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1mxpz3
|
How common was it for girls under the age of 15 to get married to men before recent times?
|
[
{
"answer": "From the medieval period, the church said you could be betrothed before puberty, but you could not be married until both parties could assent to it, which coincided with puberty - generally assumed to be 12 for girls and 14 for boys. That was a minimum however, and there was a fair amount of commentary which said that you shouldn't get married at the earliest age possible as your 'seed' wasn't strong enough to create good quality babies. \n\nThe barbarian tribes tended to put marrying age around the 20s, so the concept of child marriages is not really a viable argument, at least in the mediaeval period.\n\nStill, our records of the period are very poor, and it's the early modern period is when we tend to have the beginning of proper records that would tell us something about it, and even then, they were generally well over 13.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17653371",
"title": "Estimates of sexual violence",
"section": "Section::::Customary forms of sexual violence.:Child marriage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "married before the age of 15 years, and of these, 17% were married before they were 10 years old. Another survey, conducted in the state of Madhya Pradesh, found that 14% of girls were married between the ages of 10 and 14 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4513169",
"title": "Human rights in Mali",
"section": "Section::::Discrimination, societal abuses, and trafficking in persons.:Children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Women may legally marry at age 18 (or at age 15 with parental consent) and men at age 21. Underage marriage was a problem throughout the country with parents in some cases arranging marriages for girls as young as nine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40544360",
"title": "List of child brides",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Women have traditionally married at younger ages than men although the average age of marriage has increased for both sexes with time. Historically girls were married at a young age more frequently in the past due to both law (increases in the minimum age required for marriage) and trends.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16084500",
"title": "Women in Nepal",
"section": "Section::::Child marriage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Over 700 million women and girls in the world were married before the age of 18. The disparity between men and women is evident, with only 156 boys married between ages 15–18 compared with 720 million girls. Nepal makes the list of the top 10 countries with the highest rates of child marriage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32608900",
"title": "Human rights in South Sudan",
"section": "Section::::Social rights.:Children's rights.:Child marriage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Nearly half of girls ages 15 to 19 are married, with some girls forced into marriage as early as age 12. Because of child marriage, only 37 percent of girls attend primary school, while 51 percent of boys do. Despite a 2008 law that protects girls from early marriage, child marriage is still extremely prevalent. This is due to widespread cultural views that marrying early is in the best interest of girls, since it allows families to access resources that are traditionally paid in the dowry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16749189",
"title": "Children's rights in Mali",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "Women may legally marry at age 18 and men at age 21. The marriage code allows girls under age 15 to marry with parental consent or special permission from a judge. Women's rights organizations opposed this provision as contradicting international conventions that protect children through the age of 18. Underage marriage was a problem throughout the country with parents in some cases arranging marriages for girls as young as nine. A local NGO reported that at least 10 girls-—some below the age of 13—-lost their lives between 2005 and May 2007 because of medical complications resulting from early marriage. Medical specialists noted that child brides were often the victims of FGM, which exacerbates the possibility of complications from infection and childbirth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40139814",
"title": "Marriage in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Social change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "By the 1980s there was a clear trend towards delaying first marriage. In 1989, more than one woman in five had not married by the age of 30. Between 1990 and 2010, the median age at first marriage increased by more than three years for both women and men (from 24.3 years to 27.9 years for women, and from 26.5 years to 29.6 years for men).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6tpc80
|
how can things like trees,weeds,grass, and so forth,be considered to be "alive", as well as know how to do what is required to keep themselves alive, such as absorb water and sunlight,when they don't have a brain to control their functions?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sentience is not a classification for life. Growing, reproducing and the ability to react to the environment are. Organisms that exhibit these behaviors are considered alive. The cells in plants, for example, preform all the necessary functions without a central brain (as we know it) being necessary.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your own body does a mountain of things that your brain has little to do with. Chemistry rules more of your cells than anything else. Your brain just helps control the chemistry. Those systems aren't required for life.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53438629",
"title": "Philosophy of psychedelics",
"section": "Section::::20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "According to such a theory, each one of us is potentially Mind at Large. But in so far as we are animals, our business is at all costs to survive. To make biological survival possible, Mind at Large has to be funneled through the reducing valve of the brain and nervous system. What comes out at the other end is a measly trickle of the kind of consciousness which will help us to stay alive on the surface of this Particular planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1827606",
"title": "Master argument",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "In order to determine whether it is possible for a tree to exist outside of the mind, we need to be able to think of an unconceived tree. But as soon as we try to think about this tree, we have conceived it. So we have failed and there is no good reason to believe that trees exist outside of the mind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "189429",
"title": "Biophilia hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Product of biological evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Similarly, the hypothesis helps explain why ordinary people care for and sometimes risk their lives to save domestic and wild animals, and keep plants and flowers in and around their homes. In other words, our natural love for life helps sustain life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30689514",
"title": "Ayni",
"section": "Section::::Ayni as a noun.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "An example of this would be ayni between a human and a tree: A tree is watered by a human, and the tree uses this water to convert carbon dioxide into oxygen and glucose. The oxygen is used by humans to perform respiration and survive, and some glucose may eventually find its way into products that humans use such as fruits. In return, humans convert oxygen back to carbon dioxide for use by the tree, as well as plant seeds the tree produced to create more trees. The simple of act of watering a tree can also reap in rewards including by not limited to: creating shade, wind barriers, soil anchors, and more. The relationships that can be defined as ayni thus extend to everything beneficial involving two parties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18393",
"title": "Life",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Life is a characteristic that distinguishes physical entities that have biological processes, such as signaling and self-sustaining processes, from those that do not, either because such functions have ceased (they have died), or because they never had such functions and are classified as inanimate. Various forms of life exist, such as plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria. The criteria can at times be ambiguous and may or may not define viruses, viroids, or potential synthetic life as \"living\". Biology is the science concerned with the study of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46184516",
"title": "Serene Oasis",
"section": "Section::::Horticultural therapy's design for clients.:Concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Plants have life just like human beings. Generally speaking, their life processes include seed germination, stem elongation, flower development and maturity, which also require human effort to look after. This treatment focuses on the interaction between people and plants. From the stage of sowing, nurturing, irrigation to growth, from the sapling to the well-developed form, participants are given a chance to witness the plants' growth and thus attain a sense of achievement. Furthermore, participants can acquire the knowledge regarding the life cycle of plants and know more about farming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6538595",
"title": "Outline of transhumanism",
"section": "Section::::Transhumanist values.:Survival.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Survival, or self-preservation, is behavior that ensures the survival of an organism. It is almost universal among living organisms. Humans differ from other animals in that they use technology extensively to improve chances of survival and increase life expectancy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1gs0gx
|
Were slaves in Haiti aware of the French Revolution, and perhaps influenced by it?
|
[
{
"answer": "David Geggus has written a lot about Haiti specifically - you might be interested in an essay collection Geggus compiled with David Gaspar, titled *A Turbulent Time: The French Revolution and the Greater Caribbean*.\n\nYou're correct, the dates are no coincidence but - according to Geggus - in only 40-50% of the slave revolts were the ideals linked to the French Revolution. In general, Geggus seems to take the approach that the influences shouldn't be overstated.\n\nThis is a powerful statement in its own way, because it stresses that slave revolts also developed organically.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In terms of the Haitian Revolution, very much so at a senior level. In the case of other slave revolts, I am not particularly sure but I see no reason to dispute the claims of Geggus as described by /u/amplified_mess - after all, there were widespread rebellions well before the French revolution, so its impact does have limits.\n\nIn terms of the Haitian Revolution itself, however, the French Revolution was critical. I'm not sure how much of the revolution was actually inspired by the ideals of the French revolutionaries - I doubt, judging by what I have read, that slaves in Haiti needed any encouragement to seek out their own emancipation - but the French Revolution certainly weakened the Haitian colonial government to enable the Haitian Revolution to take place. Insofar as I can make out of a deeply complex moment, the French Revolutionaries initially issued proclamations freeing the slaves of Haiti. The Haitian colonial elites viewed these proclamations with horror, and through a series of political negotiations attempted to maintain slavery. The weakness of the institution of slavery, however, left slaves - especially the more educated and mobile slaves - with space in which to foment revolt. The language of the revolution also proved very useful, providing a vocabulary to discuss emancipation in terms used by the French government itself.\n\nIn terms of specific primary sources, I don't speak any French so I can't advise too precisely (if there are any, I imagine they'll be in Port-au-Prince or, possibly, Paris - if the former, they may not be easy to get hold of), but amongst the secondary literature, C.L.R. James's *Black Jacobins* is a great place to start, followed by perhaps a few of the more general texts on Caribbean history to round out the narrative. I found the essay on Haiti in *The Caribbean: A History of the Region and Its People* (Stephane Palmie and Francisco Scarano eds.) to be particularly well-written and concise, so I would very much recommend that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "999895",
"title": "Haitian Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Impact on slavery in the Americas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 1008,
"text": "Other historians say the Haitian Revolution influenced slave rebellions in the US as well as in British colonies. The biggest slave revolt in US history was the 1811 German Coast Uprising in Louisiana. This slave rebellion was put down and the punishment the slaves received was so severe that no contemporary news reports about it exist. The neighboring revolution brought the slavery question to the forefront of US politics, and the resulting intensification of racial divides and sectional politics ended the idealism of the Revolutionary period. The American President Thomas Jefferson—who was a slaveholder himself—refused to establish diplomatic relations with Haiti (the United States did not recognize Haiti until 1862) and imposed an economic embargo on trade with Haiti that also lasted until 1862 in an attempt to ensure the economic failure of the new republic as Jefferson wanted Haiti to fail, regarding a successful slave revolt in the West Indies as a dangerous example for American slaves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38598976",
"title": "Slavery in Haiti",
"section": "Section::::History.:Revolutionary period (1789–1804).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "The French Revolution in 1789 presented an opportunity for Haiti's middle class to organize a revolt, which was followed shortly thereafter by a general slave revolt. In 1791, slaves staged a revolt, massacring whites and torching plantations. By 1801, the revolt had succeeded, putting Toussaint Louverture into power as Governor General of Haiti. Although slavery was outlawed, Louverture, believing that the plantation economy was necessary, forced laborers back to work on the plantations using military might.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32748312",
"title": "France–Haiti relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:Independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "From 1789-1799, France underwent a revolution. The revolution in France had great implications in Haiti. In August 1791, slaves in the northern region of Haiti staged a revolt which would be known as the Haitian Revolution. In 1793, France sent as an envoy Léger-Félicité Sonthonax to maintain control and stabilize the colony from the revolution. In February 1793, Haitian leader Toussaint Louverture joined Spanish forces in fighting the French. In October 1793, Sonthonax emancipated the slaves in all of Haiti. In May 1794, Louverture left the Spanish army after they refused to free their slaves in the eastern part of Hispaniola.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13373",
"title": "Haiti",
"section": "Section::::History.:Haitian Revolution (1791–1804).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Toussaint Louverture, a former slave and leader in the slave revolt, drove out the Spanish (from Santo Domingo) and the British invaders who threatened the colony. In the uncertain years of revolution, the United States played both sides off against each other, with its traders supplying both the French and the rebels. The struggle within Haiti between the free people of color led by André Rigaud and the Haitians of African ancestry led by Louverture devolved into the War of the Knives in 1799 and 1800. Many surviving free people of color left the island as refugees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1337332",
"title": "History of the Jews in Latin America and the Caribbean",
"section": "Section::::Haiti.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 943,
"text": "In the late eighteenth century at the time of the French Revolution, the free people of color pressed for more rights in Saint-Domingue, and a slave revolt led by Toussaint L'Ouverture broke out in 1791 in the North of the island. Slaves considered Jews to be among the white oppressor group. Through the years of warfare, many people of the Jewish community were among the whites killed; some Jews were expelled when the slaves and free blacks took power and instituted restrictions on foreign businessmen. Haiti achieved independence in 1804 but was not recognized by other nations for some time and struggled economically, based on a peasant culture producing coffee as a commodity crop. Foreigners were prohibited from owning land and subject to other restrictions. Planters and other whites were killed in 1805, and Jews were among the whites and people of color who fled to the United States, many settling in New Orleans or Charleston.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "650618",
"title": "Denmark Vesey",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "From 1791 to 1803 the Haitian Revolution of slaves and free people of color on Saint-Domingue had embroiled the French colony in violence; blacks gained independence and created the republic of Haiti in 1804. Many whites and free people of color had fled to Charleston and other port cities as refugees during the uprisings, and brought their slaves with them. In the city, the new slaves were referred to as \"French Negroes\". Their accounts of the revolts and its success spread rapidly among Charleston's slaves. The free people of color occupied a place between the mass of blacks and the minority of whites in Charleston.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "999895",
"title": "Haitian Revolution",
"section": "Section::::The Revolution and the media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "The revolution of African slaves brought many fears to colonies surrounding Haiti and the Caribbean. Prominent wealthy American slave owners, reading about the revolution, also read speculation about what might come in their own states. However, newspapers like the \"Colombian Centinel\" took the extra steps to support the revolution, in the sense that it was based on the foundations of the American Revolution. The French media also played an important role in the Haitian Revolution, with contributions that made many French upstarts quite interested in the young, passionate Toussaint's writings of freedom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1mjduj
|
What are the major cities that no longer exist or have decreased dramatically?
|
[
{
"answer": "I can think of Chernobyl, Ukraine, because of radiation, of course.\n\nPompeii and Herculano, Italy, because of a volcano.\n\nI heard about Cordoba, Spain, that used to be a city with more than a million inhabitants.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Antioch. Founded by Seleucus Nicator, it was the capital of Syria during Roman/Byzantine rule and one of the major centers of Christianity. Declined and virtually disappeared during the times of crusades.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "655311",
"title": "Urban sprawl",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Environmental.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "At the same time, the urban cores of these and nearly all other major cities in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan that did not annex new territory experienced the related phenomena of falling household size and, particularly in the U.S., \"white flight\", sustaining population losses. This trend has slowed somewhat in recent years, as more people have regained an interest in urban living.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "720599",
"title": "Population decline",
"section": "Section::::Long-term trends.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Other American cities whose populations have shrunk substantially since the 1950s – although some have begun to grow again – include New Orleans; St. Louis; Buffalo; Philadelphia; Chicago; Cleveland; Pittsburgh; and Wilmington, DE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2117570",
"title": "History of New York City (1946–1977)",
"section": "Section::::Postwar: Late 1940s through 1950s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "As many great cities lay in ruins after World War II, New York City assumed a new global prominence. It became the home of the United Nations headquarters, built 1947–1952; inherited the role from Paris as center of the art world with Abstract Expressionism; and became a rival to London in the international finance and art markets. Yet the population declined after 1950, with increasing suburbanization in the New York metropolitan area as pioneered in Levittown, New York.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "329770",
"title": "Urban renewal",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "In Boston, one of the country's oldest cities, almost a third of the old city was demolished—including the historic West End—to make way for a new highway, low- and moderate-income high-rises (which eventually became luxury housing), and new government and commercial buildings. This came to be seen as a tragedy by many residents and urban planners, and one of the centerpieces of the redevelopment—Government Center—is still considered an example of the excesses of urban renewal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1517328",
"title": "Demographics of Paris",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "The city's population loss reflected the experience of most other core cities in the developed world that have not expanded their boundaries. The principal factors in the process were a significant decline in household size, and a dramatic migration of residents to the suburbs between 1962 and 1975. Factors in the migration included deindustrialisation, high rent, the gentrification of many inner quarters, the transformation of living space into offices, and greater affluence among working families. The city's population loss was one of the most severe among international municipalities and the largest for any that had achieved more than 2,000,000 residents. Since then an influx of younger residents and immigrants has contributed to the growth of the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "655311",
"title": "Urban sprawl",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Nonetheless, some urban areas like Detroit have expanded geographically even while losing population. But it was not just urbanized areas in the U.S. that lost population and sprawled substantially. According to data in \"Cities and Automobile Dependence\" by Kenworthy and Laube (1999), urbanized area population losses occurred while there was an expansion of sprawl between 1970 and 1990 in Amsterdam, the Netherlands; Brussels, Belgium; Copenhagen, Denmark; Frankfurt, Hamburg and Munich, Germany; and Zurich, Switzerland, albeit without the dismantling of infrastructure that occurred in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "360758",
"title": "Medan",
"section": "Section::::History.:Japanese occupation and post independence era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "Currently the city has returned to glow, as the city hit the one million population in 1998 and 2 million in 2010, and city has begun to be referred as a metropolis around 2006. Since 2010, there are many new rapid developments happening. These include new roads, flyover, underpass, mass transportation, new businesses and urban areas, malls, vertical housings. The development of public facilities and infrastructure are also intensively conducted. Although there is a number of broken roads and potholes still existing, this has been greatly decreased. Medan faces many classic constraints that modernising and growing cities will encounter. One of them is the traffic congestion occurring due to the rapid rate at which the number of vehicles increases outpaces the development of adequate road facilities. This has become a new serious issue for the government and citizens around the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1dx8sc
|
what is a limited slip differential, or differential in general? and in what cases are certain types of differentials preferred/more beneficial over the others?
|
[
{
"answer": "when a car goes around a turn the wheel on the outside of the turn has to rotate more because it covers more distance, the differential allows this to happen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure if this fits the rules of ELI5, but I think it fits the spirit. Here's the (quite long, nearly 10 minutes) video that *finally* gave me a good understanding of how differential gears actually work.\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ok so you've got what differentials are, here's the difference a limited slip diff makes:\n\nIf one of your wheels is on a slippery patch (mud/ice) then a normal differential will just make that wheel spin really fast without turning the other wheel as it's much easier to turn the free wheel and there's no limit to the difference in speed the two wheels go.\n\nA limited slip diff means that there's a limit to how much speed difference there can be in both wheels, so if one wheel is free and the other is stuck the stuck wheel will still turn.\n\nThere are many types of limited slip diff that try to be smart, so on say an off-road 4x4 if it thinks one wheel is slipping on mud it sends more power to the wheel that isn't slipping to try and get the car unstuck.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "727020",
"title": "Limited-slip differential",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1518,
"text": "The main advantage of a limited-slip differential is demonstrated by considering the case of a standard (or \"open\") differential in off-roading or snow situations where one wheel begins to slip. In such a case with a standard differential, the slipping or non-contacting wheel will receive the majority of the power (in the form of low-torque, high rpm rotation), while the contacting wheel will remain stationary with respect to the ground. The torque transmitted by an open differential will always be equal at both wheels; if one tire is on a slippery surface, the supplied torque will easily overcome the available traction at a very low number. For example, the right tire might begin to spin as soon as of torque is placed on it, since it is on an icy surface. Since the same amount of torque is always felt at both wheels, regardless of the speed at which they are turning, this means that the wheel with traction cannot receive more than 70 Nm of torque either, which is far less than is required to move the vehicle. Meanwhile, the tire on the slippery surface will simply spin, absorbing all of the actual \"power\" output (which is a function of torque provided over time), even though both wheels are provided the same (very low) amount of torque. In this situation, a limited-slip differential prevents excessive power from being allocated to one wheel, and so keeps both wheels in powered rotation, ensuring that the traction will not be limited to the wheel which can handle the minimum amount of power. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "879935",
"title": "Locking differential",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "Limited-slip differentials are considered a compromise between a standard differential and a locking differential because they operate more smoothly, and they do direct some extra torque to the wheel with the most traction compared to a standard differential, but they are not capable of 100% lockup.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "727020",
"title": "Limited-slip differential",
"section": "Section::::Basic principle of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "A limited-slip differential has a more complex torque-split and should be considered in the case when the outputs are spinning the same speed and when spinning at different speeds. The torque difference between the two axles is called \"Trq\". (In this work it is called \"Trq\" for torque friction). \"Trq\" is the difference in torque delivered to the left and right wheel. The magnitude of \"Trq\" comes from the slip-limiting mechanism in the differential and may be a function of input torque (as in the case of a gear differential), or the difference in the output speeds (as in the case of a viscous differential).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5598930",
"title": "Inexact differential",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "An inexact differential or imperfect differential is a specific type of differential used in thermodynamics to express the path dependence of a particular differential. It is contrasted with the concept of the exact differential in calculus, which can be expressed as the gradient of another function and is therefore path independent. Consequently, an inexact differential cannot be expressed in terms of its antiderivative for the purpose of integral calculations; i.e. its value cannot be inferred just by looking at the initial and final states of a given system. It is primarily used in calculations involving heat and work because they are path functions, not state functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "444649",
"title": "Four-wheel drive",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Limiting slippage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "A third approach to limiting slippage is taken by a Torsen differential. A Torsen differential allows the output shafts to receive different amounts of torque. This design does not provide for traction when one wheel is spinning freely, where there is no torque, but provides excellent handling in less extreme situations. A typical Torsen II differential can deliver up to twice as much torque to the high traction side before traction is exceeded at the lower traction side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "444649",
"title": "Four-wheel drive",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Limiting slippage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "Many differentials have no way of limiting the amount of engine power that gets sent to its attached output shafts. As a result, if a tire loses traction on acceleration, either because of a low-traction situation (e.g., driving on gravel or ice) or the engine power overcomes available traction, the tire that is not slipping receives little or no power from the engine. In very low traction situations, this can prevent the vehicle from moving at all. To overcome this, there are several designs of differentials that can either limit the amount of slip (these are called 'limited-slip' differentials) or temporarily lock the two output shafts together to ensure that engine power reaches all driven wheels equally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4711264",
"title": "Ball differential",
"section": "Section::::Basic principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Differential movement is achieved through the process of the thrust washers rotating with the ball bearings. The retaining screw is designed so the differential can be easily adjusted by tightening or loosening the screw, consequently changing force. This makes the differential more adjustable than geared differentials, but there is a lower limit since the drive is by friction so there is always some limited slip action.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
sg8hd
|
the beef between tupac and biggie and the conspiracy surrounding their deaths
|
[
{
"answer": "I let someone else explain it but keep in mind a lot of what happened is because the media got involved and hyped it up to get more coverage.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "they were friends. tupac got shot while on the east coast and found out biggie knew about it happening but never warned/said anything to tupac. tupac accused him of it. biggie denied it. words got thrown around on songs and it eventually became team biggie vs team tupac. things got worse until tupac was shot and killed, then biggie was shot and killed. i don't know much about the conspiracies but i know there is something about an obsessive tupac fan(/cop?) who is linked to the case of biggies death. \n\nEDIT: i'm pretty sure tupac got shot and robbed (the first time) right outside puff and biggies studio too, which made him more suspicious and hostile towards them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First off, I don't know if I'd tell a five year old about this, due to the content of 2Pac and Biggie's music (not really what five year olds should be listening to), and also because the saga has lots of violence. So I'm going to explain this as I would to an older audience, although I'll attach a LI5 explanation at the end.\n\nBut anyhow, you firstly have to know that there has been East and West coast scenes of hip hop, which had very different styles: East Coast was very happy-go-lucky (Will Smith, Slick Rick, etc.) when West Coast was a lot grittier (think: NWA, Ice-T, etc.), then East Coast adopted some of those gritty aspects (e.g. Wu Tang clan, Nas, etc.). Click on breakbeat in this [guide to music](_URL_0_), and you can see examples in the development of East and West Coast hip hop. So there had always been a rivalry between the two camps EDIT: I've received a large number of responses contesting that statement; I don't necessarily agree, but there is evidence that the East-West feud can be construed as largely an orchestrated affair for commercial purposes (which would make the 2Pac robbery in NY the absolute starting point of the feud, without any previous undertones).\n\nNow, The Notorious B.I.G. was one of the most skilled and respected up-and-coming East Coast Rappers in the gritty gangsta rap scene, acclaimed for his 1994 release Ready to Die. 2Pac was similarly acclaimed within the West Coast, with far more albums under his belt, including the highly regarded Me Against the World.\n\nThey didn't hate each other at first, in fact [they were friends](_URL_9_). However, when 2Pac was in the lobby of a New York recording studio (Biggie was elsewhere in the studio at the time), he was robbed of his jewellery and shot five times. 2Pac blamed Biggie and Puff Daddy (aka P Diddy or Diddy) of ~~setting him up~~ being aware the robbery was going to happen and not acting on it, especially after Biggie released a song called \"Who Shot Ya?\" Now, Biggie claimed he wrote the song before the shooting, but it can be [interpreted as a diss track towards 2Pac](_URL_4_), which of course infuriated him.\n\nThe next chapter was in 1995, with Suge Knight, the highly controversial co-founder of Death Row Records (the label which published the music of Snoop Dogg, 2Pac, and co-founder Dr. Dre, among others). He said in an announcement that artists who sign to Death Row won't have to worry about having the executive producer tamper with the record and leave a heavy mark on it. This was an explicit attack on Puff Daddy, who is well known for ad libbing all over Biggie's tracks ([e.g.](_URL_3_) - listen to Big Poppa carefully, you can hear Puffy all over the track). One of Suge Knight's friends was also shot (not fatally), which he speculated was planned out by Puffy.\n\nSo, Suge Knight posted 2Pac's bail (he was incarcerated on a sexual assault charge), and 2Pac made a song called \"[Hit 'Em Up](_URL_8_),\" an extremely fiery diss track where he claims he had sex with Biggie's wife Faith Evans, and really insults him. I should add that at this time in hip hop, it was considered uncouth to explicitly diss someone like that, the norm was to indirectly attack them, so 2Pac was being extremely vicious when he recites the following at the end:\n\n > Fuck Mobb Deep, fuck Biggie\n\n > Fuck Bad Boy as a staff, record label and as a motherfucking crew\n\n > And if you want to be down with Bad Boy, then fuck you too\n\n > Chino XL: fuck you too\n\n > All you motherfuckers, fuck you too\n\n > All of y'all mother fuckers, fuck you, die slow, motherfucker\n\n > My .44 make sure all your kids don't grow\n\nSo, the 2Pac-Biggie beef was in full throttle at this point, and East-West Coast relations were tense.\n\nThen, in 1996, 2Pac was shot and killed. As far as I'm aware, the case is still unsolved. Immediately speculation was on Biggie, who vigorously denied any involvement. \n\nSoon thereafter, in 1997, Biggie was himself killed. This murder was also unsolved, with conspiracies ranging from Suge Knight (being such a shady character, it's quite possible he arranged it) to countless other figures. On a side-note, [the killer](_URL_5_) seems to have been an inspiration in the creation of [Brother Mouzone of The Wire](_URL_2_).\n\nThe rapid death of two of hip hop's brightest stars shocked the hip hop world, and essentially killed the East-West feud. Although it was far from the last public hip hop rivalry (Jay-Z and Nas had a huge feud, 50 Cent and Game have had an ongoing thing, etc.), rappers haven't been willing to let the feuds escalate again, since the results of the Biggie-2Pac feud resonate so strongly. As exhibited by the 2Pac hologram, and their continued popularity, they remain very prominent hip hop figures.\n\nI've heard countless conspiracy theories, but they all essentially stem from the murky nature of the feud (for instance, we still don't know who robbed 2Pac, or killed either of them, and Suge Knight's involvement fuels the theories).\n\nEDIT: I was just thinking, and realized part of the reason their death mythos resonates so deeply. Biggie and 2Pac both recorded very grim last albums, which seemed to almost predict their deaths. Check 2Pac's [Hail Mary](_URL_6_), and Biggie's \"[You're Nobody \\(Til Somebody Kills You\\)](_URL_7_).\" Heck, Biggie's album was called ~~Ready to Die~~ EDIT: Life After Death, and the intro of the album is [him dying](_URL_1_).\n\n**LI5:** There are two groups of friends who want to play with the lego in class. They are making fun of each other's lego buildings, especially the lego structures made by the more talented lego-builders in each group of friends. Then, one day they both come to continue building lego, when the structure of one boy, let's call him Billy, has been damaged. He immediately blames Chris, the most talented boy from the other group of friends, who he claims is jealous of him, despite them both getting along before.\n\nThe rivalry between the two groups continues to escalate, with a bully in Billy's group of friends named Simon continually making fun of Sean (from Chris' group of friends) and then Simon's friend gets beaten up by a bully, which he blames Sean for. Finally, one day, Billy's lego creations were discovered to be completely destroyed - no one knows who broke them. Billy goes crying home, and everyone is suspicious of Chris, despite him denying it. Then, a week later, Chris' lego is destroyed, leading him to go crying home. Both groups of friends agree that this rivalry is going too far, they love their lego structures after all, and the entire class agrees not to let rivalries between friend-groups get that bad ever again.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of people don't know that Tupac was actually born in New York ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tell-Me-Fun-Facts although commended for doing a good job, isn't telling the full story and some things are misleading or blatantly wrong. It's an urban myth that Tupac accused Biggie of shooting him, yet Tell-Me-Fun-Facts states it as fact. Tupac never did. He accused Biggie of having prior knowledge to the shooting and failing to warn him. That's quite a bit of a difference. Anyway, the full story of what happened that lead to the beef you want it. With lyrical evidence, copy and pasted from another discussion on reddit.\n\n------------------------------------------\n\nSome background history if people don't know what it's all about. In 1994 it was evident that Tupac was the most talked about rapper in America. Tupac became close friends with the Notorious B.I.G and really wanted him to make it in the industry. Whenever Tupac was in New York doing shows, he'd let Biggie open up for him so he could get a chance at playing in front of a sold out crowed and get his name out there.\n\nPuffy, Biggies boss, had just started a new record label called BadBoy records and Biggies first album was about to be released. A local gangster called Jimmy Henchman Rosemand was known for wanting to get into the music industry, and was allegedly extorting Puffy. Or \"working\" for him with a insanely inflated salary, if you believe Henchman. Although Pac loved Biggie, he didn't think much of Puffy. Not that puffy was a gangster or anything, quite the opposite. He seen a sort of eager to please fakeness around him. He thought he was weak minded and easily controlled, and the fact he was allowing himself to get extorted, was evidence of this. He warned Biggie of this saying he would be untrust worthy. But none the less, who he hanged around with was his own business.\n\n\nJimmy Henchman decided he wanted to become a manager for badboy, and his first target was Tupac. He wanted Tupac to sign with badboy records and allow himself to control his career for him. This was all relied through an mutual associate of both Pac and Henchman by a guy called Jack Agnet, who's nickname was Hatian Jack. Tupac declined as he signed to Interscope, had a thriving career, and had no need for him. Allegedly (according to Tupac) Jimmy Henchman took offence to this and called Tupac personally to tell him he was going to \"Discipline\" him. Tupac, either being brave or stupid, perhaps both, told him to go fuck himself.\n\n\nA while later, Hatian Jack calls Tupac to the Quad Studio to record a song with someone. He's with another rapper called \"Strech\" who Tupac has done a few songs with previous, such as pain. Tupacs account was Strech was acting incredibly nervous at the time and when they entered the elavator, strech dropped to the ground before the shooters came in and shot Tupac.\n\n\nIn Tupacs mind that was validation that this was a set up from the beginning and not a robbery that has went wrong. Strech himself was murdered exactly a year later to the day. Tupacs mentions that in the very same song \"Against all Odds\".\n\n\n*\"That nigga that down with me? God bless the dead. Switched sides, I guess his new friends wanted him dead.\"*\n\n\nTupac believed Puffy had prior knowledge to the shooting, as he finds it hard to believe that this could go down in the same studio he's at, by the same person that's extorting him. He believes out of fear he and Biggie kept their mouths shut. Now pac didn't have much faith in Puffy has a person anyway, but it's Biggie being a coward he couldn't come to grips with as he was his close friend. This is why Tupac was so harsh with Biggie during his final years alive. He mentions puffys extortion and resulting lack of warning in the song also.\n\n*\"Puffys getting robbed like a bitch, so to hide that fact, he did some shit he shouldn't of did, now we riding for that\"*\n\nHe's explaining that Puffy was getting extorted, so out of fear or embarrassment, he let the shooting happen. Now tupacs friends are \"riding\" on him.\n\n\nAlso Tupacs mutual associate that was friends with both himself, and Henchman, \"Haitian Jack\". Tupac proclaims he's also an FBI informant in the same song. Although he's connected to the first shooting, Tupac believed he was also connected to the sexaul assualt framing earlier that year in 1994. Although that's a story for another day.\n\nTupac teases the listener while exposing this informant before eventually saying his name.\n\n\"I heard he was light skinned, stocky, with a Haitian accent. Jewelery, fast cars, and he's known for flashing.\n*(What's his name?)*\nListen while I take you back,\n*(NIGGA SAY HIS NAME!) *\nand lace this rap. A real live tale about a snitch named **Haitian Jack**. Knew he was workin for the feds, same crime, different trials, Nigga, picture what he said.\"\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13968349",
"title": "Tupac: Assassination",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Tupac Assassination: Conspiracy or Revenge is a documentary film about the unsolved murder of rapper Tupac Shakur produced by Frank Alexander, a Shakur bodyguard who was with the rapper at the time of the shooting, produced and directed by Richard Bond.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2660357",
"title": "Live Squad",
"section": "Section::::History.:Stretch's Murder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1102,
"text": "Tupac denied involvement with Stretch's murder, but continued to talk about him after death, even up to his own on 13 September 1996. \"All Eyez On Me\" was released two month's after Stretch's death with all disses intact, and the follow-up \"\" (1996) contained more allusions to Stretch's role in the 1994 attack on the tell-all diss track \"Against All Odds\": \"\"And that nigga that was down for me, restin' dead / Switch sides, guess his new friends wanted him dead\"\". Closing the final Tupac album, that track also fired shots at the Bad Boy camp and Nas - artists that he felt Stretch had switched allegiance to. Tupac did make peace with Nas in New York's Bryant Park on 4 September 1996, and even listened to \"It Was Written\" - featuring the Live Squad productions \"Take It In Blood\" and \"Silent Murder\" - as he made his fateful trip to Las Vegas for the Tyson-Seldon fight three days later. According to label boss Suge Knight, Tupac intended to remove the Nas disses from the Makaveli album but died before he could do so - there are no accounts if he resolved his feelings for his former friend.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12791866",
"title": "Sanyika Shakur",
"section": "Section::::Friendship with Tupac Shakur and the \"Vibe\" Magazine Interviews.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "On September 13, 1996, Tupac Shakur died after being shot in a drive-by shooting in Las Vegas, Nevada, seven days earlier, allegedly by members of the South Side Compton Crips. Kody would later interview Tupac's alleged murderer, Orlando Anderson, for a December 1997 \"Vibe Magazine\" article about Tupac's murder, in which Anderson denied being involved in the rapper's murder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1435722",
"title": "Orlando Anderson",
"section": "Section::::2000s investigations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "In 2002, \"The Los Angeles Times\" published a two-part series by reporter Chuck Philips titled \"Who Killed Tupac Shakur?\" based on a series that looked into the events leading to the crime. The series indicated that \"the shooting was carried out by a Compton gang called the Southside Crips to avenge the beating of one of its members by Shakur a few hours earlier. Orlando Anderson, the Crip whom Shakur had attacked, fired the fatal shots. Las Vegas police interviewed Anderson only once as a possible suspect. He was later killed in an unrelated gang shooting.\" The \"Los Angeles Times\" articles included reference to the cooperation of East Coast rappers including the late rapper The Notorious B.I.G., Tupac's rival at the time, and New York criminals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58408108",
"title": "Duane “Keefe D” Davis",
"section": "Section::::2000s investigations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "In 2002, \"The Los Angeles Times\" published a two-part series by reporter Chuck Philips titled \"Who Killed Tupac Shakur?\" based on a series that looked into the events leading to the crime. The series indicated that \"the shooting was carried out by a Compton gang called the Southside Crips to avenge the beating of one of its members by Shakur a few hours earlier. Orlando Anderson, the Crip whom Shakur had attacked, fired the fatal shots. Las Vegas police interviewed Anderson only once as a possible suspect. He was later killed in an unrelated gang shooting.\" The \"Los Angeles Times\" articles included reference to the cooperation of East Coast rappers including the late rapper The Notorious B.I.G., Tupac's rival at the time, and New York criminals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38900595",
"title": "Murder of Tupac Shakur",
"section": "Section::::Investigative reports on the murder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "In 2002, the \"Los Angeles Times\" published a two-part story by Chuck Philips, titled \"Who Killed Tupac Shakur?\" based on a year-long investigation. Philips reported that \"the shooting was carried out by a Compton gang called the Southside Crips to avenge the beating of one of its members by Shakur a few hours earlier. Orlando Anderson, the Crip whom Shakur had attacked, fired the fatal shots. Las Vegas police considered Anderson as a suspect and interviewed him only once, briefly. Anderson was killed nearly two years later in an unrelated gang shooting.\" Philips's article also implicated East Coast rappers, including The Notorious B.I.G., Tupac's rival at the time, and several New York criminals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31168275",
"title": "The Murder of Biggie Smalls",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "The book includes a chapter about accusations from fellow rapper Tupac Shakur, that Biggie, 24, and his producer, Sean \"Diddy\" Combs, were responsible for Tupac being injured during a 1994 shooting at New York City's Quad Studios, where Biggie was recording that same night. Smalls denied the accusation, as did Combs, and no arrests were ever made in the case. In September 1996, Shakur, 25, was shot a second time, this time in Las Vegas. Shakur died six days later. That murder, too, remains unsolved, which Scott covered in \"The Killing of Tupac Shakur\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
28xcys
|
when i force myself to see double vision, how am i doing it? and what is happening to cause it?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you're not crossing your eyes, and seeing double that way, then you're probably just focusing far away. This is how you see /r/magiceye pictures! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1969542",
"title": "Extraocular muscles",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Movement coordination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 948,
"text": "There are two main kinds of movement: conjugate movement (the eyes move in the same direction) and disjunctive (opposite directions). The former is typical when shifting gaze right or left, the latter is convergence of the two eyes on a near object. Disjunction can be performed voluntarily, but is usually triggered by the nearness of the target object. A \"see-saw\" movement, namely, one eye looking up and the other down, is possible, but not voluntarily; this effect is brought on by putting a prism in front of one eye, so the relevant image is apparently displaced. To avoid double vision from non-corresponding points, the eye with the prism must move up or down, following the image passing through the prism. Likewise conjugate torsion (rolling) on the anteroposterior axis (from the front to the back) can occur naturally, such as when one tips one's head to one shoulder; the torsion, in the opposite direction, keeps the image vertical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "176997",
"title": "Blindsight",
"section": "Section::::Describing blindsight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "Patients with blindsight have damage to the visual system that allows perception (the visual cortex of the brain and some of the nerve fibers that bring information to it from the eyes) rather than the system that controls eye movements. This phenomenon shows how, after the more complex visual system is damaged, people can use the latter visual system of their brains to guide hand movements towards an object even though they cannot see what they are reaching for. Hence, visual information can control behavior without producing a conscious sensation. This ability of those with blindsight to \"see\" objects that they are unconscious of suggests that consciousness is not a general property of all parts of the brain; yet it suggests that only certain parts of the brain play a special role in consciousness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "988729",
"title": "Diplopia",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Voluntary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Some people are able to consciously uncouple their eyes, either by overfocusing closely (i.e. going cross-eyed) or unfocusing. Also, while looking at one object behind another object, the foremost object's image is doubled (for example, placing one's finger in front of one's face while reading text on a computer monitor). In this sense, double vision is neither dangerous nor harmful, and may even be enjoyable. It makes viewing stereograms possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215255",
"title": "Abducens nerve",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Damage to the peripheral part of the abducens nerve will cause double vision (diplopia), due to the unopposed muscle tone of the medial rectus muscle. The affected eye is pulled to look towards the midline. In order to see without double vision, patients will rotate their heads so that both eyes are toward the temple. Partial damage to the abducens nerve causes weak or incomplete abduction of the affected eye. The diplopia is worse on attempts at looking laterally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "171163",
"title": "The Book of Five Rings",
"section": "Section::::The five books.:The Book of Water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "In regards to the gaze of someone, he notes that a person must be able to perceive that which is all around him without moving their eyeballs noticeably, which is said to be a skill which takes an enormous amount of practice to perfect. He notes that this is again one of the most important parts of strategy, as well as being able to see things which are close to you, such as the technique of an enemy. It is also used to perceive things far away, such as arriving troops or enemies, as that is the precursor to battle. You can then change your actions according to what you see.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "447382",
"title": "Bates method",
"section": "Section::::Treatments.:Movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "He thought that the manner of eye movement affected the sight. He suggested \"shifting\", or moving the eyes back and forth to get an illusion of objects \"swinging\" in the opposite direction. He believed that the smaller the area over which the \"swing\" was experienced, the greater was the benefit to sight. He also indicated that it was usually helpful to close the eyes and \"imagine\" something \"swinging\". By alternating actual and mental shifting over an image, Bates wrote, many patients were quickly able to shorten the \"shift\" to a point where they could \"conceive and swing a letter the size of a period in a newspaper\". One who mastered this would attain the \"universal swing\", Bates believed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3407720",
"title": "Exotropia",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "There is a common form of exotropia known as \"convergence insufficiency\" that responds well to orthoptic vision therapy including exercises. This disorder is characterized by an inability of the eyes to work together when used for near viewing, such as reading. Instead of the eyes focusing together on the near object, one deviates outward.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5mdfgs
|
why has tesla's work on 'free energy' never been fully explored or completed in the modern day?
|
[
{
"answer": "The biggest problem is most likely that this free ubiquitous energy doesn't exist. If it would exist, corporations would use and resell it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tesla never tried to produce \"free energy\". He wanted to realize wireless power transfer - but that still would have required a power source to run the system. The reason nobody ever put money on his idea was not just the risk of people tapping into it, but also that it's wasteful. Wireless energy transfer over big distance is inevitably going to cause losses, whereas conventional systems with power lines (to which his work contributed a great deal) can achieve great efficiency over long distances.\n\nThe entire concept of free energy is not pursued by power companies because it's simply not possible. The preservation of energy, along with the laws of thermodynamics, are not something that is easily challenged, simply because they are supported by a lot of hard evidence. \n\nThis of course doesn't stop a bunch of people from trying, but no physicist or engineer worth their salt will take them serious.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We don't use it for the very same reason that with don't use the Philosopher's stone for gold production, or the Fountain of Eternal Youth for healthcare.\n\nIt's a myth, it's not real.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21473",
"title": "Nikola Tesla",
"section": "Section::::Later years.:Birthday press conferences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "In 1933 at age 77, Tesla told reporters at the event that, after 35 years of work, he was on the verge of producing proof of a new form of energy. He claimed it was a theory of energy that was \"violently opposed\" to Einsteinian physics, and could be tapped with an apparatus that would be cheap to run and last 500 years. He also told reporters he was working on a way to transmit individualized private radio wavelengths, working on breakthroughs in metallurgy, and developing a way to photograph the retina to record thought.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21473",
"title": "Nikola Tesla",
"section": "Section::::AC and the induction motor.:Market turmoil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "Tesla's demonstration of his induction motor and Westinghouse's subsequent licensing of the patent, both in 1888, came at the time of extreme competition between electric companies. The three big firms, Westinghouse, Edison, and Thomson-Houston, were trying to grow in a capital-intensive business while financially undercutting each other. There was even a \"War of Currents\" propaganda campaign going on with Edison Electric trying to claim their direct current system was better and safer than the Westinghouse alternating current system. Competing in this market meant Westinghouse would not have the cash or engineering resources to develop Tesla's motor and the related polyphase system right away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56714254",
"title": "History of the Tesla coil",
"section": "Section::::Wardenclyffe tower.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "By 1904 his investors had pulled out and the facility was never completed; it was torn down in 1916. Although Tesla seems to have believed his wireless power ideas were proven, he had a history of making claims that he had not confirmed by experiment, and there seems to be no evidence that he ever transmitted significant power beyond the short-range demonstrations mentioned above. The few reports of long-distance power transmission by Tesla are not from reliable sources. For example, a widely repeated myth is that in 1899 he wirelessly lit 200 light bulbs at a distance of . There is no independent confirmation of this supposed demonstration; Tesla did not mention it, and it does not appear in his laboratory notes. It originated in 1944 from Tesla's first biographer, John J. O'Neill, who said he pieced it together from \"fragmentary material... in a number of publications\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21473",
"title": "Nikola Tesla",
"section": "Section::::Tesla Electric Light & Manufacturing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "The investors showed little interest in Tesla's ideas for new types of alternating current motors and electrical transmission equipment. After the utility was up and running in 1886, they decided that the manufacturing side of the business was too competitive and opted to simply run an electric utility. They formed a new utility company, abandoning Tesla's company and leaving the inventor penniless. Tesla even lost control of the patents he had generated, since he had assigned them to the company in exchange for stock. He had to work at various electrical repair jobs and as a ditch digger for $2 per day. Later in life Tesla would recount that part of 1886 as a time of hardship, writing \"My high education in various branches of science, mechanics and literature seemed to me like a mockery\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196508",
"title": "Wardenclyffe Tower",
"section": "Section::::Design and operational principles.:Financing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 898,
"text": "Tesla asked Westinghouse to \"…meet me on some fair terms in furnishing me the machinery, retaining the ownership of the same and interesting yourself to a certain extent\". While Westinghouse declined to buy into the project, he did agree to lend Tesla $6,000. Westinghouse suggested Tesla pursue some of the rich venture capitalists. Tesla talked to John Jacob Astor, Thomas Fortune Ryan, and even sent a cabochon sapphire ring as a gift to Henry O. Havemeyer. No investment was forthcoming from Havemeyer and Ryan but Astor did buy 500 shares in Tesla's company. Tesla gained the attention of financier J. P. Morgan in November 1900. Morgan, who was impressed by Guglielmo Marconi's feat of sending reports from the America's Cup yacht races off Long Island back to New York City via radio based wireless the previous year, was dubious about the feasibility and patent priority of Tesla's system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2599071",
"title": "Tesla Electric Light and Manufacturing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "The investors showed little interest in Tesla's ideas for new types of motors and electrical transmission equipment and, with the market already heavily controlled by Brush Electric Illuminating Company and the Thomson-Houston Electric Company, they came to the conclusion it was better to develop an electrical utility than invent new systems. By the fall of 1886 they had formed the Union County Electric Light & Manufacturing Company spelling the end for Tesla Electric Light and Manufacturing and leaving Tesla penniless. Tesla even lost control of the patents he had generated since he had assigned them to the company in lieu of stock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21473",
"title": "Nikola Tesla",
"section": "Section::::Legacy and honors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Tesla's legacy has endured in books, films, radio, TV, music, live theater, comics, and video games. The impact of the technologies invented or envisioned by Tesla is a recurring theme in several types of science fiction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
p4df2
|
When our epidermis grows with our size, does the number of nerve endings increase to maintain a constant density, or are they simply spaced further apart?
|
[
{
"answer": "the number of sensory nerves innervating your skin is determined by the number of neuronal cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglia. During gestation this number increases through division (some die off) and reaches a stable number. Neurons are 'post-mitotic' and do not divid further. The neuronal cell bodies by then have extended their peripheral terminals out to the skin.\n\nHowever, the branching of sensory nerve terminals in the target organs (e.g. skin) continues to be plastic throughout life. Thus you have the same number of nerves, but the branching or arborization of the terminal can adjust to your size.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "656613",
"title": "Cytoplasmic streaming",
"section": "Section::::Cytoplasmic flows created by pressure gradients.:In \"Neurospora crassa\".:Contribution to growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "Cytoplasmic flows created through osmotic pressure gradients flow longitudinally along the fungal hyphae and crash into the end causing growth. It has been demonstrated that the greater pressure at the hyphal tip corresponds to faster growth rates. Longer hyphae have greater pressure differences along their length allowing for faster cytoplasmic flow rates and larger pressures at the hyphal tip. This is why longer hyphae grow faster than shorter ones. Tip growth increases as cytoplasmic flow rate increases over a 24 hour period until a max rate of 1 micron/second growth rate is observed. Off shoots from the main hyphae are shorter and have slower cytoplasmic flow rates and correspondingly slower growth rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4976627",
"title": "Dor procedure",
"section": "Section::::Indications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "The tension on the functioning tissue increases as it compensates for the work of the necrotic tissue, so, as per Laplace's law, the radius of the ventricle increases and the thickness of the ventricular wall decreases. The apex of the heart becomes circular, hypertrophy ensues in the viable myocardial tissue, and the valve opening widens. As the ventricle dilates, the muscle fiber orientation, which is critical to a good ejection fraction, becomes transverse, or more horizontal. Subsequently, the ejection fraction decreases; a 15% shortening produces only a 30% ejection fraction. The lateral stress on the ventricle increases. Overall, the dilated left ventricle cannot produce a strong enough contraction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11158878",
"title": "Rho family of GTPases",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Morphology.:Morphogenesis of dendritic spines.:Observed changes in structural plasticity.:Sustained changes in structural plasticity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 898,
"text": "After the transient changes described above take place, the spine's volume decreases until it is elevated by 70 to 80 percent of the original volume. This sustained change in structural plasticity will last about thirty minutes. Once again, administration of C3 transferase and Glycyl-H1152 suppressed this growth, suggesting that the Rho-Rock pathway is necessary for more persistent increases in spinal volume. In addition, administration of the Cdc42 binding domain of Wasp or inhibitor targeting Pak1 activation-3 (IPA3) decreases this sustained growth in volume, demonstrating that the Cdc42-Pak pathway is needed for this growth in spinal volume as well. This is important because sustained changes in structural plasticity may provide a mechanism for the encoding, maintenance, and retrieval of memories. The observations made may suggest that Rho GTPases are necessary for these processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41171716",
"title": "Preferential motor reinnervation",
"section": "Section::::PMR influencing factors.:Terminal nerve branch size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "The terminal nerve branch size has a lot of influence on the reinnervation pathway of the axon. When two pathways, one cutaneous and one motor, are roughly comparable in size, the motor axons follow preferential reinnervation patterns along the motor pathways. However, enlargement of sensory pathways in the same experiment led to the motor axons to reinnervate those pathways, indicating that trophic factors alone do not cause reinnervation of motor neurons. This is shown because the motoneurons wrongly reinnervate down pathways that are sensory, thus demonstrating that the size of the terminal nerve branch pathway can affect the axonal reinnervation patterns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2065100",
"title": "Axon guidance",
"section": "Section::::Studying axon guidance.:Cell biology.:Growth cone translation in guided axons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "The ability for axons to navigate and adjust responses to various extracelluar cues, at long distances from the cell body, has prompted investigators to look at the intrinsic properties of growth cones. Recent studies reveal that guidance cues can influence spatiotemporal changes in axons by modulating the local translation and degradation of proteins in growth cones. Furthermore, this activity seems to occur independent of distal nuclear gene expression. In fact, in retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) with soma severed axons, growth cones continue to track and innervate the tectum of Xenopus embryos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6783082",
"title": "Ramogen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "The pattern of branching and the rate of cell proliferation can contribute to the shape of different organs. As such, the use of the glial-cell-line neutotrophic factor (GDNF) has been found to contribute to uterine tissues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5231858",
"title": "Rheobase",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Axonal degeneration and regeneration are common processes in many nerve disorders. As a consequence of myelin remodeling, the internodal length is known to remain persistently short. Little is known about how neurons cope with the increased number of nodes except that there may be a compensatory increase in Na channels so that the internodal density is restored. Nevertheless, most extant research findings maintain that regenerated axons may be functionally deficient, as the access to the K channel under the paranodal myelin may be increased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2kms72
|
If temperature is a measure of average kinetic energy, is a bottle of water speeding past me "warmer" than a bottle of water in my hand?
|
[
{
"answer": "It has more energy, but it isn't really \"warmer\". The question abuses the definition of temperature. Temperature is about the molecular average kinetic energy, not the macroscopic energy.\n\n(An analogy: It's like asking how fast can a fish swim, and then you put your fish tank into your car and drive down the road and talk about how fast your fish is \"swimming\" down the road.)\n\nTemperature is a statistical average of small scale properties. The zillions of water molecules inside a stationary water bottle bottle wiggle with various kinds of kinetic energy, and the average kinetic energy of the wiggling molecules correlates very well with how much energy is stored in the water.\n\nIf you throw the water bottle very fast you definitely add energy, but normal people wouldn't call the added energy \"temperature\". The water as a whole is going fast, but the random wiggling of the water molecules hasn't gotten any more vigorous.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "/u/inushi is basically right, but this is a question that's tough to answer without going into more detail about what temperature really is. So let's do that!\n\nThe most basic definition of temperature is relational. Specifically, suppose I put two objects in contact (so that they can exchange energy). If one object has a higher temperature, then energy will flow from that object to the other. We know two objects have the same temperature when no net energy flows between them.\n\nBut this is deeply unsatisfying, and defining temperature more rigorously was one of the big challenges in the development of [statistical mechanics](_URL_2_). It turns out, perhaps surprisingly, that temperature is intimately related to [entropy](_URL_1_).\n\nThe entropy of a system is—very simplistically—the number of ways it can be arranged without affecting the variable you're looking at. For example, say you roll two dice and add them. There are more combinations that give you 7 as the sum than any other single number, so getting 7 as the sum is more \"entropic\" than any other value. (Again, I'm speaking loosely.)\n\nThis is really applicable to thermodynamics, because we usually care about things like the total energy or pressure or whatever, and there are many, many ways to arrange the individual particles to get those macroscopic quantities. Now, if every single arrangement is equally likely, then the states of the system with the highest entropy are the ones that we're most likely to see, given enough time. This is basically the content of the [second law of thermodynamics](_URL_0_).\n\nWhat does this have to do with temperature? Well, let's go back to our example with the two objects, and let's make it more concrete. Suppose the objects are identical, but object *A* has *n* units of energy, and object *B* has *m* units of energy. If we put the two objects together, it's like we have a single system that has *m* units of energy on one side and *n* units on the other side.\n\nLet's imagine that *m* is much bigger than *n*. Then you might be able to see that this is a pretty low-entropy state. After all, there are a lot more ways of distributing the energy equally between the two objects than there are ways of cramming it all to one side. And if you do the math, you'll see that the state with energy distributed equally has the highest entropy. Combining that with what we already know about entropy, we expect that the system will eventually end up with energy shared equally.\n\nThis has all been a long lead-in to a simple statement: the temperature of a system is actually a measure of the relationship between its energy and its entropy. If you go through the math, you can *define* temperature by the following relation:\n\n1/*T* = ∂*S*/∂*U* with the volume and number of particles held constant.\n\nHere *T* is the temperature, *S* is the entropy of the system, and *U* is the internal energy of the system.\n\nUh, okay, it took longer to get here than I thought it would, and much of this discussion is probably going to be more confusing than helpful. So let me conclude quickly:\n\n**Tl;dr: temperature actually has to do with the statistical properties of the system. Its correspondence with the average kinetic energy only holds in special cases.**\n\nFeel free to ask if anything in particular is unclear.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33129476",
"title": "Hot water storage tank",
"section": "Section::::Stratified hot water storage tank with closed water circuit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "BULLET::::- Different heating and cooling loops must send the heated or cooled water in with as low a velocity as possible. (This necessarily entails heating and cooling loops having velocity controlled pumps and tube ports with the maximum feasible diameter.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44663137",
"title": "Supercritical liquid–gas boundaries",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "without referring to Frenkel, Fisher or Widom, reviewed thermodynamic derivatives (specific heat, expansion coefficient, compressibility) and transport coefficients (viscosity, speed of sound) in supercritical water, and found pronounced extrema as function of pressure up to 100 K above \"T\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1258361",
"title": "Relative thermal resistance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Relative thermal resistance is a measure of the energy required to mix water of two different temperatures (and thus different densities). Comparisons will be made against the differences in the density of water at 3.98 °C and 5 °C. (Wetzel 1983) Since this is a relative measure, there are no units involved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11528159",
"title": "NTU method",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "Effectiveness is dimensionless quantity between 0 and 1. If we know formula_9 for a particular heat exchanger, and we know the inlet conditions of the two flow streams we can calculate the amount of heat being transferred between the fluids by:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "448321",
"title": "Thermoelectric effect",
"section": "Section::::Full thermoelectric equations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "To describe the Peltier and Thomson effects the flow of energy must be considered. To start, the dynamic case where both temperature and charge may be varying with time can be considered. The full thermoelectric equation for the energy accumulation, formula_22, is\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7592567",
"title": "Introduction to entropy",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 889,
"text": "BULLET::::- When the temperature isn't at the melting or boiling point of a substance no intermolecular bond-breaking is possible, and so any motional molecular energy (“heat”) from the surroundings transferred to a system raises its temperature, making its molecules move faster and faster. As the temperature is constantly rising, there is no longer a particular value of “T” at which energy is transferred. However, a \"reversible\" energy transfer can be measured at a very small temperature increase, and a cumulative total can be found by adding each of many small temperature intervals or increments. For example, to find the entropy change formula_4 from 300 K to 310 K, measure the amount of energy transferred at dozens or hundreds of temperature increments, say from 300.00 K to 300.01 K and then 300.01 to 300.02 and so on, dividing the q by each T, and finally adding them all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58285",
"title": "Nusselt number",
"section": "Section::::Empirical Correlations.:Forced convection in turbulent pipe flow.:Dittus-Boelter equation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Example The Dittus-Boelter equation is a good approximation where temperature differences between bulk fluid and heat transfer surface are minimal, avoiding equation complexity and iterative solving. Taking water with a bulk fluid average temperature of 20 °C, viscosity 10.07×10 Pa·s and a heat transfer surface temperature of 40 °C (viscosity 6.96×10, a viscosity correction factor for formula_43 can be obtained as 1.45. This increases to 3.57 with a heat transfer surface temperature of 100 °C (viscosity 2.82×10 Pa·s), making a significant difference to the Nusselt number and the heat transfer coefficient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2j8crm
|
on election night, how do they determine who has won a state after calculating only 1% of the state's votes?
