but not meeting the standards of mainstream historical research due to its speculative nature. Advocates of counterfactual history often respond that all statements about causality in history contain implicit counterfactual claims—for example, the claim that a certain military decision helped a country win a war presumes that if that decision had not been made, the war would have been less likely to be won, or would have been longer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72208",
"title": "Counterfactual history",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Since counterfactual history is such a recent development, a serious, systematic critique of its uses and methodologies has yet to be made, as the movement itself is still working out those methods and frameworks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26092",
"title": "Historical negationism",
"section": "Section::::Techniques of negationism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1421,
"text": "Historical negationism applies the techniques of research, quotation, and presentation for deception of the reader and denial of the historical record. In support of the \"revised history\" perspective, the negationist historian uses false documents as genuine sources, presents specious reasons to distrust genuine documents, exploits published opinions, by quoting out of historical context, manipulates statistics, and mistranslates texts in other languages. The revision techniques of historical negationism operate in the intellectual space of public debate for the advancement of a given interpretation of history and the cultural-perspective of the \"revised history\". As a document, the revised history is used to negate the validity of the factual, documentary record, and so reframe explanations and perceptions of the discussed historical event, in order to deceive the reader, the listener, and the viewer; therefore, historical negationism functions as a technique of propaganda. Rather than submit their works for peer review, negationist historians rewrite history and use logical fallacies to construct arguments that will obtain the desired results, a \"revised history\" that supports an agenda – political, ideological, religious, etc. In the practice of historiography, the British historian Richard J. Evans describes the technical differences, between professional historians and negationist historians:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72208",
"title": "Counterfactual history",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "Counterfactual history, also sometimes referred to as virtual history, is a form of historiography that attempts to answer \"what if\" questions known as counterfactuals. Black and MacRaild provide this definition: \"It is, at the very root, the idea of conjecturing on what did not happen, or what might have happened, in order to understand what did happen.\" The method seeks to explore history and historical incidents by means of extrapolating a timeline in which certain key historical events did not happen or had an outcome which was different from that which did in fact occur. It has produced a literary genre which is variously called alternative history, speculative history, or hypothetical history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3052977",
"title": "List of unsolved problems in philosophy",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy of language.:Counterfactuals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1424,
"text": "A counterfactual statement is a conditional statement with a false antecedent. For example, the statement \"If Joseph Swan had not invented the modern incandescent light bulb, then someone else would have invented it anyway\" is a counterfactual, because in fact, Joseph Swan invented the modern incandescent light bulb. The most immediate task concerning counterfactuals is that of explaining their truth-conditions. As a start, one might assert that background information is assumed when stating and interpreting counterfactual conditionals and that this background information is just every true statement about the world as it is (pre-counterfactual). In the case of the Swan statement, we have certain trends in the history of technology, the utility of artificial light, the discovery of electricity, and so on. We quickly encounter an error with this initial account: among the true statements will be \"Joseph Swan did invent the modern incandescent light bulb.\" From the conjunction of this statement (call it \"S\") and the antecedent of the counterfactual (\"¬S\"), we can derive any conclusion, and we have the unwelcome result that any statement follows from any counterfactual (see the principle of explosion). Nelson Goodman takes up this and related issues in his seminal Fact, Fiction, and Forecast; and David Lewis's influential articulation of possible world theory is popularly applied in efforts to solve it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72208",
"title": "Counterfactual history",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Differences from alternate history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Counterfactual history distinguishes itself through its interest in the very incident that is being negated by the counterfactual, thus seeking to evaluate the event's relative historical importance. Such historians reason arguments for each change, outlining changes in broad terms only, as befits a mere byproduct of the exercise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fph9b5
|
What, aside from knowledge of how to use/extract coal and oil, prevented an industrial revolution from occurring earlier in history?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's always more that can be said but while you wait you might enjoy some of these older posts on the topic. As you'll quickly see, its actually a pretty complicated discussion.\n\n/u/Daeres and a deleted user discuss [Why didn't we get an industrial revolution during Antiquity ?](_URL_2_)\n\n/u/AlviseFalier talks about [Why did the Industrial Revolution begin in the UK and not elsewhere? I have seen several theories, including colonialism, natural resources, Protestantism, capitalism and the rule of law. Is there any historical consensus on this?](_URL_1_)\n\nand a particularly good post from /u/LuxArdens on [Why did the industrial revolution happen so late in civilization?](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15514902",
"title": "Age of Oil",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 988,
"text": "Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, fossil fuels have been used as sources of energy. Coal began to be widely used after 1800 and would continue to be the dominant source of fuel into the 20th century. However, two events set the stage for the Age of Oil: The first was in 1846, when Abraham Gesner invented kerosene making coal and petroleum practical raw materials for lighting fuel. The second was in 1859, when Edwin Drake invented the first modern drilling process for deep oil wells. John Davison Rockefeller founded the Standard Oil Company, which dominated the oil industry and was the first great U.S. business trust. In 1870, he founded Standard Oil Company and aggressively ran it until he officially retired in 1897. Karl Friedrich Benz developed a petrol-powered automobiles by 1878 and, in 1879, obtained a patent for the practical automobile. The invention of the internal combustion engine was the major influence in the rise in the importance of petroleum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18411184",
"title": "The End of Oil",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Though \"The End of Oil\" is not a chronological history of humanity's use of fossil fuels, Roberts begins by recounting how Thomas Newcomen, in 1712, presented the first large steam engine, and thus helped spark the Industrial Revolution. He then goes on to explain the problems that have since developed, or may develop in the future, from humanity's reliance on oil and its \"geological siblings\", coal and natural gas. While there is a chapter on hydrogen as a possible alternative to oil (not as an energy source, but as an energy carrier), the book is not focused on any one solution to the problems it lays out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4514759",
"title": "Karrick process",
"section": "Section::::Economic viability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Oils, including petroleum, have long been extracted from coal. Production plants were merely shut down in the 1880s because crude oil became cheaper than coal liquefaction. The capability itself, however, has never disappeared. Eight years of pilot plant tests by Karrick attest that states, cities or even smaller towns, could make their own gas and generate their own electricity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23488741",
"title": "Synthetic fuels in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Economic viability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Oils, including petroleum, have long been extracted from coal. Production plants were merely shut down in the 1880s because crude oil became cheaper than coal liquefaction. The capability itself, however, has never disappeared. Eight years of pilot plant tests by Karrick attest that states, cities or even smaller towns, could make their own gas and generate their own electricity. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18617806",
"title": "United Kingdom enterprise law",
"section": "Section::::Specific enterprises.:Natural resources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 1415,
"text": "Natural resources have historically been critical for energy and raw materials in the UK economy. Before the industrial revolution, energy and heating needs were served mainly by burning timber. The development of the steam engine, particularly after James Watt's patents in 1775, and rail transport led coal to be the UK's dominant energy source, now governed under the Coal Industry Act 1994. The development of the internal combustion engine in the late 19th century, led to a gradual displacement of coal by oil and gas. In the 21st century, because of critical threat of climate damage caused by human beings burning coal, oil and gas (or any fossil fuel releasing carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases), the UK is trying to shift to energy based on zero-carbon: wind, hydro or solar based power. In 2015, the UK's energy consumption was 47% petroleum, 29% natural gas, 18% electricity and 5% other, but the growth of renewable electricity, and the introduction of electric vehicles is increasingly rapid. Under the Climate Change Act 2008, the UK government is bound to ensure there is an 80% reduction of carbon emissions compared to 1990 levels, when the Kyoto Protocol was drafted. This is meant to prevent the damage from extreme weather, flooding and coastlines going under the sea. The scientific community takes the view that, while the oil and gas industry still provides energy, it must be phased out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2992989",
"title": "Petroleum seep",
"section": "Section::::Modern extraction and industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "The modern history of petroleum exploitation, in relation to extraction from seeps, began in the 19th century with the refining of kerosene from crude oil as early as 1823, and the process of refining kerosene from coal by Nova Scotian Abraham Pineo Gesner in 1846. It was only after Ignacy Łukasiewicz had improved Gesner's method to develop a means of refining kerosene from the more readily available \"rock oil\" (\"petr-oleum\") seeps in 1852 that the first rock oil mine was built near Krosno in central European Galicia (Poland/Ukraine) in 1853. In 1854, Benjamin Silliman, a science professor at Yale University, was the first American to fractionate petroleum by distillation. These discoveries rapidly spread around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23488741",
"title": "Synthetic fuels in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Synthetic production of liquid fuels (\"i.e.\", gasoline and oil substitutes) in the United States has a long history. In the 19th century, dozens facilities produced oil, gas, grease and paraffin from coal, but by 1873, cheap petroleum caused the last coal oil plant to close. The commercial scale shale oil extraction began in 1857 at shale oil retorts retorting the Devonian oil shale along the Ohio River Valley. However, after crude oil discovery in Pennsylvania in 1859, oil shale industries found it difficult to compete and they were shut down by 1861. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3drr65
|
why does an electrolyte solution like gatorade hydrate, while an electrolyte solution like salt water dehydrates?
|
[
{
"answer": "A solution with a higher concentration of electrolytes than your blood has will increase the concentration in your blood and draw water out of your cells to correct it. A solution with a lower concentration (or just water) will have the opposite effect. Something like Gatorade aims to have the same concentration as your blood, so it just replaces fluids without messing with the electrolyte balance of your blood and cells.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "seawater salt concentration - 35 parts per thousand\n\ngatorade salt concentration - 1.1 parts per thousand",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48336",
"title": "Electrolyte",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Electrolyte solutions are normally formed when a salt is placed into a solvent such as water and the individual components dissociate due to the thermodynamic interactions between solvent and solute molecules, in a process called \"solvation\". For example, when table salt (sodium chloride), NaCl, is placed in water, the salt (a solid) dissolves into its component ions, according to the dissociation reaction\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3737422",
"title": "Ethanol precipitation",
"section": "Section::::DNA precipitation.:Theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "At an atomic level, the reduction in the force acting on a charge results from water molecules forming a hydration shell around it. This fact makes water a very good solvent for charged compounds like salts. Electric force which normally holds salt crystals together by way of ionic bonds is weakened in the presence of water allowing ions to separate from the crystal and spread through solution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36853181",
"title": "Hydration energy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "Hydration energy (also hydration enthalpy) is the amount of energy released when one mole of ions undergo hydration. Hydration energy is one component in the quantitative analysis of solvation. It is a particular special case of dissolution energy, with the solvent being water. The value of hydration energies is one of the more challenging aspects of structure prediction. Upon dissolving a salt in water, the cations and anions interact with the positive and negative dipoles of the water. The trade-off of these interactions vs those within the crystalline solid comprises the hydration energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39592391",
"title": "Alkaline water electrolysis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "Alkaline water electrolysis has a long history in the chemical industry. It is a type of electrolyzer that is characterized by having two electrodes operating in a liquid alkaline electrolyte solution of potassium hydroxide (KOH) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH). These electrodes are separated by a diaphragm, separating the product gases and transporting the hydroxide ions (OH) from one electrode to the other. A recent comparison showed that state-of-the-art nickel based water electrolyzers with alkaline electrolytes lead to competitive or even better efficiencies than acidic polymer electrolyte membrane water electrolysis with platinum group metal based electrocatalysts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80207",
"title": "Sodium chloride",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Neutralization of the strong base sodium hydroxide and the strong acid hydrochloric acid also form solutions of sodium chloride, reversing the energy-absorbing process of electrolysis that make both sodium chloride and hydrochloric acid more costly than sodium chloride -- and requires the evaporation of water from the solution, which is not practical. Likewise it forms from many reactions involving solutes that allow sodium chloride as the remaining solute in solution after a reaction between a metallic chloride (most are soluble)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4213750",
"title": "Salt water chlorination",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "Salt water chlorination produces an excess of hydroxyl ions whilst releasing chlorine from salt, which makes the pool alkaline (sodium hydroxide, NaOH, caustic soda). This requires the frequent addition of hydrochloric acid (HCl, also known as muriatic acid) to neutralise the alkalinity and convert the sodium hydroxide back into sodium chloride (i.e. table salt), which can be split by electrolysis again. Thus the consumable supplying all the chlorine is in fact the hydrochloric acid, with the salt acting as a non-consumed intermediary, being split and reformed. The whole process is exactly balanced by equivalents: the amount of chlorine produced is directly related to the amount of hydrochloric acid used, other things remaining equal. This could be represented roughly as follows (with the ions all separated in solution):\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42828205",
"title": "Sodium hyponitrite",
"section": "Section::::\"Trans\" isomer.:Hydrates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "The hydration water seems to be just trapped in the crystal lattice rather than coordinated to the ions. The anhydrous substance can be obtained by drying the hydrates over phosphorus pentoxide and then heating them to 120 °C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
87ep89
|
why are bombs in cartoons always stylised to be the big, round black ones with a fuse and the word "bomb" written on them?