|
[
{
"answer": "News bureaus and polling agencies conduct many polls in the weeks and days leading up to an election and do exit polling throughout election day. They know that many races will not be close, so they can declare a winner in those races as soon as the polls close.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Normally they won't call an election won with only 1% of precincts reporting. It's just an indicator.\n\nUsually, it is known ahead of time how certain counties vote. They can extrapolate from that how the rest of an election goes, but they won't call an election until a higher % of precincts have reported their results.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Statistics. Depending on the margin of victory in the votes that have been counted, what areas they represent, etc. you can establish levels of confidence in a victory. \n\n1% is a stretch but could happen if say 90% of the votes were for one candidate and those votes came from an area likely to support his opponents. \n\nA close race requires much more of the votes to be counted before you'd get enough certainty to call the race. Note this really only applies to the TV networks. They try to strike a balance between being the first to break the news and waiting until there is enough certainty they won't be wrong. \n\nNote that this is for tv only. The actual election results count all the votes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Using pre-existing statistical models. For example, Nate Silver correctly predicted every single state for Obama's 2012 re-election bid. In some states, such as Massachusetts, Romney was statistically guaranteed to lose, so they had no problem calling it.\n\nOne interesting thing to mention is that news organizations are discouraged from calling states too early, as it can alter the results of western states by encouraging people to not vote later in the day since \"the election is already decided\". ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not sure who's reporting elections with only 1% of the votes in. But as someone who works at an election's office I can tell you how we do shit (and presumably how most of the country does shit as most of the laws are beginning to get pretty uniform).\n\n1) We have early voting period two weeks before election day. Many, many voters use this as a chance to skip the lines and precinct requirements and go vote at their leisure. So we already have a wide majority of voters here. In the 2012 presidential, that was 20% of the voters right there.\n\n2) we also do vote by mail, which we begin sending out up to 45 days in advance. Unfortunately I do not have the numbers available for vote by mail in my office at this particular moment, but I assure that MANY of our voters take advantage of this system. This is the only one that really takes time to count for sure as it requires us to manually verify the signatures and ensure that votes are valid.\n\n3) And finally, while we still vote by paper ballot, the ballots are electronically calculated. At the end of the night, they're turned into the elections office, where the totals are added up. So we can give you an answer of who won in hours, tops.\n\nNow, we do spend weeks (and I mean WEEKS) after each election verifying close races, making sure numbers match up (we don't necessarily check each ballot, but for example, if this precinct reported 50 voters, we check to make sure there are 50 ballots), and like I said earlier, verifying signatures on absentee and provisional ballots. We don't post OFFICIAL results until all that is done satisfactorily. But we can give you a \"paycheck positive\" answer same night.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Estimation error depends on the number of samples, not the percentage of the population sampled. If a state has 10,000,000 voters, you can estimate the result with 3% error by sampling ~1000 voters or 0.01% of the total.\n\nThe estimation error in a sample of N voters is approximately 1/sqrt(N). With 1000 samples, you can estimate the vote within 1/sqrt(1000) or about 3%. This is enough to call an election if the gap between candidates is wide enough.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "85533",
"title": "United States Electoral College",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1051,
"text": "Following the national presidential election day in the first week of November, each state counts its popular votes pursuant to that state's laws to designate presidential electors. Almost all states allot all their electoral votes to the winning candidate in that state, no matter how marginal the candidate's win. State electors meet in their respective state capitals in December to cast their votes. The results are certified by Congress, where they are tabulated nationally in the first week of January before a joint meeting of the Senate and House of Representatives. If a majority of votes are not cast for a candidate, the House resolves itself into a presidential election session with one presidential vote assigned to each of the fifty state delegations, excluding the District of Columbia. The elected president and vice president are inaugurated on January 20. While the electoral vote has given the same result as the popular vote in most elections, this has not been the case in a few elections, including the 2000 and 2016 elections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11844020",
"title": "Delaware Plan",
"section": "Section::::The plan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "The fourth group, that of the largest states, vote on a single day in June. These twelve states, though needing to wait to vote last, will nonetheless determine the winner, as between them they control more than 50% of the delegates to the national conventions. (Thus, even a last minute entry into the campaign could theoretically win the nomination even if he only ran at the end.) By voting together as a bloc, none of the large states is rendered irrelevant (as was the case for California from 1976 to 2000, after which California moved its voting up to an earlier date).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60941277",
"title": "2020 Tennessee Democratic primary",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1085,
"text": "Voting is expected to take place throughout the state from 7:00 a.m. until 8:00 p.m. in the parts of the state in the Eastern Time Zone, and from 8:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. in parts of the state in the Central Time Zone. Polls close simultaneously throughout the state, though specific opening times are set by each county, and can open as late as 9:00 a.m. in some parts of the state. In the open primary, candidates must meet a threshold of 15 percent at the congressional district or statewide level in order to be considered viable. The 64 pledged delegates to the 2020 Democratic National Convention will be allocated proportionally on the basis of the results of the primary. Of the 64 pledged delegates, between 3 and 7 are allocated to each of the state's 9 congressional districts and another 8 are allocated to party leaders and elected officials (PLEO delegates), in addition to 14 at-large pledged delegates. Bonus delegates will be allocated as Tennessee shares a primary date with numerous other states on Super Tuesday; these numbers do not yet account for these delegates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "85533",
"title": "United States Electoral College",
"section": "Section::::Modern mechanics.:Electors.:Meetings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "When the time for balloting arrives, the electors choose one or two people to act as tellers. Some states provide for the placing in nomination of a candidate to receive the electoral votes (the candidate for president of the political party of the electors). Each elector submits a written ballot with the name of a candidate for president. In New Jersey, the electors cast ballots by checking the name of the candidate on a pre-printed card; in North Carolina, the electors write the name of the candidate on a blank card. The tellers count the ballots and announce the result. The next step is the casting of the vote for vice president, which follows a similar pattern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31647",
"title": "Article Two of the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Section 1: President and vice president.:Clause 3: Electors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1178,
"text": "In modern practice, each state chooses its electors in popular elections. Once chosen, the electors meet in their respective states to cast ballots for the president and vice president. Originally, each elector cast two votes for president; at least one of the individuals voted for had to be from a state different from the elector's. The individual with the majority of votes became president, and the runner-up became vice president. In case of a tie between candidates who received votes from a majority of electors, the House of Representatives would choose one of the tied candidates; if no person received a majority, then the House could again choose one of the five with the greatest number of votes. When the House voted, each state delegation cast one vote, and the vote of a majority of states was necessary to choose a president. If second-place candidates were tied, then the Senate broke the tie. A quorum in the House consisted of at least one member from two-thirds of the state delegations; there was no special quorum for the Senate. This procedure was followed in 1801 after the electoral vote produced a tie, and nearly resulted in a deadlock in the House.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505341",
"title": "United States presidential nominating convention",
"section": "Section::::Proceedings.:Voting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 967,
"text": "The voting method at the conventions is a \"roll call of the states\" – which include territories such as Washington D.C., American Samoa, Guam, Puerto Rico, the U. S. Virgin Islands, and a catch-all \"delegates abroad\" category. The states are called in alphabetical order (Alabama is first; Wyoming is last). The state's spokesperson (who generally begins his or her speech with glowing comments about the state's history, geography, and notable party elected officials) can either choose to announce its delegate count or pass. Once all states have either declared or passed, those states which passed are called upon again to announce their delegate count. (Generally, a decision is made beforehand that some states will pass in the first round, in order to allow a particular state – generally either the presidential or vice presidential nominee's home state – to be the one whose delegate count pushes the candidate \"over the top\", thus securing the nomination.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "141896",
"title": "President of India",
"section": "Section::::Time of election.:Election process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "The actual calculation for votes cast by a particular state is calculated by dividing the state's population by 1000, which is divided again by the number of legislators from the State voting in the electoral college. This number is the number of votes per legislator in a given state. Every elected member of the parliament enjoys the same number of votes, which may be obtained by dividing the total number of votes assigned to the members of legislative assemblies by the total number of elected representatives of the parliament.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4az03s
|
Does the placenta have the DNA of the mother or the baby? What about the umbilical cord?
|
[
{
"answer": "The placenta is fetal tissue! Very, very early on in development the blastocyst implants in the endometrium of the womb. The outer layers of cells in of the blastocyst become the trophoblast that becomes the placenta, embedding deeper and interfacing with the blood supply of the mother. The foetus essentially builds it's own disposable organ to get what it needs from the mother and aid it its regulation as it develops. It's kinda freakin' cool.\n\nLikewise, the umbilical cord is fetal tissue and isn't sourced from the mother. It's basically just arteries and a vein to connect the foetus to the placenta and, by extension, the mother.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The placenta has the DNA of the soon to be born baby. However, I see what you are referring to in your question, what is responsible for production of these embryonic structures so early and what are the role of each parents contribution? \nLong story short - There is genetic imprinting that only certain genes are activated based upon who they come from (mom or dad) so there are strict roles each genetic contribution plays in development. \nPaternal DNA is responsible for developing the placenta and supportive structures. \nMaternal DNA/oocyte, more the immediate fetal development and organization. Mom is also the one that passes on mitochondrial DNA (energy production machinery) directly to child, nothing from dad. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The baby is pretty much a parasite and the placenta lodges onto the mothers innards to steal nutrients out of her blood stream. The placenta is connected to the baby through the cord. So it should all be part of babby. That is how babby is formed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "233253",
"title": "Umbilical cord",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "In placental mammals, the umbilical cord (also called the navel string, birth cord or funiculus umbilicalis) is a conduit between the developing embryo or fetus and the placenta. During prenatal development, the umbilical cord is physiologically and genetically part of the fetus and (in humans) normally contains two arteries (the umbilical arteries) and one vein (the umbilical vein), buried within Wharton's jelly. The umbilical vein supplies the fetus with oxygenated, nutrient-rich blood from the placenta. Conversely, the fetal heart pumps low oxygen containing blood, nutrient-depleted blood through the umbilical arteries back to the placenta.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3845750",
"title": "Placentation",
"section": "Section::::In mammals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "In live bearing mammals, the placenta forms after the embryo implants into the wall of the uterus. The developing fetus is connected to the placenta via an umbilical cord. Mammalian placentas can be classified based on the number of tissues separating the maternal from the fetal blood. These include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67166",
"title": "Placenta",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "The placenta is a temporary organ that connects the developing fetus via the umbilical cord to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, thermo-regulation, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the mother's blood supply; to fight against internal infection; and to produce hormones which support pregnancy. Placentas are a defining characteristic of placental mammals, but are also found in marsupials and some non-mammals with varying levels of development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233253",
"title": "Umbilical cord",
"section": "Section::::Structure and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1147,
"text": "The umbilical cord develops from and contains remnants of the yolk sac and allantois. It forms by the fifth week of development, replacing the yolk sac as the source of nutrients for the embryo. The cord is not directly connected to the mother's circulatory system, but instead joins the placenta, which transfers materials to and from the maternal blood without allowing direct mixing. The length of the umbilical cord is approximately equal to the crown-rump length of the fetus throughout pregnancy. The umbilical cord in a full term neonate is usually about 50 centimeters (20 in) long and about 2 centimeters (0.75 in) in diameter. This diameter decreases rapidly within the placenta. The fully patent umbilical artery has two main layers: an outer layer consisting of circularly arranged smooth muscle cells and an inner layer which shows rather irregularly and loosely arranged cells embedded in abundant ground substance staining metachromatic. The smooth muscle cells of the layer are rather poorly differentiated, contain only a few tiny myofilaments and are thereby unlikely to contribute actively to the process of post-natal closure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67166",
"title": "Placenta",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "The placenta functions as a fetomaternal organ with two components: the fetal placenta (Chorion frondosum), which develops from the same blastocyst that forms the fetus, and the maternal placenta (Decidua basalis), which develops from the maternal uterine tissue. It metabolizes a number of substances and can release metabolic products into maternal or fetal circulations. The placenta is expelled from the body upon birth of the fetus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22827348",
"title": "Reproductive immunology",
"section": "Section::::Between mother and fetus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "The fact that the embryo's tissue is half foreign and unlike mismatched organ transplant, it is not normally rejected, suggests that the immunological system of the mother plays an important role in pregnancy. The placenta also plays an important part in protecting the embryo for the immune attack from the mother's system. Studies also propose that proteins in semen may help woman’s immune system prepare for conception and pregnancy. For example, there is substantial evidence for exposure to partner's semen as prevention for pre-eclampsia, largely due to the absorption of several immune modulating factors present in seminal fluid, such as transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49205189",
"title": "Ariosa v. Sequenom",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "The inventors realized that the fetus had DNA derived from the father as well as the mother, and that paternal DNA was not native to the mother's blood. So they wanted to focus on genetic fragments containing paternally inherited sequences the mother did not share, but had traveled from the fetal blood into the maternal blood through the placenta. The paternal DNA in the mother's plasma had to have come from the fetus. Then, they could reliably identify fetal DNA, which would in turn allow them to diagnose certain fetal genetic conditions such as Down Syndrome, which can be detected by observing presence of extra chromosomes. The inventors now had a test that did not require amniocentesis, which is invasive and may cause miscarriages. Sequenom became the exclusive licensee of the patent. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b96z56
|
How common was it for people in ancient civilizations to just travel for leisure?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not to discourage any further answers, but you'll probably find these older posts helpful:\n\n* [Did tourism exist within the Roman Empire? I assume that most of the lower class could not afford to go visit another city, but what about the richer population?](_URL_1_) by /u/bitparity\n\n* [Do we know if ancient people (thinking the Classical Mediterranean world) \"made up\" things to attract tourists?](_URL_0_) by /u/XenophontheAthenian",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29789",
"title": "Tourism",
"section": "Section::::History.:Antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "Travel outside a person's local area for leisure was largely confined to wealthy classes, who at times traveled to distant parts of the world, to see great buildings and works of art, learn new languages, experience new cultures, and to taste different cuisines. As early as Shulgi, however, kings praised themselves for protecting roads and building way stations for travelers. Travelling for pleasure can be seen in Egypt as early on as 1500 BC. During the Roman Republic, spas and coastal resorts such as Baiae were popular among the rich. Pausanias wrote his \"Description of Greece\" in the second century AD. In ancient China, nobles sometimes made a point of visiting Mount Tai and, on occasion, all five Sacred Mountains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50080000",
"title": "Travel in Classical antiquity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Travel in classical antiquity over long distances was a specialised undertaking. Most travel was done in the interest of warfare, diplomacy, general state building, or trade. Social motivations for travel included visiting religious sites, festivals such as the Olympics, and health-related reasons. Most travel was difficult and expensive, both due to danger of violence, as well as the scarcity of well-maintained roads, and the variability of travel times over water, as ancient ships were subject to the vagaries of both the wind and the tides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162456",
"title": "Personal life",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "In the ancient past, most people's time was limited by the need to meet necessities such as food and shelter through first hunting and gathering, and later subsistence farming, and leisure time was scarce. People identified with their social role in their community and engaged in jobs based on necessity rather than personal choice. Privacy in such communities was rare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181786",
"title": "Safavid dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Society.:The customs and culture of the people.:Character.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 866,
"text": "Unlike Europeans, they much disliked physical activity, and were not in favor of exercise for its own sake, preferring the leisure of repose and luxuries that life could offer. Travelling was valued only for the specific purpose of getting from one place to another, not interesting them self in seeing new places and experiencing different cultures. It was perhaps this sort of attitude towards the rest of the world that accounted for the ignorance of Persians regarding other countries of the world. The exercises that they took part in were for keeping the body supple and sturdy and to acquire skills in handling of arms. Archery took first place. Second place was held by fencing, where the wrist had to be firm but flexible and movements agile. Thirdly there was horsemanship. A very strenuous form of exercise which the Persians greatly enjoyed was hunting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2418006",
"title": "Mythology of Stargate",
"section": "Section::::Organizations.:Travelers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 1387,
"text": "The Travelers are humans who live on a fleet of ships to avoid the Wraith, introduced in \"Travelers\". Although not as technologically advanced as the Ancients, the Travelers possess hyperdrives and advanced weapons. Due to their population outgrowing their available space, the Travelers had been forced to abandon some of their people on planets. Their discovery of an \"Aurora\"-class battleship promised to solve this problem, but without the ATA gene they were unable to operate it. They kidnap John Sheppard and extort him to create an interface for them. Though uncooperative at first on account of his abduction, Sheppard and the Traveler leader Larrin eventually came to an understanding after a mutual experience with the Wraith. In \"Be All My Sins Remember'd\", the Travelers become concerned by the Asuran Replicator threat after one of their trading partners is wiped out. Several of their ships, including their Ancient battleship, join the Atlanteans and the Wraith in battling the Replicators over their homeworld. According to producers Joseph Mallozzi and Paul Mullie, the Travelers were created as a \"wild card\" like the Genii, but with advanced technology that would make them a \"challenge\" for the Atlantis team. Their lifestyle was devised as a way around the established fact that the Wraith wipe out any civilizations that approach them in technological advancement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17503",
"title": "Leisure",
"section": "Section::::Cultural differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Time available for leisure varies from one society to the next, although anthropologists have found that hunter-gatherers tend to have significantly more leisure time than people in more complex societies. As a result, band societies such as the Shoshone of the Great Basin came across as extraordinarily lazy to European colonialists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61829",
"title": "Pilgrim",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Pilgrims and the making of pilgrimages are common in many religions, including the faiths of ancient Egypt, Persia in the Mithraic period, India, China, and Japan. The Greek and Roman customs of consulting the gods at local oracles, such as those at Dodona or Delphi, both in Greece, are widely known. In Greece, pilgrimages could either be personal or state-sponsored.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5x6mn4
|
why does everyone want sessions to resign?
|
[
{
"answer": "The allegations are that he was contacting the Russian ambassador outside of his Senate Armed Services panel responsibilities prior to the election and then committed perjury by saying that he had no contact with the Russians during his Attorney General confirmation hearings. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "as a non-American, non-interested person: probably because everyone (your word) thinks he is, or will be, a bad AGOTUS.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5861065",
"title": "Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation",
"section": "Section::::Dismissals.:William S. Sessions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Although Sessions denied that he had acted improperly, he was pressured to resign in early July, with some suggesting that President Clinton was giving Sessions the chance to step down in a dignified manner. Sessions refused, saying that he had done nothing wrong, and insisted on staying in office until his successor was confirmed. As a result, President Clinton dismissed Sessions on July 19, 1993, five and a half years into a ten-year term. Clinton's public explanation was that there had been a loss of confidence in Sessions’ leadership, and then-Attorney General Reno recommended the dismissal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "375234",
"title": "Jeff Sessions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "On November 7, 2018, the day after the midterm elections, Sessions tendered his resignation at Trump's request, following a months-long public and private contention between Trump and Sessions over his recusal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "421577",
"title": "Michael Fallon",
"section": "Section::::Parliamentary career.:Secretary of State for Defence (2014-2017).:Allegations of inappropriate behaviour and resignation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "It was subsequently reported Fallon had been forced to resign in part due to an allegation of inappropriate and lewd comments towards fellow Conservative MP Andrea Leadsom when they both sat on the Treasury Select Committee. He was also accused of making comments of a sexual nature about other MPs on the committee and members of the public who attended hearings. The former political editor of \"The Independent on Sunday\", Jane Merrick, said in \"The Observer\" in early November 2017 that Fallon was the previously unnamed Conservative MP who had \"lunged\" at her a decade and a half earlier. She had contacted Downing Street about the incident several hours before he resigned. \"The Observer\" reported on the same day that \"the revelation was the tipping point for No 10, which ... had been compiling a list of alleged incidents involving Fallon since claims against him were first made.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "613485",
"title": "William S. Sessions",
"section": "Section::::FBI.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Although Sessions denied that he had acted improperly, he was pressured to resign in early July, with some suggesting that President Clinton was giving Sessions the chance to step down in a dignified manner. Sessions refused, saying that he had done nothing wrong, and insisted on staying in office until his successor was confirmed. As a result, President Clinton dismissed Sessions on July 19, 1993. Sessions was five and a half years into a ten-year term as FBI director; however, the holder of this post serves at the pleasure of the President.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "375234",
"title": "Jeff Sessions",
"section": "Section::::Attorney General of the United States (2017–2018).:Tenure.:Recusal from election investigation, and relationship with President Trump.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Trump often hinted he wanted to fire Sessions, perhaps after the November 2018 elections. Sessions told associates he did not intend to resign, but on November 7, 2018, he submitted a letter of resignation to Chief of Staff John Kelly at President Trump's request.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "529604",
"title": "Bennington College",
"section": "Section::::History.:1990s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "Some students and alumni protested, and the college was censured for its actions by the American Association of University Professors, who said, \"...academic freedom is insecure, and academic tenure is nonexistent today at Bennington College.\" Critics of the Symposium, and the 1994 firings, have alleged that the Symposium was essentially a sham, designed to provide a pretext for the removal of faculty members to whom the college's president, Elizabeth Coleman, was hostile. Some have questioned the timing of the firings, arguing that by waiting until the end of June, the college made it impossible for students affected by the firings to transfer to other institutions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3150330",
"title": "Galen Hall",
"section": "Section::::Coaching career.:College coaching.:Florida.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1064,
"text": "Interim university president Robert A. Bryan forced Hall's resignation in the middle of the 1989 season during another investigation of possible NCAA rule violations. The new allegations were primarily related to Hall paying several of his assistants out of his own pocket (violating an NCAA rule that capped salaries, a rule later found to be in violation of federal antitrust laws) as well as paying the legal expenses related to the child-support obligations of one of his players, allegations that he still denies. The NCAA ultimately slapped the Gators with two years' probation, and banned them from bowl consideration for the 1990 season. It deemed Hall's alleged violations serious enough that it would have kicked the Gators off live television during the 1990 season as well had school officials not forced Hall's resignation. Hall has not been hired as a college head coach ever since—and indeed, wouldn't return to the collegiate ranks again in any capacity for 15 years—prompting later employer Joe Paterno to call him \"a good coach who got screwed\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3i2kw4
|
data breach: why are the companies themselves responsible and why does it still happen?
|
[
{
"answer": "Usually with companies that get breached, there is some company-consumer assurance that their data will always be safe. So when it is breached, its like a breach in their trust.\n It is also extremely difficult to find the hackers, they may be on the other side of the world. Thus, not being able to bring the suspect to justice, the company will be forced to take the blame themselves, to give the public closure and move on.\n\nHackers are just like bank robbers and buglers. also with the growing amount of people with the skills necessary for hacking ect. So, just with any other crime, it is likely that we may never see a complete end to Data breaches.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Companies are entrusted with personal data and are therefore obligated to keep that data safe. These companies undergo routine safety audits from third party agencies to determine whether they have the proper safeguards in place to protect this data. The audits very often find that they are not meeting their obligations. If a company chooses to ignore their auditors and are then victimized in a data breach, they have little ground to defend themselves in court. Case in point: Primera Healthcare. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are rules and regulations that relate to the liability that a business has dependent on the data they are storing. An insurance company will get hit with more fines/penalties than someone like Spotify. \n\nThere are both targeted and non-targeted breaches. A targeted breach focuses on one company. Assuming you are going for insurance information, a hacker/group might focus on Blue Cross Blue Shield. This will take them (typically) longer as they need to breach one specific network instead of just going after what is easiest. A non-targeted attack would have a group doing boundary tests on a bunch of similar companies that have similar data (Walmart, Target, JC Penny). Whichever they find easiest to get into is the one they will go after.\n\nSo why do these keep happening? The data has real world value. It can be sold on the black market, used to make fake tax returns, used to get new credit cards in other people's names, used for insurance fraud, etc... Computer/network security is complex and can be very expensive. Balancing operating costs and different levels of security is done by management and not necessarily network/security experts. Even if you opted for the tightest security you could get, a social engineer would most likely be able to get enough details from the necessarily employees to circumvent security.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you don't lock your car and it gets stolen the insurance company will put part of the blame on you as you didn't do anything to prevent the theft. \n\nIf a company doesn't take sufficient precautions to prevent a breach they are partially to blame. \n\nAs far as why it continues it is that people are people. They get lazy and/or complacent. They think nothing has ever happened so it never will. \n\nCompanies leave in default passwords, fail/forget to lock up, etc, etc",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1664937",
"title": "Computer recycling",
"section": "Section::::Data security.:Reasons to destroy and recycle securely.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "There is also a major backlash from the consumer if there is a data breach in a company that is supposed to be trusted to protect their private information. If an organization has any consumer info on file, they must by law (Red Flags Clarification act of 2010) have written information protection policies and procedures in place, that serve to combat, mitigate, and detect vulnerable areas that could result in identity theft. The United States Department of Defense has published a standard to which recyclers and individuals may meet in order to satisfy HIPAA requirements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1664937",
"title": "Computer recycling",
"section": "Section::::Data security.:Reasons to destroy and recycle securely.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 983,
"text": "There are ways to ensure that not only hardware is destroyed but also the private data on the hard drive. Having customer data stolen, lost, or misplaced contributes to the ever-growing number of people who are affected by identity theft, which can cause corporations to lose more than just money. The image of a company that holds secure data, such as banks, law firms, pharmaceuticals, and credit corporations is also at risk. If a company's public image is hurt, it could cause consumers to not use their services and could cost millions in business losses and positive public relation campaigns. The cost of data breaches \"varies widely, ranging from $90 to $50,000 (under HIPAA's new HITECH amendment, that came about through the American Recovery and Revitalization act of 2009), as per customer record, depending on whether the breach is “low-profile” or “high-profile” and the company is in a non-regulated or highly regulated area, such as banking or medical institutions.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34249411",
"title": "Bring your own device",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "BYOD has resulted in data breaches. For example, if an employee uses a smartphone to access the company network and then loses that phone, untrusted parties could retrieve any unsecured data on the phone. Another type of security breach occurs when an employee leaves the company; they do not have to give back the device, so company applications and other data may still be present on their device.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45116490",
"title": "User activity monitoring",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Overall risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "According to the Verizon Data Breach Incident Report, “The first step in protecting your data is in knowing where it is and who has access to it.” In today’s IT environment, “there is a lack of oversight and control over how and who among employees has access to confidential, sensitive information.” This apparent gap is one of many factors that have resulted in a major number of security issues for companies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1664937",
"title": "Computer recycling",
"section": "Section::::Recycling methods.:Scrapping/recycling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "In America, companies are liable for compliance with regulations even if the recycling process is outsourced under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Companies can mitigate these risks by requiring waivers of liability, audit trails, certificates of data destruction, signed confidentiality agreements, and random audits of information security. The National Association of Information Destruction is an international trade association for data destruction providers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "180609",
"title": "Identity theft",
"section": "Section::::Identity protection by organizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Poor stewardship of personal data by organizations, resulting in unauthorized access to sensitive data, can expose individuals to the risk of identity theft. The Privacy Rights Clearinghouse have documented over 900 individual data breaches by US companies and government agencies since January 2005, which together have involved over 200 million total records containing sensitive personal information, many containing social security numbers. Poor corporate diligence standards which can result in data breaches include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47825086",
"title": "Dark data",
"section": "Section::::Storage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "The continuous storage of dark data can put an organisation at risk, especially if this data is sensitive. In the case of a breach, this can result in serious repercussions. These can be financial, legal and can seriously hurt an organisation's reputation. For example, a breach of private records of customers could result in the stealing of sensitive information, which could result in identity theft. Another example could be the breach of the company's own sensitive information, for example relating to research and development. These risks can be mitigated by assessing and auditing whether this data is useful to the organisation, employing strong encryption and security and finally, if it is determined to be discarded, then it should be discarded in a way that it becomes unretrievable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1krzaz
|
how does the show top gear get ahold of these impressive super cars and get away with basically anything when driving them on the public roads (drag racing, etc.) when the roads are clearly not closed for filming?
|
[
{
"answer": "The car makers want their cars on the show you can't get better publicity than top gear\n\nIts cleverly put together when they do the stupid stuff it's closed off ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This depends on the car they are driving. Most of the cars are models they get from the manufacturers to increase publicity on their brand or model. Sometimes they get cars from owners who like their car to be on the show. \nWhen they go out on the public road they make it look like the road isn't closed but it actually is. When they film say, Clarkson, driving a Maclaren on the public road, they use several cars to secure the road. one car films Clarkson, one car drives ahead and one drives behind the camera car to make a convoy. \nWhen they drive desolated area's, they close of sections of the road to make sure there is no other traffic to endanger the hosts while driving. That's why they can drift and drive at high speed without concern for other cars. \nThe producers check the roads before driving to make sure it's safe to drive and warn any people around and sometimes even contact the local authorities to explain what they are doing. thus getting away with practically everything so they can make an awesome show! \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20847411",
"title": "Top Gear: Vietnam Special",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Unlike normal episodes of \"Top Gear\", in which the challenges were related to the abilities of the vehicles reviewed, such as the Toyota Hilux in the \"\", producer Andy Wilman admitted that \"the narrative of the film is a bit more skewed towards the three guys.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3798103",
"title": "Alarm für Cobra 11 – Die Autobahnpolizei",
"section": "Section::::Stunts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "The series is known for its extremely well performed stuntwork, which features the destruction of various vehicles in every episode. Almost every episode has a distinct structure, with at least one daring action sequence and the pre-title sequence usually consisting of the main event (i.e. a devastating crash on the Autobahn). The stuntwork is often so spectacular that it would not look out of place in a full-fledged movie, with cars commonly reaching implausible heights as they vault through the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46739903",
"title": "Dallas Car Sharks",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "The show, along with other automotive reality programs such as \"Fantomworks\", \"Garage Squad\", \"Graveyard Carz\", and \"West Coast Customs\", has drawn criticism for both being too predictable in terms of plot and making automotive restoration look much easier than it actually is.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2715721",
"title": "Moteurs... Action! Stunt Show Spectacular",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "Revolving around a series of energetic stunts featuring automobiles, the show runs for just under 40 minutes, and includes scenes of car-based action, pyrotechnics, jet ski chases, and physical stuntwork. The cars are followed by cameras, and film, both shot during the show and pre-recorded, is shown to the audience on a billboard television screen. Herbie, the Volkswagen from \"The Love Bug\", previously made an appearance in an intermission in the middle of the show, but was later replaced by Lightning McQueen from Cars. The show arena has scenery inspired by Villefranche-sur-Mer; a Mediterranean village in the south of France. The arena's construction at Disney's Hollywood Studios forced the Studio Backlot Tour at the theme park to be almost halved in length, as the arena was built inside locations used by the backlot tour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5777952",
"title": "Trick It Out",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Each episode of the 30-minute show would follow the two teams as they took their cars from the planning stage to completion. Various situations, both positive and negative, would be highlighted, such as bad paint jobs, incomplete features, and insight into the creation of different features for the cars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2715721",
"title": "Moteurs... Action! Stunt Show Spectacular",
"section": "Section::::Vehicles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "The show also includes specially-designed cars that look identical to the others used in the show, two of which are red \"hero\" cars. One substitute hero car has the bodyshell oriented backwards, to allow the driver to appear to be driving in reverse; the other has a seat and steering wheel bolted onto the side of the car away from the audience, so that the car appears to be driving without anyone inside the vehicle. One of the substitute black \"pursuit\" cars is cut in half behind the front doors, so that it can appear to explode during a scene in the show.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42601367",
"title": "BeamNG.drive",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Jack Stewart of BBC mentioned that \"BeamNG.drive\" \"has received interest from the film industry to model vehicle stunts, so that they can be prototyped and tested exhaustively – but cheaply – before a stunt driver smashes up a car on set.\" Polygon's Nick Robinson lauded the game's simulated physics and user-created content support, leading him to create an ongoing video series for Polygon, \"Car Boys\", in which he and Griffin McElroy spotlighted new \"BeamNG.drive\" content each week.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2j7y0d
|
How have check marks come to represent 'right' while Xs represent 'wrong'?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are quite a few theories floating around out there, but as it's not a universal standard and mainly contained within Western Europe and cultures influenced by Western Europe, I'm inclined to go with the tick / cross system being distributed by the Romans, especially given the amount of bureaucracy they bought to the world.\n\nCommon theories:\n\nThe Roman \"Veritas\" (truth) being the origin of the tick, cross is just a handy symbol / easy to make with a stylus / origin unknown.\n\nThe Greek \"Nikas\" (νικώ) for win and \"Haneis\" (Χάνεις) for lose.\n\nI personally like the Greek theory as it accounts for the cross and the Romans did appropriate an awful lot from the Greeks. But that's 100% conjecture.\n\nBe interesting to see if any of the real historians out there have access to Roman or Greek documentation :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Italy crosses represent correct answers. In questionnaires we put a Xs beside the correct choice and, when casting our vote during elections, we cross with a giant X the party symbol we want to choose.\n\nSo check marks did not come to represent 'right' while Xs represent 'wrong' everywhere.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1267541",
"title": "Check mark",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "The check mark is believed to have been created during the Roman Empire. \"V\" was used to shorten the word \"veritas\", meaning 'truth'. This was used to indicate yes, true, or confirmed on items in a list. Over time, the design of the mark started to change. As people started writing more quickly, the right side became elongated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1267541",
"title": "Check mark",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "A check mark, checkmark or tick is a mark (✓, ✔, etc.) used (primarily in the English speaking world) to indicate the concept \"yes\" (e.g. \"yes; this has been verified\", \"yes; that is the correct answer\", \"yes; this has been completed\", or \"yes; this [item or option] applies to me\"). The x mark is also sometimes used for this purpose (most notably on election ballot papers, e.g. in the United Kingdom), but otherwise usually indicates \"no\", incorrectness, or failure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16296098",
"title": "X mark",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "As a verb, to ex (or x) off/out or to cross off/out means to add such a mark. It is quite common, especially on printed forms and document, for there to be squares in which to place x marks, or interchangeably checks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16296098",
"title": "X mark",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "An X mark (also known as a cross, x, ex , X, ✕, ☓, ✖, ✗, ✘, etc.) is used to indicate the concept of negation (for example \"no, this has not been verified\" or \"no, I don't agree\") as well as an indicator (for example in election ballot papers or in x marks the spot). Its opposite is often considered to be the check mark or tick (or the O mark used in Japan, Korea and Taiwan). In Japanese, the X mark (❌) is called \"batsu\" (ばつ) and can be expressed by someone by crossing their arms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1267541",
"title": "Check mark",
"section": "Section::::International differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "The check mark is a predominant affirmative symbol of convenience in the English-speaking world because of its instant and simple composition. In other countries, however, the mark is more complicated. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8605218",
"title": "Left-to-right mark",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "The left-to-right mark (LRM) is a control character (an invisible formatting character) used in computerized typesetting (including word processing in a program like Microsoft Word) of text that contains a mixture of left-to-right text (such as English or Russian) and right-to-left text (such as Arabic, Persian or Hebrew). It is used to set the way adjacent characters are grouped with respect to text direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208651",
"title": "X-bar theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The letter X is used to signify an arbitrary lexical category (part of speech); when analyzing a specific utterance, specific categories are assigned. Thus, the X may become an N for noun, a V for verb, an A for adjective, or a P for preposition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6e7hio
|
who develops medicines for animals?
|
[
{
"answer": "Many human medicines can have the same effects in animals. For example you can give some pets tylenol, benadryl, antibiotics, etc. But it'd be a good idea to adjust dosage accordingly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some are developed for humans and then only work on animals, others are developed specifically for animals especially common pets and farm animals. There is a lot of money to be made in finding cures or treatments for say diseases in cattle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pet care is a $5.5 BILLION dollar a year industry. So there is definitely money to be made from pet pharma. But the companies themselves are often \"normal\" pharma companies - Bayer, for example, makes Advantage flea products.\n\nThat doesn't even include the size of the pharma industry related to livestock and agriculture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "79666",
"title": "Economics of biodiversity",
"section": "Section::::Medication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Animals may also play a role, in particular in research. In traditional remedies, animals are extensively used as drugs. Many animals also medicate \"themselves\". Zoopharmacognosy is the study of how animals use plants, insects and other inorganic materials in self-medicatation. In an interview with the late Neil Campbell, Eloy Rodriguez describes the importance of biodiversity:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11039790",
"title": "Animal",
"section": "Section::::In human culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Animals such as the fruit fly \"Drosophila melanogaster\" serve a major role in science as experimental models. Animals have been used to create vaccines since their discovery in the 18th century. Some medicines such as the cancer drug Yondelis are based on toxins or other molecules of animal origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19374",
"title": "Model organism",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include organ transplant techniques, the heart-lung machine, antibiotics, and the whooping cough vaccine. Treatments for animal diseases have also been developed, including for rabies, anthrax, glanders, feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), tuberculosis, Texas cattle fever, classical swine fever (hog cholera), heartworm, and other parasitic infections. Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research, and is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, many headaches, and other conditions in which there is no useful \"in vitro\" model system available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32587",
"title": "Veganism",
"section": "Section::::Animal products.:Avoidance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "An important concern is the case of medications, which are routinely tested on animals to ensure they are effective and safe, and may also contain animal ingredients, such as lactose, gelatine, or stearates. There may be no alternatives to prescribed medication or these alternatives may be unsuitable, less effective, or have more adverse side effects. Experimentation with laboratory animals is also used for evaluating the safety of vaccines, food additives, cosmetics, household products, workplace chemicals, and many other substances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175596",
"title": "Animal testing",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives to animal testing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Another non-animal research method is \"in silico\" or computer simulation and mathematical modeling which seeks to investigate and ultimately predict toxicity and drug affects in humans without using animals. This is done by investigating test compounds on a molecular level using recent advances in technological capabilities with the ultimate goal of creating treatments unique to each patient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56263618",
"title": "Veterinary pharmacy",
"section": "Section::::Challenges in practice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "In the United States, The main challenge to pharmacists in pursuit of a career in veterinary pharmacy is the minimal availability of concrete education on pharmacology in relation to different animals. While experts in drug usage in relation to human anatomy and physiology, the vast differences between humans and animals must be considered when preparing medications for animal patients. Some anatomical differences veterinary pharmacists need to take into account when preparing medication include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20744016",
"title": "Health management system",
"section": "Section::::Cost benefit analysis.:External medications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "External medications will affect the cost benefits advantages of deploying an evolved self-treatment. Some animals use external ones. Wild animals, including apes, do so in the form of ingested detoxifying clays, rough leaves that clear gut parasites, and pharmacologically active plants Complementary to this, research finds that animals have the ability to select and prefer substances that aid their recuperation from illness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
di4qw1
|
How did Egypt become a client kingdom of Rome?
|
[
{
"answer": " > So, when Caesar arrived in Egypt, he said that it was his job as Dictator of Rome to settle a royal dispute between Ptomely and Cleopatra on who sould be pharaoh. He even stationed himself at the Palace of Alexandria as a judge to hear the case made by both parts\n\nThat isn't right. Caesar at no point in the B.C. mentions his role as dictator, nor do the other sources. An invocation of Caesar's role as dictator would not have made very much sense: the Alexandrians were not a province, and therefore their affairs could not be ordered by a Roman magistrate except in his role as ambassador for the senate. It is in this capacity that Caesar interfered in Alexandrian politics. He specifically in the B.C. cites his role as *consul* (in 59, not in 47), not dictator, which would have made much more sense given that he also notes that the Alexandrians in killing Pompey and being unable to solve their succession crisis were potential threats to the Roman people. Moreover, Caesar notes that Alexandrian affairs had been made a concern of his personally already, since it was during his consulship that an SC, later ratified as a lex, had been passed binding the Alexandrians to the Romans as allies. No source mentions Caesar setting up court in the royal palace; this detail is not particularly believable. Indeed, none of the sources even mention Caesar entering the palace yet at this point, and the ones which describe his location in the city seem to suggest strongly that Caesar had never left the seashore. Plutarch mentions the story of Cleopatra taking a little boat to visit Caesar, Caesar says that he decided because of the fragility of the situation and the small size of his forces to remain within the area of the city that his troops controlled (the waterfront) until he could figure out what Achillas intended, and Appian speaks of fighting along the shore and of Caesar escaping at one point by swimming into the harbor. Only Cassius Dio, whose famed unreliability was the object of great (and often undue) scorn in the early twentieth century, says anything about Caesar's being in the palace. Dio says that Cleopatra snuck into the palace (also a rather unbelievable statement) to meet Caesar, who only then decided to bring the rival claimants to him to plead their cases. This doesn't make very much sense internally, since Dio then says that Caesar, who already possessed the palace, assaulted the palace (what?), and it doesn't work with the sequence of events that the other sources give.\n\nI think you're somewhat misunderstanding the way the Romans of the Republic understood their relationships with other states. By any reasonable modern understanding the Ptolemies were clients of the Romans, and had been since the late third century. However, the Romans understood such matters in the way that Caesar describes: the Ptolemies had, in 59, become allies of the Romans, allowing them to resolve Alexandrian disputes in their own interest and according to the customs of the Alexandrians wherever possible. Similar agreements had been made earlier, but there was no permanent state of clientela that existed between the two great states. In a very real sense Caesar, as the consul who had been responsible for the most recent agreement, had a personal duty to see to it that it was respected, and being the commander on site he also was placed in a position to resolve a further agreement, since as he himself notes the agreement of 59 had been made with the last king, and technically the Alexandrians were not in a state of legal alliance anymore. \n\nThe Alexandrians had for some time been subordinate to the Romans in international affairs. In the late third century what Eckstein calls the \"Ptolemaic collapse,\" begun by a serious of native rebellions and followed by the accession of a child king in Ptolemy V resulted in political chaos in Egypt. It was a major event for Polybius, such that he focuses nearly an entire book to it, instead of giving a broad view of Mediterranean events generally the way he usually does. By 201 warfare with the Seleucids added to the Ptolemies' woes, and Philip had begun advancing through Asia Minor, in Polybius' opinion to overthrow the Ptolemies entirely. The massive war brewing caused two traditional rivals, Pergamum and Rhodes, to conclude an alliance against Philip, and though they managed to hold out for a little while things eventually became too hot for them--in 201 the Pergamenes (friends of the Romans) and Rhodians (decidedly not) sent embassies to the Romans to ask for their aid or arbitration. Also in 201 the Athenians executed citizens of Acarnania, a Macedonian ally, and were met in response with an attack by the Macedonians. The Athenians revoked the tribes that they had long ago named after Antigonus and Demetrius, symbolically throwing off the yoke of Macedonian dominance, and appealed to the Ptolemies for aid. The Ptolemies had their hands full (Eckstein thinks they had already sent an embassy to the Romans by this point). The view from the Roman senate, which would have received these embassies, would therefore have been one of total chaos in the eastern Mediterranean. Four embassies, three of them from powerful Greek states and one from the Athenians in revolt, would have reached them within a single season, and Polybius describes the affair as confused and disordered--this was certainly the most chaotic the eastern Mediterranean had been since the death of Antigonus. The Romans, Eckstein has shown, learned (according to Polybius) of a pact between Philip and Antiochus during this time, and became worried about a total destabilization of the eastern Mediterranean. As a result, Roman attention was drawn to the region. Several decades of warfare by the Ptolemies resulted, in 170, in the deposition of Ptolemy VI, who had also succeeded as an infant, by Antiochus IV, and with Roman aid Ptolemy VI was eventually installed. In any case, the first few decades of the second century are marked by political chaos in and around Egypt, and by Roman intervention into this political shitstorm, particularly in keeping the Alexandrians propped up, such that by the first century the Ptolemies were bound closely to the Romans by a series of multi-generation treaties and friendships, and had long since stopped being able to maintain their aid without Roman power. Caesar's troops were not the first, even within his own lifetime, to interfere in Alexandrian affairs by force of arms. In 55 Gabinius, proconsul of Syria, marched into Alexandria to restore Ptolemy XII. His campaign was rejected by the senate, on the grounds that he had left his province illegally (plus while Gabinius was away Syria had been destabilized by a revolt of Alexander) to enter another independent kingdom, but the charge of maiestas failed. In particular Roman arbitration in the Ptolemid succession was a long tradition going back to the early second century, and by 47 it was almost expected that Roman arbitration would settle any succession dispute",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "874",
"title": "Ancient Egypt",
"section": "Section::::History.:Roman period (30 BC–641 AD).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC, following the defeat of Marc Antony and Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian (later Emperor Augustus) in the Battle of Actium. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the Roman army, under the control of a prefect appointed by the Emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period. Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14140196",
"title": "List of governors of Roman Egypt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 925,
"text": "Egypt was established as a Roman province in consequence of the Battle of Actium, where Cleopatra as the last independent ruler of Egypt and her Roman ally Mark Antony were defeated by Octavian, the adopted heir of the assassinated Roman dictator Julius Caesar. Octavian then rose to supreme power with the title Augustus, ending the era of the Roman Republic and installing himself as \"princeps\", the so-called \"leading citizen\" of Rome who in fact acted as an autocratic ruler. Although senators continued to serve as governors of most other provinces (the senatorial provinces), especially those annexed under the Republic, the role of Egypt during the civil war with Antony and its strategic and economic importance prompted Augustus to ensure that no rival could secure \"Aegyptus\" as an asset. He thus established Egypt as an imperial province, to be governed by a prefect he appointed from men of the equestrian order.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1273",
"title": "Augustus",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Revenue reforms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 839,
"text": "The use of Egypt's immense land rents to finance the Empire's operations resulted from Augustus' conquest of Egypt and the shift to a Roman form of government. As it was effectively considered Augustus' private property rather than a province of the Empire, it became part of each succeeding emperor's patrimonium. Instead of a legate or proconsul, Augustus installed a prefect from the equestrian class to administer Egypt and maintain its lucrative seaports; this position became the highest political achievement for any equestrian besides becoming Prefect of the Praetorian Guard. The highly productive agricultural land of Egypt yielded enormous revenues that were available to Augustus and his successors to pay for public works and military expeditions. During his reign the circus games resulted in the killing of 3,500 elephants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31912046",
"title": "Egyptians",
"section": "Section::::History.:Graeco-Roman period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "When the Romans annexed Egypt in 30 BC, the social structure created by the Greeks was largely retained, though the power of the Egyptian priesthood diminished. The Roman emperors lived abroad and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship as the Ptolemies had. The art of mummy portraiture flourished, but Egypt became further stratified with Romans at the apex of the social pyramid, Greeks and Jews occupied the middle stratum, while Egyptians, who constituted the vast majority, were at the bottom. Egyptians paid a poll tax at full rate, Greeks paid at half-rate and Roman citizens were exempt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17633550",
"title": "Egyptian Journeys with Dan Cruickshank",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.:\"The Death of Ancient Egypt\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "The Romans marched into Egypt in 30 BC intent on turning it into an imperial province and bled the country dry to sustain the Empires extensive territories. The vast resources of Egypt supplied one third of Romes grain as well as gold and granite. The country was bankrupted, the temples neglected and the priests disregarded but the beliefs lived on to seduce the Roman oppressors with some even being mummified.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "874",
"title": "Ancient Egypt",
"section": "Section::::History.:Roman period (30 BC–641 AD).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "In the fourth century, as the Roman Empire divided, Egypt found itself in the Eastern Empire with its capital at Constantinople. In the waning years of the Empire, Egypt fell to the Sassanid Persian army (618–628 AD), was recaptured by the Roman Emperor Heraclius (629–639 AD), and then was finally captured by Muslim Rashidun army in 639–641 AD, ending Roman rule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1114299",
"title": "List of pharaohs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Achaemenid rule over Egypt came to an end through the conquests of Alexander the Great in 332 BC, after which it was ruled by the Hellenic Pharaohs of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Their rule, and the independence of Egypt, came to an end when Egypt became a province of Rome in 30 BC. Augustus and subsequent Roman emperors were styled as Pharaoh when in Egypt until the reign of Maximinus Daia in 314 AD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4zo2na
|
what info can whatsapp use to provide targeted ads, if all my chats are encrypted?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm assuming this question stems forth from the recent publication that WhatsApp is going to share data with the Facebook network so that specific social network can use that information to provide targeted advertisements.\n\nThere are many ways this information can be used. But one of them that I find not too farfetched is the WhatsApp's ability to access your contactlist AND send its content back to a server to check if any of these contacts are WhatsApp users.\n\nUsing this data combined with Facebook's information (e.g. if your phone number is already identifiable with your facebook profile/or facebook cookies), Facebook can then expand on a network of people who are connected. Thus, if someone on your network is interested in some product, then perhaps you might be interested in it as well and Facebook will target an ad of that product to you. E.g. next time you log onto Facebook.\n\nEDIT: One way the network is expanded is if your contact in WhatsApp is not your friend on Facebook. By using WhatsApp you can then be added into Facebook's network of connected people with that contact.\n\nEDIT2: Regarding the Chat insight. Because of End-to-end encryption, Facebook likely won't use the content of the chatmessages to target ads. However, generated meta-data (e.g. people you oftenly communicate with) can play a factor in targeting ads.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41909781",
"title": "Timeline of global surveillance disclosures (2013–present)",
"section": "Section::::December 2013.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "In order to identify targets for government hacking and surveillance, both the GCHQ and the NSA have used advertising cookies operated by Google, known as Pref, to \"pinpoint\" targets. According to documents leaked by Snowden, the Special Source Operations of the NSA has been sharing information containing \"logins, cookies, and GooglePREFID\" with the Tailored Access Operations division of the NSA, as well as Britain's GCHQ agency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16777474",
"title": "Targeted advertising",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Privacy and security concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Many online users and advocacy groups are concerned about privacy issues around this type of targeting since targeted advertising requires aggregation of large amounts of personal data, including highly sensitive one (such as sexual orientation or sexual preferences, health issues, location) which is then traded between hundreds of parties in the process of real-time bidding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11501780",
"title": "Spyvampire",
"section": "Section::::Creator's Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "\"SpyVampire will scan and remove any files that are infecting your PC with Adware/Spyware automatically! SpyVampire is easy to use. Just set and forget! Single click feature blocks ads immediately. Spyware Remover runs conveniently automatically removing unwanted Adware and Spyware for safe and private Internet browsing. Spy Vampire's primary goal is prohibition of critical data changes without your demand, such as system registry, system files, browser's start page and so forth.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11019203",
"title": "Skype security",
"section": "Section::::Flaws and potential flaws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "BULLET::::- While Skype does encrypt most of its communications, packets containing advertisements are unencrypted which are pulled from several places, exposing a cross-site scripting vulnerability. These ads can easily be hijacked and replaced with malicious data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37808729",
"title": "2013 in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Events.:December.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 260,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 260,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "BULLET::::- The U.S. National Security Agency is secretly piggybacking on the tools that enable internet advertisers to track consumers, such tools are known as cookies; specifically, Google cookies are being tracked in order to determine targets for hacking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2440214",
"title": "Chinese intelligence activity abroad",
"section": "Section::::Intelligence activity worldwide.:Europe.:Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "In 2017, the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (BfV) published information alleging that Chinese intelligence services had created fake social media profiles on sites such as LinkedIn, using them to gather information on German politicians and government officials. The Verfassungsschutz had previously warned that Chinese intelligence officers are making use of social networking sites such as LinkedIn and XING to recruit informants. Lu Kang of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs denied the allegations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4456726",
"title": "Session hijacking",
"section": "Section::::Exploits.:WhatsApp sniffer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "An app named \"WhatsApp Sniffer\" was made available on Google Play in May 2012, able to display messages from other WhatsApp users connected to the same network as the app user. At that time WhatsApp used an XMPP infrastructure with encryption, not plain-text communication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
420as1
|
why isn't there a tl;dr law that would prevent things being secretly added to bills in congress?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because Congress writes the law. Some of the laws they pass cannot be less than fifty pages. Maybe a lot of them. I do not know. I do know we could form an organization which could examine every page by enough people willing to read the law. I would like to found such a group, or better yet, just join one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, nothing is \"secretly\" added. There's no attempt to hide anything. But you are correct that unrelated riders are often put on them.\n\nWe allow this because it allow compromises to be made. For example, let's say you want to pass a particular measure that I'm opposed to. We might sit down and make an agreement: you'll put something else on the measure that I want, even though you disagree with it personally. The compromise goes to the floor, and we both vote for it to get the partial win, instead of risking the bill not passing at all.\n\nThe mechanism encourages compromise, which our political system desperately needs. However, because there are so many exceptions and exemptions to rules, and because we have to often clearly spell-out how a new measure will legally interact with previous measures, and because we have to explain how the enforcement of the new measure will be paid for, and because there are so many compromises to make, the bills can get quite lengthy.\n\nThere's really no way to \"TL;DR\" something like that. The media will spin a summary for general consumption, but lawmakers don't live off of summaries. They need at least some of the details.\n\nFinally, even if the Congressperson doesn't have time to read every single bill, he has staff members that can go over the bill for him and give him the highlights relevant to his decision. For example, he may not need to immediately know the enforcement, funding mechanisms, legal interactions, etc., but they can give him the overview and explain the impacts related to his constituents or to matters that he believes are priorities. That's the detailed summary that he needs to be cognizant of.\n\nAlso, bills go through committees and subcommittees before they go up for a vote. His party's leadership is informed of what's being discussed in those groups, will form a position on the bill, and communicate that position and its justification to the members. Once again, they have an idea as to what the bill is going to involve and what the impacts are.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43255093",
"title": "Federal Register Modernization Act",
"section": "Section::::Debate and discussion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "The American Association of Law Libraries (AALL) strongly opposed the bill, arguing that the bill \"undermines\" citizens' \"right to be informed\" by making it more difficult for \"citizens to find their government's regulations.\" According to AALL, a survey they conducted \"revealed that members of the public, librarians, researchers, students, attorneys, and small business owners continue to rely on the print\" version of the \"Federal Register\". AALL also argued that the lack of print versions of the \"Federal Register\" and \"CFR\" would mean the 15 percent of Americans who don't use the internet would lose their access to that material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37581804",
"title": "No Budget, No Pay Act",
"section": "Section::::Support and opposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Likewise, the bill received some bipartisan opposition from members of Congress who argue that it may violate the 27th Amendment to the United States Constitution, which states \"No law, varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives, shall take effect, until an election of Representatives shall have intervened.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52958138",
"title": "2017–2019 Romanian protests",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Civil society and certain media outlets also took a similar stance against the bills, and claimed that the government's reasoning for these bills conceals an intent to pardon convicted politicians and cease ongoing cases against accused politicians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41678749",
"title": "USA Freedom Act",
"section": "Section::::Passing the bill.:Civil liberties advocates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "The Center for Democracy and Technology endorses the bill, but it points out that it doesn't limit data retention for information collected on people who turn out to have no connection to a suspect or target, and emphasizes that this is not an omnibus solution. The group argued the bill had to be supported because \"the Senate will weaken the USA FREEDOM Act right before the sunset deadline, forcing the House to accept a weaker bill\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24226068",
"title": "Communications Workers of America v. Beck",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Legislative efforts.:Congressional action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Several bills were offered in Congress over the next few years to either ban agency shop agreements or to adopt various provisions of the 1997 Nickles bill, but all of them died in committee. An analysis of the major bills under congressional consideration from 1988 to 1997 found, however, that nearly all of them suffered from significant legal flaws, and none went far enough in protecting workers' \"Beck\" rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "160438",
"title": "Bill of attainder",
"section": "Section::::Jurisdictions.:United States.:Constitutional bans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "The United States Constitution forbids legislative bills of attainder: in federal law under , and in state law under . The fact that they were banned even under state law reflects the importance that the framers attached to this issue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31929479",
"title": "Legal status of Salvia divinorum in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Despite this, a number of states have proposed their own legislation. For example, Louisiana, Missouri, Tennessee, Delaware, Florida, Illinois, North Dakota, and Minnesota have so far passed laws prohibiting \"Salvia divinorum\". \"Salvia divinorum\" remains legal in other states, however. Though some bills have died during session, the situation is subject to further change pending the outcome of more recent bills still at the proposal stage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
911ikc
|
why does a step up transformer cause lower currents?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ohm's law applies when you shove electrons through something by applying voltage. A transformer isn't doing that. It's a coil of wire applying a magnetic field to another coil of wire. Now if that second coil is running at twice the voltage and twice the current, then we have magically created energy. That's why power must be conserved. One coil can only transfer as much energy as it has to the other. It's the same idea as pulleys or levers where one end of the machine has higher force and the other end travels further.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30906",
"title": "Transformer",
"section": "Section::::Principles.:Real transformer.:Leakage flux.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings. Such flux is termed \"leakage flux\", and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings. Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a power loss, but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy load. Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41568",
"title": "Power factor",
"section": "Section::::Non-linear loads.:Distortion in three-phase networks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "and create error in kilowatt-hour metering systems and billing revenue. The presence of current harmonics in a transformer also result in larger eddy currents in the magnetic core of the transformer. Eddy current losses generally increase as the square of the frequency, lowering the transformer's efficiency, dissipating additional heat, and reducing its service life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41834",
"title": "Uninterruptible power supply",
"section": "Section::::Power factor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "A problem in the combination of a double-conversion UPS and a generator is the voltage distortion created by the UPS. The input of a double-conversion UPS is essentially a big rectifier. The current drawn by the UPS is non-sinusoidal. This can cause the voltage from the AC mains or a generator to also become non-sinusoidal. The voltage distortion then can cause problems in all electrical equipment connected to that power source, including the UPS itself. It will also cause more power to be lost in the wiring supplying power to the UPS due to the spikes in current flow. This level of \"noise\" is measured as a percentage of \"total harmonic distortion of the current\" (THD). Classic UPS rectifiers have a THD level of around 25%–30%. To reduce voltage distortion, this requires heavier mains wiring or generators more than twice as large as the UPS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41568",
"title": "Power factor",
"section": "Section::::Linear circuits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "In the electric power grid, reactive loads thus cause a continuous \"ebb and flow\" of nonproductive power. A circuit with a low power factor will use higher currents to transfer a given quantity of real power than a circuit with a high power factor, causing increased losses due to resistive heating in power lines, and requiring higher rated conductors and transformers be installed. A linear load does not change the shape of the waveform of the current, but may change the relative timing (phase) between voltage and current.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "604798",
"title": "Joule heating",
"section": "Section::::High-voltage alternating current transmission of electricity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Usually, a transformer is placed between the lines and consumption. When a high-voltage, low-intensity current in the primary circuit (before the transformer) is converted into a low-voltage, high-intensity current in the secondary circuit (after the transformer), the equivalent resistance of the secondary circuit becomes higher and transmission losses are reduced in proportion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41215",
"title": "Ground (electricity)",
"section": "Section::::Isolation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Generally every AC power line transformer acts as an isolation transformer, and every step up or down has the potential to form an isolated circuit. However, this isolation would prevent failed devices from blowing fuses when shorted to their ground conductor. The isolation that could be created by each transformer is defeated by always having one leg of the transformers grounded, on both sides of the input and output transformer coils. Power lines also typically ground one specific wire at every pole, to ensure current equalization from pole to pole if a short to ground is occurring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14973487",
"title": "Toroidal inductors and transformers",
"section": "Section::::Advantages of toroidal windings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "In addition, because the windings are relatively short and wound in a closed magnetic field, a toroidal transformer will have a lower secondary impedance which will increase efficiency, electrical performance and reduce effects such as distortion and fringing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
19wjk4
|
Did the ancient Romans have any ideological or moral reasons for why they ran gruesome gladiatorial combat? Was it truly only for public pleasure or was there more to it?