|
[
{
"answer": "\nThat's what old-timey artillery shells and grenades looked like. Black iron sphere with a fuse in one end. Light, launch, and hope it explodes near where you want it to explode.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because big black round balls with the word \"BOMB\" is funny, while a thing looking like a cardboard box is just confusing",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If they pictured real looking bombs ( shoe boxes, rucksacks) in cartoons children could grow up scared and confused every time they went shoe shopping, Plus that’s how bombs looked when they were invented by the Chinese all those years ago. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, that's pretty much exactly like what premodern grenades looked like. A roughly-spherical hollow shell made of ceramic or metal, with a fuse coming out of one end.\n\nThose kinds of weapons weren't in use when cartoons like that were made, but contemporary explosives don't look very distinct and probably wouldn't be appropriate for the whimsical nature of kid's cartoons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Funny, I recently watched [this game theory](_URL_0_) video on bob-ombs. starting at just before 2 minutes he explains pretty much what you're asking",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because early grenades (I am talking 15th century) [looked](_URL_0_) like that (sans the word bomb written on the side). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14916504",
"title": "Koro Koro Puzzle Happy Panechu!",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Items.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "BULLET::::- Bombs – These black objects are important in the game. When they get together they stick to each other. Two or more sticking together can be blown up with the B button, erasing blocks or hurting enemies. Stick four up in a square to make a big bomb, stick two big bombs together to make an even bigger bomb, and two of those will get you the largest bomb to create. Bigger bombs means more firepower.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "424377",
"title": "Collapse!",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "In higher levels of the game, \"bombs\" appear, mixed among the blocks. The bombs are black (in which case clicking on them causes the surrounding blocks to disappear), or are the color of one of the groups of bricks (in which case clicking on the bomb eliminates all bricks on the board that are the same color). Black bombs have the additional quality of serving as a bridge between bricks of the same color; if two or more bricks of the same color are touching a bomb, then clicking one of those bricks has the same effect of clicking on a group of three or more bricks of the same color. In \"Super Collapse 3!\", this rule is changed to allow colored bombs to act as a bridge between matching groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6343677",
"title": "Pumpkin bomb",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "On the other hand, anecdotal sources attribute the naming of the bombs to a pumpkin color: While the bombs were painted olive drab or khaki in the field, photographs show that at least the units delivered to Tinian were shipped in the same yellow zinc chromate primer color worn by Fat Man.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1388411",
"title": "Copenhagen (play)",
"section": "Section::::Recurring images and motifs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "• \"Bomb\" – The term \"bomb\" appears as a literal looming image in many cases, but it is used figuratively in a couple of instances, as if it should be a joke, but with such grave implications that it cannot be found funny. (For example, Heisenberg refers to a \"bomb having gone off\" in Bohr's head.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12380437",
"title": "2-inch medium mortar",
"section": "Section::::The 2-inch medium mortar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "It fired a spherical cast-iron bomb \"the size of a football\" painted dirty white filled with amatol (identified by a painted green band) or ammonal (identified by a painted pink band) attached to the end of a pipe (\"stick\"), hence the nicknames \"toffee apple\" and \"plum pudding\". Weights of bombs as delivered without fuzes varied. Light bombs, from 39 lb 14 oz to below 40 lb 10 oz (18.09 to 18.43 kg), were marked with a stenciled \"L\". Heavy bombs, above 41 lb 10 oz to 42 lb 6 oz (18.43 to 19.22 kg) were marked with a stenciled \"Hv\". Hence the total fuzed weight with stick of 51 lb is an average.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10788786",
"title": "Cricket in World War I",
"section": "Section::::Cricket in war art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "A \"Punch\" cartoon depicted the Germans in more lighthearted manner in a cartoon which showed a German plane flying over a cricket match. The game continues, even as the plane drops its bombs, with the fielders chasing a ball to the boundary. The caption, playing on the German misunderstanding of cricket, shows the German airman's report as saying \"We dropped bombs on a British formation, causing the troops to disperse and run about in a panic stricken manner\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1012855",
"title": "Blockbuster bomb",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "A blockbuster bomb or cookie was any of several of the largest conventional bombs used in World War II by the Royal Air Force (RAF). The term \"blockbuster\" was originally a name coined by the press and referred to a bomb which had enough explosive power to destroy an entire street or large building through the effects of blast in conjunction with incendiary bombs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3crcvv
|
why did i throw up the fish oil plastic capsule
|
[
{
"answer": "[Those aren't plastic](_URL_0_, that would be very bad. Chances are, the capsule broke and you simply brought it back up. Those things dissolve so it is likely that it never made it very far, but broke on the way down and released the oil. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29976178",
"title": "Threats to sea turtles",
"section": "Section::::Ocean plastic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Discarded plastic bags floating in the ocean resemble jellyfish, a common food of sea turtles. If a turtle eats a plastic foil, it tends to clog the turtle's digestive system and results in the animal dying. There have been many cases of dissection showing plastic foil and other debris inside turtles stomachs and intestines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1903166",
"title": "Loggerhead sea turtle",
"section": "Section::::Conservation.:Threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Nearly 24,000 metric tons of plastic are dumped into the ocean each year. Turtles ingest a wide array of this floating debris, including bags, sheets, pellets, balloons and abandoned fishing line. Loggerheads may mistake the floating plastic for jellyfish, a common food item. The ingested plastic causes numerous health concerns, including intestinal blockage, reduced nutrient absorption and malnutrition, suffocation, ulcerations, or starvation. Ingested plastics release toxic compounds, including polychlorinated biphenyls, which may accumulate in internal tissues. Such toxins may lead to a thinning of eggshells, tissue damage, or deviation from natural behaviors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37201518",
"title": "Plastic pollution",
"section": "Section::::Effects on animals.:Ingestion.:Marine animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Some of the tiniest bits of plastic are being consumed by small fish, in a part of the pelagic zone in the ocean called the \"Mesopelagic zone\", which is 200 to 1000 metres below the ocean surface, and completely dark. Not much is known about these fish, other than that there are many of them. They hide in the darkness of the ocean, avoiding predators and then swimming to the ocean's surface at night to feed. Plastics found in the stomachs of these fish were collected during \"Malaspina's circumnavigation\", a research project that studies the impact of global change on the oceans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38006024",
"title": "Environmental impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill",
"section": "Section::::Entry to the food chain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1363,
"text": "Signs of an oil-and-dispersant mix were found under the shells of tiny blue crab larvae in the Gulf by researchers at Tulane University in 2010. This finding indicated that the use of dispersants had broken the oil into droplets small enough to easily enter the food chain. Marine biologists found \"orange blobs\" under the shells of crab larvae in \"almost all\" of the larvae collected from over of coastline stretching from Grand Isle, Louisiana, to Pensacola, Florida. According to a March 2012 study, spilled oil entered the ocean's food chain through zooplankton. Dr. Michael Roman of the University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science stated \"traces of oil in the zooplankton prove that they had contact with the oil and the likelihood that oil compounds may be working their way up the food chain\". Alabama researchers in July 2012 found that dispersants may have killed microscopic plankton and disrupted the food chain. Scientists commenting on the study, published in PLOS ONE, said it pointed toward \"major future effects of the spill\". One scientist called its findings \"scary, though limited because the experiments spanned only five days\". Carbon isotopic evidence has revealed that oil from the disaster has entered the bodies of land animals and birds (terrestrial fauna) leading to a reduction in the reproductive success of some species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "999306",
"title": "Fish oil",
"section": "Section::::Supplement quality and concerns.:Formulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Fish oil supplements are available as liquids or capsules. Some capsules are enteric-coated to pass through the stomach before dissolving in the small intestine, thus helping prevent indigestion and \"fish burps\". Poorly manufactured enteric-coated products have the potential to release ingredients too early. ConsumerLab.com, a for-profit supplement testing company, reported that 1 of the 24 enteric-coated fish oil supplements it evaluated released ingredients prematurely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2910903",
"title": "Enteric coating",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "Recently, some companies have begun to apply enteric coatings to fish oil (omega-3 fatty acids) supplements. The coating prevents the fish oil capsules from being digested in the stomach, which has been known to cause a fishy reflux.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2127046",
"title": "Marine pollution",
"section": "Section::::Types of pollution.:Plastic debris.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Plastics accumulate because they don't biodegrade in the way many other substances do. They will photodegrade on exposure to the sun, but they do so properly only under dry conditions, and water inhibits this process. In marine environments, photodegraded plastic disintegrates into ever-smaller pieces while remaining polymers, even down to the molecular level. When floating plastic particles photodegrade down to zooplankton sizes, jellyfish attempt to consume them, and in this way the plastic enters the ocean food chain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bpbp8f
|
what is the difference between a carburated and fuel injection engine
|
[
{
"answer": "Carburated is basically fuel getting into the engine by vacuum from the intake which is a gravity type system since it doesnt work when your upside down and needs about 2-3psi to work and a fuel injected system has electric solenoid injectors that open precisely at the right time to spray fuel right before the intake valve and the fuel lines are pressurised at about 60 psi. Then there is direct injection system where they spray fuel directly into the combustion chamber of the engine and this system runs at about 20000psi+.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37161",
"title": "Fuel injection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "On petrol engines, fuel injection replaced carburetors from the 1980s onward. The primary difference between carburetion and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes the fuel through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor relies on suction created by intake air accelerated through a Venturi tube to draw the fuel into the airstream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1166993",
"title": "Indirect injection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1239,
"text": "Indirect injection in an internal combustion engine is fuel injection where fuel is not directly injected into the combustion chamber. In the last decade, gasoline engines equipped with indirect injection systems, wherein a fuel injector delivers the fuel at some point before the intake valve, have mostly fallen out of favor to direct injection. However, certain manufacturers such as Volkswagen and Toyota have developed a 'dual injection' system, combining direct injectors with port (indirect) injectors, combining the benefits of both types of fuel injection. Direct injection allows the fuel to be precisely metered into the combustion chamber under high pressure which can lead to greater power, fuel efficiency. The issue with direct injection is that it typically leads to greater amounts of particulate matter and with the fuel no longer contacting the intake valves, carbon can accumulate on the intake valves over time. Adding indirect injection keeps fuel spraying on the intake valves, reducing or eliminating the carbon accumulation on intake valves and in low load conditions, indirect injection allows for better fuel-air mixing. This system is mainly used in higher cost models due to the added expense and complexity. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2691067",
"title": "Injection pump",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "An Injection Pump is the device that pumps diesel (as the fuel) into the cylinders of a diesel engine. Traditionally, the injection pump is driven indirectly from the crankshaft by gears, chains or a toothed belt (often the timing belt) that also drives the camshaft. It rotates at half crankshaft speed in a conventional four-stroke diesel engine. Its timing is such that the fuel is injected only very slightly before top dead centre of that cylinder's compression stroke. It is also common for the pump belt on gasoline engines to be driven directly from the camshaft. In some systems injection pressures can be as high as 620 bar (8992 psi) .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1605024",
"title": "Gasoline direct injection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "Gasoline direct injection (GDI) (also known as petrol direct injection, direct petrol injection, spark-ignited direct injection (SIDI) and fuel-stratified injection (FSI)), is a form of fuel injection employed in modern two-stroke and four-stroke gasoline engines. The gasoline is highly pressurized, and injected via a common rail fuel line directly into the combustion chamber of each cylinder, as opposed to conventional multipoint fuel injection that injects fuel into the intake tract or cylinder port. Directly injecting fuel into the combustion chamber requires high-pressure injection, whereas low pressure is used injecting into the intake tract or cylinder port.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28140707",
"title": "Component parts of internal combustion engines",
"section": "Section::::Ignition system.:Fuel systems.:Fuel injection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Larger gasoline engines used in automobiles have mostly moved to fuel injection systems (see Gasoline Direct Injection). Diesel engines have always used fuel injection system because the timing of the injection initiates and controls the combustion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37161",
"title": "Fuel injection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "All diesel engines use fuel injection by design. Petrol engines can use gasoline direct injection, where the fuel is directly delivered into the combustion chamber, or indirect injection where the fuel is mixed with air before the intake stroke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "166194",
"title": "Petrol engine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "In most petrol engines, the fuel and air are usually mixed after compression (although some modern petrol engines now use cylinder-direct petrol injection). The pre-mixing was formerly done in a carburetor, but now it is done by electronically controlled fuel injection, except in small engines where the cost/complication of electronics does not justify the added engine efficiency. The process differs from a diesel engine in the method of mixing the fuel and air, and in using spark plugs to initiate the combustion process. In a diesel engine, only air is compressed (and therefore heated), and the fuel is injected into very hot air at the end of the compression stroke, and self-ignites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9crp58
|
why do some states disallow voters with no party affiliation to vote in primaries?