|
[
{
"answer": "The origin of Roman gladiatorial combat was probably [some form of ritual combat](_URL_1_), linked to funerals or religious festivals; the death of one (or both) of the combatants would then be a form of human sacrifice. The oldest *recorded* gladiator fight in Rome was in honor of the funder's dead father. (The Greeks, too, had [funeral games involving violent combat](_URL_2_), so we might want to see this as a general Mediterranean trend, possibly Indo-European - though this is sheer speculation.)\n\nOrigins aside, though, the public loved these sorts of games, so by the late Republic, gladiatorial combats were routinely funded by candidates for public office, and in the High Empire, gladiator fights - along with public executions, fights with wild beasts, and various other hideously creative spectacles - had evolved out of their original religious/festival context to become sheer popular (very popular!) entertainment, funded by Emperors to keep the *plebs* happy and loyal. Seneca deplored them:\n\n > I turned in to the games one mid-day hoping for a little wit and humor there. I was bitterly disappointed. It was really mere butchery. The morning's show was merciful compared to it. Then men were thrown to lions and to bears: but at midday to the audience. There was no escape for them. The slayer was kept fighting until he could be slain. \"Kill him! flog him! burn him alive\" was the cry: \"Why is he such a coward? Why won't he rush on the steel? Why does he fall so meekly? Why won't he die willingly?\" Unhappy that I am, how have I deserved that I must look on such a scene as this? Do not, my Lucilius, attend the games, I pray you. Either you will be corrupted by the multitude, or, if you show disgust, be hated by them. So stay away...\n\nand [many of our Roman sources](_URL_0_) were disgusted by the violence and waste and the popularity of low-born slave gladiators, and saw the games as nothing more than crass entertainment to curry the favor of the degenerate urban mob.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Aescolanus gives a good answer about the origins of the games and how they existed initially exclusively in a funerary setting. However, over time, funerals became just a pretext for the games, and eventually they became stand alone events. One theory about the meaning behind the games was that they were meant to be displays of virtue, specifically that of the military. Cicero seemed to be making connections between the shared honor between gladiators and soldiers (see de Oratore 2.84, Tusculanae Disputationes 2.41 and Philippics 2.35). This theory I think is further supported that the rise of games in prominence coincides with major military leaders like Julius Caesar and Augustus in charge. It would seem to be to their benefits, as successful generals, to reinforce military virtues through the games as a way to solidify their power during uncertain times.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "521555",
"title": "Ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Ethics and morality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 170,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 170,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "Like many ancient cultures, concepts of ethics and morality, while sharing some commonalities with modern society, differed greatly in several important ways. Because ancient civilizations like Rome were under constant threat of attack from marauding tribes, their culture was necessarily militaristic with martial skills being a prized attribute. Whereas modern societies consider compassion a virtue, Roman society considered compassion a vice, a moral defect. Indeed, one of the primary purposes of the gladiatorial games was to inoculate Roman citizens from this weakness. Romans instead prized virtues such as courage and conviction (\"virtus\"), a sense of duty to one's people, moderation and avoiding excess (\"moderatio\"), forgiveness and understanding (\"clementia\"), fairness (\"severitas\"), and loyalty (\"pietas\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25507",
"title": "Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Daily life.:Recreation and spectacles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 170,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 170,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "Modern scholars have found the pleasure Romans took in the \"theatre of life and death\" to be one of the more difficult aspects of their civilization to understand and explain. The younger Pliny rationalized gladiator spectacles as good for the people, a way \"to inspire them to face honourable wounds and despise death, by exhibiting love of glory and desire for victory even in the bodies of slaves and criminals\". Some Romans such as Seneca were critical of the brutal spectacles, but found virtue in the courage and dignity of the defeated fighter rather than in victory—an attitude that finds its fullest expression with the Christians martyred in the arena. Even martyr literature, however, offers \"detailed, indeed luxuriant, descriptions of bodily suffering\", and became a popular genre at times indistinguishable from fiction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11729954",
"title": "Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "Little literary evidence survives of the activities of the gladiatorial training and fighting (\"ludi\"). They appear to have followed the standard format of the Roman games: animal entertainments in the morning session, followed by the executions of criminals around midday, with the afternoon session reserved for gladiatorial combats and recreations of famous battles. The animal entertainments, which featured creatures from throughout the Roman Empire, included extravagant hunts and fights between different species. Animals also played a role in some executions which were staged as recreations of myths and historical events. Naval battles formed part of the spectacles but whether these took place in the amphitheatre or on a lake that had been specially constructed by Augustus is a topic of debate among historians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32279080",
"title": "Italian martial arts",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Gladiatorial Combat was a popular spectator bloodsport in Roman times. Gladiators were trained in special schools and were armed according to the Roman standard or like some of Rome's enemies. This allowed for experimentation with different weapons and styles of combat. Some of the weapons were unusual, such as the net used by the Retiarius.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "895424",
"title": "Third Servile War",
"section": "Section::::Beginning of the revolt (73 BC).:Capuan revolt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "In the Roman Republic of the 1st century BC, gladiatorial games were one of the more popular forms of entertainment. In order to supply gladiators for the contests, several training schools, or \"ludi\", were established throughout Italy. In these schools, prisoners of war and condemned criminals—who were considered slaves—were taught the skills required to fight in gladiatorial games. In 73 BC, a group of some 200 gladiators in the Capuan school owned by Lentulus Batiatus plotted an escape. When their plot was betrayed, a force of about 70 men seized kitchen implements (\"choppers and spits\"), fought their way free from the school, and seized several wagons of gladiatorial weapons and armor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12336",
"title": "Gladiator",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Irrespective of their origin, gladiators offered spectators an example of Rome's martial ethics and, in fighting or dying well, they could inspire admiration and popular acclaim. They were celebrated in high and low art, and their value as entertainers was commemorated in precious and commonplace objects throughout the Roman world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39750410",
"title": "Battle of Mount Vesuvius",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Capuan Revolt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "In the Roman Republic of the 1st century, gladiatorial games were one of the more popular forms of entertainment. In order to supply gladiators for the contests, several training schools, or \"ludi\", were established throughout Italy. In these schools, prisoners of war and condemned criminals—who were considered slaves—were taught the skills required to fight to the death in gladiatorial games. In 73 BC, a group of some 200 gladiators in the Capuan school owned by Lentulus Batiatus plotted an escape. When their plot was betrayed, a force of about 70 men seized kitchen implements, (\"choppers and spits\"), fought their way free from the school, and seized several wagons of gladiatorial weapons and armor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2vrdz6
|
why when i scratch an itch, does my brain/body create another, often on a completely different part of my body.
|
[
{
"answer": "Wish I knew. It's the same thing when I'm trying to go to sleep and I get an itch, right on the side of my body that I'm laying on. Can't ignore it, have to turn over and scratch.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Please correct me if I am wrong but I read somewhere that itching was a pleasurable feeling for the body, so when you itch the body wants more so it creates or craves the feeling somewhere else",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nAn itch is just varying severity of one of these causes. If you can get one itch, it's likely you will get another due to the cause. Healing itching is a bit different and very specific to an area.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Brain: \"Hey that felt good, you should do that again... but over here this time\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably for the same reason I suddenly had an itch on my arm when I read your title.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wtf is happening, why does my neck and back of my head itch all of a sudden? Fucking op.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "424302",
"title": "Itch",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Itch (also known as pruritus) is a that causes the desire or reflex to scratch. Itch has resisted many attempts to be classified as any one type of sensory experience. Itch has many similarities to pain, and while both are unpleasant sensory experiences, their behavioral response patterns are different. Pain creates a withdrawal reflex, whereas itch leads to a scratch reflex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6067897",
"title": "Referred itch",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "An itch, also known as pruritus, is classified as a sensory stimulation to scratch a certain area of the skin. An itch can be a fleeting sensation, as with a random tickle or prick, or persistent, as with a rash such as eczema or other skin irritant such as an allergen. Itch has been demonstrated to be closely related to pain and to share many of its physiological mechanisms. The relationship between pain and itch is evident in the fact that itch sensations occur along a similar neurological and sensory pathway as sensations of pain, and the fact that individuals who are insensitive to pain are also insensitive to itch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6067897",
"title": "Referred itch",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Itch is induced by mechanical, chemical, thermal, or electrical stimuli of sensory receptors in the peripheral nervous system, or by psychological prompts. The receptors that are responsible for the sensation of itch caused by environmental stimuli are found within the upper layers of the skin. Once stimulated, usually by histamine within the body, a signal is sent though the peripheral nervous system to the brain (thalamus), where the information is processed and the command for the bodily response is issued. Itch can also originate as a result of damage to the nervous system (central or peripheral) or in response to the presence of excess opioids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "465896",
"title": "Precuneus",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "The precuneus plays a role in itch sensations (there are many different types of itch) and their brain processing “‘We can’t [yet] pinpoint what the precuneus does in itch, but it’s uniquely activated with itch and not pain.’” \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "424302",
"title": "Itch",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Itch can originate in the peripheral nervous system (dermal or neuropathic) or in the central nervous system (neuropathic, neurogenic, or psychogenic). When there is no identifiable cause it is known as essential pruritus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6067897",
"title": "Referred itch",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 912,
"text": "Referred itch is the phenomenon in which a stimulus applied in one region of the body is felt as an itch or irritation in a different part of the body. The syndrome is relatively harmless, though it can be irritating, and healthy individuals can express symptoms. Stimuli range from a firm pressure applied to the skin – a scratch – to irritation or pulling on a hair follicle on the skin. The referred sensation itself should not be painful; it is more of an irritating prickle leading to the compulsion to scratch the area. The stimulus and referred itch are ipsilateral (the stimulus and the referred itch occur on the same side of the body). Also, because scratching or putting pressure on the referred itch does not cause the stimulus area to itch, the relationship between the stimulus and the referred itch is unidirectional. The itching sensation is spontaneous and can cease with continued stimulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "424302",
"title": "Itch",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Dermal/pruritoceptive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Itch originating in the skin is known as \"pruritoceptive\", and can be induced by a variety of stimuli, including mechanical, chemical, thermal, and electrical stimulation. The primary afferent neurons responsible for histamine-induced itch are unmyelinated C-fibres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
197kqu
|
Engine design question - why do standard car engines always come with cylinders in banks of 2, and never 3?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think this question is better suited for /r/AskEngineers, so if you don't get your answer here, try submitting it there. It's a good question. :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "W configurations exist. I believe volkswagen has some. The ultimate decision on what to go with has to do with balancing the engine. i e the location of opposing pistons since they're all connected to the crankshaft and need to be timed correctly. \n\n*Edited for autosuggest fail from phone.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because of first and second order vibrations, as well as ease of manufacturing. First order vibrations can be addresses in either a 4 cylinder or a 6 cylinder base engine. In simple terms the same amount of metal is going up or down at any one time. In a 4 cylinder engine this is done by each cylinder being separated by 90 deg, or in a 6 cylinder by 120 deg. A 6 cylinder engine also has no second order vibrations, meaning it does not need a balance shaft at all in a well designed engine. This is why nearly all large diesel engines are some form of a 6 cylinder base engine. A four cylinder engine generally needs a balancing shaft to reduce second order vibrations. \n\nNow there are 3 cylinder engines, but these are not completely balanced for first order vibrations, so they need a complicated balance shaft. However because there are so many fewer parts than a 6 cylinder engine that is alright. However a 9 cylinder engine would make this much worse, and there would be no similar reduction in part numbers. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "197982",
"title": "Straight engine",
"section": "Section::::Automobile use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "The inline-four engine is the most common four-cylinder configuration, whereas the straight-6 has largely given way to the V6 engine, which although not as naturally smooth-running is smaller in both length and height and easier to fit into the engine bay of smaller modern cars. Some manufacturers, including Acura, Audi, Ford, Mercedes-Benz, Volkswagen and Volvo, have also used straight-five configurations. The General Motors \"Atlas\" family includes straight-four, straight-five, and straight-six engines. Some small cars have inline three engines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "200655",
"title": "Inline-four engine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "Today almost all manufacturers of four-cylinder engines for automobiles produce the inline-four layout, with Subaru and Porsche 718 flat-four engines being notable exceptions, and so four-cylinder is usually synonymous with and a more widely used term than inline-four. The inline-four is the most common engine configuration in modern cars, while the V6 engine is the second most popular. In the late 2000s (decade), due to stringent government regulations mandating reduced vehicle emissions and increased fuel efficiency, the proportion of new vehicles sold in the U.S. with four-cylinder engines (largely of the inline-four type) rose from 30 percent to 47 percent between 2005 and 2008, particularly in mid-size vehicles where a decreasing number of buyers have chosen the V6 performance option.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "200658",
"title": "Straight-six engine",
"section": "Section::::Cars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "The length of the straight-six was not a major concern in the older front-engine/rear-wheel drive vehicles, but the modern move to the more space-efficient front-engine/front-wheel drive and transverse engine (left-to-right versus front-to-back) configurations in smaller cars made the length of the V6 a major advantage. The overall length of an engine may be approximated by adding the bore pitch times the number of cylinders in one bank, plus the width of one connecting rod. As a result, in recent decades automobile manufacturers have replaced most of their straight-six engines (and many of their V8s) with V6 engines; Nissan have replaced their earlier turbocharged inline-6 models with larger displacement naturally aspirated V6 engines while maintaining the FR setup.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41236711",
"title": "Multi-cylinder engine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1333,
"text": "Although there are 1, 3 and 5-cylinder engines, almost all other inline engines are built with even numbers of cylinders, as it is easier to balance out the mechanical vibrations. Another form of multiple-cylinder internal combustion engine is the radial engine, with cylinders arranged in a star pattern around a central crankshaft. Radial engines are most commonly used as aircraft engines, and in basic single-row configuration are built with odd numbers of cylinders (from 3 to 9). An odd number of cylinders is necessary in a four stroke radial, since the firing order is such that every other cylinder fires as the crankshaft rotates. Only with an odd number of cylinders will all cylinders evenly fire in this manner in two crankshaft revolutions (first the odd cylinders, followed by the even cylinders). \"Twin-row\" or \"multi-row\" radials are also built, which is basically two or more single-row radials connected front-to-back and driving a common crankshaft. In this \"twin row\", or \"multi-row\" configuration, the total number of cylinders will be an even number, although each row still has an odd number. For example, a typical single row radial such as the Wright Cyclone has 9 cylinders. The twin row Wright Twin Cyclone is based on this engine and thus has two banks of 9 cylinders, for a total of 18, an even number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28140707",
"title": "Component parts of internal combustion engines",
"section": "Section::::Combustion chambers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "BULLET::::- Most car engines have four to eight cylinders, with some high-performance cars having ten, 12 — or even 16, and some very small cars and trucks having two or three. In previous years, some quite large cars such as the DKW and Saab 92, had two-cylinder or two-stroke engines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "870956",
"title": "Broad arrow",
"section": "Section::::In characterisation of internal combustion engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Multi-cylinder internal combustion engines have their cylinder banks arranged in different ways. If there are just two, they may be in-line, opposed or at an angle, the latter often described as a Vee (or V) arrangement. When there are more than two cylinders, they are either arranged radially, in-line or in in-line groups. Thus a V-6 engine has two banks of three cylinders at an angle driving a common crankshaft, a V-12 two groups of six in-line. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "859284",
"title": "Cylinder (engine)",
"section": "Section::::Internal combustion engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "The reciprocating motion of the pistons is translated into crankshaft rotation via connecting rods. As a piston moves back and forth, a connecting rod changes its angle; its distal end has a rotating link to the crankshaft. A typical four-cylinder automobile engine has a single row of water-cooled cylinders. V engines (V6 or V8) use two angled cylinder banks. The \"V\" configuration is utilized to create a more compact configuration relative to the number of cylinders. Many other engine configurations exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2xf62c
|
was there anyone prominent in classical times, in Greece or Rome, who believed there were other inhabited worlds in the universe? if "yes" how did other people take the idea?
|
[
{
"answer": "Epicurus was a fairly prominent Greek philosopher (founder of the philosophical school of Epicureanism) of the 4th-3rd centuries BCE. The doxographer [Diogenes Laertius records a letter from Epicurus to Herodotus](_URL_0_), in which Epicurus says [Loeb translation]:\n\n > Moreover, there is an infinite number of worlds, some like this world, others unlike it. For the atoms being infinite in number, as has just been proved, are borne ever further in their course. For the atoms out of which a world might arise, or by which a world might be formed, have not all been expended on one world or a finite number of worlds, whether like or unlike this one. Hence there will be nothing to hinder an infinity of worlds.\n\nThe idea of infinite worlds is a well-known Epicurean theory, also found in the Epicurean poet Lucretius (1st century BCE) in [his epic poem *De rerum natura* (*On the Nature of the Universe*)](_URL_1_) [Loeb translation]:\n\n > Now since there is illimitable space empty in every direction, and since seeds [atoms] innumerable in number in the unfathomable universe are flying about in many ways driven in everlasting movement, it cannot by any means be thought likely that this is the only round earth and sky that has been made, that all those bodies of matter without do nothing: especially since this world was made by nature, and the seeds of things themselves of their own accord, knocking together by chance, clashed in all sorts of ways, heedless, without aim, without intention, until at length those combined which, suddenly thrown together, could become in each case the beginnings of mighty things, of earth and sea and sky and the generation of living creatures. Therefore again and again I say, you must confess that there are other assemblages of matter in other places, such as this is which the ether holds in greedy embrace\n\n > Besides, when abundant matter is ready, when space is to hand, and no thing and no cause hinders, things must assuredly be done and completed. And if there is at this moment both so great store of seeds as all the time of living existence could not suffice to tell, and if the same power and the same nature abides, able to throw the seeds of things together in any place in the same way as they have been thrown together into this place, then you are bound to confess that there are other worlds in other regions and different races of men and generations of wild beasts.\n\nIt is also referred to briefly in Cicero's *De natura deorum* (*On the Nature of the Gods*), in the mouth of an Epicurean spokesman [Loeb translation]:\n\n > For he [Epicurus] who taught us all the rest has also taught us that the world was made by nature, without needing an artificer to construct it, and that the act of creation, which according to you [Stoics] cannot be performed without divine skill, is so easy, that nature will create, is creating and has created worlds without number. You on the contrary cannot see how nature can achieve all this without the aid of some intelligence, and so, like the tragic poets, being unable to bring the plot of your drama to a *denoument*, you have recourse to a god; whose intervention you assuredly would not require if you would but contemplate the measureless and boundless extent of space that stretches in every direction, into which when the mind projects and propels itself, it journeys onward far and wide without ever sighting any margin or ultimate point where it can stop. Well, then, in this immensity of length and breadth and height there flits an infinite quantity of atoms innumerable, which though separated by void yet cohere together, and taking hold each of another form unions wherefrom are created those shapes and forms of things which you think cannot be created without the aid of bellows and anvils, and so have saddled us with an eternal master, whom day and night we are to fear; for who would not fear a prying busybody of a god, who foresees and thinks of and notices all things, and deems that everything is his concern?\n\nEdit: typos",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13811",
"title": "Heaven",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Near East.:Mesopotamia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "In ancient Near Eastern cultures in general and in Mesopotamia in particular, humans had little to no access to the divine realm. Heaven and earth were separated by their very nature; humans could see and be affected by elements of the lower heaven, such as stars and storms, but ordinary mortals could not go to heaven because it was the abode of the gods alone. In the \"Epic of Gilgamesh\", Gilgamesh says to Enkidu, \"Who can go up to heaven, my friend? Only the gods dwell with Shamash forever.\" Instead, after a person died, his or her soul went to Kur (later known as Irkalla), a dark shadowy underworld, located deep below the surface of the earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57375282",
"title": "Jean Tarde",
"section": "Section::::Astronomy.:\"The Bourbon Planets\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "BULLET::::- Many people at the time held to the view that the seven planets known to the ancients; Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the Moon, and the Sun. Jean Tarde asserted that this belief was wrong by discussing how several ancient cultures believed in an infinite number of worlds. Although he didn't actually believe there was an infinite number of worlds he did cite the recent discoveries of the Jupiter's Galilean moons and Saturn's two moons (actually rings). He also cited the vast number of new stars visible now through telescopes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23416994",
"title": "Greek mythology",
"section": "Section::::Survey of mythic history.:Origins of the world and the gods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "The first philosophical cosmologists reacted against, or sometimes built upon, popular mythical conceptions that had existed in the Greek world for some time. Some of these popular conceptions can be gleaned from the poetry of Homer and Hesiod. In Homer, the Earth was viewed as a flat disk afloat on the river of Oceanus and overlooked by a hemispherical sky with sun, moon, and stars. The Sun (Helios) traversed the heavens as a charioteer and sailed around the Earth in a golden bowl at night. Sun, earth, heaven, rivers, and winds could be addressed in prayers and called to witness oaths. Natural fissures were popularly regarded as entrances to the subterranean house of Hades and his predecessors, home of the dead. Influences from other cultures always afforded new themes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31468613",
"title": "Book of Nature",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1109,
"text": "From the earliest times in known civilizations, events in the natural world were expressed through a collection of stories concerning everyday life. In ancient times, a mortal world existed alongside an upper world of spirits and gods acting through nature to create a unified and intersecting moral and natural cosmos. Humans, living in a world that was acted upon by free acting and conspiring gods of nature, attempted to understand their world and the actions of the divine by observing and correctly interpreting natural phenomena, such as the motion and position of stars and planets. Efforts to interpret and understand divine intentions led mortals to believe that intervention and influence over godly acts was possible—either through religious persuasion, such as prayer or gifts, or through magic, which depended on sorcery and the manipulation of nature in order to bend the will of the gods. Knowing divine intentions and anticipating divine actions through the manipulation of the natural world was believed achievable and the most effective approach. Thus, mankind had a reason to know nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267014",
"title": "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience",
"section": "Section::::Physical sciences.:Astronomy and space sciences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "BULLET::::- Ancient astronauts – a concept based on the belief that intelligent extraterrestrial beings visited Earth and made contact with humans in antiquity and prehistoric times. Proponents suggest that this contact influenced the development of modern cultures, technologies, and religions. A common claim is that deities from most, if not all, religions are actually extraterrestrial in origin, and that advanced technologies brought to Earth by ancient astronauts were interpreted as evidence of divine status by early humans. The idea that ancient astronauts existed is not taken seriously by academics, and has received no credible attention in peer reviewed studies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21792815",
"title": "Hellenic studies",
"section": "Section::::Geography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1570,
"text": "Major city-states and sacred places of pilgrimage in the Hellenic World were Argos, Athens, Eleusis, Corinth, Delphi, Ithaca, Olympia, Sparta, Thebes, Thrace and Mount Olympus, the home of the gods. The gods played an important part in the lives of the people; so much so that one could face execution for questioning - or even allegedly questioning - their existence, as in the case of Protagoras, Socrates and Alcibiades (the Athenian statesman Critias, sometimes referred to as `the first atheist', only escaped condemnation because he was so powerful). Great works of art and beautiful temples were created for the worship and praise of the various gods and goddesses of the Greeks such as the Parthenon of Athens, dedicated to the goddess Athena Parthenos (Athena the Virgin) and the Temple of Zeus (listed as an Ancient Wonder) at Olympia (both works to which Phidias contributed). The temple of Demeter at Eleusis was the site of the famous Eleusinian Mysteries and is considered the most important rite in ancient Greece. In his works, \"The Iliad\" and \"The Odyssey\", immensely popular and influential in the Hellenic World, Homer depicted the gods and goddesses as intimately involved in the lives of the people. The deities were regularly consulted in domestic matters as well as affairs of state. The Oracle at Delphi was considered so important at the time that people from all over the known world came to Greece to ask advice or favors from the god. It was considered vital to consult with the supernatural forces before embarking on any military campaign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1703135",
"title": "Extraterrestrials in fiction",
"section": "Section::::History.:Pre-modern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Cosmic pluralism, the assumption that there are many inhabited worlds beyond the human sphere predates modernity and the development of the heliocentric model and is common in mythologies worldwide. The 2nd century writer of satires, Lucian, in his \"True History\" claims to have visited the moon when his ship was sent up by a fountain, which was peopled and at war with the people of the Sun over colonisation of the Morning Star. Other worlds are depicted in such early works as the 10th-century Japanese narrative, \"The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter\", and the medieval Arabic \"The Adventures of Bulukiya\" (from the \"One Thousand and One Nights\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ea4k9
|
Would it theoritically be possible to isolate serotonin and dopamine, and create them in drug form, if this is possible what would the side effects be?
|
[
{
"answer": "To answer part of your question: \n\nWhile you can create dopamine, injecting it serves no purpose unless it can be directly administered to the desired area of the brain. This is because dopamine is incapable of passing through the blood brain barrier. However, we can work around this by giving people L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (otherwise known as L-DOPA), a precursor of dopamine and permeable across the blood brain barrier. Once across the blood brain barrier, the neurons in the brain could take L-DOPA and transform it into dopamine. As for side effects, this [wikipedia article](_URL_1_) does a pretty good job of highlighting them. So I guess the answer to your question would be both yes and no. Yes, we can increase levels of dopamine in the brain, but those increased levels do not do much good unless they can be concentrated in the reward centers of the brain (places like the [VTA](_URL_0_) that are involved in motivation, addiction, and intense emotions).\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Additionally dopamine can and is administered intravenously to act as an adronergic agonist which is used to increase heart rate and cardiac output in critically Ill patients.\n\nSerotonin (5-HT) is available as a 'herbal supplement' that is taken orally with the claims of helping depression and anxiety. The problem is when serotonin or dopamine are administered orally they are metabolized completely by the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which is found in large quantities in the gut wall. Basically it is a placebo like most other 'herbal remedies' as none of it can actually enter the body without being broken down, and even if it could it couldn't cross the blood brain barrier ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "252866",
"title": "Altered state of consciousness",
"section": "Section::::Neurobiological models of altered state experiences.:CSTC-loop.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Findings implicate that abnormalities of serotonin function and the serotonergic system could be responsible for psychiatric disorders such as the spectrum of schizophrenia (gating) disorders and therefore, that serotonin agonist or antagonists might be useful in the treatment of e.g. schizophrenia. To investigate the underlying causative neurotransmitter mechanisms of this phenomenon, the CSTC (cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical) loop model has been formulated based on empirical neurobiological work. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6226648",
"title": "Brain stimulation reward",
"section": "Section::::Modulation with drugs.:Monoaminergic drugs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1222,
"text": "The effects of drugs which alter the neurotransmission of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin have been studied extensively in relation to BSR. Neurochemical studies have shown that BSR results in the release of dopamine within the nucleus accumbens. This effect is generally potentiated following administration of drugs which themselves increase the amount of extracellular dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, such as cocaine, which inhibits re-uptake of dopamine to the intracellular space by blocking its transporter. Conversely, these levels are decreased and the rewarding properties of BSR are blocked following administration of drugs which antagonize dopamine receptors or reduce the amount of extracellular dopamine, by promoting either degradation or re-uptake of the neurotransmitter. While dopamine is generally considered to be the main neurotransmitter implicated in the reward system, it is often not the only neurotransmitter affected by addictive, monoaminergic drugs. Importantly, the circuitry involved in BSR is multi-synaptic and not exclusively dopaminergic. This introduces potential for modulation by other neurotransmitter systems at different stages in the transmission of the reward signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5615288",
"title": "Neuroendocrine tumor",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 159,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 159,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Neuroendocrine tumors were sometimes called APUDomas because these cells often show amine precursor (L-DOPA and 5-hydroxytryptophan) uptake and decarboxylation to produce biogenic amines such as catecholamines and serotonin. Although this behavior was also part of the disproven hypothesis that these cells might all embryologically arise from the neural crest, neuroendocrine cells sometimes produce various types of hormones and amines, and they can also have strong receptors for other hormones to which they respond.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5607325",
"title": "Indole alkaloid",
"section": "Section::::Physiological activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Because of structural similarities with serotonin, many tryptamines can interact with serotonin 5-HT receptors. The main effect of the serotonergic psychedelics such as LSD, DMT, and psilocybin is related to them being agonists of the 5-HT receptors. In contrast, gramine is an antagonist of the 5-HT receptor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "229985",
"title": "Isotretinoin",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Mechanism of action.:CNS activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "Studies in mice and rats have found that retinoids, including isotretinoin, bind to dopaminergic receptors in the central nervous system. Isotretinoin may affect dopaminergic neurotransmission by disrupting the structure of dopamine receptors and decreasing dopaminergic activity. The dopaminergic system is implicated in numerous psychological disorders, including depression. Isotretinoin is also thought to affect the serotonergic system - it increases expression of 5-HT receptors in the pre-synaptic neuron, which inhibit serotonin secretion. Isotretinoin also directly and indirectly increases the translation of the serotonin transporter protein (SERT), leading to increased reuptake and consequently reduced synaptic availability of serotonin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19477293",
"title": "Biology of depression",
"section": "Section::::Monoamines.:Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1464,
"text": "Since the 1990s, research has uncovered multiple limitations of the monoamine hypothesis, and its inadequacy has been criticized within the psychiatric community. For one thing, serotonin system dysfunction cannot be the sole cause of depression. Not all patients treated with antidepressants show improvements despite the usually rapid increase in synaptic serotonin. If significant mood improvements do occur, this is often not for at least two to four weeks. One possible explanation for this lag is that the neurotransmitter activity enhancement is the result of auto receptor desensitization, which can take weeks. Intensive investigation has failed to find convincing evidence of a primary dysfunction of a specific monoamine system in people with MDD. The antidepressants that do not act through the monoamine system, such as tianeptine and opipramol, have been known for a long time. There have also been inconsistent findings with regard to levels of serum 5-HIAA, a metabolite of serotonin. Experiments with pharmacological agents that cause depletion of monoamines have shown that this depletion does not cause depression in healthy people. Another problem that presents is that drugs that deplete monoamines may actually have antidepressants properties. Further, some have argued that depression may be marked by a hyperserotonergic state. Already limited, the monoamine hypothesis has been further oversimplified when presented to the general public.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185272",
"title": "Atypical antipsychotic",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1520,
"text": "5-HT Receptor: When serotonin is released on to postsynaptic 5-HT receptors, the dopamine neuron is inhibited, thus acting as a brake on dopamine release. This brake is disrupted through action of a 5-HT antagonist, which cuts the brake cable, disinhibiting the dopamine neuron, and stimulating dopamine release. The result of this is that dopamine competes with antipsychotic D antagonistic action at D receptors, thereby reducing antagonistic binding there and eliminating or lowering D antagonistic effects in several pathways of the dopamine system. In the nigrostratial pathway, it reduces EPS. In the tuberoinfundibular pathway, it reduces or eliminates prolactin elevation. Dopamine release in the mesolimbic pathway from 5-HT antagonism does not appear to be as robust as in the other pathways of the dopamine system, thereby accounting for why atypical antipsychotics still retain part of their efficacy against the positive symptoms of schizophrenia through their D antagonism. When 5-HT antagonistic agent particles occupy 5-HT receptors in the mesocortical pathway and in the prefrontal cortex, the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, affective symptoms, and cognitive deficits and abnormalities are treated and reduced. Furthermore, 5-HT receptor antagonism blocks the serotonergic excitation of cortical pyramidal cells, reducing glutamate release, which in turn lowers hyperactive dopaminergic D receptor activity in the mesolimbic pathway, reducing or eliminating the positive symptoms of schizophrenia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4nf07m
|
why do babies in the womb not have allergic reactions to foods they will later develop allergies to (assuming the mother eats those foods during pregnancy)
|
[
{
"answer": "Well allergic reactions have to develope. Your body has to see the antigen and form a response to it. However while you're growing in the uterus the cells necessary to develope these responses don't really function/aren't developed. So even if you see the antigen you won't mount a response. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Please note that I am by no means an expert on this subject. I will try to explain my understanding of it based on just what I remember from biology classes. If you would like to be 100% sure seek information from sombody like a midwife. (I also am no expert on the english language so please don't take my spelling and grammar too serious.)\n\nA baby gets all it needs to live through the umbillical cord. That however isn't just a direct connection to the mothers stomach. The cord is connected to the placenta, which connects both blood circuits (The one of the mom and the one of the baby). There, oxygen and other substances get exchanged, not some kind of almost digested food soup. The baby doesn't have to digest anything and doesn't even get any substances it could have an allergic reaction to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Two reasons: the most obvious being that the baby is never actually exposed to the allergen. In the womb, fetuses get all their nutrients through the mother's blood, the same way all the other parts of her body do. It receives oxygen, sugars, all the vitamins, minerals, and amino acids it needs, but they've already been broken down by the mother's stomach and absorbed into the bloodstream.\n\nAdditionally: most newborns won't have allergic reactions either. A newborn baby's immune system is very, very weak. While in the womb, the mother's immune system does all the work -- pathogens never even make it to the fetus. An allergic reaction is the immune system reacting to a foreign substance it believes is a threat to the body. If the baby's immune system isn't fully working, it most likely can't cause an allergic reaction. This is why people who get organ transplants often get sick more easily: they take a drug called an immunosuppressant that prevents rejection of the donor tissue (essentially an allergic reaction), but while it prevents such reactions, it also prevents the body from fighting disease effectively.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "55313",
"title": "Allergy",
"section": "Section::::Cause.:Foods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "A wide variety of foods can cause allergic reactions, but 90% of allergic responses to foods are caused by cow's milk, soy, eggs, wheat, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and shellfish. Other food allergies, affecting less than 1 person per 10,000 population, may be considered \"rare\". The use of hydrolysed milk baby formula versus standard milk baby formula does not appear to change the risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19196010",
"title": "Egg as food",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Food allergy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "One of the most common food allergies in infants is eggs. Infants usually have the opportunity to grow out of this allergy during childhood, if exposure is minimized. Allergic reactions against egg white are more common than reactions against egg yolks. In addition to true allergic reactions, some people experience a food intolerance to egg whites. Food labeling practices in most developed countries now include eggs, egg products, and the processing of foods on equipment that also process foods containing eggs in a special allergen alert section of the ingredients on the labels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4642616",
"title": "Lotion",
"section": "Section::::Potential health risks.:Allergens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "The American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology warns that natural lotion containing ingredients commonly found in food (such as goats milk, cow's milk, coconut milk, or oil) may introduce new allergies, and an allergic reaction when those foods are later consumed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "679350",
"title": "Food allergy",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "The most common food allergens account for about 90% of all allergic reactions; in adults they include shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and egg. In children, they include milk, eggs, peanuts, and tree nuts. Six to 8% of children under the age of three have food allergies and nearly 4% of adults have food allergies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6317707",
"title": "Egg allergy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "In the United States, 90% of allergic responses to foods are caused by cow's milk, eggs, wheat, shellfish, peanuts, tree nuts, fish, and soy beans. The declaration of the presence of trace amounts of allergens in foods is not mandatory in any country, with the exception of Brazil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14400598",
"title": "Allergic response",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "The reason why people get allergies is not known. The allergens are not passed down through generations. It is believed if parents have allergies the child is more likely to be allergic to the same allergens. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5558520",
"title": "Milk allergy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "In the United States, 90% of allergic responses to foods are caused by eight foods, with cow's milk being the most common. Recognition that a small number of foods are responsible for the majority of food allergies has led to requirements to prominently list these common allergens, including dairy, on food labels. One function of the immune system is to defend against infections by recognizing foreign proteins. It should not over-react to food proteins. Stomach acids cause most proteins to become denatured, meaning to lose their 3-dimensional configuration, and thus lose allergenicity. Heat via cooking can have the same effect. Immune tolerance is another safeguard to not over-reacting to food proteins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12rg3e
|
If there were a radio station on the Far/dark side of the moon would we be able to detect it?
|
[
{
"answer": "No. This problem arises for spacecraft on the far side of the moon. There is no direct line of sight to earth, so there can be no direct transmission. \n\nImagine if there was a REALLY powerful radio on the far side of the moon. Radio waves power decreases according to the square of the distance traveled. So if these powerful radio waves reached another object,then the reflected radio waves will have to travel all the way to Earth, decreasing its intensity immensely.\n\nSo no, for all practical purposes, no.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "FYI, I liked Iron Sky, but recently realized that there is no \"dark side\" of the moon. During a full moon the dark side is also the far side, but during new moon the dark side is the near side. I was almost ashamed to admit that I had got this far in life thinking that the far side and the dark side were synonymous.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is an aspect to this question that the others are missing: some of the radio waves will propagate from that radio station around the moon and to the earth without reflecting off another body.\n\n[Huygens' principle](_URL_1_) tells us that waves can be treated as being continuously re-emitted by each point through which they travel. This is the cause of diffraction. [Radio waves will propagate around the curvature](_URL_0_) of the earth or the moon even without the ionosphere due to this. The longer the wavelength, the better it gets around the body.\n\nSo the answer is yes, if the frequency is low enough.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We wouldn't be able to detect it from Earth, but we could use probes such as the Mars Orbiter to detect and relay back to Earth.\n\nEdited to add: Actually, you may be able to detect the signal from Earth directly by detecting the reflections off mountains on the Moon. That is, the signal could bounce of enough objects to where it could be seen from Earth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4486552",
"title": "Lunar Infrastructure for Exploration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "The radio telescope would consist of a lander vehicle that would deploy dipoles across a 300-400 m area. The dipoles, which receive the cosmic radio signals, would be deployed either by a dispenser or by a team of small mobile robots. The South Polar location would ensure permanent sunlight and direct communication with Earth. The telescope lander would also carry geophones, which could listen to meteorite impacts on the Moon's surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47288651",
"title": "Breakthrough Listen",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Together, the radio telescopes will cover ten times more sky than previous searches and scan the entire 1-to-10 GHz range, the so-called \"quiet zone\" in the spectrum where radio waves are unobscured by cosmic sources or Earth's atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7663554",
"title": "Explorer 49",
"section": "Section::::Mission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "\"Explorer 49\" was placed in lunar orbit to record radio measurements from 25 kHz to 13.1 MHz of the Milky Way galaxy. \"Explorer 49\" was placed in to lunar orbit so that radio waves from earth would not be as big of an interference as Explorer 38 had discovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159191",
"title": "Arecibo Observatory",
"section": "Section::::Other uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "Limited amateur radio operations have occurred, using \"moon bounce\" or Earth–Moon–Earth communication, in which radio signals aimed at the Moon are reflected back to Earth. The first of these operations was on June 13–14, 1964, using the call KP4BPZ. A dozen or so two-way contacts were made on 144 and 432 MHz. On July 3 and July 24, 1965, KP4BPZ was again activated on 432 MHz, making approximately 30 contacts on 432 MHz during the limited time slots available. For these tests, a very wide-band instrumentation recorder captured a large segment of the receiving bandwidth, enabling later verification of other amateur station callsigns. These were not two-way contacts. From April 16–18, 2010, again, the Arecibo Amateur Radio Club KP4AO conducted moon-bounce activity using the antenna.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2639335",
"title": "Timeline of astronomy",
"section": "Section::::1932.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Karl Jansky detects the first radio waves coming from space. In 1942, radio waves from the Sun are detected. Seven years later radio astronomers identify the first distant source - the Crab Nebula, and the galaxies Centaurus A and M87.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "899115",
"title": "Lunar distance (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::History of measurement.:Radar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "An experiment was conducted in 1957 at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory that used the echo from radar signals to determine the Earth-Moon distance. Radar pulses lasting were broadcast from a diameter radio dish. After the radio waves echoed off the surface of the Moon, the return signal was detected and the delay time measured. From that measurement, the distance could be calculated. In practice, however, the signal-to-noise ratio was so low that an accurate measurement could not be reliably produced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "878670",
"title": "First Men in the Moon (1964 film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Spacesuits used.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Cavor and Bedford have no radio communication and must make their space helmets touch in order to be able to talk with one another in the Moon's vacuum (the filmmakers violate this rule several times). It is not made clear whether the Selenites have radio. On Earth, the history of radio was only just beginning when the film's 1890s-set events were unfolding. Wireless communication from the stranded Cavor within the Moon appears later in Wells' novel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d81obu
|
- why does your nose burn when there is a foul or strong scent in the air?
|
[
{
"answer": "When you smell it is because you are breathing in amounts of the actual chemical it is that you are smelling. For example: If something smells like bleach it is because you are breathing in particles of bleach and that is what your nose is recognizing.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIf your nose is also burning when you smell something it is because the chemical you are breathing in is causing this reaction - it is either acidic, caustic or just plain irritating. If whatever you are breathing is irritating your nose that it's also going to be doing the same to your airways and to your lungs. That burning sensation in your nose is an early warning system to let you know that your breathing in something potentially harmful so should probably leave the area.\n\nIt's often associated with a \"foul\" smell because through evolution we've developed the idea that things that can potentially harm us are unpleasant so we associate those smells with being negative.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5022917",
"title": "HN1 (nitrogen mustard)",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "Inhaling the vapor causes symptoms that begin in the upper airway and expand to the lower airway. Increased concentrations cause worse symptoms. Mild inhalation exposure causes rhinorrhea (runny nose), sneezing, barking cough (a harsh cough that sounds somewhat like a dog barking), epistaxis (nosebleed), dyspnea (shortness of breath) that affects smokers and asthmatics, hoarseness that turns into toneless voice, ageusia (loss of taste), and anosmia (loss of smell); later on, sinus and nose pain develops. With more severe inhalation exposure, the airway becomes inflamed, pneumonia develops, and the respiratory epithelium can begin to have necrosis and slough off, forming a pseudomembrane that can occlude the airway. This occlusion can be fatal, as can the pneumonia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "98581",
"title": "Perfume",
"section": "Section::::Health and environmental issues.:Health.:Immunological; asthma and allergy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 156,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 156,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Evidence in peer-reviewed journals shows that some fragrances can cause asthmatic reactions in some individuals, especially those with severe or atopic asthma. Many fragrance ingredients can also cause headaches, allergic skin reactions or nausea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6890925",
"title": "Chronic atrophic rhinitis",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "BULLET::::- Microorganisms are known to multiply and produce a foul smell from the nose, though the patients may not be aware of this, because the nerve endings(responsible for the perception of smell) have become atrophied. This is called merciful anosmia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2616934",
"title": "Cestrum nocturnum",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Some people, especially those with respiratory sensitivities or asthma, have reported difficulty breathing, irritation of the nose and throat, headache, nausea, or other symptoms when exposed to the blossom's powerful scent. Some \"Cestrum\" species contain chlorogenic acid, and the presence of this potent sensitizer may be responsible for this effect in \"C. nocturnum\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31183866",
"title": "Nonpoint source water pollution regulations in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Basis for controls and regulations.:Human health.:Toxic contaminants and chemicals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "BULLET::::- Zinc - The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has stated that zinc damages nerve receptors in the nose, which can cause loss of the sense of smell. Additionally, zinc toxicosis can occur in high doses of zinc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34420",
"title": "Zinc",
"section": "Section::::Precautions.:Toxicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 162,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 162,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) states that zinc damages nerve receptors in the nose, causing anosmia. Reports of anosmia were also observed in the 1930s when zinc preparations were used in a failed attempt to prevent polio infections. On June 16, 2009, the FDA ordered removal of zinc-based intranasal cold products from store shelves. The FDA said the loss of smell can be life-threatening because people with impaired smell cannot detect leaking gas or smoke, and cannot tell if food has spoiled before they eat it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38810922",
"title": "Merciful anosmia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Merciful anosmia is a condition in which the person is unaware of a foul smell emanating from his own nose. This condition is seen in atrophic rhinitis. In atrophic rhinitis, the turbinates, venous sinusoids, seromucinous glands and nerves undergo atrophy, resulting in a foul smelling discharge. As the nerve fibres sensing smell are also atrophied, the patient is unable to appreciate the foul smell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1aeuia
|
why can you see the veins in your eye when the eye doctor shines a bright light into it? why do eye doctors even do that?
|
[
{
"answer": "They do it to see the back of the inside of your eye through your pupil. They can determine whether you are at risk for glaucoma, among other things, this way.\n\nEdit: the veins you see are on the front of the inside of your eye. You can see them because of the light reflected off the back.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41601904",
"title": "Eye vein verification",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Advocates of eye vein verification note that one of the technology's strengths is the stability of the pattern of eye blood vessels; the patterns do not change with age, alcohol consumption, allergies, or redness. Eye veins are clear enough that they can be reliably imaged by the cameras on most smartphones. The technology works through contacts and glasses, though not through sunglasses. At least one version of eye vein detection uses infrared illumination as part of the imaging, allowing imaging even in low-light conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "99163",
"title": "Argyria",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Chronic intake also may lead to silver pigments depositing in other organs exposed to light, particularly the eyes. In the conjunctiva this is not generally harmful, but it also may affect the lens, leading to serious effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18973622",
"title": "Leaf",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:Venation.:Other descriptive terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 249,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 249,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "BULLET::::- Obscure: Veins not visible, or not at all clear; if unspecified, then not visible with the naked eye. e.g. \"Berberis gagnepainii\". In this \"Berberis\", the veins are only obscure on the undersurface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1255502",
"title": "Takayasu's arteritis",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "It is now known that the blood vessel malformations that occur in the retina are an angiogenic response to the arterial narrowings in the neck and that the absence of pulses noted in some people occurs because of narrowings of the blood vessels to the arms. The eye findings described by Takayasu are rarely seen in patients from North America and British Columbia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51178220",
"title": "Photic retinopathy",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "A doctor examining an eye with retinopathy may be able to see no signs at all, or a slight macular edema, which is a sort of blister on or under the macula, an oval colored spot normally visible to an eye doctor on each person's retina.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7407460",
"title": "Optic neuropathy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "The main symptom is loss of vision, with colors appearing subtly washed out in the affected eye. On medical examination, the optic nerve head can be visualised by an ophthalmoscope. A pale disc is characteristic of long-standing optic neuropathy. In many cases, only one eye is affected and patients may not be aware of the loss of color vision until the doctor asks them to cover the healthy eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5325318",
"title": "Systemic disease",
"section": "Section::::Detection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Getting a regular eye exam may play a role in identifying the signs of some systemic diseases. \"The eye is composed of many different types of tissue. This unique feature makes the eye susceptible to a wide variety of diseases as well as provides insights into many body systems. Almost any part of the eye can give important clues to the diagnosis of systemic diseases. Signs of a systemic disease may be evident on the outer surface of the eye (eyelids, conjunctiva and cornea), middle of the eye and at the back of the eye (retina).\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4flz3f
|
why are high pop. density areas more left leaning?
|
[
{
"answer": "\nSmall cities are essentially everyone feeling a sense of community by sharing the same religion, hobbies, and ideals. They view the government as an outsider trying to rule over them. When 95% the town is Religion X, nobody opposes things like bible verses in court houses. \n\nHowever in a large city there are Christians, atheists, and multiple other religions. No single one takes the majority. So they believe that government should be separated from the church to respect everyone. That also means issues like LGBT are ones own personal business, while small towns see LGBT as someone trying to over throw the established Religious views of the town.\n\n\n Large cities see homeless everywhere and average Joe people struggling. So it only makes sense for social programs to fix those issues. A small town never gets exposed to true economic issues that large cities see on a daily basis, just the government wanting more money.\n\n\n\nTL-DR; A small city has everyone sharing a sense of community with the government being an outsider. Dense areas see unique personal struggles in which the government needs to help them out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54005894",
"title": "Empty diagonal",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "The low population density (less than 30/km², or 78/mi²) is caused largely by the rural exodus and urbanisation of the 19th and 20th centuries. Some commentators prefer to speak of a \"low-density diagonal\" (\"diagonale des faibles densités\") and regard the term \"empty diagonal\" as both pejorative and exaggerated. Still, DATAR used the term and it remains the more common term.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4750136",
"title": "East Vancouver",
"section": "Section::::Politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Politically, East Vancouver has often supported left-wing political candidates although demographic changes since the 1990s (e.g. significantly increasing family income levels) may be causing voting patterns to become more diverse. More specifically, the Northern portion of East Vancouver consistently votes for left-wing politicians by large margins, although the Southern areas tend to vote for centre to centre-right candidates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "260268",
"title": "Brattleboro, Vermont",
"section": "Section::::Economy.:Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "The town's densely populated center is located near Vermont's lowest elevation point in the Connecticut river valley. Because of the surrounding steep hills there is very little flat land, and many of its buildings and houses are situated on steep hillsides, necessarily closely bunched together. This concentrated topography and population density have helped to create a semi-urban, cosmopolitan atmosphere in the downtown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4750136",
"title": "East Vancouver",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "East Vancouver has been the first home for many non-British immigrants since the 1880s. Historically, it was also a more affordable area and traditionally the home for many lower-income working class. The East Side is best summarized by its diversity – in family income, land use, ethnicity and mother tongue. The rapid increase in housing prices and gentrification may be affecting diversity of the area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5366468",
"title": "Sunset, Vancouver",
"section": "Section::::Geography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Like most of south-east Vancouver, the area used to be predominantly working class but rising house prices elsewhere have made the area increasingly popular with young professionals and families who can no longer afford houses in areas such as the west side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2084095",
"title": "Capitol Hill (Denver)",
"section": "Section::::Urban Renewal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "The affordability, urban character and eclectic architecture made the area appealing to young bohemians, artists, musicians (Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg were former neighborhood residents) which has led to a gradual gentrification that reached its height during the 2000s. The rents in the neighborhood have increased significantly over the past decade, and many of the cheap apartments in the area have been converted into more expensive condominiums. Nonetheless the neighborhood has an older housing stock which lacks off-street parking, contributing to a relative affordability compared to other central neighborhoods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4750136",
"title": "East Vancouver",
"section": "Section::::Housing, affordability and gentrification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "However, increased housing prices have also caused significant positive changes in East Vancouver, such as greater retention of existing residents (partly due to a lack of affordability in some other areas), increased densification (increasing the number of affordable housing options (e.g. townhouses)), more residential investment, neighbourhood-led artistic projects, more community-pride events (e.g. neighbourhood clean-ups, block parties and community gardening), and greater tax base for new amenities(e.g. a new planned library and $2.7 million in street, lighting and sidewalk improvements at Kingsway and Knight Street).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
409l3s
|
if a premiere is not supposed to happen till sunday, how can they show commercials with previews of these live events on wednesday?