|
[
{
"answer": "Many states havd closed primaries: by law or decision of the political parties, only those with a registered party affiliation can vote in the partisan primary ballots. Those who have not registered affiliation can vote in closed primary election, but will be given a non partisan ticket (generally only referendum questions).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the primaries are ways for members of political party to select who their candidate would be. It stands to reason that people who aren't part of that party shouldn't get to choose who that party will put up in the general election.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the primaries are help by the party. If republicans are allowed to vote in a democratic primary, they will pick the candidate that either suits them, or they'll pick a candidate that they are sure to beat. A primary election isn't a government function, it's a party function. They selecting who will be on the ballot from their party. Hopefully you can see why it is detrimental to have just anyone vote in a party primary",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3733780",
"title": "Decline to State",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "The Democratic and Republican parties have both allowed voters who decline to state a party affiliation to vote in all of their respective primary elections until the 2008 presidential primary election, in which the Republican party disallowed the practice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4733089",
"title": "Unenrolled voter",
"section": "Section::::Unenrolled voters in the United States.:Automatic party enrollment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "In some states an unenrolled voter who votes in a presidential primary automatically becomes enrolled in the party for which their vote was cast, unless they take a simple step to elect to do otherwise. Typically these states allow unenrolled Americans to switch parties after casting their vote in national elections by providing them with signature cards at polling stations. These cards have a box where party affiliation may be declared as Democrat, Republican, Unenrolled or other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32253",
"title": "Constitution Party (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Affiliated organizations.:Changes in affiliation.:West Virginia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Because the Constitution Party is not a major party in the state, its voters are permitted to vote in the primary but must take the initiative to ask for either a Republican or Democratic party ballot in lieu of the standard non-partisan ballot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4733089",
"title": "Unenrolled voter",
"section": "Section::::Unenrolled voters in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Typically, unenrolled voters do cast a vote for a Democrat or a Republican candidate after considering the issues. The right of unenrolled voters to vote in any party's primary presidential elections varies by state; in some, one party holds a \"closed primary\" in which only voters registered with that affiliation may vote, while other parties hold an \"open primary\" that does not require specific affiliation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5376051",
"title": "Ray v. Blair",
"section": "Section::::The Decision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Further, the Court determined that a state is within its rights to exclude, or to allow parties to exclude, potential electors on the basis of refusing to pledge to support the party's nominees. This is acceptable because it is a method of ensuring that party candidates in the general election are committed to the leadership and philosophy of the party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "85533",
"title": "United States Electoral College",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary issues.:Criticism.:Discouragement of turnout and participation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 839,
"text": "Except in closely fought swing states, voter turnout is largely insignificant due to entrenched political party domination in most states. The Electoral College decreases the advantage a political party or campaign might gain for encouraging voters to turn out, except in those swing states. If the presidential election were decided by a national popular vote, in contrast, campaigns and parties would have a strong incentive to work to increase turnout everywhere. Individuals would similarly have a stronger incentive to persuade their friends and neighbors to turn out to vote. The differences in turnout between swing states and non-swing states under the current electoral college system suggest that replacing the Electoral College with direct election by popular vote would likely increase turnout and participation significantly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7688975",
"title": "White primaries",
"section": "Section::::Establishment and significance of white primaries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "To strengthen the exclusion of minorities from the political system, Texas, Georgia and some other states established white primaries, a “selectively inclusive” system that permitted only whites to vote in the primaries. By legally considering the general election as the only state-held election, they gave white members of the Democratic Party control of the decision-making process within the party and the state. Because the Democratic Party dominated the political systems of all the Southern states after Reconstruction, its state and local primary elections usually determined which candidate would ultimately win office in the general election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2e0298
|
in a water drought, why don't supply/demand economics increase the price of water and, thus, incentivize us to use less?
|
[
{
"answer": "Public water supplies aren't part of the free market. Water districts are heavily subsidized through taxes & generally have hefty regulations placed on their rates. On top of that, they're generally monopolies.\n\nYou can't use public money to build a system then throw your hands up and say \"free market!\" when there's trouble. The People paid for it and deserve the benefit, not just those who are willing to pay higher fees when things get rough.\n\nOn top of that, in our society we've generally decided that access to clean water is fundamental human right. If you jack up the price, you're just going to end up with a bunch of dehydrated, stinky poor people while the middle class just complains a bit about the extra costs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39249874",
"title": "Socio-hydrology",
"section": "Section::::The case of dams and reservoir.:The reservoir effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Attempts to increase water supply to cope with growing water demand, which is fuelled by the increase in supply, has been shown to be unsustainable. Drought occurrences can trigger temporary reductions of water availability, often leading to water shortage when water demand cannot be satisfied by the available water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39249874",
"title": "Socio-hydrology",
"section": "Section::::The case of dams and reservoir.:The supply-demand cycle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "Evidence has shown that water supply leads to higher water demand, which can quickly offset the initial benefits of reservoirs. These cycles can be seen as a rebound effect, also known in environmental economics as Jevon's paradox: as more water is available, water consumption tends to increase. This can result in a vicious cycle: a new water shortage can be addressed by further expansion of reservoir storage to increase water availability, which enables more water consumption, which then can potentially lead to conditions of water scarcity. As such, the supply-demand cycle can trigger an accelerating spiral towards unsustainable exploitation of water resources and environmental degradation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15091601",
"title": "Climate change in Washington",
"section": "Section::::Agriculture.:Yakima Valley.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Research at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) determined that the $1.3 billion output was due to water availability. Past droughts caused 10-15% losses of economic output, not including the accumulation of water loss over the years. Compared to a “good year” where the outputs are estimated at $901 million, droughts and crop losses will become more prevalent due to water shortages increasing from $13 to $79 million per year by mid-century. Water shortages will cause higher costs for farmers and amplify economic losses during drought years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25303707",
"title": "Double diversion",
"section": "Section::::In agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1030,
"text": "Disproportionality in agriculture has also been observed in water use, with farmers and organized farm interests in dry western states of the U.S. commonly using 80 percent of those state’s water, while only having an economic relevance of 1–3 percent of the total economy. This disproportionate effect signifies that twenty thousand times as many jobs would be created if this same amount of water was used in industry. Nevertheless, the top four percent of all farmers received 55 percent of all federal crop subsidies, with this trend of this disproportionality increasing into the future. Reluctance to challenge this status quo can be explained through diversion via the social multiplier effect: even if a given individual does not work in a given industry, that person’s attitudes may be affected by whether his or her friends and relatives do. Therefore, it makes sense that rural resident would be especially reluctant to criticize the industries or facilities they see as providing jobs for their friends and neighbors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7852580",
"title": "Water trading",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Some economists argue that water trading can promote more efficient water allocation because a market based price acts as an incentive for users to allocate resources from low value activities to high value activities. There are debates about the extent to which water markets operate efficiently in practice, what the social and environmental outcomes of water trading schemes are, and the ethics of applying economic principles to a resource such as water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "986695",
"title": "Qu'Appelle River",
"section": "Section::::Water management within the Qu'Appelle.:Water demand estimates under climate change scenario.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Water demand is affected by changes in climate and occurrence of extreme weather related events. In the Qu'Appelle River Basin, climate change will produce higher temperatures and longer growing seasons which will have significant impacts on demand for water in the agricultural sector since crops and livestock will require more water. Industry and mining are not expected to increase their water demand under the referenced climate change scenario. Municipal and domestic sectors are expected to increase their demand minimally. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31291001",
"title": "Water-use efficiency",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "Increases in water-use efficiency are commonly cited as a response mechanism of plants to moderate to severe soil water deficits, and has been the focus of many programs that seek to increase crop tolerance of drought. However, there is some question as to the benefit of increased water-use efficiency of plants in agricultural systems, as the processes of increased yield production and decreased transpirational water loss (that is, the main driver of increases in water-use efficiency) are fundamentally opposed. If there existed a situation where water deficit induced lower transpirational rates without simultaneously decreasing photosynthetic rates and biomass production, then water-use efficiency would be both greatly improved and a desired trait in crop production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
26w93p
|
spontaneous water glass explosion at dinner?
|
[
{
"answer": "My guess is thermal stress. Quick changes between hot and cold can stress some materials. Cheap glass in particular is often prone to this due to holding ice-cold beverages. If the glass was warm out of the washer then immediately filled with ice water, it will put some stress on the glass itself, potentially causing it to shatter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Was it a shatterproof glass? It was likely under tension, like a [prince Rupert drop](_URL_0_).\n\nIt will be much more durable than standard glass, until a sudden shock comes along. Maybe it had a microscopic crack that propogated slowly from thermal expansion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20036243",
"title": "Bert Bolle Barometer",
"section": "Section::::History.:Australia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "At the moment when the water reached its highest possible point in the glass pipe, visitors could witness an interesting physical phenomenon for about a minute. The air pressure above the water had lowered dramatically. Therefore, the evaporation of the water happened so vigorously that the water started to boil spontaneously, although its temperature rarely exceeded 20 °C. This ‘cold boiling’ is contributed to by air bubbles that were formed in the water column. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48856384",
"title": "The Glass of Water",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The Glass of Water: or, Effects and Causes (French: \"Le verre d’eau ou Les effets et les causes\") is an 1840 five-act stage comedy by the French writer Eugène Scribe. It is set at the court of Queen Anne of Great Britain during the early 18th century. It premiered at the Théâtre-Français in Paris on 17 November 1840. It has been translated into several languages, including into German in 1841 by Alexander Cosmar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24153841",
"title": "Endicott Hotel",
"section": "Section::::The early days of the hotel (1890s).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "In 1897, there was an explosion at the hotel when Charles E. Tripler, a chemist and inventor, was exhibiting a \"secret fluid compound\" made of nitrogen and oxygen to some friends. Tripler poured the liquid on bread, whiskey and pure alcohol, freezing them. One of the spectators touched a lighted match to the alcohol, shattering the glass and injuring several onlookers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4989597",
"title": "Tempered glass",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Though the underlying mechanism was not known at the time, the effects of \"tempering\" glass have been known for centuries. In about 1660, Prince Rupert of the Rhine brought the discovery of what are now known as \"Prince Rupert's Drops\" to the attention of King Charles II. These are teardrop-shaped bits of glass which are produced by allowing a molten drop of glass to fall into a bucket of water, thereby rapidly cooling it. They can withstand a blow from a hammer on the bulbous end without breaking, but the drops will disintegrate explosively into powder if the tail end is even slightly damaged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3137024",
"title": "Cristallo",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Next the glass was placed into a furnace that was heated to the highest temperature possible and left there for several days. The material was stirred continually to eliminate defects, such as bubbles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "238025",
"title": "Lake Nyos",
"section": "Section::::1986 disaster.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Scientists concluded from evidence that a fountain of water and foam formed at the surface of the lake. The huge amount of water rising suddenly caused much turbulence in the water, spawning a wave of at least that would scour the shore of one side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2475942",
"title": "Barking dog reaction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "In April 1853, Justus von Liebig performed the demonstration in front of the Bavarian royal family; however, the glass container shattered, and shards of glass inflicted minor injuries on the faces of Queen Therese, her son Prince Luitpold, and Liebig himself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
64q92n
|
why is it that we don't overheat and die when the outside temperature is over 98 degrees, body temperature? shouldn't our body be unable to loose heat heat at those temperatures?