|
[
{
"answer": "The footage they show on commercials is from previous years. The \"live from the red carpet\" shows are filmed as the celebrities arrive for the awards, which can be an hour or more before the ceremony starts",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1449800",
"title": "Breaking news",
"section": "Section::::Formats.:Television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "In the United States, on days when presidential elections take place, regularly scheduled prime-time programming is suspended so that networks can air up-to-the-minute coverage of the elections. Likewise, regularly scheduled daytime programs are suspended during coverage of presidential inaugurations. However, during those types of events, regular commercial advertising is shown. Similar procedures are enacted for elections or political inaugurations that take place in other countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18481561",
"title": "Fuse Rocks the Garden",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "The show is an hour long, starting at 11 PM. The first time the installment of the series is aired, it is commercial-free. However, after that, the show has commercials in between songs. Before the episode is aired for the first time, there will be a commercial for the commercial-free sponsor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1409389",
"title": "The Twilight Zone (1959 TV series)",
"section": "Section::::In media.:Syndication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Episodes are broadcast nationally on the Syfy channel in the United States. They are regularly shown in late-night slots, and in marathons aired typically every year on New Year's Eve and Day and the Fourth of July. Syfy broadcasts are often re-cut to feature more commercials during the time slot, in order to meet the 22 or 44-minute maximum episode runtime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47110128",
"title": "Majaa Talkies",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "The episodes are usually one hour long with commercials, air from 8:00 PM to 9:00 PM on weekends. The format followed included a scripted act from the cast in the initial segment followed by the segment that introduced and interacted with the guests invited for the episode. This was slightly altered after the introduction of the new house for the show where the guests are now introduced at the beginning and all the scripted acts proceed with them in the background, sometimes involving them. The guests usually would be from an upcoming movie for its promotion through the show. Apart from movie promotions, the show also features guests from other respects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6327100",
"title": "Saturday morning preview specials",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "The preview specials are usually hosted by stars of one or more of the network's popular series and feature an array of special guests, with the continuity between each program preview being fictionalized with a small plot or theme to keep viewers interested. The previews were for new and returning series, with each preview featuring the show's opening credits and a scene from that program. They also unveiled a network's new imaging for Saturday morning programming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "328912",
"title": "Later... with Jools Holland",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "The show is considered an institution, having notched up millions of fans around the world. It is currently broadcast in America on MTV Live (formerly known as Palladia); previously it had been shown on Ovation, BBC America, Fuse, and Dave. The Ovation and Fuse broadcasts leave out several performances (and usually one or two performers entirely) to air commercials within a one-hour timeslot. It is also shown in Australia on the UKTV channel and ABC2, in Canada on HIFI and AUX TV, in Germany on ZDFkultur, in Spain on Canal+ Xtra, in Croatia on HRT 2, in Latin America on Film&Arts and in Belgium, France, Portugal, Switzerland, and the United Arab Emirates on iConcerts HD. And in Ireland on TG4.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20274555",
"title": "Harald Schmidt (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::The concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "A few months after the show was launched, Schmidt introduced a new structural element, an artificial \"commercial break\". Such an interruption was actually not necessary because ARD, a public broadcasting company, is not allowed to broadcast commercials after 8 p.m.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
113kk1
|
when they bottle soda how do they stop it from bubbling over?
|
[
{
"answer": "They add the carbon dioxide when the water/rest is already in the bottle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6254672",
"title": "Diet Coke and Mentos eruption",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The conversion of dissolved carbon dioxide to gaseous carbon dioxide forms rapidly expanding gas bubbles in the soda, which pushes the beverage contents out of the container. Gases, in general, are more soluble in liquids at elevated pressures. Carbonated sodas contain elevated levels of carbon dioxide under pressure. The solution becomes supersaturated with carbon dioxide when the bottle is opened, and the pressure is released. Under these conditions, carbon dioxide begins to precipitate from solution, forming gas bubbles. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240561",
"title": "Carbonated water",
"section": "Section::::Products for carbonating water.:Home.:Soda siphons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "The gas pressure in a siphon drives soda water up through a tube inside the siphon when a valve lever at the top is depressed. Commercial soda siphons came pre-charged with water and gas, and were returned to the retailer for exchange when empty. A deposit scheme ensured they were not otherwise thrown away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6254672",
"title": "Diet Coke and Mentos eruption",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Normally, this process is relatively slow, because the activation energy for this process is high. The activation energy for a process like bubble nucleation depends on where the bubble forms. It is highest for bubbles that form in the liquid itself (homogeneous nucleation), and lower if the bubble forms on some other surface (heterogeneous nucleation). When the pressure is released from a soda bottle, the bubbles tend to form on the sides of the bottle. But because they are smooth and clean, the activation energy is still relatively high, and the process is slow. The addition of other nucleation sites provides an alternative pathway for the reaction to occur with lower activation energy, much like a catalyst. For instance dropping grains of salt or sand into the solution lowers the activation energy, and increases the rate of carbon dioxide precipitation. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "217116",
"title": "Dynamic equilibrium",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 899,
"text": "In a new bottle of soda the concentration of carbon dioxide in the liquid phase has a particular value. If half of the liquid is poured out and the bottle is sealed, carbon dioxide will leave the liquid phase at an ever-decreasing rate and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the gas phase will increase until equilibrium is reached. At that point, due to thermal motion, a molecule of CO may leave the liquid phase, but within a very short time another molecule of CO will pass from the gas to the liquid, and vice versa. At equilibrium the rate of transfer of CO from the gas to the liquid phase is equal to the rate from liquid to gas. In this case, the equilibrium concentration of CO in the liquid is given by Henry's law, which states that the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas above the liquid. This relationship is written as\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4153354",
"title": "SodaStream",
"section": "Section::::Product.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "The SodaStream drinksmaker is a device that forces carbon dioxide (CO) gas (stored under pressure in a cylinder) into water, making it fizzy. The product includes a machine, a carbon dioxide cylinder, and one or more reusable beverage bottles. The bottle, filled with water, is inserted into the machine, and with a button push or two, compressed CO from the cylinder is injected, creating carbonated water. Varieties of concentrated syrups are available, to create regular or diet soft drinks by adding a small amount of concentrate to the bottle after carbonation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1692026",
"title": "Crown cork",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Prior to the invention of the crown cork bottle stopper, soda bottles had ordinary cork bottle stoppers and often had rounded bottoms so they could not be stored standing upright. The reason for this is corks have a tendency to dry out and shrink, which allows the gas pressure in the bottle to cause the cork to \"pop.\" Storing bottles on their side prevents the corks from drying out and \"popping.\" After the invention of the crown cork bottle stopper, this problem was eliminated, and soda bottles could be stored standing upright.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43809517",
"title": "Flip-top",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Prior to the creation of the flip-top bottle, bottles were often made from blown glass and sealed with a cork, which was difficult to open by hand and often unreliable, particularly for carbonated beverages such as mineral water or beer. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2lb4ea
|
Do particles at different temperatures experience time differently? Can we heat particles to near-relativistic speeds?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, 1 mph experiences less time dilation that 2 mph. So the answer to the first question is trivially yes. For the second part, you'd experience relativistic phenomena that converts an energetic particle into multiple particles before you started reaching too high of energies, but the dilation effects would increase to this point.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "84400",
"title": "Zero-point energy",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "In classical mechanics all particles can be thought of as having some energy made up of their potential energy and kinetic energy. Temperature, for example, arises from the intensity of random particle motion caused by kinetic energy (known as brownian motion). As temperature is reduced to absolute zero, it might be thought that all motion ceases and particles come completely to rest. In fact, however, kinetic energy is retained by particles even at the lowest possible temperature. The random motion corresponding to this zero-point energy never vanishes as a consequence of the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41789",
"title": "Thermodynamic temperature",
"section": "Section::::The relationship of temperature, motions, conduction, and thermal energy.:The nature of kinetic energy, translational motion, and temperature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "Except in the quantum regime at extremely low temperatures, the thermodynamic temperature of any \"bulk quantity\" of a substance (a statistically significant quantity of particles) is directly proportional to the mean average kinetic energy of a specific kind of particle motion known as \"translational motion.\" These simple movements in the three \"x\", \"y\", and \"z\"–axis dimensions of space means the particles move in the three spatial \"degrees of freedom.\" The temperature derived from this translational kinetic energy is sometimes referred to as \"kinetic temperature\" and is equal to the thermodynamic temperature over a very wide range of temperatures. Since there are three translational degrees of freedom (e.g., motion along the x, y, and z axes), the translational kinetic energy is related to the kinetic temperature by:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37436",
"title": "Emergence",
"section": "Section::::Emergent structures in nature.:Nonliving, physical systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Temperature is sometimes used as an example of an emergent macroscopic behaviour. In classical dynamics, a \"snapshot\" of the instantaneous momenta of a large number of particles at equilibrium is sufficient to find the average kinetic energy per degree of freedom which is proportional to the temperature. For a small number of particles the instantaneous momenta at a given time are not statistically sufficient to determine the temperature of the system. However, using the ergodic hypothesis, the temperature can still be obtained to arbitrary precision by further averaging the momenta over a long enough time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19725090",
"title": "Cold",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Since temperature relates to the thermal energy held by an object or a sample of matter, which is the kinetic energy of the random motion of the particle constituents of matter, an object will have less thermal energy when it is colder and more when it is hotter. If it were possible to cool a system to absolute zero, all motion of the particles in a sample of matter would cease and they would be at complete rest in this \"classical\" sense. The object would be described as having zero thermal energy. Microscopically in the description of quantum mechanics, however, matter still has zero-point energy even at absolute zero, because of the uncertainty principle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19593167",
"title": "Heat",
"section": "Section::::\"Hotness\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "If a physical system is inhomogeneous or very rapidly or irregularly changing, for example by turbulence, it may be impossible to characterize it by a temperature, but still there can be transfer of energy as heat between it and another system. If a system has a physical state that is regular enough, and persists long enough to allow it to reach thermal equilibrium with a specified thermometer, then it has a temperature according to that thermometer. An empirical thermometer registers degree of hotness for such a system. Such a temperature is called empirical. For example, Truesdell writes about classical thermodynamics: \"At each time, the body is assigned a real number called the \"temperature\". This number is a measure of how hot the body is.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647050",
"title": "Temperature",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical foundation.:Generalized temperature from single-particle statistics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "It is possible to extend the definition of temperature even to systems of few particles, like in a quantum dot. The generalized temperature is obtained by considering time ensembles instead of configuration-space ensembles given in statistical mechanics in the case of thermal and particle exchange between a small system of fermions (\"N\" even less than 10) with a single/double-occupancy system. The finite quantum grand canonical ensemble, obtained under the hypothesis of ergodicity and orthodicity, allows expressing the generalized temperature from the ratio of the average time of occupation formula_9 and formula_10 of the single/double-occupancy system:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "516133",
"title": "Equipartition theorem",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.:Failure due to quantum effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 162,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 162,
"end_character": 874,
"text": "Other, more subtle quantum effects can lead to corrections to equipartition, such as identical particles and continuous symmetries. The effects of identical particles can be dominant at very high densities and low temperatures. For example, the valence electrons in a metal can have a mean kinetic energy of a few electronvolts, which would normally correspond to a temperature of tens of thousands of kelvins. Such a state, in which the density is high enough that the Pauli exclusion principle invalidates the classical approach, is called a degenerate fermion gas. Such gases are important for the structure of white dwarf and neutron stars. At low temperatures, a fermionic analogue of the Bose–Einstein condensate (in which a large number of identical particles occupy the lowest-energy state) can form; such superfluid electrons are responsible for superconductivity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
1gdhxv
|
Why don't we consider the Romans to be a cruel in the same light as other civilizations?
|
[
{
"answer": "They certainly were cruel by modern standards. However, they also had a huge hand in defining western civilization, and brought an era of relative peace and stability to the Mediterranean for hundreds of years. They gave us our legacy of literature/art/law/science/technology along with the Greeks. When historians from the middle ages/renaissance looked back to this era, they saw a people that carved civilization out of an area awash with savage barbarians, the people who brought Christianity to the forefront. It's no surprise that they looked back at what they saw with admiration, as they too lived in cruel times and understood slavery/warfare. \n\nAs for why others are viewed more harshly? The mongols destroyed some truly great empires and centers of learning, and were direct antagonists to western Europe and the middle east. They are pretty much universally reviled despite the good they did. The Persians were almost always antagonists of the west's forefathers, and were seen as a strange foreign threat, or decadent heathens by Muslims and Christians alike. The Arab uprising after Mohammed's death involved a violent overthrow of \"Persia\" at the time, so the great Islamic scholars looked upon them with disdain as well. Neither of these people were less cruel than the Romans, but they didn't have the added benefit of being the forefathers of the people writing the history.\n\nAs for the pouring of gold down throats. I know of two romans that were given this treatment. Manius Aquillius in the first century B.C. was killed by Mithradates via gold down the throat, and Crassus after Carrhae reportedly received the same punishment but post-mortem. I'm not familiar with the Romans themselves dealing out this type of punishment, but I haven't read enough to have an informed answer either.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Seems like your perception might be a bit skewed by pop culture here! You have some truths here, but they're mixed up with misconceptions (If that makes sense), so I'll go down your list, then do a bit of chattering (cause I seem to like doing that bit ;) )\n\n---\n\nFirst off your points. They seem to all be centred around slavery (for context, the lack of slavery is a very modern thing - and even then, there are more slaves now than at any other time in human history) or Christianity, with the war bit thrown in (For modern context, the Romans were at war less than the United States has been.) So let's go down the points.\n\n* They enslaved people for construction and mining / they enslaved [people] (women too!) to be gladiators. \n\n**They did indeed! As did most other civilizations throughout history. To be fair, gladiatorial contests WERE especially sanguinary and brutal, and the life of a slave in the Roman mines sorta sucked. BUT, Roman slaves also (depending on their luck and pedigree) had the chance to buy their own freedom, as they were often paid (Most especially post-Republic.)**\n\n* They were seemingly in a state of war constantly with other civilizations\n\n**As I pointed out above, [the United States has been at war far more constantly than the Romans.](_URL_0_) While that may not be a waiver for their warlike nature, it's context - they're certainly not the only nation that's been warlike, or even the most brutal when they were. Certainly, Caesar's conquest of Gaul was considered one of the harshest of the ages, with an estimated 1 million killed in combat and another million enslaved. Compare that to the Mongols, who killed over a million people in ONE siege. While the Romans loved their wars (Their economy was sorta based around them), they weren't the most warlike OR brutal rulers the world has ever seen. \n\n* Cruel methods of punishment:\n\n**By who's standards? Today's standards, you must remember, are very modern. Secondly, people generally weren't nailed to a cross in a crucifixion - they were tied there and left to die (I'm not gonna get into Biblical debates :P). Some other punishments that I would consider on par with crucifixion (though it's DAMNED hard to really try that - I mean, think about it. Crucifixion lasted for DAYS, and was one of the simplest, cruelest ways to die that I can imagine.) would be perhaps [drawing and quartering](_URL_4_) which involved being dragged behind a horse to your place of execution (in front of massive crowds), hung until you were half dead, then being unmanned (either by crushing or by chopping off your bits), disemboweled (your guts would be pulled out, with great care to keep you alive, and they were generally burned in front of you), then finally beheaded and dismembered (or vice versa if they REALLY hated you), and your pieces would be sent to the corners of the realm. (That was a primarily English punishment - famous example is William Wallace. Braveheart censored a lot of it.) Or, you could die the [Death by a Thousand Cuts](_URL_6_), which was Chinese - it's exactly what it sounds like. Needless to say, cultures worldwide have examples of extreme cruelty. Also, pouring gold down people's throats were stories of what was done TO Romans, not BY them.**\n\n* Christians dying in the arena:\n\n**Christians weren't the only ones - and they were executed in this fashion because they (essentially) broke the law, despite the Romans really not caring too much about their religion. The Romans were legally supposed to pay obesquience of some sort to the Emperor, and the Christians refused - leading to their punishment (The sources make it sound almost exasperated.) The stories of Nero burning Christians for torchlight is *probably* an exaggeration. However, as per always, we're not sure on that front.**\n\nThey had plenty of other facets that you might consider cruel, such as [what they did to Carthage](_URL_3_), or (as I mentioned), Caesar's conquest of Gaul, or [the things that lead to Boudicca's uprising](_URL_2_), or [their handling of the Goths' crossing of the Danube that I explained here.](_URL_5_)\n\nHowever, alongside their harshness (which...how can we truly rate them, with our modern context looking back? If you were living in that society, and were threatened at every turn, would you not do the same? Would you not respond to THEIR harshness with your own? It's impossible to say.), they WERE also one of the most influential societies in Western history. Many modern governments today are based on theirs, their architecture that *still stands today* is absolutely breathtaking, their empire, their power, and...I think most influential...their sheer RELATEABLENESS. We have so many surviving records from their time, we can really RELATE to them as people. Heck, if you look at [the graffiti from Pompeii](_URL_1_), it's the same thing that you would see today!\n\n \"O walls, you have held up so much tedious graffiti that I am amazed that you have not already collapsed in ruin.\"\n\n\"Auge loves Allotenus\"\n\n\"Romula hung out here with Staphylus.\"\n\n\"Blondie has taught me to hate dark-haired girls. I shall hate them, if I can, but I wouldn’t mind loving them. Pompeian Venus Fisica wrote this.\"\n\nSee what I mean?\n\n---\n\nFinally, it really depends on who you ask concerning the Mongols and the Persians. If you ask most people (who aren't 300 :P ), they'll straight up tell you that the Persians were an awesome, extraordinarily cultured and open-minded society - /u/Daeres could give you REAMS of posts concerning that one. They practiced freedom of religion, were very ordered, and really weren't half bad to live under.\n\nConcerning the Mongols, there are many historians who believe today that the impact they had was absolutely worth the millions that were butchered in their conquest. Again, that's all opinion (And mine is the other way, so I don't want to present their argument for fear that my own bias would show too much.), and each historian has their own ;) \n\n---\n\nTo wrap it up: Could the Romans be cruel? Yes. But they were also people, just like you and me. They were a culture, and two thousand years ago, life in general was far harsher than it is today. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30104",
"title": "Problem of evil",
"section": "Section::::Other religions.:Ancient Greek religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 157,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 157,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "Later Greek and Roman theologians and philosophers discussed the problem of evil in depth. Starting at least with Plato, philosophers tended to reject or de-emphasize literal interpretations of mythology in favor of a more pantheistic, natural theology based on reasoned arguments. In this framework, stories that seemed to impute dishonorable conduct to the gods were often simply dismissed as false, and as being nothing more than the \"imagination of poets.\" Greek and Roman thinkers continued to wrestle, however, with the problems of natural evil and of evil that we observe in our day-to-day experience. Influential Roman writers such as Cicero and Seneca, drawing on earlier work by the Greek philosophers such as the Stoics, developed many arguments in defense of the righteousness of the gods, and many of the answers they provided were later absorbed into Christian theodicy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "207078",
"title": "Horrible Histories (book series)",
"section": "Section::::Concept and creation.:Educational goals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Often the protagonists of one book can become the antagonists in another book. For example, the Romans are the attackers in \"Cut-Throat Celts,\" but their own history is explored in \"Rotten Romans\" and \"Ruthless Romans.\" Similarly, \"Vicious Vikings\" and \"Stormin' Normans\" paint their respective civilizations in a more favourable light than in \"Smashin' Saxons\", and the Christians depicted as courageous victims of persecution in \"Ruthless Romans\" become the hateful persecutors of native populations in \"Barmy British Empire\" and \"Incredible Incas.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3239144",
"title": "Siege of Syracuse (397 BC)",
"section": "Section::::Strange political bedfellows.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Greek tyrants, especially Gelo, Hiero and Dionysius are often credited with saving the Western civilization from \"barbarian\" machinations, especially by 16th −18th century historians. However, some of their activities have more to do with saving their rule than \"saving western civilization\", as the actions of Dionysius were to show in 396 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251794",
"title": "Evil eye",
"section": "Section::::History.:Classical antiquity.:Protection from the eye.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The belief in the evil eye during antiquity varied across different regions and periods. The evil eye was not feared with equal intensity in every corner of the Roman Empire. There were places in which people felt more conscious of the danger of the evil eye. In Roman times, not only were individuals considered to possess the power of the evil eye but whole tribes, especially those of Pontus and Scythia, were believed to be transmitters of the evil eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "521555",
"title": "Ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Ethics and morality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 170,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 170,
"end_character": 822,
"text": "Like many ancient cultures, concepts of ethics and morality, while sharing some commonalities with modern society, differed greatly in several important ways. Because ancient civilizations like Rome were under constant threat of attack from marauding tribes, their culture was necessarily militaristic with martial skills being a prized attribute. Whereas modern societies consider compassion a virtue, Roman society considered compassion a vice, a moral defect. Indeed, one of the primary purposes of the gladiatorial games was to inoculate Roman citizens from this weakness. Romans instead prized virtues such as courage and conviction (\"virtus\"), a sense of duty to one's people, moderation and avoiding excess (\"moderatio\"), forgiveness and understanding (\"clementia\"), fairness (\"severitas\"), and loyalty (\"pietas\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6258",
"title": "Civilization",
"section": "Section::::Fall of civilizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "BULLET::::- Peter Heather argues in his book \"The Fall of the Roman Empire: a New History of Rome and the Barbarians\" that this civilization did not end for moral or economic reasons, but because centuries of contact with barbarians across the frontier generated its own nemesis by making them a much more sophisticated and dangerous adversary. The fact that Rome needed to generate ever greater revenues to equip and re-equip armies that were for the first time repeatedly defeated in the field, led to the dismemberment of the Empire. Although this argument is specific to Rome, it can also be applied to the Asiatic Empire of the Egyptians, to the Han and Tang dynasties of China, to the Muslim Abbasid Caliphate and others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "923406",
"title": "Fall of the Western Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "The Roman Empire was not only a political unity enforced by violence. It was also the combined and elaborated civilization of the Mediterranean basin and beyond. It included manufacture, trade, and architecture, widespread secular literacy, written law, and an international language of science and literature. The Western barbarians lost much of these higher cultural practices, but their redevelopment in the Middle Ages by polities aware of the Roman achievement formed the basis for the later development of Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2am4oz
|
Did the Red Army really use human-wave tactics in World War II?
|
[
{
"answer": "Borrowing from the answer I provided last week for the [Eastern Front AMA](_URL_0_)\n\n > It isn't *not* true, but it didn't happen like you see in Enemy at the Gates.\n > \n > There are three principle ways that human waves were utilized during the war.\n > \n > * In the very early months, the fight was exceptionally desperate and the Red Army often found themselves with no alternative, as they lacked heavy support, and in some cases even enough rifles. Massed charges happened, and there are even accounts of Soviet soldiers charging with their arms linked in solidarity (or to ensure no one chickens out if you are cynical) as they lacked rifles. Wasting trained soldiers on this makes little long term sense though, and it wasn't utilized in latter phases of the war.\n > \n > * The second, and more common use at least through Stalingrad, were the citizen levies (Narodnoe Opolcheniye). There weren't soldiers, but civilians pressed into service and thrown against the Germans to buy time. Some were armed, some weren't. In some cases they were forced at gun point. Most members of the Opolcheniye had no training, and survival rates were low, to say the least. those that did you be absorbed into the Red Army eventually. To quote from an instance outside Leningrad:\n > \n > > \"Altogether over 135,000 Leningraders, factory workers as well as professors, had volunteered, or been forced to volunteer. They had no training, no medical assistance, no uniforms, no transport and no supply system. More than half lacked rifles, and yet they were still ordered into counter-attacks against panzer divisions. Most fled in terror of the tanks, against which they had no defence at all. This massive loss of life–perhaps some 70,000–was tragically futile, and it is far from certain that their sacrifice even delayed the Germans at all on the line of the River Luga.\"\n > \n > The scene in Enemy at the Gates is *possibly* inspired by the workers from the Barrikady Ordnance Factory, the Red October Steel Works and the Dzerzhinsky Tractor Factory, who were press-ganged and charged at the German troops on August 25th, 1942.\n > \n > \n > * The final type we see is with the shtrafniki - soldiers put into punishment battalions. They were soldiers who had committed crimes, or political prisoners of the gulags, or kulaks, and other undesirable elements, who were atoning for their crimes (real or imagined) with service in the worst position in the army - in many cases the alternative was a death sentence anyways. Service would be for about three months, and if you survived, you would return to a normal unit. But survival wasn't easy. These units would be used for such wonderful roles as human mine-clearers, or in the parlance of your era - \"Forlorn hopes\". Some units would have 100 percent mortality rates, although the overall survival rate wasn't quite that high! Close to 500,000 soldiers would service in the Shtrafbat by war's end.\n\nHope that answers your question, but if anything needs clarifying, just ask.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13359931",
"title": "Red Army tactics in World War II",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "The basic tactical principles of the Red Army remained those used during World War I, primarily trench warfare, until the emergence of theoreticians such as Uborevich, Tukhachevsky and Triandafillov who transformed the tactical, operational and strategic conduct of war in Soviet military philosophy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13359931",
"title": "Red Army tactics in World War II",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Development of Red Army tactics begun during the Russian Civil War, and are still a subject of study within Russian military academies today. They were an important source of development in military theory, and in particular of armoured warfare before, during and after the Second World War, in the process influencing the outcome of World War II and the Korean War\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1336707",
"title": "Military history of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Development of the structure, ideology, and doctrine of the Soviet military.:Military doctrine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "From its conception, the Red Army committed itself to emphasizing highly mobile warfare. This decision was influenced by the formative wars of its history, namely the Russian Civil War and the Polish–Soviet War. Both of these conflicts had little in common with the static trench warfare of the First World War. Instead, they featured long range mobile operations, often by small but highly motivated forces, as well as rapid advances of hundreds of kilometers in a matter of days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13359931",
"title": "Red Army tactics in World War II",
"section": "Section::::Beginnings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "The Red Army's tactical doctrine was shaped by the Russian experience of the First World War, and in particular the Brusilov Offensive. Theoretical writings on tactical doctrine in the late 1920s reflect Soviet awareness that motor transport and armoured vehicles would potentially change the conduct of warfare. Many of the popular Russian Civil War leaders were cavalry officers, which strengthened support for the notion that development of Soviet tactical doctrine should emphasize maneuver and mobility, as was the case in other European armies which were perceived as a future threat to the spread of the Socialist and Communist ideals, such as America and the rest of the capitalist world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3115408",
"title": "Tank desant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "The tactic was used as an expedient by the Red Army during World War II. Tank desant troops () were infantry trained in the tactic in order to offer small-arms support in suppression of enemy anti-tank weapons or enemy infantry using anti-tank grenades. After the war, T-55 and T-62 tanks were built with hand-holds for this purpose. In northern areas during winter, similar tactics were used by Soviet infantry riding the skids of aerosani or towed behind them on skis. Nowadays, this tactic is very rare (outside of dire emergencies) in well-equipped armed forces, with front-line troops usually riding in armoured personnel carriers or infantry fighting vehicles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14726613",
"title": "Strategic operations of the Red Army in World War II",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "The strategic operations of the Red Army in World War II were major military events carried out between 1941 and 1945 on the Eastern Front or in 1945 in the Far East during the Second World War. Such operations typically involved at least one Red Army Front - the largest functional unit of the Soviet armed forces. The operations could be defensive, offensive, a withdrawal, an encirclement, or a siege - always conducted by at least two Services of the armed forces (the ground forces and the air forces) and often included the naval forces. In most cases the Stavka divided the strategic operations into operational phases which were large operations in their own right. In very few cases the phases were tactical, such as those requiring amphibious landings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6704750",
"title": "Ready for Labour and Defence of the USSR",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.:Pre-World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "In 1939 the tense international situation caused the inclusion of tests, necessary to prepare young people for service in the Red Army, and to prepare all the population for the possible war. Such disciplines as \"crawling over\", \"speedy foot march\", \"throwing a bunch of grenades\", \"rope (also pole and tree) climbing\", \"carrying over a cartridge box\", various martial arts were introduced. Most of them were removed in post-World War II revisions. Only \"throwing a grenade\" and \"50 m small bore rifle shooting\" (men only) remained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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]
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] | null |
1ecvcj
|
What was Hitlers policy towards Freemasons, and were any masons in his administration?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hjalmar Schacht was the only freemason in the 1933 Nazi government. The Nazi's associated freemasonry with international conspiracies and denounced it in their propaganda. Freemasonry in Germany was targeted immediately after the Nazi's came to power in 1933 and became illegal in 1935, after most of the lodges had already dissolved themselves.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2866512",
"title": "Anti-Masonry",
"section": "Section::::Conspiracy theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "Historically, complaints have been made that the Masons have secretly plotted to create a society based on the revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality, fraternity, separation of church and state and (in Nazi Germany) a Jewish plot for religious tolerance. Similarly, some anti-Masons have claimed that Freemasonry is a Jewish front for world domination, or is at least controlled by Jews for this goal. An example of this is the notorious literary forgery \"The Protocols of the Elders of Zion\". Hitler outlawed Freemasonry partially for this reason. The covenant of the Palestinian Islamist movement Hamas claims that Freemasonry is a \"secret society\" founded as part of a Zionist plot to control the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19032088",
"title": "Grand Lodge Alpina of Switzerland",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "The right-wing Swiss Army colonel Arthur Fonjallaz attempted to orchestrate a legal ban on Freemasonry (and other societies) in the 1930s, apparently in sympathy with bans introduced by Hitler's Germany and Mussolini's Italy at that period. The attempted ban was rejected by the Swiss people in 1937.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3983303",
"title": "Suppression of Freemasonry",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Nazi Germany and occupied Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "The Nazis claimed that high-degree Masons were willing members of the Jewish conspiracy and that Freemasonry was one of the causes of Germany's defeat in World War I. In \"Mein Kampf\", Adolf Hitler wrote that Freemasonry has succumbed to the Jews and has become an excellent instrument to fight for their aims and to use their strings to pull the upper strata of society into their designs. He continued, \"The general pacifistic paralysis of the national instinct of self-preservation begun by Freemasonry\" is then transmitted to the masses of society by the press. In 1933 Hermann Göring, the Reichstag President and one of the key figures in the process of \"Gleichschaltung\" (\"synchronization\"), stated \"in National Socialist Germany, there is no place for Freemasonry\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19357855",
"title": "History of Freemasonry in Belgium",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:1914-1945.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "On the German invasion on 10 May 1940, Freemasonry was banned. With the aid of a list of Freemasons published in a conservative Catholic newspaper, the occupiers arrested, deported and assassinated several Masons, such as Georges Pêtre, president of the supreme council in 1942, and Jules Hiernaux, Grand Master of the Grand Orient of Belgium in 1944. Belgian Masonic life continued in exile in London and New York, and even secretly in the concentration camp at Esterwegen (the \"Liberté chérie\" lodge) and the PoW camp at Prenslau (the \"L'Obstinée\" lodge).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43959396",
"title": "Freemasonry in Germany",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 907,
"text": "Freemasonry in Germany started in several places during the second quarter of the Eighteenth century. After the extinction of the Rite of Strict Observance, which had a wide following and claimed Templar origins for its higher degrees, the several Grand Lodges in Germany defied all attempts at unification, although a largely ineffectual central organisation came into being with the unification of Germany. During the 1920s Freemasons were harassed alongside Jews by those taken in by the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and blamed for the German surrender of 1918. This culminated with the suppression of Freemasonry by the Nazis in 1935, with many Masons in Germany and occupied countries being executed or sent to concentration camps. Freemasonry returned to Germany after World War Two. A single central body now represents five \"regular\" Grand Lodges. Liberal, women's, and mixed lodges also exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13550406",
"title": "Esotericism in Germany and Austria",
"section": "Section::::Esotericism in Nazi Germany.:Suppression of Freemasonry and esotericism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The suppression of Freemasonry in Nazi Germany also reached the level of outright persecution. It is estimated that between 80,000 and 200,000 Freemasons were murdered under the Nazi regime. The lodge Liberté chérie was founded in a concentration camp. Freemasons, who were sent to concentration camps, were sent there as political prisoners, and consequently forced to wear an inverted red triangle. (see: Nazi concentration camp badges)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13550406",
"title": "Esotericism in Germany and Austria",
"section": "Section::::Esotericism in Nazi Germany.:Suppression of Freemasonry and esotericism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "Within the Nazi ideology it was alleged that Freemasonry was part of \"the Jewish conspiracy\". Since many esoteric groups emulated the lodge structure of Freemasonry, they were \"caught in the National Socialist anti-Masonic law of 1935\". Even \"the German Order of Druids\" was closed down, \"protesting to the last that they were not Freemasons but good, German Druids.\" In her biography of Richard Walther Darré, the historian Anna Bramwell also remarks that a secret society called the Skald Order \"was banned by the Nazis after 1933 because of its allegedly masonic nature.\" Several members of the Skald held office in the Third Reich, including Dr Ludolf Haase (a founder member of the Skald), Herbert Backe and Theo Gross; all came under covert investigation, though Backe is said to have been cleared of disloyalty by Heydrich from his deathbed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
41tvzi
|
Recommend me a good book covering Europe in the period after the Roman Empire and before the turn of the millenium (1000AD)
|
[
{
"answer": "Chris Wickham's *The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000* (2009) sounds like the book you are looking for. Wickham is an excellent historian and his breadth of knowledge really shines in this book, it's not often that you can find a medievalist just as comfortable talking about Anglo-Saxon England as the Abbasid caliphate! It was also written for the general public, so it's a very engaging read. In case you are interested in church history as well, Peter Brown's *The Rise of Western Christendom: Triumph and Diversity, A.D. 200-1000* (2003/2013) is a great introduction to that topic and covers the same time period. For books with a narrower chronological focus, I recommend Guy Halsall's *Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568* (2005) and Peter Sarris' *Empires of Faith: The Fall of Rome to the Rise of Islam, 500-700* (2011). Both are more detailed, but they are written by two experts in their respective fields, well worth a read if you want to know a bit more than Wickham's overview. Robin Fleming's *Britain After Rome: The Fall and Rise, 400 to 1070* (2010) is a wonderful and up-to-date survey of early English history, but does not approach it through a straightforward narrative, so it might be a bit harder to get into - I'm not sure what would be a good alternative though, so you might have to wait for someone else to recommend a book on early medieval England :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20623953",
"title": "Leibniz Institute of European History",
"section": "Section::::Library.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "The library offers approximately 90,000 printed titles and 900,000 licensed online resources on the history of Europe from the mid-15th century. There is an emphasis on general European history and international history, as well as on church history and the history of theology since the period of Humanism and the Reformation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "286475",
"title": "Antiquity",
"section": "Section::::Historical objects or periods.:Eras.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Any period before the European Middle Ages (which dates from around 476 with the collapse of Rome to 1492 with the discovery of the new world), but still within Western civilization-based history, including:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "214730",
"title": "Henry Hallam",
"section": "Section::::Literary history works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1203,
"text": "The 4-volume \"Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries\" (1837–1839) continues a topic broached in the \"View of the Middle Ages\". In the first chapter Hallam sketches the state of literature in Europe down to the end of the 14th century: the extinction of ancient learning which followed the fall of the Roman empire and the rise of Christianity; the preservation of the Latin language in the services of the church; and the revival of letters after the 7th century. For the first century and a half of his period he is mainly occupied with a review of classical learning, taking short decennial periods and noticing works which they produced. For the period 1520–1550 there are separate chapters on ancient literature, theology, science, speculative philosophy and jurisprudence, the literature of taste and other miscellaneous literature; and the subdivisions of subjects is carried further in later periods. Thus poetry, the drama and polite literature form the subjects of separate chapters. An author may be mentioned in many chapters: William Shakespeare, Hugo Grotius, Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes appear in half a dozen different places.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9977563",
"title": "Framing the Early Middle Ages",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "According to Chris Wickham's website, the book will \"lead into a general study of the early middle ages for Penguin books.\" This book, titled \"The Inheritance of Rome: A History of Europe from 400 to 1000\", was published on March 24, 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40674188",
"title": "Costa Chekrezi",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Historia mesjetare e Evropës që në rënien e Romës gjer në rënien e Kostantinopojës\" (\"Medieval history of Europe from the fall of Rome till the fall of Constantinople\") (478-1453) (1921), Boston 1921\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57847407",
"title": "The Oxford History of Modern Europe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "The Oxford History of Modern Europe is a series of books on the history of Modern Europe published by the Clarendon Press (an imprint of Oxford University Press) from 1954. The most recent volume appeared in 2012. The series was originally edited by Alan Bullock and F.W.D. Deakin and covered the period from the French Revolution to the Second World War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36640212",
"title": "A History of the University in Europe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "A History of the University in Europe is a four-volume book series on the history and development of the European university from the medieval origins of the institution until the present day. The series was directed by the European University Association and published by Cambridge University Press between 1992 and 2011. The volumes consist of individual contributions by international experts in the field and is considered the most comprehensive and authoritative work on the subject to date. It has been fully or partly translated into several languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1yrqob
|
why is the devil portrayed as he is?
|
[
{
"answer": "From the Gauls. They had a horned god who was master of the hunt. When Christianity was absorbing paganism, he was turned into the adversary. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27694",
"title": "Satan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Satan, also known as the Devil, is an entity in the Abrahamic religions that seduces humans into sin or falsehood. In Christianity and Islam, he is usually seen as either a fallen angel or a jinn, who used to possess great piety and beauty, but rebelled against God, who nevertheless allows him temporary power over the fallen world and a host of demons. In Judaism, Satan is typically regarded as a metaphor for the \"yetzer hara\", or \"evil inclination\", or as an agent subservient to God.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55762026",
"title": "Christianity and Theosophy",
"section": "Section::::Accusations.:Satanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Satan represents metaphysically simply the \"reverse or the polar opposite\" of everything in nature. He is the 'adversary,' allegorically, the 'murderer,' and the great Enemy of \"all,\" because there is nothing in the whole Universe that has not two sides—the reverses of the same medal. But in that case, light, goodness, beauty, etc., may be called Satan with as much propriety as the Devil, since they are the \"adversaries\" of darkness, badness and ugliness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8539",
"title": "Devil",
"section": "Section::::Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "In mainstream Christianity the devil is usually also referred to as Satan. This is because Christian beliefs in Satan are inspired directly by the dominant view of Second Temple Judaism, as expressed/practiced by Jesus, and with some minor variations. Some modern Christians consider the devil to be an angel who, along with one-third of the angelic host (the demons) rebelled against God and has consequently been condemned to the Lake of Fire. He is described as hating all humanity (or more accurately creation), opposing God, spreading lies and wreaking havoc on their souls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4035",
"title": "Black",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "In Christianity, the devil is often called the \"prince of darkness.\" The term was used in John Milton's poem \"Paradise Lost\", published in 1667, referring to Satan, who is viewed as the embodiment of evil. It is an English translation of the Latin phrase \"princeps tenebrarum\", which occurs in the \"Acts of Pilate\", written in the fourth century, in the 11th-century hymn \"Rhythmus de die mortis\" by Pietro Damiani, and in a sermon by Bernard of Clairvaux from the 12th century. The phrase also occurs in \"King Lear\" by William Shakespeare (c. 1606), Act III, Scene IV, l. 14:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3377600",
"title": "Devil in popular culture",
"section": "Section::::Entertainment.:Film and television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "When Satan is depicted in movies and television, he is often represented as a red-skinned man with horns or pointed ears on his head, hooves or bird-legs, a forked tail (or one with a stinger), and a pitchfork. When trying to blend in or deceive somebody, he is often represented as an ordinary human being, and sometimes only his voice is heard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5883250",
"title": "Devil in Christianity",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Christian tradition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "In some Christian traditions, the names \"Lucifer\", \"Satan\", \"Samael\", \"Beelzebub\", \"Belial\" are all names for the devil, along with the elliptical expressions \"the Prince of this World\", \"the Beast\" and \"the Dragon\", \"the Serpent\" or \"the Old Serpent\", \"the Enemy\", \"the Evil One\", \"the Tempter\". Others interpret the names as indicating distinct individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "780393",
"title": "LaVeyan Satanism",
"section": "Section::::Belief.:Atheism and Satan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Instead of worshiping the Devil as a real figure, the image of Satan is embraced because of its association with social non-conformity and rebellion against the dominant system. LaVey embraced the iconography of Satan and the label of \"Satanist\" because it shocked people into thinking, and when asked about his religion, stated that \"the reason it's called Satanism is because it's fun, it's accurate and it's productive\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3x5g9i
|
so what happened to greece after the media stopped caring about it?
|
[
{
"answer": "If a crisis occurs and no major news outlets cover it, does it make any crisis? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15860999",
"title": "Media of Greece",
"section": "Section::::Censorship and media freedom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "The crisis has laid bare the unsustainability of Greek media, and the dependence of media owners on state support in terms of tax breaks and public advertisement revenues, and reciprocating by publishing favourable stories, in a self-censorship mode. When public funds dried up, media went bankrupt, while the government resorted to more open tactics of media manipulation via coercion, censorship, and shutdowns. Lack of job security for journalists have driven them to self-censorship too, limiting themselves to stories understood to be acceptable to owners and politicians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38394624",
"title": "Controversies surrounding the Eurozone crisis",
"section": "Section::::Actors fueling the crisis.:Media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "A major reason for this media coverage were Greek officials' unprecedented statements acknowledging Greece's serious economic woes. For example, during an EU summit at December 2009, newly elected Greek Prime Minister Georges Papandreou said that the public sector is corrupt, a statement later repeated to the international media by José Manuel Barroso, European Commission -president. The previous month, Papandreou said \"we need to save the country from the bankruptcy,\" a statement to which the market reacted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2496183",
"title": "Financial mismanagement",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "BULLET::::- By the end of 2009 Greece experienced one of the most severe economical collapses in today's society. The crisis had severe results and for instance resulted in great public poverty. In Athens, 20 per cent of the shops were all of a sudden completely empty and in February 2012 it was reported that 20,000 Greeks, during the proceeding year had been made destitute. By years of unrestrained governmental spending, cheap lending and a failing try at implementing financial reforms Greece was left badly off when the global economical crisis struck and the country had loans they were completely unable to repay.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12112",
"title": "Politics of Greece",
"section": "Section::::Political issues.:Media.:Media freedom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Press freedom sharply eroded in Greece during the economic and financial crisis of 2010–2015, passing from the 35th place in 2009 in Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index to the 99th place in 2014, well below all Western Balkans countries as well as states with repressive media policies such as Gabon, Kuwait or Liberia. Greece is today the EU member state \"where journalism and the media face their most acute crisis\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15860999",
"title": "Media of Greece",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "Press freedom sharply eroded in Greece during the economic and financial crisis of 2010–2015, passing from the 35th place in 2009 in Reporters Without Borders Press Freedom Index to the 99th place in 2014, well below all Western Balkans countries as well as states with repressive media policies such as Gabon, Kuwait or Liberia. Greece is today the EU member state \"where journalism and the media face their most acute crisis\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39951923",
"title": "Antisemitism in Greece",
"section": "Section::::Current situation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "The Greek government debt crisis, which started in 2009, saw an increase in extremism of all kinds, including some cases of antisemitic vandalism. In 2010, the front of the Jewish Museum of Greece was defaced, for the first time ever. On Rhodes, on 26 October 2012, vandals spray-painted the city's Holocaust monument with swastikas. Partly to head off any new-found threat from extremism, thousands of Jewish and non-Jewish Greeks attended Thessaloniki's Holocaust Commemoration in March 2013. The meeting was personally addressed by Greece's prime minister, Antonis Samaras, who delivered a speech to Monastir Synagogue (Thessaloniki).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15860999",
"title": "Media of Greece",
"section": "Section::::Legislative framework.:Status and self-regulation of journalists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The journalists' job in Greece has been heavily affected by the financial crisis of the last years. With the decline in advertising revenues and circulation, many media outlets have scaled down or closed. Strikes for unpaid wages have happened more and more often.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3141fb
|
why does mac & cheese thicken as it sits?
|
[
{
"answer": "* evaporation\n* mac still sucking up water\n* fats in the cheese coagulating again",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The cheese sauce contains lipids and fats that become liquid at high temperatures and solidify when they cool (think of butter from the fridge vs room temp). In addition, the sauce contains proteins (as well as some protein from the pasta that became dissolved during cooking). These proteins when hot are create long, flexible chains that can become entangled. When the proteins cool, they become rigid, causing the \"thickening\" of the sauce. This is also why well done meat is in general tougher (especially as it cools) compared to rare or medium meat.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The pasta will also absorb some moisture from the cheese sauce.\n\nIf you're making your own mac and cheese, look into the benefits of [sodium citrate](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "256198",
"title": "String cheese",
"section": "Section::::North America.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "In the United States, string cheese generally refers to snack-sized servings of low-moisture mozzarella. This form of string cheese is roughly cylindrical, about 6 inches (15 cm) long and less than 1 inch (2.54 cm) in diameter. The common term is a \"cheese stick\" which is cut and packaged, either individually or as a package of several lengths. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36656943",
"title": "Microbial food cultures",
"section": "Section::::Function of microbial food cultures in food.:Moulds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Soft ripened cheese such as brie and camembert are made by allowing \"P. camemberti\" to grow on the outside of the cheese, which causes them to age from the outside in. The mould forms a soft white crust, and the interior becomes runny with a strong flavour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174444",
"title": "Tomme de Savoie",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "The cheese normally comes in discs approximately across, in thickness, and weighing between . It is first pressed, and then matured for several months in a traditional cellar, producing the characteristically thick rind and flavor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4818119",
"title": "Esrom",
"section": "Section::::Character.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Esrom is a porous cheese, with many small holes throughout, and is slightly elastic and buttery in texture. Commonly used as a table or melting cheese, it is also good in casseroles or sandwiches and is similar to havarti or Saint Paulin. Because of its bold flavour, it goes well with dark beers and red wines. It is slow ripened from a starting culture for a period of 10 to 12 weeks, then cured in rectangular moulds. It has a waxy yellow-brown rind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "334545",
"title": "Idiazabal cheese",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "The cheese is handmade and covered in a hard, dark brown, inedible rind. It is aged for a few months and develops a nutty, buttery flavor, eaten fresh, often with quince jam. If aged longer, it becomes firm, dry and sharp and can be used for grating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "851671",
"title": "Sbrinz",
"section": "Section::::Character.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Sbrinz is an extra hard full fat cheese. It contains approximately 40% to 45% of fat when dry. The cheese must ripen for 16 months before it can be sold as Sbrinz, and the full flavour only develops after about 24–30 months in storage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "752572",
"title": "Colby cheese",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "Colby cheese is similar to cheddar cheese but does not undergo the cheddaring process. Considered a semi-hard cheese, Colby is softer, moister, and milder than cheddar because it is produced through a washed-curd process: the whey is replaced with water during the cooking time, reducing the curd's acidity and resulting in Colby's characteristically mild flavor. As with most other cheeses, it takes more than one U.S. gallon of milk to produce a single pound of cheese (over eight liters of milk per kilogram of cheese). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fqi5bl
|
What characteristics made Sparta an environment where women could be so much more powerful, confident and autonomous than in other states of the ancient world?
|
[
{
"answer": "Spartan women do seem to have enjoyed a considerable degree of social and economic freedom as compared to other contemporary societies such as Athens. We should not overstate their power and suggest that this was an egalitarian society when it came to gender, however I think it is unfair to characterise Sparta as solely a brutal and oppressive regime. \n\nOne of the biggest factors that contributed to female empowerment in Sparta was the problem of “Oliganthropia” - this is referred to by Aristotle meaning (I think though my Ancient Greek is awful) “fewness of persons”. We are not entirely sure exactly why this became such a problem in Sparta but essentially the issue was that as Spartan society progressed the system could not produce enough citizens to replace their population - some have pointed to natural disasters and continuous Warfare in the 5th century BC (such as the earthquake that rocked Sparta in 464 BC and caused a Helot revolt) whereas others (linking to Aristotle’s original point) point to the land distribution in Sparta - because land could be inherited by both men and women and because land was not redistributed as happened in the original Lycurgan revolution some time in the 6th-7th centuries BC, over time the land “passed into fewer hands” as Aristotle tells us and “many invariably became poor”. Because in Sparta to become a full citizen you needed to be able to contribute produce from your Kleros (allotment of land) to your mess hall (which Spartan citizens were required to attend) - the result was that many Spartans could not meet the mess hall commitments and could not become citizens. Aristotle tells us that Lycurgus encouraged the begetting of children and so women became increasingly important in Sparta for this reason: firstly because they had to produce the next generation of warriors, and then when the population declined (from roughly 10,000 citizens at the start of the 5th century to 4,000 by the Peloponnesian War) their importance increased as the need for new citizens increased. This explains some of their rather odd policies such as women having multiple lovers (not husbands as the YouTube vid suggests) to encourage childbearing which may have developed into response to this decline. The importance placed on childbirth is emphasised by the fact that in Sparta to gain a headstone on your grave as a man you had to die in battle, as a woman in childbirth - both are seen as dying in service to the state. \n\nAs to what you stated in your original comment, certainly the men being away at war does contribute to their power, Aristotle says that they became independent due to their husbands’ “frequent campaigning” but this does not explain the full picture when you compare Sparta to other societies who were also at war for successive generations. As to why they exercised naked Plato suggests this is sexual in nature and essentially it was to increase the passions of the men, but Plutarch also suggests it did away with prudery - and the men exercised naked to encourage maintaining healthy bodies; so we can guess the intention was partly the same for women. Xenophon tells us the Spartans believed physically healthy mothers would produce healthy children so it was to ensure the women could endure childbirth more easily\n\nWith regards to why they enjoyed such relative freedom (such as being able to own land) in the first place a more pessimistic interpretation would be to set the bar very low and suggest the freedom they did enjoy was only impressive relative to other contemporary societies. That approach definitely has some merit: as I originally mentioned it was certainly no feminist paradise, but you need only read the quotes of Spartan women as preserved by Plutarch or the maiden songs of Spartan poet Alkman to see the Spartan women taking a fair degree of pride in their position within the Spartan system (most famously, though perhaps the reliability of the origin of the quote may be questionable the quote attributed to Gorgo when asked by an Athenian women why Spartan women are the only women to lord over their men, her response was “because we are the only ones to give birth to men”) - the evidence we do have from Sparta shows a relative degree of respect between the two sexes that is certainly surprising. \n\nThis partly could be due to the collective responsibility placed in Sparta on instilling and maintaining Spartan values within the community. Aristotle tells us that Lycurgus tried to “discipline” the women but gave up when he could not control their “considerable licence”, but Plutarch directly refuted this and he and Xenophon tell us women had a range of roles that benefitted the state beyond their primary role of bearing children. In public they informally policed Spartans on a local, we are told they would sing songs that praised the most successful Spartans and ridiculed the others to encourage competition, A Spartan nurse alongside the mother would raise the boys up to the age of 7 to prepare them for the agoge, and they would help keep a watch on the Helots, particularly whilst the men were away on campaign. Thus in order for Sparta to be successful everyone had to “buy-in” to the system so to speak; and this couldn’t be confined just to the men. Their respect and importance therefore came from the fact that they were perceived as equally important to maintaining the success of the state and its collective values.\n\n\n\nEdit: an extra paragraph and some books that may interest:\n\n\n_URL_0_ a “companion” to Women in the Ancient World which covers a broad range of studies and societies - one of which focused on the role of Spartan women as perceived by Athenian men. \n\nA companion to Sparta _URL_1_",
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"answer": "*CW: sexual violence, humiliation and oppression of women*\n\n & nbsp;\n\n**(1/2)**\n\nThere are many problems with the claims in this video. This is probably because it's based on the scholarship of Sarah Pomeroy (1975), who broke new ground by studying Ancient Greek women in their own right, but mostly did so in an excessively optimistic way that isn't very well supported by the sources. More recent work is more careful in its judgment of the position of Spartan citizen women. The main source for this answer is Ellen Millender's chapter on the subject in Anton Powell's *Companion to Sparta* (2018).\n\nThe critical point is that the supposedly liberated and empowered position of citizen women in Sparta is part of the so-called \"Spartan mirage\", the fictional version of Sparta imagined by outsiders in the centuries after Sparta had faded as a prominent state in the Greek world. In that sense the myth of the powerful Spartan woman is as little grounded in fact as the myth of the invincible Spartan warrior or the myth of a moneyless society that cared only about honour and valour in combat. This is not what Sparta *was* but what others *liked it to be*. All of these concepts make Sparta into the Other against which outsiders could contrast their own societies. But the way in which Sparta was sketched as different wasn't always the same. Where non-Spartans painted Sparta as the perfectly ordered society in order to push ideas about education and virtue, they painted Spartan women as free and licentious in order to warn others about the corruption that came with the notion of women's rights. They leered at the bodies of “thigh-flashing” Spartan girls and characterised them as promiscuous and unfaithful. They ascribed the downfall of their great society to the greed and political power of women.\n\nTo get at the truth about Spartan women, we need to try and get behind this moralistic agenda of our sources. The real question is not \"What made Spartan women better off?\" but rather \"Were Spartan women really better off?\"\n\nFirst of all, of course, I should stress that I’m referring here to the very select group of Spartiate citizen women. Spartan society included many groups that were excluded from power, and while we know virtually nothing about the status of women in those groups, we can assume that they would be no better off than subordinate groups elsewhere in the Greek world. The freeborn but disenfranchised *perioikoi* likely upheld laws similar to those of other Greeks; the unfree helots were an enslaved labour force, and both men and women were subject to the outrageously violent whims of their Spartiate oppressors. When we speak of Spartan women being better off, we are talking only about those who were born as citizens, the children of citizen parents – at most a few thousand women, at the height of Spartan power, in a population of a few hundred thousand.\n\nAnd even when we’re talking only about these women, in most ways the answer to our question is No. From what we can tell, where the married life of elite Spartan women was different from the lives of women elsewhere in the Greek world, it was actually worse. In Sparta as elsewhere, citizen women were primarily regarded as baby factories, whose primary duty as citizens was the production of more citizens. Women grew up under the control of a male guardian (their father or close male relative) who decided on their behalf to whom and when they would be married. They had no say in their choice of husband. After the wedding, their husband became their new guardian. They could not instigate divorce. But Spartan customs made this whole experience even more difficult. The [particularly traumatic Spartan marriage ceremony](_URL_0_) involved women having their heads shaved and being dressed as men, since their husband's sexual experience up to that point would have been exclusively with boys, and the idea of having sex with a woman might scare them. And the Spartan rule that younger men had to spend their days with their messmates meant that husbands and wives might not actually see each other in daylight until years into their marriage.\n\nThe linked answer above further discusses the wife-sharing practices that Spartans introduced, either to increase the number of babies or to concentrate inheritances; in each case, control of the woman's sexuality was entirely in the hands of men, with the woman having no freedom of choice and no ability to protest her guardian's decisions. In other words, women were not “permitted to have two husbands”, as you put it. Rather, two (or more) Spartan men were permitted the use of the reproductive capacity of one woman. There is really no way to spin this as a matter of female empowerment (though Xenophon tries, by claiming that women enjoy the opportunity to run two households at the same time). As far as we know, the practice was unique to Sparta.\n\nIt is true that the life of Spartan *girls* was different. Their unique upbringing prompted many comments from ancient authors on the fact that they “wore revealing clothes and often did sports naked in the presence of men”, as you say. But, first of all, these things applied only to girls preparing for the transition to womanhood. As far as we know, Spartan women stopped doing exercise once they got married, and were expected to live indoors like the wives of other Greeks. Secondly, they would only have been a *part* of the girls’ upbringing, the rest of which would have focused on learning to spin and weave and other things common to girls’ education in other Greek states. Thirdly and most importantly, we may wonder if the athletic exercises should be seen as a form of liberation or empowerment. After all, they were not optional, nor were they private. We can therefore interpret the practice in different ways. There is a world of difference between “girls were allowed to go out in public wearing little to nothing and do sports” and “young girls were forced to give evidence of the strength and beauty of their bodies by exercising naked while closely observed by teenage boys and adult men.” \n\nWe should never forget that the purpose of making girls exercise, as several sources attest, was eugenic. Spartans believed that strong and healthy women produced strong and healthy babies. In other words, girls did not exercise because it was fun, or because they wanted to; it was not a right they claimed for themselves but a duty that was imposed on them. They did it in order to meet the demands of the state, and they were constantly scrutinised and held to account for the extent to which they lived up to Spartan standards. Plutarch adds that their public performance was also intended to “encourage young men to desire marriage”, which is a really euphemistic way to phrase the way teenage boys typically react to the sight of lightly dressed or even naked teenage girls. It cannot be stressed enough, then, that girls’ sports at Sparta were not a matter of women doing what they wanted. They were part state-enforced eugenics and part striptease, and girls had no choice but to take part in it. The only perk was that they got to return the leering and vicious criticism of male bodies when the boys did their performative athletics in turn.\n\n**(continued below)**",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "47634469",
"title": "List of ancient great powers",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Europe.:Ancient Greece.:Sparta.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 136,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 136,
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"text": "In later Classical times, Sparta along with Athens, Thebes and Persia had been the main regional powers fighting for supremacy against each other. As a result of the Peloponnesian War, Sparta, a traditionally continental culture, became a naval power. At the peak of her power, she subdued many of the key Greek states and even managed to overpower the powerful Athenian navy. By the end of the 5th century, she stood out as a state which had defeated at war both the Persian and Athenian Empires, a period which marks the Spartan Hegemony.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "25901867",
"title": "Women in ancient Sparta",
"section": "Section::::Matriarchal duties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "unlike in the rest of Greece. Aristotle also criticised Spartan women for their wealth. He attributed the state's precipitous fall during his lifetime, from being the master of Greece to a second-rate power in less than 50 years, to the fact that Sparta had become a gynocracy whose women were intemperate and loved luxury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "25901867",
"title": "Women in ancient Sparta",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 561,
"text": "Spartan women were famous in ancient Greece for having more freedom than elsewhere in the Greek world. To contemporaries outside of Sparta, Spartan women had a reputation for promiscuity and controlling their husbands. Unlike their Athenian counterparts, Spartan women could legally own and inherit property and they were usually better educated. The extant written sources are limited and from a largely non-Spartan viewpoint. As Anton Powell puts it, to say that the written sources are \"'not without problems'... as an understatement would be hard to beat\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19375990",
"title": "History of Sparta",
"section": "Section::::5th century BC.:Persian Wars.:Battle of Mycale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "In later Classical times, Sparta along with Athens, Thebes, and Persia had been the main powers fighting for supremacy against each other. As a result of the Peloponnesian War, Sparta, a traditionally continental culture, became a naval power. At the peak of its power Sparta subdued many of the key Greek states and even managed to overpower the elite Athenian navy. By the end of the 5th century BC, it stood out as a state which had defeated the Athenian Empire and had invaded the Persian provinces in Anatolia, a period which marks the Spartan Hegemony.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36487",
"title": "Sparta",
"section": "Section::::Role of women.:Political, social, and economic equality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Spartan women acquired so much wealth that in Aristotle’s analysis of the laws and history of Sparta he attributed its precipitous fall (which happened during his lifetime) from being the master of Greece to a second rate power in less than 50 years to the fact that Sparta had become a gynecocracy whose intemperate women loved luxury. These tendencies became worse after the huge influx of wealth following the Spartan victory of the Peloponnesian War, leading to the eventual downfall of Sparta.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25901867",
"title": "Women in ancient Sparta",
"section": "Section::::Matriarchal duties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "All Spartan women, not just the richest, would have taken advantage of helot labour to perform the domestic tasks that elsewhere in Greece would have fallen to free women. Activities such as weaving which were considered women's work elsewhere in Greece were not considered fit for free women in Sparta. Therefore, women were more preoccupied with governance, agriculture, logistics and other sustenance tasks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13298",
"title": "Hoplite",
"section": "Section::::History.:Sparta.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Sparta is one of the most famous city-states, along with Athens, which had a unique position in ancient Greece. Contrary to other city states, the free citizens of Sparta served as hoplites their entire life, training and exercising also in peacetime, which gave Sparta a professional standing army. Often small, numbering around 6000 at its peak to no more than 1000 soldiers at lowest point, divided into six mora or battalions, the Spartan army was feared for its discipline and ferocity. Military service was the primary duty of Spartan men, and Spartan society was organized around its army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
276ty7
|
During the American Civil War were the tactics used really as far behind the technology as stated in many documentaries?
|
[
{
"answer": "The mass fire tactics used with muskets with ball shot were developed in part because of the relative inaccuracy of a single shot from the weapons. The development of the minie ball made each individual capable of hitting his target over 100 yards away. So you go from people shooting at masses of people and *hoping* that they might hit *something* to masses of people who all can hit within around 12 inches of what they are aiming at *every time.* \n\nBefore the minie ball each grouping of men was like a giant shotgun with each man shooting one of the balls in the hopes that enough would hit to cause some damage. Now each SOLDIER is capable of doing the damage that it might have taken up to 10 (maybe more depending on the range) soldiers to inflict.\n\nI found the following article to be a decent synopsis of the minie ball's effect.\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "360126",
"title": "Union Army",
"section": "Section::::Army administration and issues.:Military tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "The Civil War drove many innovations in military tactics. W. J. Hardee published the first revised infantry tactics for use with modern rifles in 1855. However, even these tactics proved ineffective in combat, as it involved massed volley fire, in which entire units (primarily regiments) would fire simultaneously. These tactics had not been tested before in actual combat, and the commanders of these units would post their soldiers at incredibly close range, compared to the range of the rifled musket, which led to very high mortality rates. In a sense, the weapons had evolved beyond the tactics, which would soon change as the war drew to a close. Railroads provided the first mass movement of troops. The electric telegraph was used by both sides, which enabled political and senior military leaders to pass orders to and receive reports from commanders in the field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50502333",
"title": "Armies in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Tactics.:Later war tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 159,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 159,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "The most significant tactical innovation in the Civil War was the widespread use of field fortifications after armies realized the tactical offensive's heavy cost. It did not take long for the deadly firepower of the rifle musket to convince soldiers to entrench every time they halted. Eventually, armies dug complete trenches within an hour of halting in a position. Within 24 hours, armies could create defensive works that were nearly impregnable to frontal assaults. The Overland Campaign, probably more than any other campaign in the Civil War, demonstrated the efficacy of field entrenchments. Both sides, particularly the numerically inferior Confederates, made extensive use of entrenchments at every battle in the campaign. In this respect, the development of field fortifications during the American Civil War was a clear forerunner of the kind of trench warfare that came to dominate World War I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2916377",
"title": "James Wallace Black",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Almost immediately, aerial reconnaissance would be put to use by the Union and Confederate Armies during the American Civil War, though there is no credible evidence that aerial photography was successful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "182259",
"title": "Trench warfare",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Field works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "North American armies employed field works in the American Civil War (1861–1865) — most notably in the sieges of Vicksburg (1863) and Petersburg (1864–1865), the latter of which saw the first use by the Union Army of the rapid-fire Gatling gun, the important precursor to modern-day machine guns. Trenches also featured in the Paraguayan War (which started in 1864), the Second Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902), and the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5121363",
"title": "Battle of Fada",
"section": "Section::::Battle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "This was one of the first major combat victories employing the tactic of using light trucks armed with machine guns or rockets, later known as \"technicals.\" This tactic mirrored the actions of the raids conducted by the Long Range Desert Group of World War II, but on a slightly smaller scale theater, against slightly less numerous enemies, but with more modern weaponry and equipment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92357",
"title": "Military",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "As the speed of technological advances accelerated in civilian applications, so too warfare became more industrialized. The newly invented machine gun and repeating rifle redefined firepower on the battlefield, and, in part, explains the high casualty rates of the American Civil War. The next breakthrough was the conversion of artillery parks from the muzzle loading guns, to the quicker loading breech loading guns with recoiling barrel that allowed quicker aimed fire and use of a shield. The widespread introduction of low smoke (smokeless) propellant powders since the 1880s also allowed for a great improvement of artillery ranges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "360126",
"title": "Union Army",
"section": "Section::::Army administration and issues.:Military tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "There were many other innovations brought by necessity. Generals were forced to reexamine the offensive minded tactics developed during the Mexican–American War where attackers could mass to within 100 yards of the defensive lines, the maximum effective range of smoothbore muskets. Attackers would have to endure one volley of inaccurate smoothbore musket fire before they could close with the defenders. But by the Civil War, the smoothbores had been replaced with rifled muskets, using the quick loadable minié ball, with accurate ranges up to 900 yards. Defense now dominated the battlefield. Now attackers, whether advancing in ordered lines or by rushes, were subjected to three or four aimed volleys before they could get among the defenders. This made offensive tactics that were successful only 20 years before nearly obsolete.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dzznai
|
does keeping my phone plugged in hurt the battery, and what is the best charging practice to keep my battery at maximum efficiency?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's pretty easy:\n\n* Don't let it run out, that's really bad for it.\n* Avoid using fast charging unless you need it\n* Keep it cool, so for instance don't leave it in a hot car or in bright sunlight.\n\nOther than that, there's little you can do for a phone battery because unlike laptops they're in constant use and these days mostly non-removable. So if you're not plugging it in, then you're running from the battery, and that causes wear.",
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"answer": "A lithium battery is happiest when it's cool and between 20% and 80% state of charge. So ideally you would slow-charge it to keep the temperature down, unplug it at 80% and plug it back in before it gets too low.\n\nLeaving it plugged in isn't great because it means you're charging it to 100%, but it's not really any worse than charging it to 100% and then unplugging it. All phones will stop charging automatically once they reach 100%, whether it's plugged in or not.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "2885000",
"title": "Battery charger",
"section": "Section::::Prolonging battery life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Which electrical practices, and so which charger, are best suited for use depending entirely on the type of battery. NiCd cells must be fully discharged occasionally, or else the battery loses capacity over time due to a phenomenon known as \"memory effect.\" Once a month (perhaps once every 30 charges) is sometimes recommended. This extends the life of the battery since memory effect is prevented while avoiding full charge cycles which are known to be hard on all types of dry-cell batteries, eventually resulting in a permanent decrease in battery capacity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2885000",
"title": "Battery charger",
"section": "Section::::Prolonging battery life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 1325,
"text": "Most modern cell phones, laptops, and most electric vehicles use Lithium-ion batteries. These batteries last longest if the battery is frequently charged; fully discharging the cells will degrade their capacity relatively quickly, but most such batteries are used in equipment which can sense the approach of fill discharge and discontinue equipment use. When stored after charging, lithium battery cells degrade more while fully charged than if they are only 40-50% charged. As with all battery types, degradation also occurs faster at higher temperatures. Degradation in lithium-ion batteries is caused by an increased internal battery resistance often due to cell oxidation. This decreases the efficiency of the battery, resulting in less net current available to be drawn from the battery. However, if Li-ION cells are discharged below a certain voltage a chemical reaction occurs that make them dangerous if recharged, which is why many such batteries in consumer goods now have an \"electronic fuse\" that permanently disables them if the voltage falls below a set level. The electronic fuse circuitry draws a small amount of current from the battery, which means that if a laptop battery is left for a long time without charging it, and with a very low initial state of charge, the battery may be permanently destroyed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42601555",
"title": "Research in lithium-ion batteries",
"section": "Section::::Design and management.:Charging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "In 2014, researchers at Qnovo developed software for a smartphone and a computer chip capable of speeding up re-charge time by a factor of 3-6, while also increasing cycle durability. The technology is able to understand how the battery needs to be charged most effectively, while avoiding the formation of dendrites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53333461",
"title": "Sony Xperia XZs",
"section": "Section::::Battery.:Battery Care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "It also comes with Battery Care, Sony's proprietary charging algorithm, that controls the charging process of the phone through machine learning. It recognizes the user's charging habits for a certain period and automatically adjusts itself to the pattern, for example an overnight charge, by stopping the initial charging to about 90 percent, and then continuing it until full from where it left off the next day. This effectively prevents the unnecessary damage to the battery's cells from excessive heat and current due to overcharging, further increasing the battery's life span.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50090755",
"title": "Bluetooth low energy beacon",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Battery powered.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "older phones tend to draw more battery power in the vicinity of iBeacons, while the newer phones can be more efficient in the same environment. In addition to the time spent by the phone scanning, number of scans and number of beacons in the vicinity are also significant factors for battery drain, as pointed out by the Aislelabs report. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4271980",
"title": "Motorola E815",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "The E815 as well as the E816 variant used on the ill-fated Amp'd Mobile network both suffered from flawed internal battery charger software causing difficulties in charging the phone's battery. As a result, users had to resort to external battery chargers in order to continue to use the phone due to the internal charger's growing inability to function over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3988774",
"title": "ChargeBox",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "ChargeBoxes allow the users of mobile devices to recharge them while away from home or the office. A YouGov survey conducted in June 2006 found that 61% of under-30-year-olds had run out of battery power on their mobiles while out and about within the previous month. Also, 48% of under-30-year-olds said that they had been in situations when they had wanted to use the features on their phones, but had refrained from doing so for fear of running out of battery power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
323xwx
|
Why did Musket and bayonet era troops (1600-1800+) Why bright colorful clothes? most notably the British redcoats?
|
[
{
"answer": "[There are](_URL_0_) [several](_URL_2_) [answers about this](_URL_1_) [in the past](_URL_3_). I'd recommend going through them. If you have any other follow up questions, I'll be happy to answer but the simple answer is that they're like that to create a regimental unity and to show which side they're on.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "294731",
"title": "Musketeer",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Britain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "The iconic \"Redcoat\" of the British Empire was the staple unit in the British armies that created the largest empire in history. The British infantryman was equipped with the .75 calibre Land Pattern Musket, or Brown Bess. He was well trained by the standards of the time, training with live ammunition. A fully trained redcoat could fire four times a minute. This, combined with the technique of firing by companies (a method wherein blocks of men fired smaller volleys in succession, creating a wave of fire down the front of the regiment), made it possible for the British musketeer to win pitched battles against superior numbers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "23888587",
"title": "Sharpshooter",
"section": "Section::::History.:Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1025,
"text": "Another use of units of marksmen was during the Napoleonic Wars in the British Army. While most troops at that time used inaccurate smoothbore muskets, the British \"Green Jackets\" (named for their distinctive green uniforms) used the famous Baker rifle. Through the combination of a leather wad and tight grooves on the inside of the barrel (rifling), this weapon was far more accurate, though slower to load. These Riflemen were the elite of the British Army, and served at the forefront of any engagement, most often in skirmish formation, scouting out and delaying the enemy. Another term; \"sharp shooter\", was in use in British newspapers as early as 1801. In the \"Edinburgh Advertiser\", 23 June 1801, can be found the following quote in a piece about the North British Militia; \"This Regiment has several Field Pieces, and two companies of Sharp Shooters, which are very necessary in the modern \"Stile of War\". The term appears even earlier, around 1781, in Continental Europe, translated from the German Scharfschütze.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7945090",
"title": "Service Dress (British Army)",
"section": "Section::::Khaki.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "In many actions during the latter half of the nineteenth century, the bright red tunics worn by British infantry regiments had proved to be a liability, especially when faced by enemies armed with new rifles firing smokeless cartridges (this had been exacerbated by the white carrying equipment worn by the line infantry, the cross straps of which formed an X on the soldier's chest).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "329210",
"title": "First Boer War",
"section": "Section::::1880–81 war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1080,
"text": "The British infantry uniforms at that date were red jackets, dark blue trousers with red piping on the side, white pith helmets and pipe clayed equipment, a stark contrast to the African landscape. The Highlanders wore the kilt. The standard infantry weapon was the Martini-Henry single-shot breech-loading rifle with a long sword bayonet. Gunners of the Royal Artillery wore blue jackets. The Boer marksmen could easily snipe at British troops from a distance. The Boers carried no bayonets, leaving them at a substantial disadvantage in close combat, which they avoided as often as possible. Drawing on years of experience of fighting frontier skirmishes with numerous and indigenous African tribes, they relied more on mobility, stealth, marksmanship and initiative while the British emphasised the traditional military values of command, discipline, formation and synchronised firepower. The average British soldier was not trained to be a marksman and got little target practice. What shooting training British soldiers had was mainly as a unit firing in volleys on command.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3123693",
"title": "Full dress uniform",
"section": "Section::::Full dress uniform by country.:United Kingdom.:British Army.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "Most of the various uniforms worn by the British Army today originate in former combat uniforms. At the start of the 19th century, British Army Regiments of Foot, trained to fight in the manner dictated by a weapon (the musket) which demanded close proximity to the target, were not concerned with camouflage, and wore red coats (scarlet for officers and sergeants). Rifle regiments, fighting as skirmishers, and equipped with rifles, were more concerned with concealment however, and wore dark green uniforms. Light Infantry regiments were also trained as skirmishers but wore red uniforms with green shakos. Whereas the infantry generally wore polished brass buttons and white carrying equipment, the Rifles wore black.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28123",
"title": "Sniper",
"section": "Section::::Military history.:1701-1800.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1029,
"text": "A special unit of marksmen was established during the Napoleonic Wars in the British Army. While most troops at that time used inaccurate smoothbore muskets, the British \"Green Jackets\" (named for their distinctive green uniforms) used the famous Baker rifle. Through the combination of a leather wad and tight grooves on the inside of the barrel (rifling), this weapon was far more accurate, though slower to load. These Riflemen were the elite of the British Army, and served at the forefront of any engagement, most often in skirmish formation, scouting out and delaying the enemy. Another term, \"sharp shooter\" was in use in British newspapers as early as 1801. In the \"Edinburgh Advertiser\", 23 June 1801, can be found the following quote in a piece about the North British Militia; \"This Regiment has several Field Pieces, and two companies of Sharp Shooters, which are very necessary in the modern Stile of War\". The term appears even earlier, around 1781, in Continental Europe, translated from the German Scharfschütze.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3182045",
"title": "Coalition forces of the Napoleonic Wars",
"section": "Section::::British Forces.:Infantry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Gaining experience under the Duke of Wellington in the Peninsular War and forged into a disciplined, honed weapon of war, they advanced to become a very prominent force in the Napoleonic Wars. The redcoats, as they were called, principally employed tactics such as disciplined platoon fire and (sometimes) bayonet charges and saw much success through these methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ft7et
|
Why is Michigan one state and not two separate, smaller, states?
|
[
{
"answer": "This was asked and answered last week: [Why is Michigan's Upper Peninsula part of Michigan and not part of Wisconsin (or even its own state)?](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just FYI, your \"small gap\" is spanned by a bridge approximately 26,000 feet long. It's actually the third longest suspension bridge in the world.\n\nI totally understand your point about the \"smaller waterways\" thing, but the Mackinac Straits [aren't actually all that small.](_URL_0_)\n\nEdit: added image",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've been a Michigan resident all my life; born and raised near Detroit and currently live in the UP, I'm surprised to see this on r/AskHistorians.\n\nThe lower peninsula is well off economically, both in terms of population (and thus tax base) and varied job fields. The UP, in contrast, is mostly logging and mining (along with tourism), with a few universities thrown in there as well (Finlandia, Michigan Tech, Northern Michigan). There have been various movements for the UP to break away and form it's own state (\"Superior\"), but the UP lacks the economic diversity and tax base to make any legitimate movement towards statehood.\n\nAnd the Mackinac Bridge is (or is nearly) five miles long, so the straits between St. Ignace and Mackinaw City are quite large.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16829164",
"title": "Government of Michigan",
"section": "Section::::Local government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Michigan is largely divided in the same way as many other U.S. states, but is distinct in its usage of charter townships. Michigan ranks 13th among the 50 states in terms of the number of local governmental entities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11348282",
"title": "Administrative divisions of Michigan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "The state of Michigan is largely divided in the same way as many other U.S. states, but is distinct in its usage of charter townships. Michigan ranks 13th among the fifty states in terms of the number of local governmental entities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "236034",
"title": "List of municipalities in Michigan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Michigan is a state located in the Midwestern United States. According to the 2010 United States Census, Michigan is the 8th most populous state with inhabitants but the 22nd largest by land area spanning of land. Michigan is divided into 83 counties and contains 533 incorporated municipalities consisting of cities and villages. Specifically, Michigan has 276 cities, 257 villages, and 1,240 townships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18859",
"title": "Michigan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Michigan () is a state in the Great Lakes and Midwestern regions of the United States. The state's name, Michigan, originates from the Ojibwe word \"mishigamaa\", meaning \"large water\" or \"large lake\". With a population of about 10 million, Michigan is the tenth most populous of the 50 United States, with the 11th most extensive total area, and is the largest state by total area east of the Mississippi River. Its capital is Lansing, and its largest city is Detroit. Metro Detroit is among the nation's most populous and largest metropolitan economies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18859",
"title": "Michigan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "Michigan is the only state to consist of two peninsulas. The Lower Peninsula is often noted as being shaped like a mitten. The Upper Peninsula (often called \"the U.P.\") is separated from the Lower Peninsula by the Straits of Mackinac, a channel that joins Lake Huron to Lake Michigan. The Mackinac Bridge connects the peninsulas. The state has the longest freshwater coastline of any political subdivision in the world, being bounded by four of the five Great Lakes, plus Lake Saint Clair. As a result, it is one of the leading U.S. states for recreational boating. Michigan also has 64,980 inland lakes and ponds. A person in the state is never more than from a natural water source or more than from a Great Lakes shoreline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16766935",
"title": "Geography of Michigan",
"section": "Section::::Great Lakes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "The Great Lakes that border Michigan from east to west are Lake Erie, Lake Huron, Lake Michigan, and Lake Superior. Because of the lakes, Michigan has more lighthouses than any other state. The state is bounded on the south by the states of Ohio and Indiana, sharing land and water boundaries with both.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17948",
"title": "Lake Michigan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Lake Michigan is one of the five Great Lakes of North America and the only one located entirely within the United States. It is the second-largest of the Great Lakes by volume () and the third-largest by surface area (), after Lake Superior and Lake Huron (and is slightly smaller than the U.S. state of West Virginia). To the east, its basin is conjoined with that of Lake Huron through the wide Straits of Mackinac, giving it the same surface elevation as its easterly counterpart; the two are technically a single lake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2izv71
|
Did any non-European powers ever engage in colonialism or become an overseas power?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, absolutely. Since I assume you're referring to the 'age of imperialism', the first and foremost example would be Japan.\n\nThroughout the Tokugawa Shogunate, from 1600-the mid 1800s, Japan had been in relative self-imposed isolation. Large scale trade continued with other east-asian countries, most prominently Korea and China (though the latter was, from China's perspective, illegal). The only contact with Europeans was through a small, tightly monitored trade post in Nagasaki that was granted to the Dutch. The reason for all of this was, largely, to keep out Christianity, as well as to maintain control over the various semi-autonomous realms within Japan (the Tokugawa system is complicated, and deserves its own question) by preventing them from getting outside help.\n\nHowever, despite the very small amount of Western contact, there was still some knowledge of the west. This came primarily in the form of scientific and medical knowledge maintained by a group of scholars who studied 'Rangaku', or 'Dutch Studies'. The main focuses lay in things like gunnery or science that could be practical for defense or other purposes.\n\nUltimately, Japan was coerced into opening more to Westerners over the course of roughly a decade and a half following the arrival of US Commodore Perry in 1853. Over the next fifteen years several ports were opened to western trade. The reaction to this in Japan, though, ultimately led to the downfall of the already declining Tokugawa system and the restoration of the Emperor as the center of power (again, this is a lot of history that could go into another question). The ensuing period is known as the Meiji Restoration, and though many of its initial sentiments were reactionary and anti-western, the leaders at the time realized that the best way to combat the west was to adopt its technology and, ultimately, a lot of its culture and institutions.\n\nJapan began a rapid period of industrialization over the next few decades, overhauling its entire social and governmental structure.\n\nDuring this era, imperialism and the acquisition of colonies was seen by many as the epitome of an advanced nation, and further it would allow Japan to project its power beyond its borders. The first full on act came with the First Sino-Japanese war from 1894-95 in which Japan stunned much of the world by soundly defeating Qing Dynasty China. The result of this was the acquisition of Taiwan (then called Formosa), along with some other territories, and further it moved Korea from the Chinese sphere of influence into the Japanese.\n\nAnother major indicator of Japan's rising power came during the Boxer Rebellion in China, an uprising against rising western control. Japan was included among the 'Eight-Nation Alliance' that put down the rebellion.\n\nJapan's first war against a European power came in 1904 when the Russo-Japanese war broke out. The impetus for the conflict was, essentially, conflicting interests around Manchuria and Korea. Japan struck first and, by the end of the war, had soundly defeated Russia by annihilating both Russia's far east and Baltic fleets, and also winning a handful of costly land battles. The end result was a massive increase in Japan's prestige, as well as some territorial gains.\n\nFive years later Japan formally annexed Korea and would hold it for the next 35 years until the end of World War II.\n\nAfter World War I, where Japan had fought with the Allies in both conquering Germany's far east colonies and also in some minor Mediterranean actions, the Washington Naval Treaty set strict guidelines on the size of various navies. Under the treaty terms, Japan would have the third-highest number of battleships in the world, after only the US and Great Britain, and furthermore their fleet was concentrated in one ocean, unlike the two larger navies.\n\nJapan's government ultimately became more militaristic and, in the 1930s, went to war with China, first conquering Manchuria and then continuing to push inward. This and other actions led the US to cut off oil exports to Japan, a major catalyst for Japan's greater involvement in the Second World War.\n\nDuring WWII, Japan for a short time controlled not only most of the Pacific, but also a large chunk of China (including major cities such as Beijing and Shanghai), and a sizeable amount of Southeast Asia stretching through Burma (now Myanmar).\n\nSo yes, Japan was a perfect example of a non-European power. IF you're interested, I'd highly recommend *The Making of Modern Japan* by Ken Pyle, or, for an interesting read from one of the foremost Western oriented thinkers in early-modern Japan, the autobiography of Yukichi Fukuzawa (though it really only covers the late Tokugawa era and Japan's early push into Westernization).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16910381",
"title": "Portugal–Spain relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:1930s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "While the other European colonial powers, such as France, Britain and the Netherlands, gave up their colonial empires in the post-war years, both Spain and Portugal clung to their possessions around the globe. Portugal fought a costly colonial war in Africa and in 1961 saw its territory of Goa invaded by India. Despite their apparent mutual self-interest, there was very little co-operation between Spain and Portugal when it came to defending their empires.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19283955",
"title": "History of Brazil",
"section": "Section::::Early Brazil.:Sugar Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1556,
"text": "During the first 150 years of the colonial period, attracted by the vast natural resources and untapped land, other European powers tried to establish colonies in several parts of Brazilian territory, in defiance of the papal bull (\"Inter caetera\") and the Treaty of Tordesillas, which had divided the New World into two parts between Portugal and Spain. French colonists tried to settle in present-day Rio de Janeiro, from 1555 to 1567 (the so-called France Antarctique episode), and in present-day São Luís, from 1612 to 1614 (the so-called France Équinoxiale). Jesuits arrived early and established São Paulo, evangelising the natives. These native allies of the Jesuits assisted the Portuguese in driving out the French. The unsuccessful Dutch intrusion into Brazil was longer lasting and more troublesome to Portugal (Dutch Brazil). Dutch privateers began by plundering the coast: they sacked Bahia in 1604, and even temporarily captured the capital Salvador. From 1630 to 1654, the Dutch set up more permanently in the northwest and controlled a long stretch of the coast most accessible to Europe, without, however, penetrating the interior. But the colonists of the Dutch West India Company in Brazil were in a constant state of siege, in spite of the presence in Recife of John Maurice of Nassau as governor. After several years of open warfare, the Dutch withdrew by 1654. Little French and Dutch cultural and ethnic influences remained of these failed attempts, but the Portuguese subsequently attempted to defend its coastline more vigorously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52447",
"title": "European colonization of the Americas",
"section": "Section::::Early conquests, claims and colonies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Other European nations soon disputed the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas. England and France attempted to plant colonies in the Americas in the 16th century, but these failed. England and France succeeded in establishing permanent colonies in the following century, along with the Dutch Republic. Some of these were on Caribbean islands, which had often already been conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by disease, while others were in eastern North America, which had not been colonized by Spain north of Florida.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10158",
"title": "Empire",
"section": "Section::::History of imperialism.:Colonial empires.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1271,
"text": "In the 15th century, Castile (Spain) landing in the so-called \"New World\" (first, the Americas, and later Australia), along with Portuguese travels around the Cape of Good Hope and along the coast of Africa bordering the southeast Indian Ocean, proved ripe opportunities for the continent's Renaissance-era monarchies to establish colonial empires like those of the ancient Romans and Greeks. In the Old World, colonial imperialism was attempted and established on the Canary Islands and Ireland. These conquered lands and people became \"de jure\" subordinates of the empire, rather than \"de facto\" imperial territories and subjects. Such subjugation often elicited \"client-state\" resentment that the empire unwisely ignored, leading to the collapse of the European colonial imperial system in the late 19th century and the early and mid-20th century. Portuguese discovery of Newfoundland in the New World gave way to many expeditions led by England (later Britain), Spain, France, and the Dutch Republic. In the 18th century, the Spanish Empire was at its height because of the great mass of goods taken from conquered territory in the Americas (nowadays Mexico, parts of the United States, the Caribbean, most of Central America, and South America) and the Philippines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4305070",
"title": "History of Western civilization",
"section": "Section::::Fall of the western empires: 1945–1999.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 221,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 221,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "The loss of overseas colonies partly also led many Western nations, particularly in continental Europe, to focus more on European, rather than global, politics as the European Union rose as an important entity. Though gone, the colonial empires left a formidable cultural and political legacy, with English, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian and Dutch being spoken by peoples across far flung corners of the globe. European technologies were now global technologies – religions like Catholicism and Anglicanism, founded in the West, were booming in post colonial Africa and Asia. Parliamentary (or presidential) democracies, as well as rival Communist style one party states invented in the West had replaced traditional monarchies and tribal government models across the globe. Modernity, for many, was equated with Westernisation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75804",
"title": "Jamestown, Virginia",
"section": "Section::::Settlement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Spain, Portugal, and France moved quickly to establish a presence in the New World, while other European countries moved more slowly. The English did not attempt to found colonies until many decades after the explorations of John Cabot, and early efforts were failures—most notably the Roanoke Colony which vanished about 1590.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59664954",
"title": "Grenadian Creole French",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "The first successful settlement by a western colonial power was in Grenada in 1650, when the French from Martinique established friendly contact with the native Caribs. The french had no ruling power or influence on the island or the population, it was the British Empire took control of the island in the 17th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ms4iy
|
why is there cotton in various medication containers?
|
[
{
"answer": "Probably so that a *mostly* full bottle of aspirin doesn't rattle so much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "pills bad when wet, cotton absorbs water.\npills bad when broken, cotton absorbs shock.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As my father said it when I was young:\n\nSo blacks would be reminded that they picked cotton before they sold drugs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Older pills used to be more delicate, and couldnt survive transport. This is why not all pills use cotton nowadays. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1) Soak up moisture.\n2) Make sure the bottle doesn't make a rattling noise.\n3) More protection for the pills so they don't break.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a form of packing. They are usually just used for powder tablet bottles. Like asprin rather than gel tablets. Powder tablets rub against each other slowing grinding away. The cotton reduces movement so the pills stay the same size. \n\nThere might also be something about water absorption but I'm not sure of that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I heard it's to remind white people they used to enslave Africans to pick cotton before they started getting high on prescription drugs like Adderal, Xanax and Oxycontin. \n\nSeems like an odd and esoteric thing for pharmaceutical companies to engage in but there you go. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably so that a *mostly* full bottle of aspirin doesn't rattle so much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "pills bad when wet, cotton absorbs water.\npills bad when broken, cotton absorbs shock.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As my father said it when I was young:\n\nSo blacks would be reminded that they picked cotton before they sold drugs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Older pills used to be more delicate, and couldnt survive transport. This is why not all pills use cotton nowadays. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1) Soak up moisture.\n2) Make sure the bottle doesn't make a rattling noise.\n3) More protection for the pills so they don't break.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a form of packing. They are usually just used for powder tablet bottles. Like asprin rather than gel tablets. Powder tablets rub against each other slowing grinding away. The cotton reduces movement so the pills stay the same size. \n\nThere might also be something about water absorption but I'm not sure of that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I heard it's to remind white people they used to enslave Africans to pick cotton before they started getting high on prescription drugs like Adderal, Xanax and Oxycontin. \n\nSeems like an odd and esoteric thing for pharmaceutical companies to engage in but there you go. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1259351",
"title": "Bed sheet",
"section": "Section::::Materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Cotton and cotton blends dominate the market. The most common blend being cotton and polyester. Cotton provides absorbency and a soft hand, while polyester adds durability and wrinkle resistance. Other common fibers used in the manufacturing of bed sheets include linen, silk, Modal and bamboo rayon, lyocell, and polypropylene. Polypropylene (olefin) is a hypoallergenic spun-bound material produced at a low cost and typically used in emergency shelters or hospitals as disposable sheeting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8598906",
"title": "Pharmaceutical formulation",
"section": "Section::::Stages and timeline.:Container closure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Formulated drugs are stored in container closure systems for extended periods of time. These include blisters, bottles, vials, ampules, syringes, and cartridges. The containers can be made from a variety of materials including glass, plastic, and metal. The drug may be stored as a solid, liquid, or gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22782543",
"title": "Pill (textile)",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "In general longer fibers pill less than short ones because there are fewer ends of fibers, and because it is harder for the longer fibers to work themselves out of the cloth. Fabrics with a large number of loose fibers have a higher tendency to pill. Also, knitted fabrics tend to pill more than woven fabrics, because of the greater distance between yarn crossings in knitted fabrics than in woven ones. For the same reason, a tightly knitted object will pill less than a loosely knitted one. When a fabric is made of a blend of fibers where one fibre is significantly stronger than the other, pills tend to form as the weaker fibre wears and breaks, and the stronger fibre holds the pills onto the cloth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45585091",
"title": "Turlington's Balsam",
"section": "Section::::Packaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "During the 17th and 18th centuries the manufacturers of patent medicines began to use packaging as a tool to differentiate their products from those of their competitors, as there was often little to visually distinguish between the medications themselves. In Turlington's case that resulted in his changing the shape of the bottle containing his balsam at least four times in the ten years following the granting of his patent, culminating in an elaborately embossed tablet-shaped bottle introduced in 1754.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1559357",
"title": "Cotton pad",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Despite their name, most modern cotton balls and pads are not made out of cotton at all but are instead made out of cheaper, bleached synthetic fibers such as polyester and nylon. In the United States, these products are frequently prominently labeled as \"cotton balls\" because non-woven products (of which disposable wipes, diapers and tampons are other examples) are excluded from the Federal Trade Commission's stringent labeling requirements for textile products ().\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36806",
"title": "Cotton",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus \"Gossypium\" in the mallow family Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose. Under natural conditions, the cotton bolls will increase the dispersal of the seeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22782543",
"title": "Pill (textile)",
"section": "Section::::Result.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Pills do not interfere with the functionality of the textile, unless a spot with a lot of pills turns into a hole in the fabric. This is because both pills and holes are caused by the fabric wearing—a pill is fibre that was in the cloth. After the pill forms the fabric is thinner there, increasing the likelihood that a hole will form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3phqmo
|
What culture was the first to create candy? How did that happen?
|
[
{
"answer": "The practice of eating raw honey and honeycomb is so old it predates history, and possibly even humans in the sense of anatomically modern Homo sapiens. Does your definition of \"candy\" mean the sugar has to be cooked?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61230",
"title": "Candy",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Candy has its origins mainly in Ancient India. Between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, the Persians, followed by the Greeks, discovered the people in India and their \"reeds that produce honey without bees\". They adopted and then spread sugar and sugarcane agriculture. Sugarcane is indigenous to tropical South and Southeast Asia, while the word sugar is derived from the Sanskrit word \"Sharkara\". Pieces of sugar were produced by boiling sugarcane juice in ancient India and consumed as \"Khanda\", dubbed as the original candy and the etymology of the word.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "619925",
"title": "Lollipop",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "The idea of an edible candy on a stick is very simple, and it is probable that the lollipop has been invented and reinvented numerous times. The first confectioneries that closely resemble what we call lollipops date to the Middle Ages, when the nobility would often eat boiled sugar with the aid of sticks or handles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61230",
"title": "Candy",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "Before the Industrial Revolution, candy was often considered a form of medicine, either used to calm the digestive system or cool a sore throat. In the Middle Ages candy appeared on the tables of only the most wealthy at first. At that time, it began as a combination of spices and sugar that was used as an aid to digestive problems. Digestive problems were very common during this time due to the constant consumption of food that was neither fresh nor well balanced. Banquet hosts would typically serve these types of 'candies' at banquets for their guests. One of these candies, sometimes called \"chamber spice\", was made with cloves, ginger, aniseed, juniper berries, almonds and pine kernels dipped in melted sugar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14367101",
"title": "Candied fruit",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Food preservation methods using sugar (palm syrup and honey) were known to the ancient cultures of China and Mesopotamia. However, the precursors of modern candying were the Arabs, who served candied citrus and roses at the important moments of their banquets . With the Arab domination of parts of southern Europe, candied fruit made its way to the West. In Italy, they became a key ingredient of some of the most famous sweets of its culinary tradition: among these, the Milanese panettone and Cassata Siciliana.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2347159",
"title": "Divinity (confectionery)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Believed to have originated in the U.S. during the early 1900s, the candy's current form can be traced to a recipe from 1915. Another earlier version, which included the use of milk, can be traced to around 1907.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61230",
"title": "Candy",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Before sugar was readily available, candy was based on honey. Honey was used in Ancient China, Middle East, Egypt, Greece and the Roman Empire to coat fruits and flowers to preserve them or to create forms of candy. Candy is still served in this form today, though now it is more typically seen as a type of garnish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61230",
"title": "Candy",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The first candy came to America in the early 18th century from Britain and France. Only a few of the early colonists were proficient in sugar work and sugary treats were generally only enjoyed by the very wealthy. Even the simplest form of candy – rock candy, made from crystallized sugar – was considered a luxury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
89fgue
|
Why did the Allied Strategic Bombing campaigns of 1942-45 help break Axis civilian resolve while German “Blitz” of 1940 helped strengthen British civilian resolve?
|
[
{
"answer": "Does this question assume facts not in evidence?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The bombing didn't break axis morale. The bombing was decisive because it imposed enormous costs on germany. By 1944, the defense of the reich was consuming something like 1/3 of all the ammunition germany produced, virtually the entire air force, and most of the artillery pieces. Every plane and gun shooting at allied bombers was one that wasn't shooting up Allied tanks and soldiers as they pressed ever closer. German air superiority was absolutely decisive for them earlier in the war, and the bombing campaign destroyed it. Even before you take into account disruptions to production that bombing caused, the loss of efficiency from the need to de-centralize production, and the sheer cost of rebuilding after the destruction, it's hard to overstate how immense those costs were. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5880651",
"title": "Air Crew Europe Star",
"section": "Section::::Institution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "The strategic bombing campaign against German industrial cities, military installations and a wide variety of other targets continued throughout World War Two and made a decisive contribution to Allied victory. Although the Royal Air Force suffered significant losses of both men and aircraft, the campaign severely curtailed German industrial production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31273000",
"title": "Blockade of Germany (1939–1945)",
"section": "Section::::Third phase.:1943.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 197,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 197,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "With increasing numbers of heavy Lancaster, Stirling and Halifax bombers, which could travel long distances and carry a heavy bomb load, reaching squadrons, Allied leaders increasingly put their faith in the cumulative effect of strategic bombing, but decided at the Casablanca Conference in early 1943 that, as with the British Blitz, the early attempts to disrupt the morale of the German people by saturation bombing of cities had achieved the opposite effect. RAF raids on vehicle factories in Milan, Genoa, and Turin on 2 December 1942 only served to unite the Italian population behind the Mussolini dictatorship, and the plan was dropped in favour of the 'disorganisation of German industry'. Half of German synthetic oil production came from plants in the Ruhr, areas that were highly vulnerable to area attacks, and they became the primary target of Bomber Command from 1943.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "730658",
"title": "Strategic bombing during World War II",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The effect of strategic bombing was highly debated during and after the war. Both the \"Luftwaffe\" and RAF failed to deliver a knockout blow by destroying enemy morale. However some argued that strategic bombing of non-military targets could significantly reduce enemy industrial capacity and production and in the opinion of its interwar period proponents, the surrender of Japan vindicated strategic bombing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53374",
"title": "Strategic bombing",
"section": "Section::::History and origins.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Strategic bombing in Europe never reached the decisive completeness the American campaign against Japan achieved, helped in part by the fragility of Japanese housing, which was particularly vulnerable to firebombing through the use of incendiary devices. The destruction of German infrastructure became apparent, but the Allied campaign against Germany only really succeeded when the Allies began targeting oil refineries and transportation in the last year of the war. At the same time, strategic bombing of Germany was used as a morale booster for the Allies in the period before the land war resumed in Western Europe in June 1944.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53374",
"title": "Strategic bombing",
"section": "Section::::History and origins.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "During the first year of the war in Europe, strategic bombing was developed through trial and error. The Luftwaffe had been attacking both civilian and military targets from the very first day of the war, when Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939. A strategic-bombing campaign was launched by the Germans as a precursor to the invasion of the United Kingdom to force the RAF to engage the Luftwaffe and so be destroyed either on the ground or in the air. That tactic failed, and the RAF began bombing German cities on 11 May 1940. After the Battle of Britain, the Germans launched their night time Blitz hoping to break British morale and to have the British be cowed into making peace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "112274",
"title": "The Blitz",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:RAF evaluation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "The British began to assess the impact of the Blitz in August 1941 and the RAF Air Staff used the German experience to improve Bomber Command's offensives. They concluded bombers should strike a single target each night and use more incendiaries, because they had a greater impact on production than high explosives. They also noted regional production was severely disrupted when city centres were devastated through the loss of administrative offices, utilities and transport. They believed the \"Luftwaffe\" had failed in precision attack and concluded the German example of area attack using incendiaries was the way forward for operations over Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53953675",
"title": "Jägerstab",
"section": "Section::::Background and formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "In early 1944, the Allies focused on the destruction of the Luftwaffe in preparation for the invasion of Normandy. Plans for the Big Week, intended to destroy Germany's capacity to produce fighter aircraft through targeted airstrikes on final assembly factories, were already underway in 1943. Between February 20–25, 1944, approximately 10,000 American and British aircraft, including about 6,000 bombers, attacked strategic targets across Germany. The attacks seriously damaged the German aircraft industry, and production rates fell drastically.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
29r5j2
|
computer science and computer engineering.
|
[
{
"answer": "Computer Engineering is generally associated with hardware - making better physical components that make the computer run. \n\nComputer Science is generally associated with software.\n\nHowever, there is some crossover. Knowing a little about CE may situationally help a software developer optimize their code. Likewise a hardware engineer needs some software to confirm that their new toy works as expected.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Computer scientist here: \n\nFirst of all, as many others have said here, there is indeed a lot of overlap. Here is a list of things (from the top of my head not exhaustive) that you will do in any CS and CE course in any university, in any country:\n\nCalculus, Programming Principles, Digital Circuits, Discrete Mathematics, Assembly, Operating Systems.\n\nNow there are some courses that are exclussive in CS, such as computation theory, software engineering, AI, data mining, graphics and databases.\n\nThere are some areas that overlap, such as computer architecture, networks, processors etc\n\nAnd there are some courses that are exclussive in CE, like physics, signals, multi-processor architecture etc (not my field).\n\nIf you want to go into software engineering, then Computer Science is the way to go. Most CS departments actually have a SE specialization, like my university. \n\nIt is possible to take many programming classes in your CE education, but all the system analysis, and all the big project classes are in the CS department, so it's the most natural way. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6824523",
"title": "Gokongwei College of Engineering",
"section": "Section::::Academic departments.:Computer Engineering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Computer Engineering is a combination of elements of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, which deals with the design, and utilization of computers. The parent discipline of Computer Engineering is Electrical Engineering with which it shares considerable commonality. Computer Engineering seeks to match efficient digital devices with appropriate software to meet the scientific, technological and administrative needs of business and industry in a global economy. The program provides students with a background that prepares them for careers in embedded systems design, computer system operations, and systems support.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8017805",
"title": "Pulchok Campus",
"section": "Section::::Undergraduate programs.:Bachelor of Computer Engineering (B.E) (96 Seats).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Computer Engineering is a four-year, eight-semester program. Computer Engineers design and develop the application of computer systems. Majority of computers are used as components within other systems such as audio-visual players, the engine management systems, aircraft navigation systems, and automatic control systems. This programme is intended to produce skilled, qualified human resource that works for software development, network design and implementation, hardware and software troubleshooting, network security policies, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "535034",
"title": "Software engineering demographics",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Software Engineering Educators Versus Engineering Educators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "Until now, computer science has been the main degree to acquire, whether one wanted to make software systems (software engineering) or study the theoretical and mathematical facets of software systems (computer science). The data shows that the number of chemistry and physics educators (29,610) nearly equals the number of engineering educators (29,310). It is estimated that similarly, of computer science educators emphasize the practical (software engineering) (16,495) and of computer science educators emphasize the theoretical (computer science) (16,495). This means that software engineering education is 56% the size of traditional engineering education. Computer science is larger than all engineering, and larger than all physics and chemistry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2701254",
"title": "Bachelor of Computer Science",
"section": "Section::::Studying Computer Engineering.:Basic skills of a Computer Engineering student.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Computer engineering is mainly based on theories and principles of computation, physics, mathematics and engineering. These principles are applied to the resolution of technical problems which require the creation and development of software, hardware and network architectures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28923910",
"title": "Electronic engineering",
"section": "Section::::Subfields.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Computer engineering deals with the design of computers and computer systems. This may involve the design of new computer hardware, the design of PDAs or the use of computers to control an industrial plant. Development of embedded systems—systems made for specific tasks (e.g., mobile phones)—is also included in this field. This field includes the micro controller and its applications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9531",
"title": "Electrical engineering",
"section": "Section::::Subfields.:Computers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Computer engineering deals with the design of computers and computer systems. This may involve the design of new hardware, the design of PDAs, tablets, and supercomputers, or the use of computers to control an industrial plant. Computer engineers may also work on a system's software. However, the design of complex software systems is often the domain of software engineering, which is usually considered a separate discipline. Desktop computers represent a tiny fraction of the devices a computer engineer might work on, as computer-like architectures are now found in a range of devices including video game consoles and DVD players.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41676526",
"title": "J.K. Institute of Applied Physics and Technology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "The Computer Science discipline was started in the year 1986 through the DRDO project on the ‘Man Power development in the area of computer Science’. The department offers B.Sc (CS), M.Sc. (Computer Science), B.Tech. (Electronics and Communication Engineering), B.Tech. (Computer Science and Engineering ) , M.Tech. (Electronic and Communication Engineering) M.Tech. (Computer Science and Engineering) and Ph.D. programme in Electronics and Computer Science.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6he6gc
|
how do conjoined twins fit in the womb?
|
[
{
"answer": "The womb can stretch a lot and unborn babies are very pliable. They can curl up into fairly small balls (newborns have soft bones). Also important to remember is that the vast majority of twin pregnancies (even non-conjoined ones) will not make it full term. The average length of a twin pregnancy is 36 weeks (vs 40 weeks for a normal pregnancy). Most likely these children were delivered by cesarean section even before that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "79238",
"title": "Twin",
"section": "Section::::Complications during pregnancy.:Conjoined twins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Conjoined twins (or the once-commonly used term \"siamese\") are monozygotic twins whose bodies are joined together during pregnancy. This occurs when the zygote starts to split after day 12 following fertilization and fails to separate completely. This condition occurs in about 1 in 50,000 human pregnancies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2596132",
"title": "Ischiopagi",
"section": "Section::::Embryology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1685,
"text": "During embryonic development, twins can form from the splitting of a single embryo (monozygotic) which forms identical twins or the twins can arise from separate oocytes in the same menstrual cycle (dizygotic) which forms fraternal twins. Although the latter is more frequent, monozygotic is the reason conjoined twins can develop. In monozygotic twinning for conjoined twins such as ischiopagi, the twins form by the splitting of a bi-laminar embryonic disc after the formation of the inner cell masses. Thus, making the twins occupy the same amnion which can lead to a conjoining of the twins as a result of the twins not separating properly during the twinning process. Separation occurring between the seventh and thirteenth days should result in a monochorionic, monoamniotic identical twins sharing a yolk sac. If separation of the twins occur in the later stages of development prior to the appearance of the primitive streak and axial orientation, then it can be predicted that conjoined twins will develop. The origin of exactly what goes wrong to produce ischiopagus or any conjoined twin is a result by either incomplete fission or double overlapping inducing centers on the same germ disc. Various studies suggest that mechanical disturbances such as shaking of the blastomeres, exposure of the embryo to cold or insufficient oxygen during the early process of cleavage, grafting organizer onto gastrula or half a gastrula together, or constricting the blastula or early gastrula can cause the incomplete separation of monozygotic twins. However, studies have shown that these disturbances must happen at critical times in the pregnancy for the conjoined twins to develop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "95801",
"title": "Conjoined twins",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "Two contradicting theories exist to explain the origins of conjoined twins. The more generally accepted theory is \"fission\", in which the fertilized egg splits partially. The other theory, no longer believed to be the basis of conjoined twinning, is fusion, in which a fertilized egg completely separates, but stem cells (which search for similar cells) find similar stem cells on the other twin and fuse the twins together. Conjoined twins share a single common chorion, placenta, and amniotic sac, although these characteristics are not exclusive to conjoined twins, as there are some monozygotic but non-conjoined twins who also share these structures \"in utero\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "79238",
"title": "Twin",
"section": "Section::::Degree of separation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "In very rare cases, twins become conjoined twins. Non-conjoined monozygotic twins form up to day 14 of embryonic development, but when twinning occurs after 14 days, the twins will likely be conjoined. Furthermore, there can be various degrees of shared environment of twins in the womb, potentially leading to pregnancy complications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "95801",
"title": "Conjoined twins",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "There are two theories about the development of conjoined twins. The first is that a single fertilized egg does not fully split during the process of forming identical twins. The second theory is that a fusion of two fertilized eggs occurs earlier in development. Although conjoined twinning has not been linked to any environmental or genetic cause, they occur so rarely it has not been possible to draw firm conclusions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "79238",
"title": "Twin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Twins are two offspring produced by the same pregnancy. Twins can be either \"monozygotic\" ('identical'), meaning that they develop from one zygote, which splits and forms two embryos, or \"dizygotic\" ('fraternal'), meaning that each twin develops from a separate egg and each egg is fertilized by its own sperm cell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2596132",
"title": "Ischiopagi",
"section": "Section::::Complications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "Conjoined twins are at high risk to being stillborn or dying shortly after birth. In some cases, a healthy twin and a parasitic twin are born. The parasitic twin has no hope for survival and dies and is then surgically separated from its twin. Depending upon how the twins are attached and what is shared among them, complications can arise from surgically separating the live twin from the dead twin. In Ischiopagus cases, the children share a pelvic region along with the gastrointestinal tract and genital region. Most Ischiopagus twins will need reconstruction surgery of the genitals and the gastrointestinal tract so that the twin will be able to perform normal bodily functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vmbk7
|
When does "simplifying" history for children in text books become falsifying history or misinformation?
|
[
{
"answer": "When I went to school in Germany, there were no history courses in elementary school. They only started after grade 5, when everyone was grown up enough to grasp basic concepts of history. \n\nA lot was still dumbed down, of course, but probably not to too basic a level.\n\nPerhaps it's better just not to teach elementary school children false history that they have to spend years unlearning.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It all depends on what you want to teach. What is your goal for the students to reach?\n\nQuick example:\n\nIf I teach about Rome, I want them to see the class struggle, the legitimate grievances the peasants had, what the reforms were tried, and why they failed. But I have neither time nor the capacity for understanding on my students' side (this all is taught in 6th grade, to 12 year olds!), to differentiate extensively between the time of the Gracci and that of Sulla. It's simply not important enough if I'm teaching the basics of class struggle.\n\nIf I teach the Cold War, I only have time to include the Korea War and the Cuba Crisis, then Vietnam. I won't get into all the factors that lead to the US involvement into Vietnam, neither will I include the French colonial past. I won't teach intricacies of communist dogma, or the atrocities committed by the South Koreans. Again: No time, and it doesn't fit the goal.\n\nEdit:\nThat being said, I don't ever teach things that are factually wrong, no matter how convenient they'd be. It's *not* Gracchus vs. Sulla, they just fought the same fight. But does every student need to know their exact (= time-accurate) opponents? No.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "History teacher here. The thing people need to realize (which I think OP does) is that it's not so much us wanting to romanticize or promote our opinions as much as it's just an overwhelming issue of lack of time. \n\nHere's an example: If you're going to teach the American Revolution, what do you teach? There are numerous things you'd probably prioritize as absolutely necessary (*British Acts/Proclamations and the protests in response, Declaration of Independence, American leaders, British views of things vs American views, major battles*). To teach each one of these necessary things you'd like to spend a few days to give background information, use primary sources and some type of assessment to make sure the students know it. Now that's just the \"have to teach\" it category, not the stuff you want to teach. \n\nNow understand that I have 8 days in the curriculum to teach it. A class period is 45 minutes (it's a magnet school so it's shorter than most). Before going into any primary source accept that you're going to have to spend time breaking down the language. That's going to cut into your time. Since these are kids you're teaching (at least if you teach middle school in a low socio-economic/urban area like myself), you're going to spend some time getting everyone settled, dealing with the students who didn't bring their supplies, collecting homework and reminding them of upcoming tests. \n\nYou're time to teach these topics is ridiculously short, especially to teach it in a way that shows the complexities that make history such a rich subject. Even then, I haven't even hit on weaving women's and African-American history in all these topics. \n\nMy point I guess is not that we don't want to teach a complex history, it's just next to impossible with a curriculum that goes from Pre-contact Columbus to Present day in 10 months. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Former teacher here.\n\nThe effort to simplify history is based in the effort to teach towards standardized tests. The result is simple lists of facts which can only be learned by rote memorization, and it ends up making students hate history. \n\nWhen I did my undergrad in History, it was no longer about list of facts and dates, but about how to parse secondary sources for bias, and how to seek out primary sources. \n\nSimplifying history: let's say No Child gets repealed, now you can change curricula from teaching to a standardized test to a system centered around teaching students the method to study history. That's simpler and more effective in the long run. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46433479",
"title": "Feminist children's literature",
"section": "Section::::Ethics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Since the mid -50s it has become vogue to reread and reinterpret classic children’s books. As to what children’s books should accomplish trouble cultural observers. However, they agree that the narratives in children’s books must delete unequal social arrangements: and instead of identifying inequality, describe, challenge, and subvert systems of inequality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8855",
"title": "Dr. Seuss",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.:Later years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1211,
"text": "In May 1954, \"Life\" magazine published a report on illiteracy among school children which concluded that children were not learning to read because their books were boring. William Ellsworth Spaulding was the director of the education division at Houghton Mifflin (he later became its chairman), and he compiled a list of 348 words that he felt were important for first-graders to recognize. He asked Geisel to cut the list to 250 words and to write a book using only those words. Spaulding challenged Geisel to \"bring back a book children can't put down\". Nine months later, Geisel completed \"The Cat in the Hat\", using 236 of the words given to him. It retained the drawing style, verse rhythms, and all the imaginative power of Geisel's earlier works but, because of its simplified vocabulary, it could be read by beginning readers. \"The Cat in the Hat\" and subsequent books written for young children achieved significant international success and they remain very popular today. In 2009, \"Green Eggs and Ham\" sold 540,000 copies, \"The Cat in the Hat\" sold 452,000 copies, and \"One Fish, Two Fish, Red Fish, Blue Fish\" (1960) sold 409,000 copies—outselling the majority of newly published children's books.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22760871",
"title": "The History of Children’s Literature in Iran",
"section": "Section::::Research Method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "We began by posing many questions, including: what kinds of texts are considered children’s literatures? How far can we go back in accessing the earliest documents? What is the relationship between oral children’s literature and formal texts? And, how could children’s literature be coordinated in relation to historical eras?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "549355",
"title": "Lie-to-children",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "British writer Tim Worstall expounded upon the lie-to-children phenomenon in education, in a 2015 article for \"Forbes\". He wrote: \"that’s what Terry Pratchett pointed out education was: lies to children to help them make some sense of the world. When they become older, more capable of nuance, then we point this out to them: those previous stories were gross simplifications and now you need to know the caveats.\" Worstall stressed that this form of educational methodology was ubiquitous across multiple academic disciplines: \"This is true of any form of education by the way. We don’t start music classes with atonality, we start with simple scales. We don’t do syncopation until we’ve mastered 2/4 and 4/4. Einstein’s corrections at the margin to Newton come quite late in a physics education.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46433479",
"title": "Feminist children's literature",
"section": "Section::::Generalizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Amy Singer suggests children are deprived of great literature, exciting stories, mystery, and adventure in the rewriting of classical children’s books. Furthermore, these books are useful as historical evidence of how and what shaped people’s attitude in the time they were written and supply a source of debate of right and wrong and how we acknowledge that there is a better way to live. Moreover, studies by sociologists focus on the behaviour of boys and girls in books as an ideological reality of individual ability and character. In\"Novel Readings\"(1990) Marjorie DeVault suggests, ‘readers of a single novel create an individual understanding of that novel, alongside the meanings that the novel’s creator might have intended.’\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3007465",
"title": "Children's literature criticism",
"section": "Section::::Approaches.:Child focused.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "Early children's literature critics aimed to learn how children read literature specifically (rather than the mechanics of reading itself) so that they could recommend \"good books\" for children. These early critics were often teachers, librarians and other educationalists. The critics often disagreed about what books they think children would like, and why, and about which books will be \"good\" for children and why. Though many critics are still child-centric, the discipline has expanded to include other modes of analysis. As children's literature criticism started developing as an academic discipline (roughly in the past thirty years or so, see historical overviews by Hunt (1991) and McGillis (1997)), children's literature criticism became involved with wider work in literary theory and cultural studies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13803658",
"title": "The Guardian of Education",
"section": "Section::::Reception and legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "It was not until the last quarter of the nineteenth century, with the publication of the work of children's author and literary critic Charlotte Yonge, that any sustained reviewing or historicizing of children's literature took place again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2mbejj
|
How does a computer processor wear out?