|
[
{
"answer": "In addition to sweat, the fact that air is a bad heat conductor also helps a lot because it takes people a while to actually heat up. If the temperature outside is 115 degrees you'll be fine. If the temperature inside is 115 degrees you will almost certainly die. Only one person has ever survived that, and it was after a day in the hospital.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "there are a few really cool tricks water and air do when combined. First as has been mentioned by others, in a small room or car you very definitely can overheat and die. But you could also easily overheat in the rainforest, and that's outside. Why?\n\nThe core of the answer stems from air humidity. For reasons not needed, air can hold more water vapor the hotter it gets, and the amount is a geometric increase. This is why you get frost or dew in the mornings, air gets cold enough water is forced out and it condenses. Then as the day heats up evaporation lets some of that water back into the air. This also explains why 100F in Arizona and 100F in Florida feel way different. In Arizona the air is dry so your sweat has somewhere to go, this is called low relative humidity. In Florida the air is already holding a lot of water and can't accept much more, this is high relative humidity.\n\nSo why does sweat leaving our bodies help us cool off? \nEvaporation is the process where by water jumps from liquid to vapor (gas). This state change requires a lot of energy, 600 calories per gram. compared to the 80 calories per gram to takes to freeze room temperature water into ice. This is not like the calories you see on a box of wheaties by the way. In a science setting food calories are actually referred to as kilocalories (yup, the really just means 1000 calories). \n\nAs your sweat evaporates off your body the first water molecules are greedy and use up their portion of energy first, leaving the water energy neutral and having to build up the heat all over again. Kinda like an old school camera flash, it has to take a moment and some energy before it can make another flash. This allows your body to dump it's waste heat into the suddenly cool drops of water on your skin. \n\nThis is why people survive 120F days out in the desert with just water and sunburns. Ultimately it isn't just a question of how hot the air around you is, it's a question of how much heat your body can get rid of through it's sweat. If the air is really dry it can probably handle a lot so long as you stay hydrated, if it's a really humid place then you might be in trouble.\n\nbonus fact, when dogs and cats pant they are using the same method, just in the only place they can easily replace the water.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "75654",
"title": "Hyperthermia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Exertional.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Significant physical exertion in hot conditions can generate heat beyond the ability to cool, because, in addition to the heat, humidity of the environment may reduce the efficiency of the body's normal cooling mechanisms. Human heat-loss mechanisms are limited primarily to sweating (which dissipates heat by evaporation, assuming sufficiently low humidity) and vasodilation of skin vessels (which dissipates heat by convection proportional to the temperature difference between the body and its surroundings, according to Newton's law of cooling). Other factors, such as insufficient water intake, consuming alcohol, or lack of air conditioning, can worsen the problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48798515",
"title": "Thermoregulation in humans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "There are four avenues of heat loss: convection, conduction, radiation, and evaporation. If skin temperature is greater than that of the surroundings, the body can lose heat by radiation and conduction. But, if the temperature of the surroundings is greater than that of the skin, the body actually \"gains\" heat by radiation and conduction. In such conditions, the only means by which the body can rid itself of heat is by evaporation. So, when the surrounding temperature is higher than the skin temperature, anything that prevents adequate evaporation will cause the internal body temperature to rise. During sports activities, evaporation becomes the main avenue of heat loss. Humidity affects thermoregulation by limiting sweat evaporation and thus heat loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "154881",
"title": "Heat index",
"section": "Section::::Meteorological considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The human body requires evaporative cooling to prevent overheating. Wet-bulb temperature, and Wet Bulb Globe Temperature are used to determine the ability of a body to eliminate excess heat. A sustained wet-bulb temperature of about can be fatal to healthy people; at this temperature our bodies switch from shedding heat to the environment, to gaining heat from it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378661",
"title": "Thermoregulation",
"section": "Section::::Vertebrates.:In humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "There are three avenues of heat loss: convection, conduction, and radiation. If skin temperature is greater than that of the surroundings, the body can lose heat by radiation and conduction. But, if the temperature of the surroundings is greater than that of the skin, the body actually \"gains\" heat by radiation and conduction. In such conditions, the only means by which the body can rid itself of heat is by evaporation. So, when the surrounding temperature is higher than the skin temperature, anything that prevents adequate evaporation will cause the internal body temperature to rise. During intense physical activity (e.g. sports), evaporation becomes the main avenue of heat loss. Humidity affects thermoregulation by limiting sweat evaporation and thus heat loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37063005",
"title": "Effects of global warming on human health",
"section": "Section::::Impact of excess heat on the human body.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "The human body requires evaporative cooling to prevent overheating, even with a low activity level. With excessive ambient heat and humidity, adequate evaporative cooling does not take place. Human thermoregulatory capacity is exceeded. A sustained wet-bulb temperature or Wet-bulb globe temperature exceeding about can be fatal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52812",
"title": "Humidity",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Animal and plant life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "The human body dissipates heat through perspiration and its evaporation. Heat convection, to the surrounding air, and thermal radiation are the primary modes of heat transport from the body. Under conditions of high humidity, the rate of evaporation of sweat from the skin decreases. Also, if the atmosphere is as warm as or warmer than the skin during times of high humidity, blood brought to the body surface cannot dissipate heat by conduction to the air. With so much blood going to the external surface of the body, less goes to the active muscles, the brain, and other internal organs. Physical strength declines, and fatigue occurs sooner than it would otherwise. Alertness and mental capacity also may be affected, resulting in \"heat stroke\" or hyperthermia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51796195",
"title": "Cold and heat adaptations in humans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "The human body always works to remain in homeostasis. One form of homeostasis is thermoregulation. Body temperature varies in every individual, but the average internal temperature is 37.0 °C (98.6 °F). Stress from extreme external temperature can cause the human body to shut down. Hypothermia can set in when the core temperature drops to 35 °C (95 °F). Hyperthermia can set in when the core body temperature rises above 37.5-38.3 °C (99.5-100.9 °F). These temperatures commonly result in mortality. Humans have adapted to living in climates where hypothermia and hyperthermia are common primarily through culture and technology, such as the use of clothing and shelter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5fpq8v
|
Do solar systems have an electric charge?
|
[
{
"answer": "I feel like there are a couple of different questions blending together here. As to whether the solar system acts like an atomic system with the sun/planets/sundry stellar bodies acting as fundamental particles, the answer is essentially 'no' (or at least, it lacks many of the features of an atom). \n\nIn the article you linked, it sounds like the central idea was that scientists detected the polarization of light from a neutron star, which is hard to do because it is so far away, and the effect is relatively weak. This is because it takes enormous field strengths for the magnetic field of the neutron star to polarize light. In ordinary matter such as a [calcite crystal](_URL_0_) which changes the polarization of light, it is easy for the light to interact with the crystal as it passes through. In the case of a neutron star, the incredibly powerful magnetic field warps the (quantum) vacuum so much that it begins to polarize light similarly to how a calcite crystal does (cf. [magnetars](_URL_1_)). This is important because it takes a mindbogglingly powerful field to do this, so we don't see it very often. Usually the effect is weak, and it is hard for photons to be polarized by the vacuum, so the polarized light is faint. In the link about magnetars, one of the example stars would have a magnetic field that would be fatal to humans at 1,000 km simply because it is so strong it pulls our molecules apart and prevents the chemistry of life. That's the sort of field you need to see a strong polarizing effect.\n\nTo answer your question as I understand it, it isn't so much a case of stars interacting with each other through fundamental particle interactions as protons and neutrons do. Rather, the stars affect the fundamental particles around them (in this case, photons), which travel to us carrying information about that interaction.\n\nOn another note, it is possible (probable, even) that our solar system has a net electric charge relative to other far away solar systems. Nature likes things to be electrically neutral, but since we can't trade electrons with far-away stellar objects, the solar system as a whole retains a net charge (either positive or negative, I couldn't say). This is similar to when you scuff your feet on the carpet to build up a static charge. You keep the charge until you contact another object with a different charge, at which point you feel a zap as electrons transfer from you to the object.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58686423",