|
[
{
"answer": "Current flow causes heat. Heat causes expansion. Cooling allows contraction. Solid state components often fail when connections break down due to the constant cycling of expansion and contraction. \n\nI'm not sure about the cpu die itself but the connections where the die meets the conductors will be made from different materials, and will expand at different rates, eventually leading to bad connections, dry joints and a failed CPU. \n\nThat's one way a cpu will experience wear and tear.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "254496",
"title": "Power Mac G5",
"section": "Section::::Defects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "A common problem amongst single processor G5s was that the plate of metal soldered to the Logic Board connecting all eight of the RAM slots would, over time, expand and contract in such a way that the computer could not boot properly, as it would not detect any RAM. The only way known to fix this problem is for someone to re-solder the plate themselves or expose the other side of the Logic Board to heat from a heat gun. The latter of these two options is far easier, as to access the plate of metal one would have to completely remove the Logic Board from the computer, whereas all one has to do to expose the other side is remove a fan. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56208586",
"title": "Meltdown (security vulnerability)",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 910,
"text": "Meltdown exploits a race condition, inherent in the design of many modern CPUs. This occurs between memory access and privilege checking during instruction processing. Additionally, combined with a cache side-channel attack, this vulnerability allows a process to bypass the normal privilege checks that isolate the exploit process from accessing data belonging to the operating system and other running processes. The vulnerability allows an unauthorized process to read data from any address that is mapped to the current process's memory space. Since instruction pipelining is in the affected processors, the data from an unauthorized address will almost always be temporarily loaded into the CPU's cache during out-of-order execution —from which the data can be recovered. This can occur even if the original read instruction fails due to privilege checking, and/or if it never produces a readable result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "745255",
"title": "BTX (form factor)",
"section": "Section::::Enhancements.:Pico BTX.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "The heat sink to be attached to the CPU, called \"Thermal Module\" throughout the official specification, is no longer attached solely to the motherboard, but to the casing itself, so that the inertial load of its mass during a mechanical shock event can no longer damage the motherboard. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "839016",
"title": "LGA 775",
"section": "Section::::Technical specifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "The CPU is pressed into place by a \"load plate\", rather than human fingers directly. The installer lifts the hinged \"load plate\", inserts the processor, closes the load plate over the top of the processor, and pushes down a locking lever. The pressure of the locking lever on the load plate clamps the processor's 775 copper contact points firmly down onto the socket's 775 pins, ensuring a good connection. The load plate only covers the edges of the top surface of the CPU (integrated heat spreader). The center is free to make contact with the cooling device placed on top of the CPU. The spacing for the CPU cooler mounting holes is 72mm x 72mm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19005417",
"title": "Hang (computing)",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Hardware can cause a computer to hang, either because it is intermittent or because it is mismatched with other hardware in the computer (this can occur when one makes an upgrade). Hardware can also become defective over time due to dirt or heat damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56208586",
"title": "Meltdown (security vulnerability)",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Meltdown exploit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "Ordinarily, the mechanisms described above are considered secure. They provide the basis for most modern operating systems and processors. Meltdown exploits the way these features interact, to bypass the CPU's fundamental privilege controls and access privileged and sensitive data from the operating system and other processes. To understand Meltdown, we consider the data that is mapped in virtual memory (much of which the process is not supposed to be able to access), and look at how the CPU responds when a process attempts to access unauthorized memory. The process is running on a vulnerable version of Windows, Linux, or macOS, on a 64-bit processor of a vulnerable type. This is a very common combination across almost all desktop computers, notebooks, laptops, servers and mobile devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11997337",
"title": "Teraflops Research Chip",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Self correction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "The processor allows for the use of a self-correction system. If a core is unable to function, it can delegate all of its workload permanently to another core without the need to edit the software interacting with the processor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3afykz
|
how are booger formed and what makes them change colors?
|
[
{
"answer": "You breathe in lots of dust during the day. You don't want dust in your lungs. The hairs in your nose and mucus capture the dust to prevent them from entering your lungs.\n\n\nBoogers are just collections of dust and mucus. They change colors based on what kind of dust is in there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4410",
"title": "Brewing",
"section": "Section::::Brewing process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "The wort is moved into a large tank known as a \"copper\" or kettle where it is boiled with hops and sometimes other ingredients such as herbs or sugars. This stage is where many chemical reactions take place, and where important decisions about the flavour, colour, and aroma of the beer are made. The boiling process serves to terminate enzymatic processes, precipitate proteins, isomerize hop resins, and concentrate and sterilize the wort. Hops add flavour, aroma and bitterness to the beer. At the end of the boil, the hopped wort settles to clarify in a vessel called a \"whirlpool\", where the more solid particles in the wort are separated out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "237704",
"title": "Saccharomyces cerevisiae",
"section": "Section::::In commercial applications.:Brewing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 913,
"text": "\"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\" is used in brewing beer, when it is sometimes called a top-fermenting or top-cropping yeast. It is so called because during the fermentation process its hydrophobic surface causes the flocs to adhere to CO and rise to the top of the fermentation vessel. Top-fermenting yeasts are fermented at higher temperatures than the lager yeast \"Saccharomyces pastorianus\", and the resulting beers have a different flavor than the same beverage fermented with a lager yeast. \"Fruity esters\" may be formed if the yeast undergoes temperatures near , or if the fermentation temperature of the beverage fluctuates during the process. Lager yeast normally ferments at a temperature of approximately , where \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\" becomes dormant. A variant yeast known as \"Saccharomyces cerevisiae\" var. \"diastaticus\" is a beer spoiler which can cause secondary fermentations in packaged products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8283154",
"title": "Wort",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Wort () is the liquid extracted from the mashing process during the brewing of beer or whisky. Wort contains the sugars, the most important being maltose and maltotriose, that will be fermented by the brewing yeast to produce alcohol. Wort also contains crucial amino acids to provide nitrogen to the yeast as well as more complex proteins contributing to beer head retention and flavour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3630713",
"title": "Sour mash",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1130,
"text": "Sour mashing is also a process sometimes used in brewing to make sour beers without the typical year or more time frame. In the brewing version of sour mashing, brewers mash in their grains to begin the brewing process, but instead of extracting the wort from the grains at the end of the mash (typically in less than 90 minutes), the brewer leaves the grains and wort together for as long as several days before draining the wort. During this time, the lactic acid bacteria naturally present on the grain ferments some of the sugars in the wort into lactic acid. This lactic acid adds sourness to the beer. In order to promote fast bacterial fermentation, the mash is kept between . The brewer extracts the wort by sparging when they believe enough acid has been produced. Some beers employing sour mashing are fermented with the addition of brewing yeast but without a boil. Other brewers prefer to boil their sour mashed beer and then ferment it with brewing yeast. The resulting beers can range from mildly tart to noticeably sour, but usually not as sour as beers intentionally soured after primary fermentation is complete.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173158",
"title": "Wheat beer",
"section": "Section::::Varieties.:Witbier.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Witbier, white beer, bière blanche, or simply witte is a barley/wheat, top-fermented beer brewed mainly in Belgium and the Netherlands. It gets its name due to suspended yeast and wheat proteins which cause the beer to look hazy, or white, when cold. It is a descendant from those medieval beers which were flavored and preserved with a blend of spices and other plants such as coriander, orange, and bitter orange referred to as \"gruit\" instead of using hops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2439283",
"title": "Umqombothi",
"section": "Section::::Traditional method of preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "When the brew is ready, the fermented mash is filtered through a large metal strainer, to remove the spent grains. The sediment at the bottom of the vat is known as intshela. The intshela is added to the strained beer, to give extra flavour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2389835",
"title": "Distillers grains",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "In beer or whiskey production, grains, such as corn, are put through a mashing process, where grain is ground and added to hot water. The starch in the grains undergoes saccharification by enzymes, turning the starch into sugars that are released into the water. The water is removed from the grain, and becomes wort for brewing. The remaining grain, called \"spent grain\" for the removal of simple sugars and starch, can then be sold as a by-product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3jlwhs
|
What were stone age civilizations like?
|
[
{
"answer": "So, Stone Age is a tricky term that a lot of archaeologists don't use anymore. Part of the reason is that a lot of public perception is that societies had a unilineal evolution or development that progressed through a Stone Age to a Bronze Age to an Iron Age and so on towards modern Western civilization. The implication being then that societies that didn't develop metalworking *didn't* develop. As you point out though, you have Mesoamerican cultures that developed many kinds of technologies we associate with more \"advanced\" societies, but not metalworking (besides gold and copper). \n\nSo the problem with a term like \"Stone Age\" is that there isn't one linear progression for societies to develop through. There isn't anything inherent to human societies that means a \"Stone Age\" is followed with a Bronze Age or Iron Age. \n\nModern archaeologists use terms like \"Stone Age\" or \"Iron Age\" as *descriptive* labels for different periods of time in the development of certain societies across the world. They are not universal labels that can be applied to every society. As you mention, for societies that never developed metalworking it doesn't make much sense to even talk about a \"Stone Age\" because there is no following \"Bronze Age\" or \"Iron Age\" to contrast with. For instance, in the American Southwest you would have a \"Stone Age\" that lasted from about 12,000 years ago up to 1540 and the discovery of Europeans by native people in the region. That is a \"Stone Age\" that lasts almost 14,000 years, which isn't really helpful for understanding the changes in the native societies of the US Southwest over that time. The entire reason archaeologists divide up time into \"ages\" is to help understand the changes society goes through. Certainly, societies in say New Mexico in 1540 look nothing like societies in the same area in 10,000BC, so we shouldn't use a single descriptor like \"stone age\" to describe all of that time, even if the tool technology never changed from the use of stone tools. \n\nThat said, for areas of the world were a \"Stone Age\" *is* a useful way of splitting up time (for instance, Mesopotamia where the terminology originated), archaeologists generally make a distinction between the Paleolithic (\"old stone\") and the Neolithic (\"new stone\"). The distinction between the two is based primarily on the kinds of stone tools being used and the way people fed themselves. The Paleolithic, in most places, more or less corresponds with the Pleistocene geologic epoch (the last series of glaciations, or \"ice ages\") from about 2.6million years ago up to 12,000 years ago. This more or less corresponds with the migration of *Homo sapiens* out of Africa and into the rest of the world, so you could argue that a Paleolithic extends further into the past in Africa alone. \n\nOut of this time period we usually subdivide the Paleolithic into the Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic (Upper being the most recent). These subdivisions are usually based primarily on major climactic changes, but there are some attendant cultural changes. The important thing that characterizes all of these time periods is that societies live as small bands of hunter-gatherers producing stone tools primarily for hunting animals and processing their meat, bones, fat, and hides. So you get tools like spear points (and maybe arrowheads), scrapers (for processing hides), and a variety of stone blades. \n\nThe end of the Pleistocene (and so the end of the Paleolithic in most places) and the beginning of the Neolithic is primarily characterized by continued use of all the tools mentioned above, but also by the addition of groundstone tools. These tools are primarily grinding stones used to process wild grains like wheat or barley. At the same time we also see increasing sedentism. You don't necessarily have completely sedentary populations in early Neolithic societies, but you do have more evidence for more permanent structures. This increasing use of wild grains (and other plants) also presages the domestication of these plants and the beginnings of agriculture. The traits that usually characterize later Neolithic cultures are then the continued use of groundstone, but often also full commitment to agriculture for subsistence, fully sedentary villages, and importantly the invention of pottery. \n\nIf you have ever heard the term \"Neolithic Revolution\", that is referring to the invention and adoption of agriculture in the late Neolithic. You see this most strongly in the Levant (at sites like Jericho), but it matches the sequence more or less in other parts of the world. The important thing to remember is that the \"Ages\" system (including the Paleolithic and Neolithic) was developed to describe Fertile Crescent region (including the Levant, parts of Anatolia, and Mesopotamia). Because of that, it needs to be modified to fit the particular circumstances of other places that experienced similar developments. For instance, while we can talk about a \"Neolithic\" in the US Southwest (when groups started using groundstone tools, agriculture, and pottery), stone tools didn't stop being used in the US Southwest even up into the colonial period. Calling all of the period after about AD500 \"Neolithic\" is ignoring the major changes that happened to societies in the US Southwest, and so we have to come up with other ways of dividing time that are not based only only the kind of material tools are being made out of. The same is true of any other \"Stone Age\" societies. Compare this [\"Neolithic\" homestead](_URL_1_) from the US Southwest to [Pueblo Bonito](_URL_0_) in Chaco Canyon nearly a 1000 years later. Both are \"Neolithic\" if all we look at is the material used to make tools, but there are clear differences not captured by just looking at materials and tool technology. \n\nTo summarize: dividing up the development of societies into \"ages\" is only useful if those ages accurately describe changes in that society. For some societies, particularly in the Levant and surroundings (as well as Europe and China), a \"Stone Age\" (really the Paleolithic and Neolithic) is helpful to describe a change from using primarily stone to using primarily metals for making tools. In other areas of the world, metal was never adopted but significant social changes still occurred so we shouldn't use the same divisions of time to describe those societies. We should make the divisions of history match the development of each region or society rather than trying to shoehorn those societies into a single universal system of cultural evolution. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29219",
"title": "Stone Age",
"section": "Section::::Stone Age in archaeology.:End of the Stone Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "In regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa, the Stone Age was followed directly by the Iron Age. The Middle East and southeastern Asian regions progressed past Stone Age technology around 6000 BCE. Europe, and the rest of Asia became post-Stone Age societies by about 4000 BCE. The proto-Inca cultures of South America continued at a Stone Age level until around 2000 BCE, when gold, copper and silver made their entrance. The Americas notably did not develop a widespread behavior of smelting Bronze or Iron after the Stone Age period, although the technology existed. Stone tool manufacture continued even after the Stone Age ended in a given area. In Europe and North America, millstones were in use until well into the 20th century, and still are in many parts of the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13986031",
"title": "Stone-Age Poland",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1188,
"text": "The Stone Age era lasted 800,000 years, and involved three different human species: \"Homo erectus\", \"Homo neanderthalensis\" and \"Homo sapiens\". The Stone Age cultures ranged from early human groups with primitive tools to advanced agricultural societies, which used sophisticated stone tools, built fortified settlements and developed copper metallurgy. As elsewhere in eastern and central Europe, the Stone Age human cultures went through the stages known as the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic, each bringing new refinements of the stone tool making techniques. The Paleolithic period human activities (the earliest sites are about 500,000 years old) were intermittent because of the recurring periods of glaciation. With the recession of the last glaciation, a general climate warming and the resulting increase in ecologic environment diversity was characteristic of the Mesolithic (from 9000-8000 BCE). The Neolithic brought the first settled agricultural communities; their founders migrated from the Danube River area (from 5500 BCE). Later the native post-Mesolithic populations also adopted and further developed the agricultural way of life (from 4400 to about 2000 BCE).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34068431",
"title": "Prehistoric technology",
"section": "Section::::Old World.:Stone Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The Stone Age is a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used in the manufacture of implements with a sharp edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted roughly 2.5 million years, from the time of early hominids to \"Homo sapiens\" in the later Pleistocene era, and largely ended between 6000 and 2000 BCE with the advent of metalworking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18985263",
"title": "History of art",
"section": "Section::::Prehistory.:Metal Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "The last prehistoric phase is the Metal Age (or Three-age system), during which the use of copper, bronze and iron transformed ancient societies. When humans could smelt metal and forge metal implements could make new tools, weapons, and art.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13485",
"title": "History of England",
"section": "Section::::Prehistory.:Stone Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 999,
"text": "The New Stone Age, or Neolithic era, began with the introduction of farming, ultimately from the Middle East, around 4000 BC. It is not known whether this was caused by a substantial folk movement or native adoption of foreign practices or both. People began to lead a more settled lifestyle. Monumental collective tombs were built for the dead in the form of chambered cairns and long barrows. Towards the end of the period, other kinds of monumental stone alignments begin to appear, such as Stonehenge; their cosmic alignments show a preoccupation with the sky and planets. Flint technology produced a number of highly artistic pieces as well as purely pragmatic. More extensive woodland clearance was done for fields and pastures. The Sweet Track in the Somerset Levels is one of the oldest timber trackways known in Northern Europe and among the oldest roads in the world, dated by dendrochronology to the winter of 3807–3806 BC; it too is thought to have been a primarily religious structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51320",
"title": "Ancient history",
"section": "Section::::Chronology.:Prehistory.:Middle to Late Bronze Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "The Bronze Age forms part of the three-age system. It follows the Neolithic Age in some areas of the world. In most areas of civilization Bronze smelting became a foundation for more advanced societies. There was some contrast with New World Societies who often still preferred stone to metal for utilitarian purposes. Modern historians have identified five original civilizations which emerged in the time period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34068431",
"title": "Prehistoric technology",
"section": "Section::::Old World.:Bronze Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The Stone Age developed into the Bronze Age after the Neolithic Revolution. The Neolithic Revolution involved radical changes in agricultural technology which included development of agriculture, animal domestication, and the adoption of permanent settlements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1rqc0m
|
why are there so many ladyboys in thailand?
|
[
{
"answer": "Being a primarily Buddhist country, there is much less stigma attached to being gay or TG there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "333614",
"title": "History of homosexuality",
"section": "Section::::East Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Similarly, in Thailand, \"kathoey\", or \"ladyboys,\" have been a feature of Thai society for many centuries, and Thai kings had male as well as female lovers. While \"kathoey\" may encompass simple effeminacy or transvestism, it most commonly is treated in Thai culture as a third gender. They are generally accepted by society, and Thailand has never had legal prohibitions against homosexuality or homosexual behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4609694",
"title": "Royal intermarriage",
"section": "Section::::By continent/country.:Asia.:Thailand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "The Chakri Dynasty of Thailand has included marriages between royal relatives, but marriages between dynasts and foreigners, including foreign royals, are rare. This is in part due to Section 11 of 1924 Palace Law of Succession which excludes members of the royal family from the line of succession if they marry a non-Thai national.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24548445",
"title": "Asian fetish",
"section": "Section::::Asian women and white men.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "Historically, the number of Thai women marrying westerners began to rise in the 1950s and 1960s as a result of Prime Minister Sarit Thanarat's economic policies which attracted foreign investment and western men to Thailand. There is a social stigma in the country against Thai women marrying white men, but research published in 2015 indicated that an increasing number of young middle-class Thai women were marrying foreign men. A generation earlier, Thai women marrying foreign men had mostly been working class.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4318152",
"title": "Toon Hiranyasap",
"section": "Section::::First performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Toon Hiranyasup's always-smiling and making-people-laugh image, both on screen and off screen, along with his fresh international look (ลูกครึ่ง), distinguished him from other Thai actors and is well known for his enormous endowment as well as his handsome look. With this, he's dubbed as eight-inch snakehead by the media and close friends. This won him strong female fans all over Thailand in his heyday. In his recent TV interview, he revealed that ladies were always all over him wherever he was, which was hard to avoid. It finally put a strain on his marriage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29746527",
"title": "Sex trafficking in Thailand",
"section": "Section::::Patterns of exploitation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "In Thailand, local women, men, and children are trafficked into other countries, especially wealthier Asian countries. It is estimated that 100,000 to 200,000 Thai females work in a variety of overseas venues where sex is sold. The number of trafficked Thai females in Japan alone is between 50,000 and 70,000. Most of these females are between the ages of 12 and 16 and are sent to brothels in the destination country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19337442",
"title": "Kathoey",
"section": "Section::::Recent developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Among the most famous \"kathoey\"s in Thailand is Nong Tum, a former champion Thai boxer who emerged into the public eye in 1998. She would present in a feminine manner and had commenced hormone therapy while still a popular boxer; she would enter the ring with long hair and make-up, occasionally kissing a defeated opponent. She announced her retirement from professional boxing in 1999 – undergoing genital reassignment surgery, while continuing to work as a coach, and taking up acting and modeling. She returned to boxing in 2006.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2606748",
"title": "Demise of the Crown",
"section": "Section::::Southeast Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "In Thailand, \"สวรรคต\" (sà-wǎn-kót) is used in the Thai language to refer a high-ranking royal person like the King of Thailand and the Crown Prince of Thailand. The term was derived from the Sanskrit language term \"svargagata\" (स्वर्गगत), which means \"has gone to Heaven\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5lmjzx
|
being from canada, why do all these sports websites block me from watching a highlight from their website?
|
[
{
"answer": "Content rights are generally owned on a country-by-country basis.\n\nThe owner of that highlight may only have authority to broadcast it in say Belarus, not in Angola. As such, since they are legally not allowed to show you the content since you live in Angola, they don't show it to you. There may be some company in Angola who has rights to it there, and you can go watch it from them.\n\nThis is just the way entertainment rights works. Yes you can buy worldwide rights too, but for many companies, this simply isn't an expense worth doing. If you're a company doing business in the UK, you're generally not interested in spending a whole ton of extra money on worldwide rights so that people in Cambodia can watch videos on your website",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41205798",
"title": "NHL on Sportsnet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Sportsnet shows two flagship national games per week, Scotiabank Wednesday Night Hockey, and Rogers Hometown Hockey on Sunday nights—which features segments hosted on-location by Ron MacLean from various Canadian cities as part of a nationwide tour. On Saturday nights, the Sportsnet channels, CBC, and Citytv broadcast \"Hockey Night in Canada\", which broadcasts all evening games involving Canadian teams. The Sportsnet channels occasionally show games that exclusively involve teams from the United States, Sportsnet and CBC share in coverage of the post-season, and Rogers' multicultural Omni Television simulcasts selected games in the Punjabi language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13895240",
"title": "East Coast bias",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "National coverage of live games is also perceived as favoring certain teams located on the Eastern side of the continent. For example, critics of what \"Hockey Night in Canada\" chooses to program allege that the show particularly favors the Toronto Maple Leafs. Likewise, ESPN's baseball coverage has been the target of criticism because of its perceived bias towards the Boston Red Sox and the New York Yankees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6999",
"title": "Culture of Canada",
"section": "Section::::Sport.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Sports in Canada consists of a variety of games. Although there are many contests that Canadians value, the most common are ice hockey, box lacrosse, Canadian football, basketball, soccer, curling, baseball and ringette. All but curling and soccer are considered domestic sports as they were either invented by Canadians or trace their roots to Canada.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8433713",
"title": "Country changes in figure skating",
"section": "Section::::Singles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "For skaters from the United States and Canada, it is more typical to see a skater look back to his or her family's country of origin. In previous years, this meant looking back towards Europe, but, more and more, skaters from the United States are looking south towards Puerto Rico and Mexico for countries to represent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48273036",
"title": "2016 NBA playoffs",
"section": "Section::::Media coverage.:Television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "In Canada, national coverage is divided between the TSN and Sportsnet families of channels, with each group carrying approximately half of all games featuring the Toronto Raptors (produced independently of the U.S. national broadcasts regardless of round), and half of all other games (simulcast from the applicable U.S. broadcaster).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1257839",
"title": "Canadian humour",
"section": "Section::::Television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Canada has a national television channel, The Comedy Network, devoted to comedy. Its programming includes some of the classic Canadian comedy series noted above, repeats of several hit American and British series such as \"The Simpsons\", \"South Park\" and \"Absolutely Fabulous\", and original series such as \"Kevin Spencer\", \"Odd Job Jack\", \"The Devil's Advocates\", \"Improv Heaven and Hell\" and \"Puppets Who Kill\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3495354",
"title": "Blackout (broadcasting)",
"section": "Section::::Canada.:NHL.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1252,
"text": "As in the U.S., National Hockey League games that are not scheduled as national telecasts by Sportsnet or TVA Sports are broadcast by regional feeds of either Sportsnet, TSN, or RDS (French), and are blacked out for viewers outside the team's home market. Sportsnet's four regional feeds correspond with each of its NHL teams' designated markets; the Ontario and Pacific feeds are designated to the Toronto Maple Leafs, and Vancouver Canucks respectively, while Sportsnet West and its corresponding market (which includes all of Alberta and Saskatchewan) is shared by the Edmonton Oilers and Calgary Flames. Although West is also the main feed for Manitoba, Flames and Oilers games are blacked out there to protect the Winnipeg Jets. As of August 2014, TSN is similarly structured, with the Ottawa Senators on TSN5 (East), Maple Leafs on TSN4 (Ontario), and Jets on TSN3 (Manitoba and Saskatchewan). The Montreal Canadiens were added in 2017 on TSN2 (which was originally promoted as being a secondary national channel). The Canadiens and Senators share the same market, which includes parts of Eastern Ontario (primarily the Ottawa Valley), and the entirety of Quebec and Atlantic Canada, while Saskatchewan is shared by the Jets, Flames, and Oilers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bae7y0
|
How liquid crystals rotate light's polarization?
|
[
{
"answer": "No, they don't act as polarizers, they are what's called a birefringent material.\n\nLinear polarization can be described as a linear combination of left and right circular polarizations, and the angle of linear polarization is given by the phases between the left and right circular polarizations.\nLiquid crystals have different index of refractions for the two circular polarizations, causing a constant change of phase and therefore rotates the linear polarization.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10158337",
"title": "Large-screen television technology",
"section": "Section::::Display technologies.:LCD television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1110,
"text": "When the liquid crystal material is in its natural state, light passing through the first filter will be rotated (in terms of polarity) by the twisted molecule structure, which allows the light to pass through the second filter. When voltage is applied across the electrodes, the liquid crystal structure is untwisted to an extent determined by the amount of voltage. A sufficiently large voltage will cause the molecules to untwist completely, such that the polarity of any light passing through will not be rotated and will instead be perpendicular to the filter polarity. This filter will block the passage of light because of the difference in polarity orientation, and the resulting pixel will be black. The amount of light allowed to pass through at each pixel can be controlled by varying the corresponding voltage accordingly. In a color LCD each pixel consists of red, green, and blue subpixels, which require appropriate color filters in addition to the components mentioned previously. Each subpixel can be controlled individually to display a large range of possible colors for a particular pixel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17932",
"title": "Liquid-crystal display",
"section": "Section::::Active-matrix technologies.:Twisted nematic (TN).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Twisted nematic displays contain liquid crystals that twist and untwist at varying degrees to allow light to pass through. When no voltage is applied to a TN liquid crystal cell, polarized light passes through the 90-degrees twisted LC layer. In proportion to the voltage applied, the liquid crystals untwist changing the polarization and blocking the light's path. By properly adjusting the level of the voltage almost any gray level or transmission can be achieved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "75109",
"title": "Jean-Baptiste Biot",
"section": "Section::::Work.:Polarized light.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Biot's work on the polarization of light has led to many breakthroughs in the field of optics. Liquid crystal displays (LCDs), such as television and computer screens, use light that is polarized by a filter as it enters the liquid crystal, to allow the liquid crystal to modulate the intensity of the transmitted light. This happens as the liquid crystal's polarisation varies in response to an electric control signal applied across it. Polarizing filters are used extensively in photography to cut out unwanted reflections or to enhance reflection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17973",
"title": "Liquid crystal",
"section": "Section::::External influences on liquid crystals.:Electric and magnetic field effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "In nematic liquid crystals, the polarization, and electric displacement both depend on the linearly on the direction of the electric field. The polarization should be even in the director since liquid crystals are invariants under reflexions of formula_16. The most general form to express formula_13 is\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17973",
"title": "Liquid crystal",
"section": "Section::::Applications of liquid crystals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 1483,
"text": "Liquid crystals find wide use in liquid crystal displays, which rely on the optical properties of certain liquid crystalline substances in the presence or absence of an electric field. In a typical device, a liquid crystal layer (typically 4 μm thick) sits between two polarizers that are crossed (oriented at 90° to one another). The liquid crystal alignment is chosen so that its relaxed phase is a twisted one (see Twisted nematic field effect). This twisted phase reorients light that has passed through the first polarizer, allowing its transmission through the second polarizer (and reflected back to the observer if a reflector is provided). The device thus appears transparent. When an electric field is applied to the LC layer, the long molecular axes tend to align parallel to the electric field thus gradually untwisting in the center of the liquid crystal layer. In this state, the LC molecules do not reorient light, so the light polarized at the first polarizer is absorbed at the second polarizer, and the device loses transparency with increasing voltage. In this way, the electric field can be used to make a pixel switch between transparent or opaque on command. Color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue pixels. Chiral smectic liquid crystals are used in ferroelectric LCDs which are fast-switching binary light modulators. Similar principles can be used to make other liquid crystal based optical devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39774",
"title": "Optical rotation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1309,
"text": "The rotation of the orientation of linearly polarized light was first observed in 1811 in quartz by French physicist François Jean Dominique Arago. In 1820, the English astronomer Sir John F.W. Herschel discovered that different individual quartz crystals, whose crystalline structures are mirror images of each other (see illustration), rotate linear polarization by equal amounts but in opposite directions. Jean Baptiste Biot also observed the rotation of the axis of polarization in certain liquids and vapors of organic substances such as turpentine. Simple polarimeters have been used since this time to measure the concentrations of simple sugars, such as glucose, in solution. In fact one name for D-glucose (the biological isomer), is \"dextrose\", referring to the fact that it causes linearly polarized light to rotate to the right or dexter side. In a similar manner, levulose, more commonly known as fructose, causes the plane of polarization to rotate to the left. Fructose is even more strongly levorotatory than glucose is dextrorotatory. Invert sugar syrup, commercially formed by the hydrolysis of sucrose syrup to a mixture of the component simple sugars, fructose, and glucose, gets its name from the fact that the conversion causes the direction of rotation to \"invert\" from right to left.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41564",
"title": "Polarization (waves)",
"section": "Section::::Measurement techniques involving polarization.:Chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 1326,
"text": "We have seen (above) that the birefringence of a type of crystal is useful in identifying it, and thus detection of linear birefringence is especially useful in geology and mineralogy. Linearly polarized light generally has its polarization state altered upon transmission through such a crystal, making it stand out when viewed in between two crossed polarizers, as seen in the photograph, above. Likewise, in chemistry, rotation of polarization axes in a liquid solution can be a useful measurement. In a liquid, linear birefringence is impossible, however there may be circular birefringence when a chiral molecule is in solution. When the right and left handed enantiomers of such a molecule are present in equal numbers (a so-called racemic mixture) then their effects cancel out. However, when there is only one (or a preponderance of one), as is more often the case for organic molecules, a net circular birefringence (or \"optical activity\") is observed, revealing the magnitude of that imbalance (or the concentration of the molecule itself, when it can be assumed that only one enantiomer is present). This is measured using a polarimeter in which polarized light is passed through a tube of the liquid, at the end of which is another polarizer which is rotated in order to null the transmission of light through it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
joe97
|
Why do we teach more complex sciences earlier in life, and wait until around 11th-12th grade to start explaining physics.
|
[
{
"answer": "Physics require understanding of calculus. Calculus requires a lot of prerequisite knowledge of math that takes years to learn.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Physics require understanding of calculus. Calculus requires a lot of prerequisite knowledge of math that takes years to learn.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22939",
"title": "Physics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines and, through its inclusion of astronomy, perhaps \"the\" oldest. Over much of the past two millennia, physics, chemistry, biology, and certain branches of mathematics, were a part of natural philosophy, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 17th century these natural sciences emerged as unique research endeavors in their own right. Physics intersects with many interdisciplinary areas of research, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, and the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms studied by other sciences and suggest new avenues of research in academic disciplines such as mathematics and philosophy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3330130",
"title": "Summit High School (New Jersey)",
"section": "Section::::Science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "The general pattern for students is to study physics in ninth grade, biology in tenth grade, and chemistry in eleventh grade; these subjects can be studied at different levels, from modified to regular and to advanced/honors. Science department supervisor Tom O'Dowd explained that \"teaching physics in ninth grade has been identified as the best option because physics is the fundamental science ... It is potentially the most concrete and the best suited for inquiry-based learning.\" A movement towards teaching physics has been going on for years, explained one school spokesperson, who explained that physics is \"more basic than biology\" and \"makes for a more rigorous and thoughtful curriculum.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1579586",
"title": "Physics First",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Many proponents of Physics First argue that turning this order around lays the foundations for better understanding of chemistry, which in turn will lead to more comprehension of biology. Due to the tangible nature of most introductory physics experiments, Physics First also lends itself well to an introduction to inquiry-based science education, where students are encouraged to probe the workings of the world in which they live.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3657318",
"title": "Nature study",
"section": "Section::::Education for children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "Sciences were expanding in colleges and universities, and scientists felt \"that students needed more and better preparation in secondary and primary schools\". Not only was the curriculum of schools evolving, but also was the system of education itself. Populations were rising in big urban areas like New York and Chicago, and there was legislation to require students to spend required numbers of hours and days per year in the school system. With a growing population due to immigration and other reasons, young people could be taught useful skills for life and academia in order to \"share fundamental civic values and enlarged view of their world\". The nature study became the way younger students learned of their natural world. This also came at a time when legislation was being passed for conservation in the country, which helped gather support from parents and educators in the country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1579586",
"title": "Physics First",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "In addition, many scientists and educators argue that freshmen do not have an adequate background in mathematics to be able to fully comprehend a complete physics curriculum, and that therefore quality of a physics education is lost. While physics requires knowledge of vectors and some basic trigonometry, many students in the Physics First program take the course in conjunction with geometry. They suggest that instead students first take biology and chemistry which are less mathematics-intensive so that by the time they are in their junior year, students will be advanced enough in mathematics with either an algebra 2 or pre-calculus education to be able to fully grasp the concepts presented in physics. Some argue this even further, saying that at least calculus should be a prerequisite for physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11983318",
"title": "Branches of science",
"section": "Section::::Natural/Pure Science.:Physical science.:Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest through its inclusion of astronomy. Over the last two millennia, physics was a part of natural philosophy along with chemistry, certain branches of mathematics, and biology, but during the Scientific Revolution in the 16th century, the natural sciences emerged as unique research programs in their own right. Certain research areas are interdisciplinary, such as biophysics and quantum chemistry, which means that the boundaries of physics are not rigidly defined. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries physicalism emerged as a major unifying feature of the philosophy of science as physics provides fundamental explanations for every observed natural phenomenon. New ideas in physics often explain the fundamental mechanisms of other sciences, while opening to new research areas in mathematics and philosophy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28105392",
"title": "Big Apple Academy",
"section": "Section::::History.:Curriculum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "In older grades the workload increases, and more advanced subjects are added. The students are taught Algebra, Geometry, Graphic Design, Computer Science, History and Geography as parts of Social Studies, and Physics, Chemistry, and Biology as parts of Science. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8dckzt
|
how do scientists make money?
|
[
{
"answer": "Many scientists work for universities, where they are professors. Others work for government research labs. These people are paid by the government - either directly or through research grants - to do research.\n\nMany others work for private industry, doing research that furthers the goals of the company.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People that fund research: A Company looking to make a product, Universities, The Government in General, The Military in Specific, NASA in Specific, and people who donate to research funds. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1348347",
"title": "Funding of science",
"section": "Section::::Process.:Private funding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "Private funding for research comes from philanthropists, crowd-funding, private companies, non-profit foundations, and professional organizations. Philanthropists and foundations have been known to pour millions of dollars into a wide variety of scientific investigations, including basic research discovery, disease cures, particle physics, astronomy, marine science, and the environment. Many large technology companies spend billions of dollars on research and development each year to gain an innovative advantage over their competitors, though only about 42% of this funding goes towards projects that are considered substantially new, or capable of yielding radical breakthroughs. New scientific start-up companies initially seek funding from crowd-funding organizations, venture capitalists, and angel investors, gathering preliminary results using rented facilities, but aim to eventually become self-sufficient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6277878",
"title": "Open science",
"section": "Section::::Politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "In many countries, governments fund some science research. Scientists often publish the results of their research by writing articles and donating them to be published in scholarly journals, which frequently are commercial. Public entities such as universities and libraries subscribe to these journals. Michael Eisen, a founder of the Public Library of Science, has described this system by saying that \"taxpayers who already paid for the research would have to pay again to read the results.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26700",
"title": "Science",
"section": "Section::::Science and the public.:Science policy.:Funding of science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 1392,
"text": "Scientific research is often funded through a competitive process in which potential research projects are evaluated and only the most promising receive funding. Such processes, which are run by government, corporations, or foundations, allocate scarce funds. Total research funding in most developed countries is between 1.5% and 3% of GDP. In the OECD, around two-thirds of research and development in scientific and technical fields is carried out by industry, and 20% and 10% respectively by universities and government. The government funding proportion in certain industries is higher, and it dominates research in social science and humanities. Similarly, with some exceptions (e.g. biotechnology) government provides the bulk of the funds for basic scientific research. Many governments have dedicated agencies to support scientific research. Prominent scientific organizations include the National Science Foundation in the United States, the National Scientific and Technical Research Council in Argentina, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) in Australia, in France, the Max Planck Society and in Germany, and CSIC in Spain. In commercial research and development, all but the most research-oriented corporations focus more heavily on near-term commercialisation possibilities rather than \"blue-sky\" ideas or technologies (such as nuclear fusion).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42403016",
"title": "Logology (science)",
"section": "Section::::Sociology of science.:Funding.:Funding biases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Rewarding big spenders: \"Hiring, promotion and tenure decisions primarily rest on a researcher's ability to secure high levels of funding. But the expense of a project does not necessarily correlate with its importance. Such reward structures select mostly for politically savvy managers who know how to absorb money.\" Solutions: \"We should reward scientists for high-quality work, reproducibility and social value rather than for securing funding. Excellent research can be done with little to no funding other than protected time. Institutions should provide this time and respect scientists who can do great work without wasting tons of money.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25524",
"title": "Research",
"section": "Section::::Research funding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "Most funding for scientific research comes from three major sources: corporate research and development departments; private foundations, for example, the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation; and government research councils such as the National Institutes of Health in the USA and the Medical Research Council in the UK. These are managed primarily through universities and in some cases through military contractors. Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for research funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers to carry out their research but also as a source of merit. The Social Psychology Network provides a comprehensive list of U.S. Government and private foundation funding sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "734369",
"title": "Scientific enterprise",
"section": "Section::::Examples of enterprising scientific organizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "Each organization listed below has the ability to conduct scientific research on an extended basis, involving multiple researchers over an extended time. Generally, the research is funded not only for the science itself, but for some application which shows promise for the enterprise. But the researchers, if left to their own choices, will tend to follow their research interest, which is essential for the long-term health of their chosen field. Note that a successful scientific enterprise is not equivalent to a successful high-tech enterprise or to a successful business enterprise, but that they form an ecology, a \"food chain\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19159839",
"title": "Earthwatch Institute",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "By paying to spend time on a project (ranging from a few days to several weeks), volunteers, corporations and foundations support the critical field research both financially and by providing manpower to collect data. Participants gain first hand experience with science, the scientists and the research area of their projects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
64ftyj
|
Would a woman be allowed to become a blacksmith in Medieval Europe?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Holkham Bible (British Library Add. MS 47682) from 14th century England isn't a \"Bible\" in the standard sense. It's more like a biblically-based storybook, combining prose and poetry narratives that weave apocryphal legends into bible stories. This sort of narrative or historiated Bible isn't unusual for the later Middle Ages, nor is its vernacular (in this case, Anglo-Norman/a variety of French) language. What sets the Holkham Bible apart is its cycle of illustrations depicting everyday life in contemporary England along with biblical story depictions plus some whimsical imagery.\n\nThe blacksmith? [Is female.](_URL_0_)\n\nWomen were *generally* prohibited from owning their own businesses by the late Middle Ages, although there were exceptions such as the all-female cloth-trade guilds of Rouen. However, there were certainly situations in which women worked in artisans' shops and could even own them. It's a fairly standard assumption that, if the husband/father of a family owned a shop, his family members would compromise some or most of his labor force. That would include wife and daughters. It was an important enough role for wives, in fact, that widows could sometimes inherit a shop directly from their deceased husband and own/operate it in their own right.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4378583",
"title": "Sabina von Steinbach",
"section": "Section::::Women stonemasons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "Women were admitted to membership in the majority of the medieval craft guilds, but membership in a guild did not carry with it the right of being apprenticed, although it implied that a female member might share in all its benefits, pious and pecuniary, and in the event of her husband’s death (he being a master) might carry on his trade. This was easily done with the help of a managing journeyman and it is well known that provision was made for the journeyman's promptly acquiring the master’s rights by marrying such a widow. Stonemasons often traveled to distant sites for work that might be decades in construction and would naturally have taken their wives and children with them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48480240",
"title": "Medieval singlewomen",
"section": "Section::::Economic opportunities.:Townswomen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 947,
"text": "For a singlewoman of slightly higher status, her unused dowry might cover the fees necessary to enter an apprenticeship. Singlewomen could sometimes be apprenticed to women who were already practicing their own craft, though this became increasingly rare. Once guilds were established in the later Middle Ages, however, it became nearly impossible for women to enter certain trades. As a result, the trades that did not have professional guilds, like textile manufacturing and the sale of edible goods, became the most accessible options for singlewomen. Even still, apprenticeships within these trades were difficult to acquire and were not given formal representation in official records. If a woman was lucky enough to acquire such an opportunity, it was nearly impossible to advance professionally within the trade. Regardless of their trade or craft, the majority of these women retained low status and remained poor for most of their lives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "162619",
"title": "Apprenticeship",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "The system of apprenticeship first developed in the later Middle Ages and came to be supervised by craft guilds and town governments. A master craftsman was entitled to employ young people as an inexpensive form of labour in exchange for providing food, lodging and formal training in the craft. Most apprentices were males, but female apprentices were found in crafts such as seamstress, tailor, cordwainer, baker and stationer. Apprentices usually began at ten to fifteen years of age, and would live in the master craftsman's household. Most apprentices aspired to becoming master craftsmen themselves on completion of their contract (usually a term of seven years), but some would spend time as a journeyman and a significant proportion would never acquire their own workshop. In Coventry those completing seven-year apprenticeships with stuff merchants were entitled to become freemen of the city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145092",
"title": "Blacksmith",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "While there are many people who work with metal such as farriers, wheelwrights, and armorers, the blacksmith had a general knowledge of how to make and repair many things, from the most complex of weapons and armor to simple things like nails or lengths of chain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23130107",
"title": "Makera Assada",
"section": "Section::::Occupations.:Blacksmithing in Makera Assada.:Process of blacksmthing in Assada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "As this whole iron industry evolved over time, blacksmithing became an umbrella for several specialisties. The blacksmith who made knives and swords was a bladesmith. The blacksmith who made locks was a locksmith. The blacksmith who maids suits of armour was an armorer. The blacksmith who made gun barrels and triggers was a gunsmith. The blacksmith who shod horses, was a farrier. The blacksmith, who made earrings, necklaces and other decorations for women, was a whitesmith. The blacksmith who specialized in moulding gold was a goldsmith. Thus the blacksmiths possess all these skills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49303051",
"title": "The Smith and the Devil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "According to George Monbiot, the blacksmith is a motif of folklore throughout (and beyond) Europe associated with malevolence (the medieval vision of Hell may draw upon the image the smith at his forge), and several variant tales tell of smiths entering into a pact with the devil to obtain fire and the means of smelting metal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23130107",
"title": "Makera Assada",
"section": "Section::::Occupations.:Blacksmithing in Makera Assada.:Process of blacksmthing in Assada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "Blacksmith is a person who creates objects from iron or steel by “forging” the metal, by using tools to hammer, bend, cut and otherwise shape it in its non liquid form. Usually the metal is heated until it glows red or orange as part of the forging process. Blacksmiths produces things like wrought iron gates, grills, railings, light fixtures, furniture, sculpture, tools agricultural implements, decorative and religious items, cooking utensils and weapons. Blacksmiths work with their old clothes this is because of the nature of the work. They use to work both in their shop (Bukkar Makera), and even at entrance of their houses (Zaure) as the case of Makera Assdada. Except during this time that most of the work use to take place in the market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
attkni
|
i dont understand animals having multiple primary colours. what do they see?
|
[
{
"answer": "Light is Radiation and there are different frequencies that correspond with different colors. Us humans have three distinct receptors in our eyes and are able to see a part of the radiation spectrum with them. Other animals have more types of receptors and see colors like infrared (a to us invisible frequency of the radiation) and ultraviolet (also invisible to us). Some animals can also distinct between slighter differencies in frequency so they see more distinct colors.\n\nImagine you only had two of these receptors. You would see less different colors. With more receptors there are more frequencies you can detect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45105839",
"title": "Albinism",
"section": "Section::::Biological colouration.:Animal colouration.:Structural colours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Animals can also appear coloured due to structural colour, the result of coherent scattering perceived as iridescence. The structures themselves are colourless. Light typically passes through multiple layers and is reflected more than once. The multiple reflections compound one another and intensify the colours. Structural colour differs according to the observer's position whereas pigments appear the same regardless of the angle-of-view. Animals that show iridescence include mother of pearl seashells, fish, and peacocks. These are just a few examples of animals with this quality, but it is most pronounced in the butterfly family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "302812",
"title": "Color vision",
"section": "Section::::Physiology of color perception.:In other animal species.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "The basis for this variation is the number of cone types that differ between species. Mammals in general have color vision of a limited type, and usually have red-green color blindness, with only two types of cones. Humans, some primates, and some marsupials see an extended range of colors, but only by comparison with other mammals. Most non-mammalian vertebrate species distinguish different colors at least as well as humans, and many species of birds, fish, reptiles and amphibians, and some invertebrates, have more than three cone types and probably superior color vision to humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5921",
"title": "Color",
"section": "Section::::Perception.:Nonstandard color perception.:Tetrachromacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1131,
"text": "While most humans are \"trichromatic\" (having three types of color receptors), many animals, known as \"[[Tetrachromacy|tetrachromats]]\", have four types. These include some species of [[spider]]s, most [[marsupial]]s, [[bird]]s, [[reptile]]s, and many species of [[fish]]. Other species are sensitive to only two axes of color or do not perceive color at all; these are called \"dichromats\" and \"monochromats\" respectively. A distinction is made between \"retinal tetrachromacy\" (having four pigments in cone cells in the retina, compared to three in trichromats) and \"functional tetrachromacy\" (having the ability to make enhanced color discriminations based on that retinal difference). As many as half of all women are retinal tetrachromats. The phenomenon arises when an individual receives two slightly different copies of the gene for either the medium- or long-wavelength cones, which are carried on the [[X chromosome]]. To have two different genes, a person must have two X chromosomes, which is why the phenomenon only occurs in women. There is one scholarly report that confirms the existence of a functional tetrachromat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1979078",
"title": "Color model",
"section": "Section::::Other uses of \"color model\".:Vertebrate evolution of color vision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 918,
"text": "Vertebrate animals were primitively tetrachromatic. They possessed four types of cones—long, mid, short wavelength cones, and ultraviolet sensitive cones. Today, fish, amphibians, reptiles and birds are all tetrachromatic. Placental mammals lost both the mid and short wavelength cones. Thus, most mammals do not have complex color vision—they are dichromatic but they are sensitive to ultraviolet light, though they cannot see its colors. Human trichromatic color vision is a recent evolutionary novelty that first evolved in the common ancestor of the Old World Primates. Our trichromatic color vision evolved by duplication of the long wavelength sensitive opsin, found on the X chromosome. One of these copies evolved to be sensitive to green light and constitutes our mid wavelength opsin. At the same time, our short wavelength opsin evolved from the ultraviolet opsin of our vertebrate and mammalian ancestors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13455478",
"title": "Animal coloration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Animal coloration is the general appearance of an animal resulting from the reflection or emission of light from its surfaces. Some animals are brightly colored, while others are hard to see. In some species, such as the peafowl, the male has strong patterns, conspicuous colors and is iridescent, while the female is far less visible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5921",
"title": "Color",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "The photo-receptivity of the \"eyes\" of other species also varies considerably from that of humans and so results in correspondingly [[Color vision#In other animal species|different \"color\" perceptions]] that cannot readily be compared to one another. [[Honey bee|Honeybees]] and [[bumblebee]]s for instance have trichromatic color vision sensitive to [[ultraviolet]] but is insensitive to red. [[Papilio]] butterflies possess six types of photoreceptors and may have [[Pentachromacy|pentachromatic]] vision. The most complex color vision system in the animal kingdom has been found in [[stomatopod]]s (such as the [[mantis shrimp]]) with up to 12 spectral receptor types thought to work as multiple dichromatic units.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25825",
"title": "Red",
"section": "Section::::In science and nature.:Seeing red.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Primates can distinguish the full range of the colors of the spectrum visible to humans, but many kinds of mammals, such as dogs and cattle, have dichromacy, which means they can see blues and yellows, but cannot distinguish red and green (both are seen as gray). Bulls, for instance, cannot see the red color of the cape of a bullfighter, but they are agitated by its movement. (See color vision).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b1ckqg
|
How and why was what constitutes a deck of playing cards decided upon?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hey there - while you're waiting for an answer for your question, here are some related topics that you might be interested in:\n\n/u/AshkenazeeYankee discusses the traditional colors for playing cards: [Why are playing cards red and black?](_URL_1_)\n\n/u/Vox_Imperatoris talks about the original games: [What games were playing cards developed for?](_URL_0_)\n\n/u/Argos_the_Dog posts about the basis for the artistic designs on playing cards: [Where do the designs on cards come from?](_URL_2_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "526220",
"title": "1000 Blank White Cards",
"section": "Section::::Game.:Deck creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "A deck of cards consists of any number of cards, generally of a uniform size and of rigid enough paper stock that they may be reused. Some may bear artwork, writing or other game-relevant content created during past games, with a reasonable stock of cards that are blank at the start of gameplay. Some time may be taken to create cards before gameplay commences, although card creation may be more dynamic if no advance preparation is made, and it is suggested that the game be simply sprung upon a group of players, who may or may not have any idea what they are being caught up in. If the game has been played before, all past cards can be used in gameplay unless the game specifies otherwise, but perhaps not until the game has allowed them into play.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218670",
"title": "Playing card suit",
"section": "Section::::Other suited decks.:Other modern decks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Decks for some games are divided into suits, but otherwise bear little relation to traditional games. An example would be the board game Taj Mahal, in which each card has one of four background colors, the rule being that all the cards played by a single player in a single round must be the same color. The selection of cards in the deck of each color is approximately the same and the player's choice of which color to use is guided by the contents of their particular hand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2984880",
"title": "Bouillotte",
"section": "Section::::Game.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "To determine where a person sits, a sequence of cards is taken out of the deck, equal to the number of players (e.g., with 4 players, an ace, king, queen, and nine are taken, etc.) They are shuffled, and each player draws one. The player with the ace chooses where to sit first, etc. First dealer is the player with the king.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7530573",
"title": "Stress (card game)",
"section": "Section::::Game rules.:Deck.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The deck is divided into thirteen equal piles, each with four cards. One pile goes into the middle, and the rest of the piles are equally dealt among the players. Each of the players' piles will remain face-down, and can only be lifted when the pile in the middle is flipped. The pile in the middle is flipped over so that all four cards are completely visible. You can only use one hand to put cards\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2912536",
"title": "Singaporean bridge",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Essentially, a deck of 52 cards is used, and 4 hands of 13 are dealt. Players assume fixed seats, but unlike contract bridge, the partners are not determined at the outset by virtue of north-south or east-west — they are determined at the end of the bidding. There are no pre-determined number of games to be played and no need to duplicate the hands for subsequent players, if any.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18830",
"title": "Magic: The Gathering",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Deck construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Deck building requires strategy as players must choose among thousands of cards which they want to play. This requires players to evaluate the power of their cards, as well as the possible synergies between them, and their possible interactions with the cards they expect to play against (this \"metagame\" can vary in different locations or time periods). The choice of cards is usually narrowed by the player deciding which colors they want to include in the deck. This decision is a key part of creating a deck. In general, reducing the number of colors used increases the consistency of play and the probability of drawing the lands needed to cast one's spells, at the expense of restricting the range of tactics available to the player.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "88255",
"title": "Mille Bornes",
"section": "Section::::Play.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "The deck is shuffled and six cards are dealt to each player; the remainder becomes a draw pile and a discard pile forms next to it. Each player's turn begins with a draw of one card and a play of one card, so that each player always holds six cards at the end of his turn. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fnijb
|
At the most fundamental level, what stops me from falling through the floor?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think the most common explanation is electromagnetic. My electrons repel the electrons in the wall/floor and thus we can't pass through them.\n\nBut I had a professor in undergrad that swore it was the Pauli exclusion principle at work. My electrons can't occupy the same space at the wall/floor's electrons. \n\n**edit**: As other redditors point out, my professor is likely wrong. I just offered it because it was the only non-E & M explanation I'd ever heard. To respond to OP directly: Have you heard of [solar sails](_URL_0_)? Essentially as light bounces off of the sail, it exchanges momentum pushing the sail forward. Well, in a manner of speaking as your electrons get really close to the floor's electrons there's a lot of virtual photons being exchanged between them that pushes you away from the floor atoms and the floor atoms away from you. \n\n**edit2** further down the thread some redditors justify the professor's response. Now I don't feel quite so bad about posting both. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well there are four fundamental [interactions](_URL_0_). You are being acted upon by all of them in some way, the gravitation causes you to fall to the floor, the strong and weak do other things. The electromagnetic force, as you suggest can be said to form an equilibrium with the the gravitation.\n\nTo understand this, you must realise how the electrons and protons in an atom interact, namely by the Coulomb potential (an electromagnetic force) this causes them to have attractions with every other proton/electron in the system. Then imagine the floor is like a trampoline, made of large balls connected by bits of elastic, if you step on it you will cause the balls to move down, stretching the bonds between them. This causes a force that eventually is in equilibrium with the gravitational force. Now all you need to do is realise the floor is made up of a massive amount of these bonds, and there very small. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The electrons in your feet are repelled by the electrons in the floor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is an interesting question, and one that I'm told Rutherford had difficulty with as well. I will talk about this at the end*.\n\nAs many people have already said, the reason is due to the electromagnetic force (to the first order). The electromagnetic force is much stronger than gravity (see _URL_0_). However you don't 'feel' this force because the charges involved are very small. This means that they only take places over small distances. I can't really explain this much better without going into more physics.\n\nIt is interesting to note that you never actually come into contact with anything else in the traditional sense. This is a result of the power of the electromagnetic force. If you were able to actually come into contact you would get fusion (or fission depending on how the conditions are set up).\n\n\n\nAs to walking through walls. If we look at this from a stat physics perspective, you are already doing this (kinda, very small parts of your body are in the other room right now. This is more Quantum Mech.). To walk through walls in the stat. physics view all of your atoms need to align in just the right state. For this to occur however is realistically impossible as if you were to make an attempt at this every second since the beginning of time you would still be waiting (for another trillion years(? i will have to do the calculation again, note that the universe is only about 13 billion years old).\n\n\n*Rutherford\nRutherford discovered that atoms were mostly composed of empty space. (see gold foil experiment) The story goes that the morning after this discovery he was afraid to get out of bed because he did not want to fall through the empty space of the floor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What do you mean \"if you can generate a strong electromagnetic field\"? There's already a strong field; that's what keeps you from falling through the floor.\n\nI think you're underestimating just how strong the electromagnetic force is. It's responsible for all of chemistry, thermodynamics, material properties, etc. Every (conventional) explosion ever conducted is just another manifestation of the electromagnetic force. \n\nWe just have very little direct experience with highly charged matter. Think of it this way... When you rub your hair against a balloon, you're exchanging electrons between the two. About a billion electrons (sounds like a lot, but it's really just a billionth of the total electrons in the hair) is enough to counteract the gravitational force *of the entire planet earth* on the hair.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This question comes up a lot](_URL_0_), and most people come up with the intuitive idea that the answer is the electromagnetic force, since the inverse square nature of the force means the force goes to infinity as the separation distance goes to zero. Except you'll also notice that no one even tries to offer an actual mathematical model to actually demonstrate this. And the reason for this is because it is not actually such an easy answer after all, and the appropriate resolution is that the electromagnetic force is not the correct answer. \n\nThe correct answer is in fact, as unanin has pointed out, the Pauli exclusion principle, despite some of the responses in this thread. The electromagnetic force answer persists because it is simple and intuitive. It is also wrong, or at the very least, incomplete. The fact of the matter is, that if electrons were bosons, and not fermions, matter wouldn't act the way it does. [Lieb, Rev. Mod. Phys., 48, p. 553 (1976)](_URL_1_) explains the situation, but it is not an easy read.\n\nEdit: [Here's another interesting write-up on the issue.](_URL_2_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1572175",
"title": "Plyometrics",
"section": "Section::::Method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "When the athlete drops down to the floor, the body experiences an impact upon landing. The higher the height of the step-off platform, the greater the impact force upon landing. This creates a shock to the body which the body responds to by undergoing a strong involuntary muscular contraction to prevent the body from collapsing on the ground. This in turn produces great tension in the muscles and tendons which is then given back in a return upward movement. The faster the change in the muscular contractions, the greater the power created and the resulting height attained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4719142",
"title": "Dance studio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "In many cases, the floor is \"sprung\", meaning the construction of the floor provides a degree of flexibility to absorb the impact of intensive dance exercise, such as jumping. This is considered vital to promote good health and safety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5486225",
"title": "Fall prevention",
"section": "Section::::Environmental modification.:Safety technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Important improvements to prevent falls at home or indeed, anywhere, include provision of handrails and grab bars, which should be easy to grip or grasp and should be near any stairs, or change in floor level. Floors should always be flat and level, with no exposed corners or edges to trip the unwary. Patterned floors can be dangerous if they create misleading or distorted images of the floor surface, so should be avoided.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7015856",
"title": "World Trade Center controlled demolition conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::Propositions and hypotheses.:Main towers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "The NIST report provides an analysis of the structural response of the building only up to the point where collapse begins, and asserts that the enormous kinetic energy transferred by the falling part of the building makes progressive collapse inevitable once an initial collapse occurs. A paper by Zdeněk Bažant indicates that once collapse began, the kinetic energy imparted by a falling upper section onto the floor below was an order of magnitude greater than that which the lower section could support.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "308411",
"title": "Tuned mass damper",
"section": "Section::::Dampers in buildings and related structures.:Sources of vibration and resonance.:Mechanical human sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Masses of people walking up and down stairs at once, or great numbers of people stomping in unison, can cause serious problems in large structures like stadiums if those structures lack damping measures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "822732",
"title": "Oregon Vortex",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "BULLET::::- On the Season 15, episode 10 episode of ‘’Mysteries at the Museum’’, hosted by Don Wildman and airing on The Travel Channel, explores a theory that the non-level angles of the floor actually warps visitors’ depth perceptions and cause headaches as well as nausea. This explanation could possibly account for objects appearing to defy gravity and the house’s ability to distort people’s heights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36399140",
"title": "Mouse Trap Hotel",
"section": "Section::::Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Each floor has its own obstacles; which range from mattress springs in the bedroom to dancing legs at the ballroom. Players must ride an elevator to each new floor where dangers constantly lurk about in places like the kitchen and the gymnasium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
811mrm
|
how do zambonis work?
|
[
{
"answer": "Cooling tubes embedded in the concrete beneath the ice keep it at a temperature which is somewhat below zero. This is important, as it needs to keep the ice cold enough to freeze the additional water which is laid down during resurfacing. The machine first scrapes the ice to remove shavings and prevent weak spots with any entrained air being frozen into the surface. The ice shavings are scooped up into a holding tank in the machine. Then, fresh water is laid down, and spread via squeegee to ensure consistent and minimal thickness.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "255626",
"title": "Zambales",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Zambales (; ; ; ; ) is a province in the Philippines located in the Central Luzon region in the island of Luzon. Its capital is the Municipality of Iba which is strategically located in the middle of the province. Zambales borders Pangasinan to the north and northeast, Tarlac to the east,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21298203",
"title": "The Zamboni (magazine)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "The Zamboni is a student-run humor publication at Tufts University. It was founded in 1989 and comes out with six issues per year, or once per month. It contains satirical articles (such as fake news briefs, interviews, and op-ed pieces), cartoons, and photos. It is known as \"Tufts University's Only Intentionally Funny Magazine\" and its motto is \"Cowering Behind the First Amendment Since 1989.\" \"The Zamboni\" is fully funded by the Student Activities Fee as allocated by the Tufts Senate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "290253",
"title": "Ismael \"El Mayo\" Zambada",
"section": "Section::::Drug trafficking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Zambada operates primarily in the States of Sinaloa and Durango, but exerts influence along a large portion of Mexico’s Pacific coast, as well as in Cancun, Quintana Roo, Sonora, Monterrey and Nuevo Leon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14743809",
"title": "Port of Zamboanga",
"section": "Section::::Facilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "The Port of Zamboanga is a center for sardine exports to the United States, Europe, the Middle, and Far East. 25 shipping lines operate via the port, serviced by four shipyards operating within the port boundaries and in Zamboanga City.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43123046",
"title": "Zambrero",
"section": "Section::::Charity initiative.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Zambrero achieves its humanitarian aims through its Plate 4 Plate initiative, on a mission to combat world hunger. For every burrito or bowl purchased at Zambrero, a meal is donated to someone in need in the developing world. Similarly, for every product purchased from Zambrero’s retail range, a meal is donated to someone in an underprivileged Australian community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2174629",
"title": "Tanauan, Leyte",
"section": "Section::::Heritage and culture.:Skimboarding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 1383,
"text": "Tanauan is recognized as the “Skimboarding Capital” of the Philippines. It is told by tradition that Skimboarding was first introduced in Tanauan in 2000, when an American national came to Tanauan to win the heart of a local lass. Since Tanauan is situated along the coast facing San Pedro Bay, the American national started making a skimboard which he eventually finished. However, he was not able to teach the local youths on how to use it since he had to leave back to the States. He left the skimboard and the local youths started to train themselves on how to use it. Young people from Barangay San Roque and Barangay Sto. Nino started making prototypes of the skimboard which were sold to the enthusiasts. It was told that the first skimboarder in the Philippines named Michael Miranda, together with his friend Kim Ian \"Dodot\" Montaño has made the first local made skimboard, and with their enthusiasm of the sports they introduce and teach the local to ride the skimboard. The first skimboarding competition was organized by Darwin Maceda together with his friends Alexander Cumpio and Nerizza Reynera at Tanauan Leyte Bantay Dagat dated March 31, 2002. Since then, skimboarding started to spread to the nearby towns and later on throughout the country. Currently, National and International Skimboarding Competitions are held annually at the \"Bantay Dagat\" Area in Tanauan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "255626",
"title": "Zambales",
"section": "Section::::Geography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Zambales lies on the western shores of Luzon island along the West Philippine Sea. Its shoreline is rugged and features many coves and inlets. The Zambales Mountains in the eastern length of the province occupies about 60% of the total land area of Zambales. Subic Bay, at the southern end of the province, provides a natural harbor, and was the location of the U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay until its closure in 1992.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5kxbvi
|
Did the US really save UK's ass in WW2?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is just a short answer but, kinda. The supplies being sent across the Atlantic were incredibly benefitial to the British, as was the numerical support given by the American troops. \n\nHowever, Britain was for the time being relatively safe from an all out land assault after the Battle of Britain solidified the RAF's dominance over the skies.\n\nIt's probably safer to say that without one of the three major allied players - the US, the British Empire and the USSR - the outcome of the war would have been up in the air rather than certain and would have lasted alot long. (Without America Britain wouldn't have had the numerical advantage it needed for Operation Overlord. Without Russia all Germany's forces would have been focussed on the western front. And without Britain America would not have been able to reach Europe and all of Germany's forces could have been focussed on Russia).\n\nBasically the three major allied players were all important. \nAmericans often claim to have saved Britain, but the British would respond that they should've joined the war effort from the start...\n\nHope that helped to some degree\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's lots of different opinions on this and lots of valid reasoning for all conclusions. However, I will say that the one thing everybody should agree on is this: The US entry into WWII drastically shortened the war and saved an untold number of British and Commonwealth lives. And for that matter, the bravery and determined fighting of the British and Commonwealth soldiers and civilians saved an untold number of American lives; both in the war and from the eventual conflict that would have resulted had the Germans dominated much of the Western world. \n\nIn short, we were and are allies...united in common beliefs and causes. We won the war together, and together managed to keep the Western world largely at peace since then. That's what really matters.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "250130",
"title": "Rationing",
"section": "Section::::Civilian rationing.:Second World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Britons' actual wartime diet was never as severe as in the Cambridge study because imports from America successfully avoided the U-boats, but rationing improved the health of British people; infant mortality declined and life expectancy rose, discounting deaths caused by hostilities. This was because it ensured that everyone had access to a varied diet with enough vitamins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61095",
"title": "Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)",
"section": "Section::::Condition of the expellees after arriving in post-war Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 166,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 166,
"end_character": 1514,
"text": "The US and Britain had to import food into their zones, even as Britain was financially exhausted and dependent on food imports having fought Nazi Germany for the entire war, including as the sole opponent from June 1940 to June 1941 (the period when Poland and France were defeated, the Soviet Union supported Nazi Germany, and the United States had not yet entered the war). Consequently, Britain had to incur additional debt to the US, and the US had to spend more for the survival of its zone, while the Soviets gained applause among Eastern Europeans — many of whom were impoverished by the war and German occupation — who plundered the belongings of expellees, often before they were actually expelled. Since the Soviet Union was the only power among the Allies that allowed and/or encouraged the looting and robbery in the area under its military influence, the perpetrators and profiteers blundered into a situation in which they became dependent on the perpetuation of Soviet rule in their countries to not be dispossessed of the booty and to stay unpunished. With ever more expellees sweeping into post-war Germany, the Allies moved towards a policy of assimilation, which was believed to be the best way to stabilise Germany and ensure peace in Europe by preventing the creation of a marginalised population. This policy led to the granting of German citizenship to the ethnic German expellees who had held citizenship of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Romania, etc. before World War II. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2708213",
"title": "The Economist editorial stance",
"section": "Section::::Anglo-American relations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "The editorial made several remarks. It questioned whether the price that the UK had paid for collaboration with the U.S. during the war was not \"too high for what we are likely to get\". It characterized U.S. public opinion of the UK as \"Britain is stealing a march on the poor repressed American exporter, Britain has no intention of fighting the Japanese, [and] Britain is not really fighting in Europe. [...] Britain is imperialist, reactionary, selfish, exclusive, restrictive.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "414674",
"title": "Operation Rheinübung",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "During both World Wars, the island of Britain was dependent upon huge numbers of merchant ships to bring in food and essential raw materials, and protecting this lifeline was one of the highest priorities for British forces. If this lifeline could be severed, the British Empire in Europe would have to either sue for peace; negotiate an armistice; or abandon the British Isles as a base of operations to blockade the sea approaches to Western Europe; giving Germany in effect, complete mastery of Western Europe, with no tactical base in Europe to oppose that control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33643110",
"title": "Economic history of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::1945–2001.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 159,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 159,
"end_character": 1068,
"text": "Although Britain achieved ultimate victory in the war, the economic costs were enormous. Six years of prolonged warfare and heavy losses of merchant shipping meant that Britain had lost two-thirds of her pre-war export trade by 1945. The loss of her export markets also caused a serious shortage of US dollars, which were crucial to servicing Britain's war debt and maintaining imports from the United States. Most of Britain's gold and currency reserves were depleted and the Government had been forced to sell off the bulk of British overseas assets to fund the war effort. When Lend Lease was terminated by the United States in August 1945, Britain was unable to pay for the import of essential supplies from America. Although the US agreed to cancel $20 million in Lend Lease debt, the UK was forced to obtain a $3.75 billion loan from the United States at 2% interest in December 1945. The US/UK trade imbalance was perilously high, forcing the extension of rationing to lessen the imbalance and preserve precious US dollars for the servicing of loan repayments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51332355",
"title": "History of the foreign relations of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Interwar years 1919–1939.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Britain had suffered little devastation during the war and Prime Minister David Lloyd George supported reparations to a lesser extent than the French did at the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. Britain reluctantly supported the hard Treaty of Versailles, while the U.S, rejected it. France was the main sponsor in its quest for revenge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36749075",
"title": "Commonwealth free trade",
"section": "Section::::Historical origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The war had also left Britain heavily indebted, economically weakened, and unable to absorb the flow of exports from Commonwealth jurisdictions. The Dominions, primarily Canada, directed their trade more heavily to the US market as a consequence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
193k4f
|
How many atoms "thin" does a solid sheet have to be before it becomes transparent?
|
[
{
"answer": "Depends on what the paper is made out of.\n\nGlass can be rather thick and still be transparent. An equally thick piece of most metals would be opaque. However, a sufficiently thin piece of gold foil is mostly transparent and is used on astronaut helmets as a filter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1710972",
"title": "Wavefront .obj file",
"section": "Section::::Material template library.:Basic materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Materials can be transparent. This is referred to as being \"dissolved\". Unlike real transparency, the result does not depend upon the thickness of the object. A value of 1.0 for \"d\" is the default and means fully opaque, as does a value of 0.0 for \"Tr\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1033036",
"title": "Thin film",
"section": "Section::::Deposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "The act of applying a thin film to a surface is \"thin-film deposition\" – any technique for depositing a thin film of material onto a substrate or onto previously deposited layers. \"Thin\" is a relative term, but most deposition techniques control layer thickness within a few tens of nanometres. Molecular beam epitaxy, Langmuir-Blodgett method, atomic layer deposition and molecular layer deposition allow a single layer of atoms or molecules to be deposited at a time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6458",
"title": "Ceramic",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Optical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "In the formation of polycrystalline materials (metals and ceramics) the size of the crystalline grains is determined largely by the size of the crystalline particles present in the raw material during formation (or pressing) of the object. Moreover, the size of the grain boundaries scales directly with particle size. Thus a reduction of the original particle size below the wavelength of visible light (~ 0.5 micrometers for shortwave violet) eliminates any light scattering, resulting in a transparent material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19053",
"title": "Mineral",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Lustre and diaphaneity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "The diaphaneity of a mineral depends on the thickness of the sample. When a mineral is sufficiently thin (e.g., in a thin section for petrography), it may become transparent even if that property is not seen in a hand sample. In contrast, some minerals, such as hematite or pyrite, are opaque even in thin-section.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23988563",
"title": "Postage stamp paper",
"section": "Section::::Flaws and Errors.:Flaws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "A thin is created when a stamp is improperly removed from the paper it was attached. Since paper is created by depositing layers of fibers onto each other to form a web, they can be separated by the layers too. When the paper is finished, the outside layers become the strongest layers. Soaking a stamp in water is the usual way of removing it from the postal matter. Water will dissolve the glue used as the adhesive but it also weakens the bonds of the paper's fibers. Just as the removal of water strengthens the bonding between fibers, adding water weakens them. A failed attempt at removing the stamp from other paper typically results in portion of the stamp's paper being left attached to the postal matter. \"Thins\" can be created in a variety of ways and all result in a damaged stamp. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "351077",
"title": "Transparency and translucency",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:Transparent ceramics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "In the formation of polycrystalline materials (metals and ceramics) the size of the crystalline grains is determined largely by the size of the crystalline particles present in the raw material during formation (or pressing) of the object. Moreover, the size of the grain boundaries scales directly with particle size. Thus a reduction of the original particle size well below the wavelength of visible light (about 1/15 of the light wavelength or roughly 600/15 = 40 nanometers) eliminates much of light scattering, resulting in a translucent or even transparent material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1229268",
"title": "Fluid inclusion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "A fluid inclusion is a microscopic bubble of liquid and gas that is trapped within a crystal. As minerals often form from a liquid or aqueous medium, tiny blebs of that liquid can become trapped within the crystal, or along healed crystal fractures. These small inclusions range in size from 0.1 to 1 mm and are usually only visible in detail by microscopic study.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
jz16m
|
Could high blood pressure be treated by giving blood every week?
|
[
{
"answer": "The blood pressure is not because you have too much blood in your system. You have the correct amount of blood :)\n\nThe problem is occlusion of the blood vessels. and so, yes, high BP is definitely a symptom of something else. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, removing volumes of blood would result in a temporary lowering of blood pressure, it was done for years through the practice of \"blood letting\" (though they didn't really know the science behind what they were doing, and they weren't doing it to target blood pressure specifically). As for \"treating\" chronic hypertension, removing blood on a regular basis would have more negative long-term effects than benefits, so it's not really a viable solution. Also, whambamthankyoumam is correct that occlusion is one cause of hypertension, but is not the only cause, and while hypertension is *usually* a symptom of something else there are common cases of ideopathic hypertension where we don't know exactly what causes the elevated blood pressure. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The blood pressure is not because you have too much blood in your system. You have the correct amount of blood :)\n\nThe problem is occlusion of the blood vessels. and so, yes, high BP is definitely a symptom of something else. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, removing volumes of blood would result in a temporary lowering of blood pressure, it was done for years through the practice of \"blood letting\" (though they didn't really know the science behind what they were doing, and they weren't doing it to target blood pressure specifically). As for \"treating\" chronic hypertension, removing blood on a regular basis would have more negative long-term effects than benefits, so it's not really a viable solution. Also, whambamthankyoumam is correct that occlusion is one cause of hypertension, but is not the only cause, and while hypertension is *usually* a symptom of something else there are common cases of ideopathic hypertension where we don't know exactly what causes the elevated blood pressure. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "101956",
"title": "Orthostatic hypotension",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Lifestyle changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "In people who do not have a diagnosis of high blood pressure, drinking 2–3 liters of fluid a day and taking 10 grams of salt can improve symptoms, by maximizing the amount of fluid in the bloodstream. Another strategy is keeping the head of the bed slightly elevated. This reduces the return of fluid from the limbs to the kidneys at night, thereby reducing nighttime urine production and maintaining fluid in the circulation. Various measures can be used to improve the return of blood to the heart: the wearing of compression stockings and exercises (\"physical counterpressure manoeuvres\" or PCMs) that can be undertaken just before standing up (e.g., leg crossing and squatting).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "200037",
"title": "Hypertensive urgency",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1212,
"text": "In a hypertensive urgency blood pressure should be lowered carefully to ≤160/≤100 mmHg over a period of hours to days, this can often be done as an outpatient. There is limited evidence regarding the most appropriate rate of blood pressure reduction, although it is recommended that mean arterial pressure should be lowered by no more than 25 to 30 percent over the first few hours. Recommended medications for hypertensive urgencies include: captopril, labetalol, amlodipine, felodipine, amlodipine, isradipine, and prazosin. Sublingual nifedipine is not recommended in hypertensive urgencies. This is because nifedipine can cause rapid decrease of blood pressure which can precipitate cerebral or cardiac ischemic events. There is also lack of evidence on the benefits of nifedipine in controlling hypertension. Acute administration of drugs should be followed by several hours of observation to ensure that blood pressure does not fall too much. Aggressive dosing with intravenous drugs or oral agents which lowers blood pressure too rapidly carries risk; conversely there is no evidence that failure to rapidly lower blood pressure in a hypertensive urgency is associated with any increased short-term risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13300481",
"title": "Mephentermine",
"section": "Section::::Indication and dosage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "For maintenance of blood pressure in hypotensive states, the dose for adults is 30–45 mg as a single dose, repeated as necessary or followed by intravenous infusion of 0.1% mephentermine in 5% dextrose, with the rate and duration of administration depending on the patient's response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27987730",
"title": "Mindfulness-based stress reduction",
"section": "Section::::Evaluation of effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "A 2013 statement from the American Heart Association on alternative approaches to lowering blood pressure concluded that MBSR was not recommended in clinical practice to lower blood pressure. MBSR can have a beneficial effect helping with the depression and psychological distress associated with chronic illness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2959528",
"title": "Intracerebral hemorrhage",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Medication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "BULLET::::- One review found that antihypertensive therapy to bring down the blood pressure in acute phases appears to improve outcomes. Other reviews found an unclear difference between intensive and less intensive blood pressure control. The American Heart Association and American Stroke Association guidelines in 2015 recommended decreasing the blood pressure to a SBP of 140 mmHg. However, the evidence finds tentative usefulness as of 2015.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31547693",
"title": "Losartan/hydrochlorothiazide",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "It is used for high blood pressure (hypertension) once a day. Based on the initial blood pressure response and/or losartan-hydrochlorothiazide side effects, the dosage may be increased or decreased. With each change in dosage, it may take up to a month to see the full effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1187350",
"title": "Neuropathic pain",
"section": "Section::::Treatments.:Neuromodulators.:Spinal cord stimulators and implanted spinal pumps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "There are no randomized studies of infusion pumps. For selected patients 50% or greater pain relief is achieved in 38% to 56% at six months but declines with the passage of time. These results must be viewed skeptically since placebo effects cannot be evaluated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4m7ql7
|
To what degree was Manifest Destiny religious in its origin?
|
[
{
"answer": "The answer, in my view, is both *entirely yes* and *not really* at the same time. Here's why:\n\nThe United States of the nineteenth century was an overwhelmingly religious country. Even compared to today's US, which is much more religious than most of Europe, people *believed* during the nineteenth century. In particular, they believed that America was a moral exemplar to the rest of the world. The Puritan leader John Winthrop famously coined the description of America as \"a city on a hill,\" meaning an example of a society that would model proper morality, which meant religion, for the rest of the world, much of which was mired in hopeless sin and depravity. Now, the America of 1845 (the year of the coining, or at least popularization, of the phrase \"Manifest Destiny\"), was very different in many ways from the America of 1620. The history of the development of the religion of the Puritans into the religious and philosophical movements of the early nineteenth century are interesting in their own right, but perhaps a bit extraneous. What matters is that Americans still saw themselves as the \"city on the hill,\" the exemplar of virtue. This exemplary status was derived from God, and it required Americans to spread their own exemplary culture around the world, enlightening others to be the same as the perfect society they had created.\n\nAnd yet, you could also say that this was not the case. For while Americans of the time were much more devout on a day-to-day basis than we are used to today, they were by and large not religious zealots in the same way that the Puritans were. The country also by the 1840s began to absorb large numbers of European Catholics via immigration from Ireland, Germany, and other countries, somewhat limiting the effects of Protestant dominance. Manifest Destiny was (is) an ideology, and ideologies have a slippery way of purporting to be about one thing, but rather being about something else. For one thing, many proponents of Manifest Destiny were Southern slaveholders, who sought to increase the number of slave (or slavery-friendly) states in order to ensure the continued survival of the \"peculiar institution\" in the face of mounting Northern censure. Some of these people--and others--were also motivated by a racist belief in the inferiority of Indian, Hispanic, and other non-Anglo peoples. They saw the triumph of the white race as natural and inevitable. Other supporters of Manifest Destiny, whatever their racial views, were naked capitalists, who sought to leverage the natural resources of the continent to their own personal advantage. They may or may not have been personally racist, but they were personally ready to expand the United States for financial gain.\n\nTo summarize: as an ideology, Manifest Destiny was undoubtedly descended from a religious ideal of a virtuous, exemplary society. But it was also flexible enough to accommodate supporters for whom religion was not a terribly important aspect of life, and who supported the expansion of the American state for other, mostly non-religious reasons.\n\nSources:\n\nWeeks, William. *Building the Continental Empire*\n\nMay, Robert E. *Manifest Destiny's Underworld*\n\nAnd finally, I recommend as I always do, Daniel Walker Howe's *What Hath God Wrought* as the premier synthetic account of American history before the Civil War. The chapters near the end of the book on westward expansion and the Mexican War, will present a useful summary.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "539672",
"title": "History of the United States (1789–1849)",
"section": "Section::::Westward expansion.:Texas, Oregon, California and Manifest Destiny.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Manifest Destiny was the belief that American settlers were destined to expand across the continent. This concept was born out of \"A sense of mission to redeem the Old World by high example ... generated by the potentialities of a new earth for building a new heaven\". The phrase \"Manifest Destiny\" meant many different things to many different people, and was rejected by many Americans. Howe argues that, \"American imperialism did not represent an American consensus; it provoked bitter dissent within the national polity.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63876",
"title": "History of the United States",
"section": "Section::::19th century.:Westward expansion and Manifest Destiny.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Manifest Destiny was the belief that American settlers were destined to expand across the continent. This concept was born out of \"A sense of mission to redeem the Old World by high example ... generated by the potentialities of a new earth for building a new heaven\". Manifest Destiny was rejected by modernizers, especially the Whigs like Henry Clay and Abraham Lincoln who wanted to build cities and factories – not more farms. Democrats strongly favored expansion, and won the key election of 1844. After a bitter debate in Congress the Republic of Texas was annexed in 1845, leading to war with Mexico, who considered Texas to be a part of Mexico due to the large numbers of Mexican settlers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18548279",
"title": "X-Men: Manifest Destiny",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "\"Manifest Destiny\" is an American comic book storyline published by Marvel Comics through the \"X-Men\" related titles and a number of limited series, including a self-titled one. The arc was a follow-up to the storyline entitled \"\" which started in the issues cover dated September 2008.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "661319",
"title": "Robert Wright (journalist)",
"section": "Section::::Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "Wright has written extensively on the topic of religion, particularly in \"The Evolution of God.\" In 2009, When asked by Bill Moyers if God is a figment of the human imagination, Wright responds: \"\"I would say so. Now, I don't think that precludes the possibility that as ideas about God have evolved people have moved closer to something that may be the truth about ultimate purpose and ultimate meaning... Very early on, apparently people started imagining sources of causality. Imagining things out there making things happen. And early on there were shamans who had mystical experiences that even today a Buddhist monk would say were valid forms of apprehension of the divine or something. But by and large I think people were making up stories that would help them control the world.\"\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90664",
"title": "Manifest destiny",
"section": "Section::::Context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "There was never a set of principles defining manifest destiny, therefore it was always a general idea rather than a specific policy made with a motto. Ill-defined but keenly felt, manifest destiny was an expression of conviction in the morality and value of expansionism that complemented other popular ideas of the era, including American exceptionalism and Romantic nationalism. Andrew Jackson, who spoke of \"extending the area of freedom\", typified the conflation of America's potential greatness, the nation's budding sense of Romantic self-identity, and its expansion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27990810",
"title": "Covenant (religion)",
"section": "Section::::Islam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "The original covenant made between God and mankind marked the beginning of creation according to Islamic theology. It is believed that before the creation of the heavens and the earth, God assembled all of creation (that would ever exist) in a timeless, placeless region and informed them of the truth of his existence. This moment is referred to in the verse 7:172 of the Quran as follows: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "961186",
"title": "Destiny Church (New Zealand)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "The Destiny Church movement was founded in 1998 from 20 members of Lake City Church in Rotorua, initially calling itself City Church Auckland. Destiny Church was founded by Brian Tamaki and his wife Hannah Tamaki, who continue to serve as Visionary and Senior Ministers of Destiny Church. Destiny Church had a close relationship with New Birth Missionary Baptist Church in Atlanta, USA, the church of Bishop Eddie Long. In his autobiography Tamaki described meeting Long, \"my spiritual father\", in 2002. Historian Peter Lineham has compared Destiny Church to the Ratana movement and linked with historical Christianity in Māoridom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
15b8xs
|
Drink with lime in a solid copper mug, is there a chemical reaction that changes the flavor?
|
[
{
"answer": "it's called a [Moscow Mule](_URL_0_). \n\nCopper oxidizes over time, creating a layer of copper oxide in the cup. When copper oxide (a base) comes into contact with the citric acid (an acid) from the lime juice, the neutralization results in a salt. Now, whether this produces enough salt to be noticeable in the drink, I couldn't say.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "243763",
"title": "Basic copper carbonate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "This compound is often improperly called (even in chemistry articles) copper carbonate, cupric carbonate, and similar names. The true (neutral) copper(II) carbonate CuCO is not known to occur naturally. It is decomposed by water or moisture from the air, and was synthesized only in 1973 by high temperature and very high pressures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "262391",
"title": "Moscow mule",
"section": "Section::::History.:Copper vessel plating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The ingredients in Moscow mule cocktails are acidic, and the resulting beverage has a pH well below 6.0. This creates a problem when using traditional copper mugs, as copper can start dissolving into acidic solutions. Copper in solution is considered toxic at concentrations above 1 mg/L.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "243763",
"title": "Basic copper carbonate",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Basic copper carbonate can also be prepared by reacting aqueous solutions of copper(II) sulfate and sodium bicarbonate at ambient conditions. Basic copper carbonate precipitates from the solution, again with release of carbon dioxide:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44697931",
"title": "Copper(II) carbonate",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Reliable synthesis of true copper(II) carbonate was reported for the first time in 1973 by Hartmut Ehrhardt and others. The compound was obtained as a gray powder, by heating basic copper carbonate in an atmosphere of carbon dioxide (produced by the decomposition of silver oxalate ) at 500 °C and 2 GPa (20,000 atm). The compound was determined to have a monoclinic structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "243763",
"title": "Basic copper carbonate",
"section": "Section::::Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "Basic copper carbonate is prepared by combining aqueous solutions of copper(II) sulfate and sodium carbonate at ambient temperature and pressure. Basic copper carbonate precipitates from the solution, with release of carbon dioxide :\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13878482",
"title": "Glass-to-metal seal",
"section": "Section::::Design aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "the surface of the glass is everywhere under compression stress like an enamel coating. Ordinary soda-lime glass does not flow on copper at temperatures below the melting point of the copper and, thus, does not give a low contact angle. The solution is to cover the copper with a\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "286478",
"title": "Baghdad Battery",
"section": "Section::::Theories concerning operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Some believe that wine, lemon juice, grape juice, or vinegar was used as an acidic electrolyte solution to generate an electric current from the difference between the electrode potentials of the copper and iron electrodes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2z5law
|
What happens to light and thermal energy?
|
[
{
"answer": "A photon hitting something and being absorbed (and therefore destroyed) involves transferring all of the photon's energy (and momentum) to the particle that absorbed it. This may be in the form of raising the energy level of an electron, for example.\n\nWhen something cools down it may be transferring energy in molecule-to-molecule collisions (e.g. conduction or convection), in which case the net result of the collisions is that each molecule has closer to the same energy; one thing cools off and the other gets warmer. In the case of radiation it is much like the case of a photon being absorbed, but in reverse—an atom may spontaneously produce a photon, although in the process both energy and momentum are conserved—the energy of the photon is exactly accounted for as energy lost by the atom.\n\nAn important general rule to remember is that any particle—quark, photon, electron, you name it—can be created or destroyed as long as all conserved quantities are conserved in all reference frames. Photons are perhaps the easiest particle to create and destroy as the only conserved quantities they carry are energy and momentum; they have no charge, rest mass (i.e. there is no large minimum energy required), etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Light won't disappear. If light is not absorbed it will travel forever. If it is absorbed it can be converted to thermal energy, warming the object up. There are other things that can happen when light is absorbed depending on the material absorbing the light.\n\nThermal energy can be converted into light e.g. a fire or lightbulb. When thermal energy dissipates it doesn't disappear either but is usually transferred to the surrounding environment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15022",
"title": "Infrared",
"section": "Section::::Heat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "Heat is energy in transit that flows due to a temperature difference. Unlike heat transmitted by thermal conduction or thermal convection, thermal radiation can propagate through a vacuum. Thermal radiation is characterized by a particular spectrum of many wavelengths that are associated with emission from an object, due to the vibration of its molecules at a given temperature. Thermal radiation can be emitted from objects at any wavelength, and at very high temperatures such radiation is associated with spectra far above the infrared, extending into visible, ultraviolet, and even X-ray regions (e.g. the solar corona). Thus, the popular association of infrared radiation with thermal radiation is only a coincidence based on typical (comparatively low) temperatures often found near the surface of planet Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "185239",
"title": "Thermal radiation",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1002,
"text": "Thermal radiation, also known as heat, is the emission of electromagnetic waves from all matter that has a temperature greater than absolute zero. It represents the conversion of thermal energy into electromagnetic energy. Thermal energy consists of the kinetic energy of random movements of atoms and molecules in matter. All matter with a temperature by definition is composed of particles which have kinetic energy, and which interact with each other. These atoms and molecules are composed of charged particles, i.e., protons and electrons, and kinetic interactions among matter particles result in charge-acceleration and dipole-oscillation. This results in the electrodynamic generation of coupled electric and magnetic fields, resulting in the emission of photons, radiating energy away from the body through its surface boundary. Electromagnetic radiation, including light, does not require the presence of matter to propagate and travels in the vacuum of space infinitely far if unobstructed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2796131",
"title": "Introduction to quantum mechanics",
"section": "Section::::The first quantum theory: Max Planck and black-body radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted from the surface of an object due to the object's internal energy. If an object is heated sufficiently, it starts to emit light at the red end of the spectrum, as it becomes red hot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9426",
"title": "Electromagnetic radiation",
"section": "Section::::Thermal and electromagnetic radiation as a form of heat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Infrared radiation in the spectral distribution of a black body is usually considered a form of heat, since it has an equivalent temperature and is associated with an entropy change per unit of thermal energy. However, \"heat\" is a technical term in physics and thermodynamics and is often confused with thermal energy. Any type of electromagnetic energy can be transformed into thermal energy in interaction with matter. Thus, \"any\" electromagnetic radiation can \"heat\" (in the sense of increase the thermal energy temperature of) a material, when it is absorbed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22939",
"title": "Physics",
"section": "Section::::Core theories.:Classical physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 884,
"text": "Optics, the study of light, is concerned not only with visible light but also with infrared and ultraviolet radiation, which exhibit all of the phenomena of visible light except visibility, e.g., reflection, refraction, interference, diffraction, dispersion, and polarization of light. Heat is a form of energy, the internal energy possessed by the particles of which a substance is composed; thermodynamics deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy. Electricity and magnetism have been studied as a single branch of physics since the intimate connection between them was discovered in the early 19th century; an electric current gives rise to a magnetic field, and a changing magnetic field induces an electric current. Electrostatics deals with electric charges at rest, electrodynamics with moving charges, and magnetostatics with magnetic poles at rest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43846958",
"title": "Pulsational pair-instability supernova",
"section": "Section::::Physics.:Photon pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Light in thermal equilibrium has a black body spectrum with an energy density proportional to the fourth power of the temperature (hence the Stefan-Boltzmann law). The wavelength of maximum emission from a blackbody is inversely proportional to its temperature. That is, the frequency, and the energy, of the greatest population of photons of black-body radiation is directly proportional to the temperature, and reaches the gamma ray energy range at temperatures above K.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7084895",
"title": "Hot-carrier injection",
"section": "Section::::Physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "In some semiconductor devices, the energy dissipated by hot electron phonons represents an inefficiency as energy is lost as heat. For instance, some solar cells rely on the photovoltaic properties of semiconductors to convert light to electricity. In such cells, the hot electron effect is the reason that a portion of the light energy is lost to heat rather than converted to electricity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2jig03
|
what authority permits the us national guard to be deployed overseas?
|
[
{
"answer": "I would assume that this would fall under either voluntary order, or Presidential Reserve Call up. Which is basically a fancy way of saying, if the president and his team think a certain situation calls for federal aid he can send the guard. There generally isn't much of a problem getting enough volunteers to go on missions such as this one. I know in my unit, there have already been talks about individuals trying to get over there to help out.\n\nI know that doesn't exactly answer your question, but I do know that when the national guard is needed we become federalized for our time overseas/on orders and aren't \"technically\" under the state. Drilling status is by state, deployments are federal. Hope that helps a little",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The National Guard is deployed pretty often, really. It's typically justified under \"repel invasion\" and they're utilized as Army units (they're deployed to Army bases). They're just also deployed to help in situations domestically.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Article 1, Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution (the Militia Clause) also authorizes use of the National Guard under continuing state control but in the service of the federal government to \"execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions.\"\n\nThe premise behind the national guard is that state governors have direct control in assessing what are the needs and demands for its usage. However under certain specific instances (one is noted above, e.g invasion) the president can pull the trigger and enforce that the national guard must be deployed. In the case of invasion governors would no longer have explicit control of the national guard - the president would.\n\nIn today's age we live in a very federal government-focused society, as opposed to an age where state's rights are clearly defined, defended, and respected. You can expect Obama to pressure governors to deploy for the purpose of defending America from Ebola spreading here any further than it already has. Either that or he will boldly attempt to usurp any control of the national guard away from governors.\n\nWe are America, we defeat deadly viruses with soldiers & guns apparently :)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "306054",
"title": "Army National Guard",
"section": "Section::::Activation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "The Army National Guard as currently authorized and organized operates under Title 10 of the United States Code when under federal control, and Title 32 of the United States Code and applicable state laws when under state control. The Army National Guard may be called up for active duty by the state or territorial governors to help respond to domestic emergencies and disasters, such as those caused by hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes, as well as civil disorder. The District of Columbia Army National Guard is a federal militia, controlled by the President of the United States with authority delegated to the Secretary of Defense, and through him to the Secretary of the Army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4542128",
"title": "Arizona National Guard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "The Constitution of the United States specifically charges the United States National Guard with dual federal and state missions. Those missions range from limited actions during non-emergency situations to full scale law enforcement of martial law when local law enforcement officials can no longer maintain civil control. The National Guard may be called into federal service in response to a call by the President of the United States or United States Congress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9684692",
"title": "District of Columbia National Guard",
"section": "Section::::Unique law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The D.C. National Guard is the only U.S. military force empowered to carry out federal functions in a state or, in this case, a district. Those functions range from limited actions during non-emergency situations to full scale law enforcement of martial law when local law enforcement officials can no longer maintain civil control. The National Guard may be called into federal service in response to a call by the president or Congress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37988",
"title": "United States National Guard",
"section": "Section::::Duties and administrative organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "National Guard units can be mobilized for federal active duty to supplement regular armed forces during times of war or national emergency declared by Congress, the President or the Secretary of Defense. They can also be activated for service in their respective states upon declaration of a state of emergency by the governor of the state or territory where they serve, or in the case of Washington, D.C., by the Commanding General. Unlike U.S. Army Reserve members, National Guard members cannot be mobilized individually, except through voluntary transfers and Temporary Duty Assignments (TDY).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4556372",
"title": "Florida National Guard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "The United States Constitution charges the National Guard with dual federal and state missions. Ordinarily under the control of the state government (in which the governor is the commander-in-chief) pursuant to Title 32 of the United States Code, National Guard troops may also be called into active federal service with the United States Army or the United States Air Force (in which the president serves as commander-in-chief) and deployed worldwide with their active duty Army and Air Force counterparts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4556409",
"title": "Indiana National Guard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "The Constitution of the United States specifically charges the National Guard with dual federal and state missions. In fact, the National Guard is the only United States military force empowered to function in a state status. Those functions range from limited actions during non-emergency situations to full scale law enforcement of martial law when local law enforcement officials can no longer maintain civil control. The National Guard may be called into federal service in response to a call by the President or Congress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37988",
"title": "United States National Guard",
"section": "Section::::Organization.:Territorial organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "The National Guard of the several states, territories, and the District of Columbia serves as part of the first line of defense for the United States. The state National Guard is organized into units stationed in each of the 50 states, three territories, and the District of Columbia, and operates under their respective state or territorial governor, except in the instance of Washington, D.C., where the National Guard operates under the President of the United States or his designee. The governors exercise control through the state adjutants general. The National Guard may be called up for active duty by the governors to help respond to domestic emergencies and disasters, such as hurricanes, floods, and earthquakes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1me86t
|
Were puritan women permitted any rights?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is something I might well be able help you with, but I need more information about what you mean. The answer will depend more on the law in the particular time and place you're talking about than on a given woman's religious commitments. \n\nDo you mean women in Oxfordshire in the 1590s, or women in England during the Commonwealth, or women in the Connecticut River valley in the 1720s? Or something else? \n\nThe short answer is yes, they had lots of rights. Exactly what those were depends, though.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the greatest debates between historians of the reformation is whether or not it was a was a positive movement for women. It's difficult to say whether it was entirely positive or negative, but I'd have to agree more with the side claiming that it was on the whole a positive movement for women. Protestants valued literacy, including women's, because they put a lot of stress on Bible reading. This was obviously a positive for women. Protestantism also stressed the idea of marriage as a companionate partnership, and urged men to treat their wives fairly and respectfully. In stressing the idea of freedom of conscience (i.e. that people were only accountable to God) a lot of women must have found a great deal of freedom. Many radical puritan women argued that this meant that they did not owe obedience to their husbands - although this usually meant that they didn't owe obedience to their husbands in light of their religious choices, there is still a lot of personal power behind this sentiment. As for married women owning property, in both America and England, this would not have been allowed until the 19th century. \n\n[This](_URL_1_) book is a good overview of the subject. If you're interested in the radical puritan woman, chapters 6 and 7 of [this](_URL_0_) book should give a nice overview. Both should be available in any university library.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40147",
"title": "Divorce",
"section": "Section::::History.:Secularisation in Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 167,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 167,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "During the English Civil War, the Puritans briefly passed a law that divested marriage of all sacrament, leaving it as a secular contract that could be broken. John Milton wrote four divorce tracts in 1643–1645 that argued for the legitimacy of divorce on grounds of spousal incompatibility. His ideas were ahead of their time; arguing for divorce at all, let alone a version of no-fault divorce, was extremely controversial and religious figures sought to ban his tracts. In 1670 a precedent was first set with an Act of Parliament allowing Lord John Manners to divorce his wife, Lady Anne Pierrepont, and until the passage of the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, divorce could only be obtained through a specific Act of Parliament.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56000336",
"title": "Women in 17th-century New England",
"section": "Section::::Colonial English women in 17th Century New England.:Social structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1007,
"text": "Puritan society was overwhelmingly male dominated, which was reflected in just about every area of public life. Women could not own property independently, and therefore could not vote, a privilege that was awarded to “freemen”, or men when owned property. Women were excluded from enacting laws, serving in courts, creating taxes, and supervising land distribution, all of which were government functions. The role of religion was also divided by gender, since nearly every English person living in New England was Christian in some form. Yet in this area, women were also seen as lesser to God than men were. Men were inferior to God and women were inferior to men, so went the logic of social hierarchy. The average lifespan of a seventeenth century English woman in New England who made it to her twenty-first year was about 63. This age was about seven years less than the male average, and is often considered by historians to be a result of childbirth, although this claim is not widely agreed upon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "372972",
"title": "Sodomy laws in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Through the 20th century, the gradual liberalization of American sexuality led to the elimination of sodomy laws in most states. During this time, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of sodomy laws in \"Bowers v. Hardwick\" in 1986. However, in 2003, the Supreme Court reversed the decision with \"Lawrence v. Texas\", invalidating sodomy laws in the remaining 14 states (Alabama, Florida, Idaho, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri (statewide), North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Texas, Utah, and Virginia).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22969858",
"title": "The Woman's Bible",
"section": "Section::::Revising Committee.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "In 1893, Matilda Joslyn Gage took time out from her participation in the Revising Committee to write \"Woman, Church and State\", a book which challenged traditional Judeo-Christian teaching that women were the source of sin, and that sex was sinful. Gage wrote that the double standard for morality hurt both sexes. Gage differed from most of the women on the Revising Committee in that she did not feel that the Bible, once interpreted in a more true, original form, would support women's rights. Gage determined that the Church had acted against women's interests in important ways: from Roman Catholic canon law, to Scripture, to its advocacy of celibacy and more. Especially troubling to Gage was the story of Adam and Eve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43047687",
"title": "Fornication",
"section": "Section::::Across history, cultures, and laws.:Britain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "During the ascendancy of the Puritans, an Act for suppressing the detestable sins of Incest, Adultery and Fornication was passed by the English Council of State in 1650. At the Restoration in 1660, this statute was not renewed, and prosecution of the mere act of fornication itself was abandoned. However, notorious and open lewdness, when carried to the extent of exciting public scandal, continued to be an indictable offence at common law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "286404",
"title": "Bowers v. Hardwick",
"section": "Section::::Subsequent events.:Repeal of state sodomy laws.:\"Lawrence v. Texas\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "The remaining 13 state sodomy laws in the U.S. were invalidated, insofar as they applied to private consensual conduct among adults, by the Supreme Court decision in \"Lawrence v. Texas\", which explicitly overturned \"Bowers\". Justice Anthony Kennedy wrote the majority opinion in \"Lawrence\", ruling that Texas's state sodomy law was unconstitutional under the Fourteenth Amendment's due process clause (adult consensual sexual intimacy in one's home is a vital interest in liberty and privacy protected by the Due Process Clause). Kennedy wrote: “\"Bowers\" was not correct when it was decided, and it is not correct today. It ought not to remain binding precedent. \"Bowers v. Hardwick\" should be and now is overruled.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30660902",
"title": "First African Baptist Church (Richmond, Virginia)",
"section": "Section::::Practices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Though Virginia state law did not permit slaves to marry, the church would hold wedding ceremonies for its members. The church allowed slaves to divorce and remarry if their spouse were sold out of state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3hn38a
|
why are different types of alcohol (vodka, gin, whiskey, tequila, etc.) associated with different moods of intoxication (violent, mellow, happy, crazy, etc.)?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think people's preconceived notions of how alcohol affects them causes them to act a certain way more so than the actual type of alcohol. When someone says \"let's do some tequilla shots\" - there's a certain \"party mood\" that comes with it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For me it just depends on the setting, I can get wild slamming gin at a party or I can sit in a bar and have a chill night drinking vodka. The type of liquor doesn't seem to effect what kind of \"drunk\" I have.\n\nBut maybe my body is just odd, who knows.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think people just like to have excuses for their behavior/ decisions. \"Oh, I don't do vodka, it makes me crazy. Last time I blew 5 guys in one night because of vodka\"\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's because of the situations in which you drink them.\n\nNot a lot of people sit quietly at home and sip tequila while reading a nice book - that's more of a thing for wine or brandy, so we associate those with a quiet or a thoughtful drunk. We drink tequila at parties (or good tequila at a nice dinner or something) so we associate it with the more fun, happy drunk. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Could it be sure to the different sugar contents, or levels of Ethel alcohols in each?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Historic racial or socioeconomic stereotypes. \n\n\"People from (ethnic group) prefer (alcohol type) and act (behavior) - that (alcohol type) must cause their (behavior)\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I sip a nice anejo tequila while reading, occasionally adding a pinch of sea salt to the shot. Confirmation bias confirmed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's just a cultural association for each thing, and honestly it can vary from group to group. For instance someone below connected whiskey to being violent, where in my mind I'd associate it with either mellow (sippin' whiskey!), or maybe erudite, classic, traditional, refined, etc. Because I'm from the South, where Bourbon is classy.\n\nFor the spirits that are associated with another country, I feel like the reputations come from national characteristics associated with that country. Vodka is reckless, sharp, and maybe violent. Tequila is crazy like a fiesta south of the border. Etc.\n\nAlso, anyone who doesn't associate gin with partying clearly wasn't at the same parties I was at in college. G & Ts, gin and juice, etc. But \"daaammnnnn I get crazy when the gin comes out!\" just doesn't have the same ring as that sentence + tequila. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well.. I'll drink anything, in any situation. If I fancy it, I'll have it. And I can confirm that different alcoholic beverages do not have different effects. Just the quantity consumed! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lots of different explanations, but the one I find the most credible is called \"the expectancy effect.\"\n\nEssentially, you become the person you think you're supposed to.\n\nIf you believe Tequila makes you crazy, Tequila will make you crazy. If you think Gin makes you mean, Gin will make you mean. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Now, this study is small, but it found there is a [difference in absorption rates](_URL_0_) among different forms of alcohol. That is likely due to the percentage of alcohol but also could be due to the presence of other contaminents that interfere with absorption in the stomach and intestines.\n\nNow, tequila, vodka, and gin can all have similar alcohol percentages. However, think of how they are served: tequila is often served as a shot whereas gin is more likely to be mixed, unless people are doing shots of gin and I missed it? You're drinking more \"drinks\" per unit time, i.e., you'll probably not shotgun that gin and tonic the way you would tequila. In the end, you'll drink, say, 3 gin and tonic but 5 shots in an hour. Guess which has more alcohol?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A convenient excuse to not take responsibility for your actions. It turns out if you start doing shots of anything with a high alcohol content you'll probably end up shitfaced quickly and start doing stupid shit. Or dead. Or both!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm pretty sure that being drunk makes you act like your real self. It lowers your inhibitions that cause you to try to act in a civilized way. Some people start crying, some people start fighting, some get happy. I don't think the type of alcohol has anything to do with it. People do the same thing when they go under for surgery. When they wake up they'll act whatever way they act when drunk.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ethanol is ethanol and in different amounts it will effect your brain in different ways. It does not matter if you drink beer, gin, vodka, wine or whiskey - it all has the same effect. Smaller quantities can lead to happy/social. Larger amounts lead to anger/depression/crying. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Simply the result of marketing.\nWhy drink only one type of alcohol for all occasions when you can buy so much more!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Really interesting theory on this is Alcohol Expectancy Theory - you basically behave as you think you will. Your behaviour is influenced by experience, mood, historical culture and social norms. Wikipedia link for simplicity but well worth further reading imo.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "666105",
"title": "Fusel alcohol",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Aroma alcohols.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Excessive concentrations of some alcohols other than ethanol may cause off-flavors, sometimes described as \"spicy\", \"hot\", or \"solvent-like\". Some beverages, such as rum, whisky (especially Bourbon), incompletely rectified vodka (e.g. Siwucha), and traditional ales and ciders, are expected to have relatively high concentrations of non-hazardous alcohols as part of their flavor profile. However, in other beverages, such as Korn, vodka, and lagers, the presence of alcohols other than ethanol is considered a fault.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14678677",
"title": "Alcohol myopia",
"section": "Section::::Alcohol's effects on neurotransmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Alcohol is classified as a sedative hypnotic drug. Alcohol produces a sedative effect by acting on receptors of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA. GABA receptors contain a binding site for the chemical, GABA, a chloride ion channel, and an additional binding site for alcohol molecules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1318497",
"title": "Liquor",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Short-term effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 1660,
"text": "Distilled spirits contain ethyl alcohol, the same chemical that is present in beer and wine and as such, spirit consumption has short-term psychological and physiological effects on the user. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the spirits and the timespan that the consumption took place, the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription, over-the-counter or street drugs, among other factors. Drinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03%-0.12% typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria, increased self-confidence, and sociability, decreased anxiety, a flushed, red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes lethargy, sedation, balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC from 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g., slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, vomiting, and respiratory depression (potentially life-threatening). Death may occur due to inhalation of vomit (pulmonary aspiration) while unconscious. A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes a coma (unconsciousness), life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning. As with all alcoholic beverages, driving under the influence, operating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident; as such many countries have penalties for drunk driving.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43173137",
"title": "Alcohol (drug)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "Alcohol, also known by its chemical name ethanol, is a psychoactive drug that is the active ingredient in drinks such as beer, wine, and distilled spirits (hard liquor). It is one of the oldest and most common recreational substances, causing the characteristic effects of alcohol intoxication (\"drunkenness\"). Among other effects, alcohol produces a mood lift and euphoria, decreased anxiety, increased sociability, sedation, impairment of cognitive, memory, motor, and sensory function, and generalized depression of central nervous system function. Ethanol is a type of chemical compound known as an alcohol, and is the only type of alcohol that is found in alcoholic beverages or is commonly used for recreational purposes; other alcohols such as methanol and isopropyl alcohol are toxic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19329865",
"title": "Short-term effects of alcohol consumption",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "At low or moderate doses, alcohol acts primarily as a positive allosteric modulator of GABA. Alcohol binds to several different subtypes of GABA, but not to others. The main subtypes responsible for the subjective effects of alcohol are the αβγ, αβγ, αβδ and αβδ subtypes, although other subtypes such as αβγ and αβγ are also affected. Activation of these receptors causes most of the effects of alcohol such as relaxation and relief from anxiety, sedation, ataxia and increase in appetite and lowering of inhibitions that can cause a tendency toward violence in some people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2869",
"title": "Anxiolytic",
"section": "Section::::Medications.:Miscellaneous.:Alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Ethanol is used as an anxiolytic, sometimes by self-medication. fMRI can measure the anxiolytic effects of alcohol in the human brain. The British National Formulary states, \"Alcohol is a poor hypnotic because its diuretic action interferes with sleep during the latter part of the night.\" Alcohol is also known to induce alcohol-related sleep disorders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18629",
"title": "Liqueur",
"section": "Section::::Legal definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "In the United States and Canada, where spirits are often called \"liquor\" (), there is often confusion discerning between liqueurs and liquors, due to the many different types of flavored spirits that are available today (e.g., flavored vodka). Liqueurs generally contain a lower alcohol content (15–30% ABV) than spirits and it has sweetener mixed, while some can have an ABV as high as 55%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
133175
|
What does the interior of the ISS smell like
|
[
{
"answer": "Apparently, [meat and metal.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably a bit like a locker room. Hygiene is tricky in space and the astronauts have to exercise regularly to prevent their bones and muscles from atrophying.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18896",
"title": "Human spaceflight",
"section": "Section::::Safety concerns.:Environmental hazards.:Medical issues.:Sensory systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "BULLET::::- Smell - The space station has a permanent odor described as the smell of gunpowder. Due to the zero gravity, the bodily fluids rise to the face and prevent the sinuses from drying up, which dulls the sense of smell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "198078",
"title": "List of human spaceflight programs",
"section": "Section::::Successful space station programs.:International Space Station (USA, Russia, Japan, Europe, Canada, 1998–ongoing).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The International Space Station (ISS) is a space station in low Earth orbit. Its first component launched into orbit in 1998, and the ISS is now the largest artificial body in orbit and can often be seen with the naked eye from Earth. The ISS consists of pressurized modules, external trusses, solar arrays and other components. ISS components have been launched by Russian Proton and Soyuz rockets as well as American Space Shuttles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15043",
"title": "International Space Station",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "The ISS is the ninth space station to be inhabited by crews, following the Soviet and later Russian \"Salyut\", \"Almaz\", and \"Mir\" stations as well as \"Skylab\" from the US. The station is serviced by a variety of visiting spacecraft: the Russian Soyuz and Progress, the US Dragon and Cygnus, the Japanese H-II Transfer Vehicle, and the European Automated Transfer Vehicle. The Dragon spacecraft allows the return of pressurised cargo to Earth (downmass), which is used for example to repatriate scientific experiments for further analysis. The Soyuz return capsule has minimal downmass capability next to the astronauts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55061640",
"title": "Sheikh Abdullah Al-Salem Cultural Centre",
"section": "Section::::Museums.:Space Museum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Amongst the various space vehicles, communication devices, satellites, space telescopes and planets suspended within the gallery, sits a fully replicated recreation of the International Space Station (ISS) which engulfs the entire gallery. At over 50 meters-long, the ISS creates its own gallery on the mezzanine floor where visitors can gain a sense of living in space. Back on the ground, visitors are invited to drive the Mars Rover and explore the solar system and hidden galaxies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4151588",
"title": "Specimen: Unknown",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1710,
"text": "Lt. Howard (Dabney Coleman), a member of a team of astronaut-researchers, finds a strange mushroom-shaped organism clinging to the outside of their space station. Exposed to light and air inside, it develops into a beautiful flower, but has a deadly scent and an aggressive growth habit. Upon Howard's surprising discovery of the organism's rapid metamorphosis, while attempting to further study its cellular make-up under the microscope following the spewing of tiny spores, the flower emits a noxious gas that temporarily incapacitates him, after which he dies. When the other astronauts attempt to return to Earth for help, they bring the invasive new species along with them. Learning of the potential danger to life, their superiors on Earth order the ship's crew to remain in orbit until a method can be found to eliminate the threat of world-encompassing genocide. As the spacecraft runs out of fuel, the half-dead crew is forced to crash-land near the rocket base, where a team of scientists and military personnel immediately descends upon and surrounds the crash site in an attempt to contain the spread of the organisms, which, by now, have fully engulfed the interior of the ship and begun to sow upon the surrounding countryside. Continuing to spew their spores and spray the air with their deadly gas, the creatures scatter themselves across the earth, while storm clouds form overhead, with everyone fearing the worst - What will become of the human race when the rain begins to fall? As all hope for survival is about to fade, the sky opens up and drenches the land with life-giving rain. But, ironically, the flowers begin to wilt, and they eventually succumb to the effects of mother nature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22885005",
"title": "International Space Station maintenance",
"section": "Section::::2013 – Ammonia Leak and CDRA issues again.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "On 9 May 2013, at around 10:30 a.m. CDT, the ISS crew reported seeing small white flakes floating away from the Station’s truss structure. Analysis of the crew reports and images captured by external cameras confirmed a leak of ammonia coolant. Two days later a spacewalk was undertaken in order to inspect and possibly replace a pump controller box suspected of leaking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38802417",
"title": "MS Sounds of Orient",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "MS \"Sounds of Orient\" was an ocean liner owned since 1988 by Crosby Corp. Ltd in Panama. She was built in 1962 by VEB Mathias-Thesen Werft, Wismar, East Germany as \"Khabarovsk\" for the Soviet Union's Far East Shipping Company. The ship was used for service between Nakhodka and Yokohama, Japan. It was named after the largest city and the administrative center of Khabarovsk Krai, Soviet Union Khabarovsk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a55rfe
|
Curiosity on Support for Nixon during the Nixon Presidency
|
[
{
"answer": " > Not only towards the time of his resignation, but as the investigation rolled on (I see it began in 1972; his resignation occurred in 1974.) did he still have many staunch supporters stating he was innocent?\n\nTaken from an earlier answer:\n\nMost Republicans stuck out with Nixon to the end. In August 1974, a week before his resignation, a Gallup poll found 57% of Americans supported impeaching and removing Nixon, while 31% opposed. Among Republicans, 59% said they do **not** think Nixon should be impeached and removed from office while 31% thought that he should. Despite plummeting approval ratings and economic problems on top of the scandal, around a third of the country stuck with the president through the entire Watergate scandal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45288005",
"title": "Courage and Hesitation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Courage and Hesitation: Notes and Photographs of the Nixon Administration is a 1971 non-fiction book by Allen Drury. It is an inside look at U. S. President Richard Nixon and those closest to him midway through his first term in office, with photographs by Fred J. Maroon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "88270",
"title": "Silent majority",
"section": "Section::::Nixon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "Also in 1955, while Nixon was serving as vice-president to Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy and his research assistants wrote in his book \"Profiles in Courage\", \"Some of them may have been representing the actual sentiments of the silent majority of their constituents in opposition to the screams of a vocal minority...\" In January 1956, Kennedy gave Nixon an autographed copy of the book. Nixon wrote back the next day to thank him: \"My time for reading has been rather limited recently, but your book is first on my list and I am looking forward to reading it with great pleasure and interest.\" Nixon wrote \"Six Crises\", his response to Kennedy's book, after visiting Kennedy at the White House in April 1961.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "278419",
"title": "History of the United States (1964–1980)",
"section": "Section::::The Nixon Administration.:\"Stagflation\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 2046,
"text": "Nixon's primary interests as president were in the world of diplomacy and foreign policy; by his own admission, domestic affairs bored him. His first Secretary of the Treasury, David M. Kennedy, was a soft-spoken Mormon businessman whom the president paid little attention to. In January 1971, Kennedy stepped down from office and was replaced by Texas governor and Lyndon Johnson confidante John Connally. By the summer of 1971, Nixon was under strong public pressure to act decisively to reverse the economic tide. On August 15, 1971, he ended the convertibility of the U.S. dollar into gold, which meant the demise of the Bretton Woods system, in place since World War II. As a result, the U.S. dollar fell in world markets. The devaluation helped stimulate American exports, but it also made the purchase of vital inputs, raw materials, and finished goods from abroad more expensive. Nixon was reluctant to perform this step as he became convinced that moving entirely to fiat currency would give the Soviet Union the idea that capitalism was crumbling. Also, on August 15, 1971, under the provisions of the Economic Stabilization Act of 1970, Nixon implemented \"Phase I\" of his economic plan: a ninety-day freeze on all wages and prices above their existing levels. In November, \"Phase II\" entailed mandatory guidelines for wage and price increases to be issued by a federal agency. Inflation subsided temporarily, but the recession continued with rising unemployment. To combat the recession, Nixon reversed course and adopted an expansionary monetary and fiscal policy. In \"Phase III\", the strict wage and price controls were lifted. As a result, inflation resumed its upward spiral. The administration largely remained aloof; practically all press conferences and public statements by the White House dealt with foreign policy issues despite Gallup polls showing that the state of the economy was of concern to 80% of Americans. Connally stepped down as Treasury Secretary in 1973 and Secretary of Labor George Shultz took over the post.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1160278",
"title": "Checkers speech",
"section": "Section::::Delivering the address.:Family finances, coat and dog.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "Nixon, continuing to ask skeptical rhetorical questions, indicated that some might feel that even with the opinions, he might have found some way to personally benefit. In response to his own question, the senator detailed his background and financial situation, beginning with his birth in Yorba Linda, and the family grocery store in which the Nixon boys helped out. He alluded to his work in college and law school, his service record, and stated that at the end of the war, he and Pat Nixon had $10,000 in savings, all of it patriotically in government bonds. The candidate gave the dollar amounts of small inheritances that the Nixons had received from relatives, before turning to their life in Washington:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23891212",
"title": "Richard Nixon 1968 presidential campaign",
"section": "Section::::General election.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Following the Democratic convention, Nixon was consistently labeled the favorite, described as \"relaxed [and] confident,\" counter to his \"unsure\" self from 1960. Even observers speculated as to the President's possible favoring Nixon to Humphrey. In a visit to Chicago shortly after the Democratic convention, Nixon received a large welcome and ticker tape parade, with crowds estimated at several hundred thousand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22612619",
"title": "1946 California's 12th congressional district election",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath and analysis.:Historical issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "A number of biographies on Nixon or Voorhis, or which otherwise touch on the 1946 campaign, state with varying degrees of certainty that during the final weekend of the campaign, anonymous calls were made to district households. The caller would ask \"Did you know Jerry Voorhis is a communist?\" and then hang up. According to Bullock, there was a phone bank staffed by workers who had responded to a newspaper ad, run by the Nixon organization in Alhambra. Bullock cites as his source for this Zita Remley, a \"Voorhis admirer\", who stated that her niece had worked there. Although the niece died before Bullock's book was written, according to Bullock, Remley's \"reputation for veracity is unchallengeable\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2634175",
"title": "Secret Honor",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1062,
"text": "However, in the end Nixon admits that he has been the willing tool of a political network he alternately calls \"the Bohemian Grove\" and \"The committee of 100\". The alleged interest of the committee is the heroin trade with Asia, although he followed them rather out of a lust for power plus some belief in their willingness to bring democracy to Asia. However, after the 1972 vote he received new orders from them: they wanted Nixon to keep the Vietnam war going on at all costs, then go for a third term in office, so they can continue their business with the president as their strawman. Nixon further explains that at some point he decided that he did not want to go down in history as the president who sacrificed thousands of American soldiers for drug money, so he himself staged the Watergate scandal to get out of office against the massive public support. So in the end, he again puts the blame on others: on the public that supports him although — or even because — he is a scam artist and a petty thief, just like the majority of them, as he sees it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xhtfe
|
Can too much cardio be bad for your heart? And how do you know how much is too much?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. A review conducted by the Mayo clinic has found that excessive exercise can actually cause patchy scarring in the heart. However, excessive exercise was defined as people who are marathon or ultramarathon runners, not your average Joe. They found that up to 60 minutes of vigorous physical activity per day can be helpful, but beyond that there were diminishing returns. This contrasts moderate physical activity, which seemed to never quite approach the benefits of even 20 minutes of vigorous activity (so 110 minutes of moderate physical activity was only equivalently beneficial to 20 minutes of vigorous activity, or basically there seems to be no upper limit to the benefits of moderate physical activity). Per the article: \n > Running distances of about 1 to 20 miles per week, speeds of 6 to 7 miles per hour, and frequencies of 2 to 5 days per week were associated with lower all-cause mortality, whereas higher mileage, faster paces, and more frequent runs were not associated with better survival.7\n\nBut note that this, again, is really limited to a special subset of marathon and ultramarathon runners and is not entirely conclusive, as the results vary. In general, daily exercise is very good for you, but like any drug, there is an upper limit of benefit. From the article's conclusion:\n\n > In some individuals, long-term excessive endurance ET (exercise training) may cause adverse structural and electrical cardiac remodeling, including fibrosis and stiffening of the atria, RV, and large arteries. This theoretically might provide a substrate for atrial and ventricular arrhythmias and increase CV risk. Further investigation is warranted to identify the exercise threshold for potential toxicity, screening for at-risk individuals, and ideal ET regimens for optimizing CV health. For now, on the basis of animal and human data, CV benefits of vigorous aerobic ET appear to accrue in a dose-dependent fashion up to about 1 hour daily, beyond which further exertion produces diminishing returns and may even cause adverse CV effects in some individuals.\n\nSource: \n\n* [James H. O’Keefe et al. Potential Adverse Cardiovascular Effects From Excessive Endurance Exercise. Mayo Clinic Proceedings, Volume 87, Issue 6] (_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2398993",
"title": "Valsartan",
"section": "Section::::Side effects.:Heart failure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Rates of adverse effects are based on a comparison versus placebo in people with heart failure. Most common side effects include dizziness (17% vs 9% ), low blood pressure (7% vs 2%), and diarrhea (5% vs 4%). Less common side effects include joint pain, fatigue, and back pain (all 3% vs 2%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "746673",
"title": "Bicuspid aortic valve",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "In many cases, a bicuspid aortic valve will cause no problems. People with BAV may become tired more easily than those with normal valvular function and have difficulty maintaining stamina for cardio-intensive activities due to poor heart performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29418677",
"title": "Candoxatril",
"section": "Section::::Studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "In a third study, there was only one patient who experienced worsening heart failure during this particular study. However, the frequency wasn't statistically significantly different from another observed group that was on placebo. Together, the results of this study show the candoxatril offers a new, effective therapeutic in the treatment of people with mild heart failure. The beneficial effects may begin to improve the well being of patients during everyday activities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3219051",
"title": "Cardiomegaly",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "For many people, cardiomegaly is asymptomatic. For others, if the enlarged heart begins to affect the body's ability to pump blood effectively, then symptoms associated with congestive heart failure may arise, including:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3115848",
"title": "Cardiorespiratory fitness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "There are many benefits of cardiorespiratory fitness. It can reduce the risk of heart disease, lung cancer, type 2 diabetes, stroke, and other diseases. Cardiorespiratory fitness helps improve lung and heart condition, and increases feelings of wellbeing. Additionally, there is mounting evidence that CRF is potentially a stronger predictor of mortality than other established risk factors such as smoking, hypertension, high cholesterol, and type 2 diabetes. Significantly, CRF can be added to these traditional risk factors to improve risk prediction validity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3219051",
"title": "Cardiomegaly",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "Cardiomegaly is a condition affecting the cardiovascular system, specifically the heart. This condition is strongly associated with congestive heart failure. Within the heart, the working fibers of the myocardial tissue increase in size. As the heart works harder the actin and myosin filaments experience less overlap which increases the size of the myocardial fibers. If there is less overlap of the protein filaments actin and myosin within the sarcomeres of muscle fibers, they will not be able to effectively pull on one another. If the heart tissue (walls of left and right ventricle) gets too big and stretches too far, then those filaments cannot effectively pull on one another to shorten the muscle fibers, thus impacting the heart's sliding filament mechanism. If fibers cannot shorten properly, and the heart cannot contract properly, then blood cannot be effectively pumped to the lungs to be re-oxygenated and to the body to deliver oxygen to the working tissues of the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3219051",
"title": "Cardiomegaly",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "Cardiomegaly is a medical condition in which the heart is enlarged. It is more commonly referred to as an enlarged heart. The causes of cardiomegaly may vary. Many times this condition results from high blood pressure (hypertension) or coronary artery disease. An enlarged heart may not pump blood effectively, resulting in congestive heart failure. Cardiomegaly may improve over time, but many people with an enlarged heart need lifelong treatment with medications. Having an immediate family member who has or had cardiomegaly may indicate that a person is more susceptible to getting this condition. Cardiomegaly is not a disease but rather a condition that can result from a host of other diseases such as obesity or coronary artery disease. Recent studies suggest that cardiomegaly is associated with a higher risk of sudden cardiac death (SCD).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2p5d8s
|
oil price goes up, market crashes. oil price goes down, market crashes. wtf??