"title": "Introduction to electromagnetism",
"section": "Section::::Electric charge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Electric charge is a quantity used to determine how a particle will behave in an electric field. There are three possible \"types\" of charge: positive, negative, and neutral. However, the distinction between positive and negative is by convention only. Electric charge is quantized in units of the elementary charge, formula_1, where a proton has a charge of formula_2 and an electron has a charge of formula_3. The SI unit of charge is the coulomb. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17837284",
"title": "Solar charger",
"section": "Section::::Solar chargers on the market.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Some solar chargers also have an on-board battery which is charged by the solar panel when not charging anything else. This allows the user to be able to use the solar energy stored in the battery to charge their electronic devices at night or when indoors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9804",
"title": "Electric charge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 950,
"text": "Electric charge is a conserved property; the net charge of an isolated system, the amount of positive charge minus the amount of negative charge, cannot change. Electric charge is carried by subatomic particles. In ordinary matter, negative charge is carried by electrons, and positive charge is carried by the protons in the nuclei of atoms. If there are more electrons than protons in a piece of matter, it will have a negative charge, if there are fewer it will have a positive charge, and if there are equal numbers it will be neutral. Charge is \"quantized\"; it comes in integer multiples of individual small units called the elementary charge, \"e\", about , which is the smallest charge which can exist freely (particles called quarks have smaller charges, multiples of \"e\", but they are only found in combination, and always combine to form particles with integer charge). The proton has a charge of +\"e\", and the electron has a charge of −\"e\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13690575",
"title": "Solar power",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Solar power is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), indirectly using concentrated solar power, or a combination. Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaic cells convert light into an electric current using the photovoltaic effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1496902",
"title": "Solar vehicle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "A solar vehicle is an electric vehicle powered completely or significantly by direct solar energy. Usually, photovoltaic (PV) cells contained in solar panels convert the sun's energy directly into electric energy. The term \"solar vehicle\" usually implies that solar energy is used to power all or part of a vehicle's propulsion. Solar power may be also used to provide power for communications or controls or other auxiliary functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1201889",
"title": "Solar electric propulsion",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Solar electric propulsion combines solar panels on spacecraft and ion thrusters, used in tandem. However, there are a number of other types of electrically powered spacecraft propulsion such as arcjet rockets. It may not employ an ion drive, of which there is a variety of types also.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17837284",
"title": "Solar charger",
"section": "Section::::Voltage regulator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "A solar panel can produce a range of charging voltages depending upon sunlight intensity, so a voltage regulator must be included in the charging circuit so as to not over-charge (overvoltage) a device such as a 12 volt car battery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
543hhf
|
Question about Hungarian Military Uniforms of World War II
|
[
{
"answer": "Just to clarify your question, do you mean a Shako like [this](_URL_0_)?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9354727",
"title": "Second Army (Hungary)",
"section": "Section::::On the Eastern Front.:The Don River, Operation Saturn, and disaster.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "The Hungarian Second Army is probably the best known Hungarian wartime army because of the part it played in the Battle of Stalingrad. Before being sent to Russia, the rank-and-file of the Second Army had received but eight weeks of training. The only tactical experience for many of these soldiers were the maneuvers held just prior to the departure for the front. This lack of preparation badly affected the soldiers' fighting abilities and morale when confronted with heavy tank assaults. Also, a significant part of the army was made up by reservists (officers and enlisted men alike), who were promised a \"quick victory\" and became demoralized as their prospects for getting home soon were worsening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "977374",
"title": "Military uniform",
"section": "Section::::History.:The end of bright colours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1081,
"text": "The First World War finally put an end to the expensive practice of furnishing colourful uniforms to all ranks of the various armies. Amongst the frontline troops of the combatant powers in August 1914 only the Belgian and French armies saw active service in bright colours and old fashioned headgear (although the Austro-Hungarian cavalry retained their blue and red uniforms for field wear after the remainder of the army had gone into pike grey in 1909). The Imperial German field grey of 1910 retained a number of traditional features such as spiked helmets, shakos, busbies and coloured piping from the older uniforms. The demands of modern warfare as well as financial economy soon saw these survivals vanish and by 1916 all involved armies were in either khaki (Russia, Turkish, Serbia, Montenegro, Japan, Greek, French colonial and Britain), various shades of grey (German, Italian, Bulgarian, Portuguese, and Austro-Hungarian) or sky blue (French and Romanian). The coloured uniforms of peacetime were often relegated to depot wear by recruits doing their basic training.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27170739",
"title": "Bosnian-Herzegovinian Infantry",
"section": "Section::::Uniform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "During the early months of World War I the pike-grey uniform proved too conspicuous against the dark forest backgrounds common on the Eastern Front. Greenish tinged \"field-grey\" uniforms of a similar shade to that of the Imperial German Army were accordingly issued. For reasons of economy the distinctive knee-breeches of the Bosnian regiments were replaced with the universal model of the Austro-Hungarian infantry. In practice, supply shortages led to mixtures of field-grey, pike-grey and even peacetime blue clothing being worn for the remainder of the war. The fez remained in general use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13203384",
"title": "MÁVAG Héja",
"section": "Section::::Operational history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "The Kingdom of Hungary was allied to Nazi Germany during World War II, with at least one Hungarian squadron flying the MÁVAG Héja in combat on the Eastern Front. However, most Héjas operated inside Hungary in an air defense role or as a trainer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "977374",
"title": "Military uniform",
"section": "Section::::History.:Second World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Uniforms of varying shades of khaki and grey were universal in the Second World War but the cut and outline appearance of the different armies still made identification in the field relatively straight forward. A Soviet soldier would, for example be distinguishable from his German opponent by his general outline, even in the fog of battle. British, American, Japanese and French uniforms still retained some distinctive features, even as they became more and more utilitarian in the course of the War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "674371",
"title": "Pál Teleki",
"section": "Section::::Political life.:Anti-Jewish actions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "While it is true that tens of thousands of young Hungarians were conscripted into military service at the same time and sent to fight on the Eastern Front against the Soviet Union, often ill-equipped and badly trained, and bore the brunt of the miseries of the German defeat, the Hungarian participation in the Eastern campaign was voluntary, and the suffering of its soldiers was war induced and not deliberately inflicted as with the Jewish labor battalions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9976193",
"title": "Telogreika",
"section": "Section::::Issue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "In contrast to the usual shortages in the Red Army, soldiers received regular issues of winter clothing, as their combat effectiveness could be hampered in cold conditions otherwise. The Wehrmacht also regularly made use of captured Red Army winter uniforms, often taking them from the deceased, due to the ineffectiveness of their own winter uniforms. Similarly in the Winter War, due to a poor preparation and lack of materiel, Finnish rank-and-file troops were not issued uniforms, and had to survive with whatever of their own clothing they could bring (facetiously \"malli Cajander\" (model Cajander) after Prime Minister Aimo Cajander), or resort to capturing them from dead Red Army soldiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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