|
[
{
"answer": "Instability is the issue. The market doesn't respond well to irrational players. Saudi Arabia is taking far-less profit per barrel of oil than other oil exporters with the intention of hurting the economy of other countries. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically OPEC dropped the price of oil per barrel because they didn't want to lose money. They wanted to drive the price of oil so low that we have to stop fracing cause we wouldn't make any money. Certain countries need to sell oil for a certain amount per barrel otherwise they won't make any money. They can drill for oil cheaper than we can frac it. \n\nTL:DR OPEC is a bunch of oil bullies that control the market to make boat loads of money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Dow is down about 4% for the week. That is in no way a crash. That isn't even really considered a correction, especially considering the previous 12 months market growth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It doesn't matter if it's a bull market or a bear market, when the busniess cycle reaches a low like this, it will cause someone to loose. Oil prices are a great example. At $60 a barell, oil companies will stop producing because their profit margin is down near $0. When it is $120 dollars a barrel, energy usage is restrictively expensive for the consumer and they will forego other purchases elsewhere. The aggregate view of the economy is based on both business and consumer activity, so extremes like this will both similarly show instability in the economy. \n\nOn another note, each extreme will affect different economies differently. Russia is near recession because most of their revenue is energy exports. Where as a stronger consumer-based economy like the US is seeing a lot of growth. The analysts are calling the US \"The prettiest horse in the glue factory\" ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29269618",
"title": "Causes of the Great Recession",
"section": "Section::::Other factors.:Commodity price volatility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 184,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 184,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "A commodity price bubble was created following the collapse in the housing bubble. The price of oil nearly tripled from $50 to $140 from early 2007 to 2008, before plunging as the financial crisis began to take hold in late 2008. Experts debate the causes, which include the flow of money from housing and other investments into commodities to speculation and monetary policy. An increase in oil prices tends to divert a larger share of consumer spending into gasoline, which creates downward pressure on economic growth in oil importing countries, as wealth flows to oil-producing states. Spiking instability in the price of oil over the decade leading up to the price high of 2008 has also been proposed as a causal factor in the financial crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18190185",
"title": "2000s commodities boom",
"section": "Section::::Boom.:Fuel.:Oil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "The price of oil nearly tripled from $50 to $147 from early 2007 to 2008, before plunging as the financial crisis began to take hold in late 2008. Experts debate the causes, which include the flow of money from housing and other investments into commodities to speculation and monetary policy or the increasing feeling of raw materials scarcity in a fast-growing world economy and thus positions taken on those markets, such as Chinese increasing presence in Africa. An increase in oil prices tends to divert a larger share of consumer spending into gasoline, which creates downward pressure on economic growth in oil importing countries, as wealth flows to oil-producing states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38216008",
"title": "Western Canadian Select",
"section": "Section::::Bull or Bear Markets in Crude Oil in the US.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 868,
"text": "Investors placed bullish bets in the six weeks from January through February 8, 2013, on oil futures based on the U.S. central bank's bond-buying program that \"adds liquidity to the financial markets\". The demand, and therefore the price, of commodities in general and oil in particular falls if and when such a program is scaled back. Even a rumor that a hedge fund is in trouble and was liquidating positions can cause the price of U.S. crude oil to fall. Signs of strong demand of crude oil from China and India with hopes of a tighter market can raise the price and even an oil rally. Investors also refer to the Energy Information Administration reports on U.S. inventories of commercial crude oil. The higher the inventory of crude oil, the lower the price. U.S. inventories of commercial crude oil hit their highest level on February 15, 2013 since July 2012.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61031784",
"title": "June 2019 Gulf of Oman incident",
"section": "Section::::Reactions.:Economic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Following a month-long decrease, the price of oil initially increased by 4% after the incident, then settled to an increase of 2%. The increase in oil prices has been attributed to uncertainty regarding the supply of oil, due to reduced shipping in the Strait of Hormuz as a result of this incident. On June 17, the price of oil returned to its previous decreasing trend, falling by 1.7%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23671037",
"title": "Edward L. Morse",
"section": "Section::::Oil price spike of 2007-08.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "In 2008, as oil prices approached its peak near $150/bbl, Morse and his research team at Lehman Brothers argued this was an unsustainable overshooting fueled by behavioral herding, and that there would be sufficient demand destruction in advanced economies and new supply from non-OPEC countries to cause prices to collapse . As oil prices subsequently plunged, Morse's foresight proved correct .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14297439",
"title": "2000s in Angola",
"section": "Section::::2008.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1130,
"text": "The price of crude oil declined from $147.27 per barrel on 11 July 2008 to a 70% price drop in December. Many OPEC members advocated cutting the supply of oil by 1.5 to 2 million barrels to artificially inflate the price of petroleum to roughly $75 per barrel. Richard Segal, an analyst for the United Bank of Africa, posited that the global financial crisis made borrowing from the Chinese government cheaper than taking loans from the West. President dos Santos visited China shortly after the crisis erupted, meeting with President Hu Jintao, Prime Minister Wen Jiabao, and Wu Bangguo, the President of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress. He asked his Chinese counterparts for $1 billion in investment in Angola's infrastructure, specifically in housing and water transportation. The Chinese government has invested $5–7 billion in Angola in return for Angola's crude oil. Nonetheless, Ricardo Gazel, a senior economist for the World Bank, predicted that Angola's initial budget for 2009, based on oil exports at $55 per barrel, would be revised with a much more modest outlook by as early as April 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1197343",
"title": "2000s energy crisis",
"section": "Section::::Possible causes.:Investment/speculation demand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "In September 2008, Masters Capital Management released a study of the oil market, concluding that speculation did significantly impact the price. The study stated that over $60 billion was invested in oil during the first six months of 2008, helping drive the price per barrel from $95 to $147, and that by the beginning of September, $39 billion had been withdrawn by speculators, causing prices to fall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fd6m0d
|
how is it that in 10 years i’ve never seen an answer posted in here that a 5 yr old could understand or not become incredibly bored with inside of 5 seconds?
|
[
{
"answer": "Read the sidebar.\n\n > LI5 means friendly, simplified and layperson-accessible explanations - not responses aimed at literal five-year-olds.\n\nThat would be why.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the concept is to explain something simply. Most questions here even the base concepts required to ask the question at all are already way above a 5 year old.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the point isn't to literally explain it like you would to a 5 year old, but to explain it in simpler terms that are easily grasped by someone with minimal background knowledge.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40705089",
"title": "No such thing as a stupid question",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:There are no stupid questions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "A woman, recounting a story about an old man who used to answer all her \"stupid questions\", explained \"Chica, if you ask a question it makes you look stupid for 5 minutes – but if you don't ask – you stay stupid for fifty years, so always ask questions in your life\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52976314",
"title": "Chinese Poetry Congress",
"section": "Section::::Cast.:The Hundred Contestants Team.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "The people that answer questions off-stage are from all walks of life such as teachers, students, peasants and the police, not restricted to Chinese residents. The age ranges from 7 to 55. They follow the narrator's reciting opening poetry and count to the points that an on-stage contestant gets if their answer is incorrect. Due to the limited time of 10 seconds to answer on a tablet computer, a large quantity of contestants failed to complete verses that are usually taught in China's primary schools, for example Meng Haoran's \"Ode to the Willow\" (), leading to criticism on the team, as they were described as \"The regular studio audience\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42130800",
"title": "Children's use of information",
"section": "Section::::The origins of knowledge.:Knowledge and justification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "3 and 4 year-olds are better at answering these questions when the questions refer to themselves in comparison to referring to another person. When these children are shown a hidden object they can correctly report their perceptual access (responding correctly to \"Did you look into the box?\") and their knowledge access of what is in the box (responding correctly to \"Do you know [not know] what is in the box?\"). Despite their ability to answer correctly when referring to the self, 3 and 4 year-olds have difficulty responding to the \"other's\" knowledge, where they deny the \"other\" has the knowledge. 3-4 year-olds can correctly identify that the other person has in fact looked in a box, but when asked \"Does [other] know what is in the box?\" the child will deny that the other person knows what is in the box. The key assumption is then that although children are aware that perceptual access is needed, they are unable to acknowledge that the knowledge was gained from perceptual access.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19218437",
"title": "Eureka effect",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Evidence in fMRI studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Participants were given 3 minutes to respond to each riddle, before the answer to the riddle was revealed. If the participant experienced an Aha! moment upon viewing the correct answer, any brain activity would be recorded on the fMRI.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14717140",
"title": "Break the Bank (1985 game show)",
"section": "Section::::Format #1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "The first question earned the couple that answered it correctly five seconds. For each subsequent question up through the fifth question, those values were doubled; this increased the time to ten, twenty, forty, and eighty seconds for a correct answer as the game progressed. The sixth question, if necessary, was played for one hundred seconds. If neither team had solved the puzzle after all six clues were revealed, a seventh question was asked with the answer being the puzzle's subject.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19218437",
"title": "Eureka effect",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Evidence in fMRI studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "This scale allowed the researchers to only look at participants who would experience an Aha! moment upon viewing the answer to the riddle. In previous studies on insight, researchers have found that participants reported feelings of insight when they viewed the answer to an unsolved riddle or problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3385969",
"title": "Yahoo! Answers",
"section": "Section::::Site operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Questions are initially open to answers for four days. However, the asker can choose to pick a best answer for the question after a minimum of one hour. However, comments and answers can still be posted after this time. To ask a question, one has to have a Yahoo! account with a positive score balance of five points or more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1yybho
|
if energy is not created nor destroyed, what happens to the energy in batteries once a device uses it?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's almost always converted to heat, eventually.\n\nSay you use a battery to power a cell phone. The chemical battery energy is converted initially into radio waves, sound waves, and light waves. Each of those eventually impacts something and turns into heat when it does. Energy used for other things like the processor also get converted into heat through the transistors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The energy changes form. While in the battery it is stored chemically. While the battery is being used, it is transferred to electrical energy, and when all of that done, the energy is dissipated as heat (the same reason why your laptop may be hot right now). That heat then disperses and its energy is no longer useful to us. That last step is called entropy: we can't get the energy back once it has dissipated as heat. But in all that time, no energy is destroyed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "279350",
"title": "Electric vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Electric motor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "Energy is lost during the process of converting the electrical energy to mechanical energy. Approximately 90% of the energy from the battery is converted to mechanical energy, the losses being in the motor and drivetrain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19174720",
"title": "Electric battery",
"section": "Section::::Principle of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. In many cases, the electrical energy released is the difference in the cohesive or bond energies of the metals, oxides, or molecules undergoing the electrochemical reaction. For instance, energy can be stored in Zn or Li, which are high-energy metals because they are not stabilized by d-electron bonding, unlike transition metals. Batteries are designed such that the energetically favorable redox reaction can occur only if electrons move through the external part of the circuit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45509403",
"title": "Thermoelectric battery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "A thermoelectric battery stores energy when charged by converting heat into chemical energy and produces electricity when discharged. Such systems potentially offer an alternative means of disposing of waste heat from plants that burn fossil fuels and/or nuclear energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19174720",
"title": "Electric battery",
"section": "Section::::Capacity and discharge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small fraction of the capacity lose capacity due to the presence of generally irreversible \"side reactions\" that consume charge carriers without producing current. This phenomenon is known as internal self-discharge. Further, when batteries are recharged, additional side reactions can occur, reducing capacity for subsequent discharges. After enough recharges, in essence all capacity is lost and the battery stops producing power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39265457",
"title": "Passive sign convention",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.:Active and passive components.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Some components can be either a source or a load, depending on the voltage or current through them. For example, a rechargeable battery acts as a source when it is used to produce power, but as a load when it is being recharged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23702522",
"title": "Joule thief",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "It can use nearly all of the energy in a single-cell electric battery, even far below the voltage where other circuits consider the battery fully discharged (or \"dead\"); hence the name, which suggests the notion that the circuit is \"stealing\" energy or \"joules\" from the source - the term is a pun on the age-old expression \"jewel thief\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "203197",
"title": "Memory effect",
"section": "Section::::Other problems perceived as memory effect.:Permanent loss of capacity.:Deep discharge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Some rechargeable batteries can be damaged by repeated deep discharge. Batteries are composed of multiple similar, but not identical, cells. Each cell has its own charge capacity. As the battery as a whole is being deeply discharged, the cell with the smallest capacity may reach zero charge and will \"reverse charge\" as the other cells continue to force current through it. The resulting loss of capacity is often ascribed to the memory effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1wiej3
|
what does the denotations of flu viruses, like h1n1 or h7n9 indicate?
|
[
{
"answer": "They refer to the strain of the virus. the genetic variant of the virus -- explained like your five, consider it like breeds of a dog.\n\nWhen I ask you what kind of pet you have, \"dog\" isn't nearly as useful as when you tell me you have a Husky, or Dachsund, or Chihuahua.\n\nWhile they are all indeed dogs, they all vary greatly in size, colour, shape, temperament, etc. \n\nWhat would keep a Jack Russell Terrier from getting into your house varies greatly from what would keep out a Bernese Mountain Dog -- which is why the annual flu vaccine has different strains of the influenza virus in it. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The two proteins on the surface of the virus, hemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). The numbers are indices to identify the protein variations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2957262",
"title": "Influenza A virus subtype H3N2",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Influenza A virus subtype H3N2 (A/H3N2) is a subtype of viruses that causes influenza (flu). H3N2 viruses can infect birds and mammals. In birds, humans, and pigs, the virus has mutated into many strains. In years in which H3N2 is the predominate strain, there are more hospitalizations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2957262",
"title": "Influenza A virus subtype H3N2",
"section": "Section::::Seasonal H3N2 flu.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "Seasonal H3N2 flu is a human flu from H3N2 that is slightly different from one of the previous year's flu season H3N2 variants. Seasonal influenza viruses flow out of overlapping epidemics in East Asia and Southeast Asia, then trickle around the globe before dying off. Identifying the source of the viruses allows global health officials to better predict which viruses are most likely to cause the most disease over the next year. An analysis of 13,000 samples of influenza A/H3N2 virus that were collected across six continents from 2002 to 2007 by the WHO's Global Influenza Surveillance Network showed the newly emerging strains of H3N2 appeared in East and Southeast Asian countries about six to 9 months earlier than anywhere else. The strains generally reached Australia and New Zealand next, followed by North America and Europe. The new variants typically reached South America after an additional six to 9 months, the group reported.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24104011",
"title": "Influenza prevention",
"section": "Section::::Mode Of Transmission in Influenza.:Novel H1N1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "The American Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) agrees that the \"spread of novel H1N1 virus is thought to occur in the same way that seasonal flu spreads. Flu viruses are spread mainly from person to person through coughing or sneezing by people with influenza.\" The CDC also says that a person may become infected if he or she touches something with flu viruses on it \"and then touches his or her eyes, nose, or mouth.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2888063",
"title": "Influenza pandemic",
"section": "Section::::Variants and subtypes of Influenzavirus A.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The Influenza A virus subtypes are labeled according to an H number (for hemagglutinin) and an N number (for neuraminidase). Each subtype virus has mutated into a variety of strains with differing pathogenic profiles; some pathogenic to one species but not others, some pathogenic to multiple species. Most known strains are extinct strains. For example, the annual flu subtype H3N2 no longer contains the strain that caused the Hong Kong Flu.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2888063",
"title": "Influenza pandemic",
"section": "Section::::Variants and subtypes of Influenzavirus A.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Variants of Influenzavirus A are identified and named according to the isolate that they are like and thus are presumed to share lineage (example Fujian flu virus like); according to their typical host (example Human flu virus); according to their subtype (example H3N2); and according to their deadliness (example LP). So a flu from a virus similar to the isolate A/Fujian/411/2002(H3N2) is called Fujian flu, human flu, and H3N2 flu.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38969724",
"title": "Influenza A virus subtype H7N9",
"section": "Section::::H7N9 virus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Influenza A viruses are divided into subtypes based on two proteins on the surface of the virus: hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). The avian influenza A(H7N9) virus designation of H7N9 identifies it as having HA of the H7 subtype and NA of the N9 subtype.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23861056",
"title": "2009 flu pandemic in India",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "A new strain of influenza virus, officially named the \"new H1N1\", first identified in April 2009, and commonly called \"Swine flu\" initially spread in Mexico and then globally by transmission. It is thought to be a mutation of four known strains of the influenza A virus, subtype H1N1: one endemic in (normally infecting) humans, one endemic in birds, and two endemic in pigs (swine). Experts assume the virus \"most likely\" emerged from pigs in Asia, and was carried to North America by infected persons. The virus typically spreads from coughs and sneezes or by touching contaminated surfaces and then touching the nose or mouth. Symptoms, which can last up to a week, are similar to those of seasonal flu, and may include fever, sneezes, sore throat, coughs, headache, and muscle or joint pains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
s6u3k
|
how do we keep such good track all of the objects that are orbiting earth?
|
[
{
"answer": "The laws of the universe are actually fairly simple. They get complex when it's a whole bunch of them mixing together - but space is perhaps one of the least \"law-mixing\" regions. Basically if you know the velocity of an object and the mass of the objects around it, you can *very* precisely predict its movement just using Newton's laws. \n\nOn earth, it gets weird due to things like the atmosphere. Obviously space doesn't have those, so space itself is sort of a \"dumbed down\" version of physics.\n\nHowever, that doesn't mean it's objectively easy to do, it's just a lot more simple than one may expect.\n\nEDIT: Also, an interesting sidenote is that Newton's laws can predict most orbits (planetary orbits and whatnot). However, Mercury's orbit was just *very slightly* off of what Newton's models predicted it should be. After a while, Mr. Einstein came along and wrote in a few conditions for Newton's laws and found that due to Mercury's proximity to the sun, space was warping. Newton's models didn't account for this. But Mercury was the *exception* and it was actually kind of weird that Newton's laws didn't work perfectly for it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11866",
"title": "Global Positioning System",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Space segment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Orbiting at an altitude of approximately ; orbital radius of approximately , each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal day, repeating the same ground track each day. This was very helpful during development because even with only four satellites, correct alignment means all four are visible from one spot for a few hours each day. For military operations, the ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in combat zones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "738178",
"title": "Orbital spaceflight",
"section": "Section::::Orbits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "By dropping a vertical down to the Earth's surface it is possible to calculate a ground track that shows which part of the Earth a spacecraft is immediately above, and this is useful for helping to visualise the orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7609997",
"title": "Orbit determination",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "Satellite tracking is another major application. For the US and partner countries, to the extent that optical and radar resources allow, the Joint Space Operations Center gathers observations of all objects in Earth orbit. The observations are used in new orbit determination calculations that maintain the overall accuracy of the satellite catalog. Collision avoidance calculations may use this data to calculate the probability that one orbiting object will collide with another. A satellite's operator may decide to adjust the orbit, if the risk of collision in the present orbit is unacceptable. (It is not possible to adjust the orbit for events of very low probability; it would soon use up the of propellant the satellite carries for orbital station-keeping.) Other countries, including Russia and China, have similar tracking assets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18253359",
"title": "Manned Space Flight Network",
"section": "Section::::Orbital versus deep space tracking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "Tracking vehicles in low Earth orbits (LEO) is quite different from tracking deep space missions. Deep space missions are visible for long periods of time from a large portion of the Earth's surface, and so require few stations (the DSN uses only three, ). These few stations, however, require the use of huge antennas and ultra-sensitive receivers to cope with the very distant, weak signals. Low Earth orbit missions, on the other hand, are only visible from a small fraction of the Earth's surface at a time, and the satellites move overhead quickly, which requires a large number of tracking stations, spread all over the world. The antennas required for LEO tracking and communication are not required to be as large as those used for deep space, but they must be able to track quickly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "526864",
"title": "STS-63",
"section": "Section::::Mission highlights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "On flight day two, the crew deployed the Orbital Debris Radar Calibration System-II (ODERACS-II) to help characterize orbital debris environment for objects smaller than 10 centimeters (about four inches) in diameter. Complement of six target objects of known dimensions and with limited orbital lifespans released into orbit and tracked by ground-based radars, allowing precise calibration of radars so they can more accurately track smaller pieces of space debris in low Earth orbit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "266344",
"title": "Space debris",
"section": "Section::::Characterization.:Higher altitudes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Although the ITU now requires proof a satellite can be moved out of its orbital slot at the end of its lifespan, studies suggest this is insufficient. Since GEO orbit is too distant to accurately measure objects under , the nature of the problem is not well known. Satellites could be moved to empty spots in GEO, requiring less maneuvring and making it easier to predict future motion. Satellites or boosters in other orbits, especially stranded in geostationary transfer orbit, are an additional concern due to their typically high crossing velocity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "595738",
"title": "LAGEOS",
"section": "Section::::Function and operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Measurements are made by transmitting pulsed laser beams from Earth ground stations to the satellites. The laser beams then return to Earth after hitting the reflecting surfaces; the travel times are precisely measured, permitting ground stations in different parts of the Earth to measure their separations to better than one inch in thousands of miles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3v8hg7
|
How large were the Greek Colonies in the Mediterranean?
|
[
{
"answer": "They were some of the largest cities of the Greek world. Herodotus tells us that Cyrene (in modern Libya) could field 6000 hoplites in the mid-6th century BC, which means it would be outmatched only by the biggest communities of the Greek mainland. In the Classical period, Syracuse (in Sicily) was the second largest Greek city after Athens; by the later 4th century BC it may have been the largest altogether.\n\nThe main thing about Greek \"colonisation\" is that it was nothing like modern colonisation, where a wealthy and powerful centre extracts wealth from a relatively underdeveloped periphery. The Greeks simply founded new and autonomous communities overseas in areas that seemed fertile or strategically placed. There was no functional difference between these settlements and the city-states of the homeland. At most, there was a loose connection of patronage between a colony and its mother city (*metropolis*), meaning that each could rely on the other's support in war, but this was only invoked when it was expedient.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "540271",
"title": "Colonies in antiquity",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Greek colonies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Influential Greek colonies in the western Mediterranean – many of them in today's Italy — included Cyme, Rhegium (Rhegion) by Chalcis and Zankle (c. 8th century), Syracuse by Corinth/Tenea (c. 734 BC), Naxos by Chalcis (c. 734 BC), Massalia (the later Marseille, France, c. 598 BC) and Agathe (shortly after Massalia) by Phokaia, Elea (Italy) and Emporion (present-day Spain) by Phokaia/Massalia (c. 540 BC and early 6th century), Antipolis (nowadays France) by Achaea, Alalia (Corsica) by Phokaia/Massalia (c. 545 BC) and Cyrene (Cyrenaica, present-day Libya) by Thera (762/61 and 632/31 BC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "540271",
"title": "Colonies in antiquity",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Greek colonies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "More than thirty Greek city-states had multiple colonies. They became dotted across the Mediterranean world, with the most active colony-founding city, Miletus, of the Ionian League, spawning ninety colonies stretching throughout the Mediterranean Sea, from the shores of the Black Sea and Anatolia (modern Turkey) in the east, to the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula in the west, as well as several colonies on the Libyan coast of northern Africa, from the late 9th to the 5th centuries BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21608552",
"title": "Greek colonisation",
"section": "Section::::Locations.:Colonies in the rest of the Mediterranean.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The Greek colonies expanded as far as the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa. In North Africa, on the peninsula of Cyrenaica, colonists from Thera founded Cyrene, which evolved into a very powerful city in the region. Other colonies in Cyrenaica later included Barca, Euesperides (modern Benghazi, Taucheira, and Apollonia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11055416",
"title": "History of Carthage",
"section": "Section::::Conflict with the Greeks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 919,
"text": "The Greek colonization in the Western Mediterranean started with the establishment of Cumae in Italy and Naxos in Sicily after 750 BC. Over the next century, hundreds of Greek colonies sprang up along the Southern Italian and Sicilian coastlines (except Western Sicily). There are no records of Phoenicians initially clashing with Greeks over territory; in fact, the Phoenicians had withdrawn to the Western corner of Sicily in the face of Greek expansion. However, the situation changed sometime after 638 BC, when the first Greek trader visited Tartessos, and by 600 BC Carthage was actively warring with the Greeks to curb their colonial expansion. By 600 BC, the once-Phoenician lake had turned into a conflict zone with the Greeks rowing about in all corners. Carthaginian interests in Iberia, Sardinia and Sicily were threatened, which led to a series of conflicts between Carthage and various Greek city-states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66540",
"title": "Ancient Greece",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Colonies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "From about 750 BC the Greeks began 250 years of expansion, settling colonies in all directions. To the east, the Aegean coast of Asia Minor was colonized first, followed by Cyprus and the coasts of Thrace, the Sea of Marmara and south coast of the Black Sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1844767",
"title": "Archaic Greece",
"section": "Section::::Political developments.:Colonization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "The earliest Greek colonies were on Sicily. Many of these were founded by people from Chalcis, but other Greek states, such as Corinth and Megara were also responsible for early colonies in the area. By the end of the eighth century BC, Greek settlements in southern Italy were also well established. In the seventh century, Greek colonists expanded the areas that they settled. In the west, colonies were founded as far afield as Marseilles. In the east, the north Aegean, the Sea of Marmara, and the Black Sea all saw colonies founded. The dominant coloniser in these parts was Miletus. At the same time, early colonies such as Syracuse and Megara Hyblaia began to themselves establish colonies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15115768",
"title": "Ancient Greece and wine",
"section": "Section::::Colonization and trade.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "As the Greek city-states established colonies throughout the Mediterranean, the settlers brought grapevines with them and were active in cultivating the wild vines they encountered. Sicily and southern Italy formed some of the earliest colonies, as they were areas already home to an abundance of grapevines. The Greeks called the southern part of the Italian Peninsula Oenotria (\"land of vines\"). Settlements in Massalia in southern France and along the shores of the Black Sea soon followed, with the expectation that not only would colonial wine production supply domestic needs, but also create trading opportunities to meet the demand of the nearby city-states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
emn6rf
|
why is the nuremberg defense not considered valid?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Nuremberg Defense refers to a legal strategy employed by many of the defendants at the Nuremberg war crimes trials seeking to convict Nazi perpetrators of war crimes and crimes against humanity committed during the Second World War. Many of those defendants claimed that they were not guilty of the charges against them as they were \"only following orders.\"\n\nPrinciple IV\n\nThis principle, one of many drawn up in the run up to the Nuremberg trials, states:\n\n\"The fact that a person acted pursuant to order of his Government or of a superior does not relieve him from responsibility under international law, provided a moral choice was in fact possible to him.\"\n\nGermans were not forced to be killers. Those who refused to participate were given other assignments or transferred. To this day no one has found an example of a German who was executed for refusing to take part in the killing of Jews or other civilians.\n\n\n[Rational Wiki](_URL_3_) \n\n[Wikipedia](_URL_2_)\n\n[Historians](_URL_0_)\n\n[Facing History](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Uhhh, because you don't get to commit war crimes and crimes against humanity just because someone told you to? That's not, or at least should not be, controversial. Your premise that the soldiers would have been killed or their families hurt is completely false and misleading. No German soldiers or their families were ever harmed for not committing war crimes. They simply received different assignments. International law also makes a distinction between being forced to do things and choosing to do things. Nobody was forced to commit crimes against humanity. They *chose* to do that. They *chose* to commit crimes against humanity when there was no risk to them for refusing. The Nuremburg Trials didn't go after your average front-line soldier. They went after the upper and middle management of the Nazi regime and the Wehrmacht. Those were privileged people who had not only had the means to say no, but enthusiastically said yes to mass murder.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they lost the war. The winner of the war set the rules. There isn’t much of a deeper meaning.\n\nMany scientists who willfully horrendously tortured imprisoned civilians (experiments) essentially received amnesty in exchange for their lab notes. The post-WW2 war crime decisions weren’t the pinnacle of human ethics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Where did you get the idea that a soldier or his family would be killed for disobeying orders to participate in war crimes?\n\nHere is an /r/askhistoriansthread for you: [_URL_0_](_URL_1_)\n\n > There is no documented case of a soldier of the Wehrmacht or Waffen-SS or any other formation of the Nazi state being executed for refusing to participate in war crimes, summarily or otherwise. Not a single one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is it possible that the German soldier believed death was imminent for not obeying orders? The German soldier that did not obey orders was \"transferred\" to another position in the army but what if Germany made sure it was far away? In other words, if his fellow soldiers never saw that \"transferred\" soldier again maybe it was widely believed that he was killed. In no way defending the Germans just trying to get into the mind of a soldier.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Might not be a direct answer to your questions but I wanted to point out that plenty of Nazi atrocities happened outside a military setting. Before any of the infamous places like Auschwitz were built, doctors and nurses all across Germany got right on board with the Aktion T4 eugenics program and personally poisoned, starved and left outside to die of exposure tens of thousands of disabled children. In fucking hospitals and care homes. Nobody standing over them with a gun. In all, after they expanded the criteria to adults, hundreds of thousands were murdered - in hospitals - by enthusiastic medical professionals at their own \"discretion.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because if you allow 'only following orders', something like this happens\\~\n\nPrivates: I was following my captain's orders. *Goes free*\n\nCaptains: I was following my colonel's orders. *Goes free*\n\nColonels: I was following my general's orders. *Goes free*\n\nGenerals: I was following the Fuhrer's orders. *Goes free*\n\nThe Fuhrer: Ah, right. Dead. \n\n\nBasically someone woud have to be proven as the ultimate source of the orders in question to be held accountable and this wasn't considererd acceptable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because then a hundred people can all commit atrocities together under the legal protection of a single scapegoat at the top. If you get threatened under penalty of pain, death or other severity, however, it may constitute a defense.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "pretty much everyone on trial at nuremberg is a high ranking Nazi officer. They didn't bother trialling the rank and file party member. It's hard to argue you're just following orders when you are the one giving the orders.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why are so many people defending the ss here. What is going on is defending the ss a meme i missed?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The concept of war crimes is such a joke. Had axis won guess who would be found guilty? All that matters is who has power.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15115376",
"title": "Superior orders",
"section": "Section::::History from 1900 to 1947.:\"Nuremberg defense\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "However, US General Telford Taylor, who had served as Chief Counsel for the United States during the Nuremberg trials, employed the term \"Nuremberg defense\" in a different sense. He applied it not to the defense offered by the Nuremberg defendants but to a justification put forward by those who refused to take part in military action (specifically America's involvement in the Vietnam War) that they believed to be criminal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15115376",
"title": "Superior orders",
"section": "Section::::History from 1947 to 2000.:The 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "BULLET::::- This formulation, especially (1)(a), whilst effectively prohibiting the use of the Nuremberg defense in relation to charges of genocide and crimes against humanity, does however, appear to allow the Nuremberg defense to be used as a protection against charges of war crimes, provided the relevant criteria are met.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192362",
"title": "Nuremberg principles",
"section": "Section::::Examples of the principles supported and not supported.:The 1998 Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "BULLET::::- This formulation, especially (1)(a), whilst effectively prohibiting the use of the Nuremberg Defense in relation to charges of genocide and crimes against humanity, does however, appear to allow the Nuremberg Defense to be used as a protection against charges of war crimes, provided the relevant criteria are met.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192362",
"title": "Nuremberg principles",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "The Nuremberg principles are a set of guidelines for determining what constitutes a war crime. The document was created by the International Law Commission of the United Nations to codify the legal principles underlying the Nuremberg Trials of Nazi party members following World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15115376",
"title": "Superior orders",
"section": "Section::::History from 1900 to 1947.:Nuremberg Trials after World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Thus, under Nuremberg Principle IV, \"defense of superior orders\" is not a defense for war crimes, although it might be a mitigating factor that could influence a sentencing authority to lessen the penalty. Nuremberg Principle IV states:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30407761",
"title": "October 1946",
"section": "Section::::October 5, 1946 (Saturday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "BULLET::::- Republican Senator Robert A. Taft called the Nuremberg Trials \"an outrage against justice\", controversially arguing that they were carried out under \"ex post facto\" laws and that the making of war \"should not be made a personal crime.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21875",
"title": "Nuremberg trials",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Critics of the Nuremberg trials argued that the charges against the defendants were only defined as \"crimes\" after they were committed and that therefore the trial was invalid, and thus seen as a form of \"victor's justice\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
n7squ
|
information theory
|
[
{
"answer": "Information theory does not require a being. It does tell you what the being can (theoretically) do with the information, and whether (and how much) he can tell the information from noise. If you get caught up in philosophical questions, you'll probably just confuse the issue. Look at it this way: instead of wondering whether a ball is yellow when no one is looking at it, assume that it will be seen as yellow when someone sees it. Same for information. Does a signal no one hears have information content? Dunno, but I can tell you what the content would be when someone *does* hear it. Does that help?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Does information theory require a being to perceive the information, or can it exist without being perceived?\n\nInformation science is a very theoretical science, rather than an empirical science. It is concerned with the properties of *abstract* data sources, as opposed to building models to fit the behaviour of data in the \"real world\". In this way, it is far more like mathematics than like physics.\n\nYour question is sort of like asking whether or not 2+2 would still equal 4 if there were no humans around to \"experience\" the sum. Of course it would! \n\nThis analogy holds true even when we apply our abstract mathematics to things in the real world. Every forest contains a certain number of trees, that number is a property of the forest whether or not someone is around to count. Similarly, every real-world string of data has information theoretical properties that are true regardless of whether or not someone perceives them.\n\n > *Taken from [this comment](_URL_1_).* Does a random string of bits somehow carry less information than a non-random string? What differentiates a random string from a non-random string?\n\nI think I see your confusion. Information scientists are not primarily concerned with how much *knowledge* a human can gain from a string of text. Instead, they are more concerned with how much information each bit of data contributes to the string as a whole. If each bit of data does not, on its own, offer much information, than we say that the string has low *information entropy*.\n\nA precise definition of information entropy is well beyond the scope of ELI5, but a good way to get an intuitive grasp on it is via data compression. Data compression at first seems like a very practical challenge, but it turns out to be intimately related to some of the most fundamental concepts in all of computer science.\n\nThe message \"Hello Hello Hello\" could surely be written more efficiently as \"Hello x3\". This is a very simple example of a data compression algorithm.\n\nLoosely speaking, the more reduction in string size that can be gained by an efficient data compression algorithm ([that obeys certain rules](_URL_0_)), the less information entropy that string contains. Conversely, if an efficient algorithm is not particularly capable of compressing a particular string, then that string carries a high level of entropy.\n\nCounter-intuitively, highly random data is said to have *more* information content due to it containing, by definition, no redundancy. Random data, after all, is data in which no bit has dependant correlation with any other bit in the string. Therefore, each new bit is offering a maximum amount of new information. \n\nI hope that this clears some things up a little bit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think people are making it a bit scarier sounding than necessary. Information theory deals with the question of what it takes to get information from one place to another, i.e. transmission. Information is anything that leaves you knowing more than you did before you got the information, usually referred to as reducing your uncertainty. \n\nLet's say you are receiving a message made up of ones and zeros (i.e. binary) Before you receive each digit, you have a certain amount of uncertainty; which of the two possibilities will it be. Each time you receive a digit, you now have reduced the uncertainty by a single 'bit', collapsing from two possibilities to one. Now, if your overall string you will receive has six digits, you can see how it has twice the information of a three digit case. Similarly, if you are receiving a string with 4 possible digits, it will have twice the information as one in binary.\n\nYou can now scale this up to include anything that can b transmitted, from text in natural language to images, to sound recordings. Information theory can tell you things about how the format of the message will effect how much capacity you will need.\n\nThis is the basics.. From there, you can of course get into very complex cases such as noise, channel sizes, etc.. But this is the foundation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Information theory does not require a being. It does tell you what the being can (theoretically) do with the information, and whether (and how much) he can tell the information from noise. If you get caught up in philosophical questions, you'll probably just confuse the issue. Look at it this way: instead of wondering whether a ball is yellow when no one is looking at it, assume that it will be seen as yellow when someone sees it. Same for information. Does a signal no one hears have information content? Dunno, but I can tell you what the content would be when someone *does* hear it. Does that help?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Does information theory require a being to perceive the information, or can it exist without being perceived?\n\nInformation science is a very theoretical science, rather than an empirical science. It is concerned with the properties of *abstract* data sources, as opposed to building models to fit the behaviour of data in the \"real world\". In this way, it is far more like mathematics than like physics.\n\nYour question is sort of like asking whether or not 2+2 would still equal 4 if there were no humans around to \"experience\" the sum. Of course it would! \n\nThis analogy holds true even when we apply our abstract mathematics to things in the real world. Every forest contains a certain number of trees, that number is a property of the forest whether or not someone is around to count. Similarly, every real-world string of data has information theoretical properties that are true regardless of whether or not someone perceives them.\n\n > *Taken from [this comment](_URL_1_).* Does a random string of bits somehow carry less information than a non-random string? What differentiates a random string from a non-random string?\n\nI think I see your confusion. Information scientists are not primarily concerned with how much *knowledge* a human can gain from a string of text. Instead, they are more concerned with how much information each bit of data contributes to the string as a whole. If each bit of data does not, on its own, offer much information, than we say that the string has low *information entropy*.\n\nA precise definition of information entropy is well beyond the scope of ELI5, but a good way to get an intuitive grasp on it is via data compression. Data compression at first seems like a very practical challenge, but it turns out to be intimately related to some of the most fundamental concepts in all of computer science.\n\nThe message \"Hello Hello Hello\" could surely be written more efficiently as \"Hello x3\". This is a very simple example of a data compression algorithm.\n\nLoosely speaking, the more reduction in string size that can be gained by an efficient data compression algorithm ([that obeys certain rules](_URL_0_)), the less information entropy that string contains. Conversely, if an efficient algorithm is not particularly capable of compressing a particular string, then that string carries a high level of entropy.\n\nCounter-intuitively, highly random data is said to have *more* information content due to it containing, by definition, no redundancy. Random data, after all, is data in which no bit has dependant correlation with any other bit in the string. Therefore, each new bit is offering a maximum amount of new information. \n\nI hope that this clears some things up a little bit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think people are making it a bit scarier sounding than necessary. Information theory deals with the question of what it takes to get information from one place to another, i.e. transmission. Information is anything that leaves you knowing more than you did before you got the information, usually referred to as reducing your uncertainty. \n\nLet's say you are receiving a message made up of ones and zeros (i.e. binary) Before you receive each digit, you have a certain amount of uncertainty; which of the two possibilities will it be. Each time you receive a digit, you now have reduced the uncertainty by a single 'bit', collapsing from two possibilities to one. Now, if your overall string you will receive has six digits, you can see how it has twice the information of a three digit case. Similarly, if you are receiving a string with 4 possible digits, it will have twice the information as one in binary.\n\nYou can now scale this up to include anything that can b transmitted, from text in natural language to images, to sound recordings. Information theory can tell you things about how the format of the message will effect how much capacity you will need.\n\nThis is the basics.. From there, you can of course get into very complex cases such as noise, channel sizes, etc.. But this is the foundation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14773",
"title": "Information theory",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 902,
"text": "Information theory studies the transmission, processing, extraction, and utilization of information. Abstractly, information can be thought of as the resolution of uncertainty. In the case of communication of information over a noisy channel, this abstract concept was made concrete in 1948 by Claude Shannon in his paper \"A Mathematical Theory of Communication\", in which \"information\" is thought of as a set of possible messages, where the goal is to send these messages over a noisy channel, and then to have the receiver reconstruct the message with low probability of error, in spite of the channel noise. Shannon's main result, the noisy-channel coding theorem showed that, in the limit of many channel uses, the rate of information that is asymptotically achievable is equal to the channel capacity, a quantity dependent merely on the statistics of the channel over which the messages are sent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "323392",
"title": "Theoretical computer science",
"section": "Section::::Topics.:Information theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "Information theory is a branch of applied mathematics, electrical engineering, and computer science involving the quantification of information. Information theory was developed by Claude E. Shannon to find fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data. Since its inception it has broadened to find applications in many other areas, including statistical inference, natural language processing, cryptography, neurobiology, the evolution and function of molecular codes, model selection in statistics, thermal physics, quantum computing, linguistics, plagiarism detection, pattern recognition, anomaly detection and other forms of data analysis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "527369",
"title": "Lists of mathematics topics",
"section": "Section::::Areas of advanced mathematics.:Applied mathematics.:Information theory and signal processing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Information theory is a branch of applied mathematics and electrical engineering involving the quantification of information. Historically, information theory was developed to find fundamental limits on compressing and reliably communicating data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14773",
"title": "Information theory",
"section": "Section::::Quantities of information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "Information theory is based on probability theory and statistics. Information theory often concerns itself with measures of information of the distributions associated with random variables. Important quantities of information are entropy, a measure of information in a single random variable, and mutual information, a measure of information in common between two random variables. The former quantity is a property of the probability distribution of a random variable and gives a limit on the rate at which data generated by independent samples with the given distribution can be reliably compressed. The latter is a property of the joint distribution of two random variables, and is the maximum rate of reliable communication across a noisy channel in the limit of long block lengths, when the channel statistics are determined by the joint distribution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18985062",
"title": "Information",
"section": "Section::::As a property in physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "Information has a well-defined meaning in physics. In 2003 J. D. Bekenstein claimed that a growing trend in physics was to define the physical world as being made up of information itself (and thus information is defined in this way) (see Digital physics). Examples of this include the phenomenon of quantum entanglement, where particles can interact without reference to their separation or the speed of light. Material information itself cannot travel faster than light even if that information is transmitted indirectly. This could lead to all attempts at physically observing a particle with an \"entangled\" relationship to another being slowed down, even though the particles are not connected in any other way other than by the information they carry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5323",
"title": "Computer science",
"section": "Section::::Fields.:Theoretical computer science.:Information and coding theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Information theory is related to the quantification of information. This was developed by Claude Shannon to find fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14773",
"title": "Information theory",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Information theory is closely associated with a collection of pure and applied disciplines that have been investigated and reduced to engineering practice under a variety of rubrics throughout the world over the past half century or more: adaptive systems, anticipatory systems, artificial intelligence, complex systems, complexity science, cybernetics, informatics, machine learning, along with systems sciences of many descriptions. Information theory is a broad and deep mathematical theory, with equally broad and deep applications, amongst which is the vital field of coding theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
q2pej
|
How come only mammals have external ears?
|
[
{
"answer": "Different types of species have different reasons. Such as snakes and some reptiles don't have them as to protect themselves from getting dirt and water in their ear. Birds on the other hand don't have them because they have small feathers that cover the ear hole to reduce noise generated from high winds.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It was just a later evolutionary development that happened to develop only along the mammalian line. It's not that other animals are prevented from developing them, they just never did.\n\nMammals in general have more complicated ears than other animals, having 3 ossicles (internal ear bones)- the stapes, incus and malleus, while other animals just have the stapes. The reason for that is that the incus and the malleus are actually derived from bones in the jaw of early animals (reptiles/fish) which regressed during [development to mammals](_URL_0_).\n\nKeep in mind also that not all mammals have pinna (external ears). While there are advantages to the better hearing that comes with external ears, they can be inconvenient in some animals, aquatic mammals for instance. Due to the way sound waves travel in water, an ear filled with air, like ours, isn't that useful underwater, as you may have noticed when swimming. Things sticking out of the head will increase drag in the water and slow a swimmer down. \n\nThat could be a similar reason why there was no pressure for modern birds to develop ears (while birds are obviously not mammals, they did change some from their reptilian ancestors to develop some mammalian traits, like homeothermy and a mammalian 4-chambered heart). Birds are adapted to be as streamlined in the air as possible so, again, ears would create drag. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "974026",
"title": "European mole",
"section": "Section::::Hearing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1145,
"text": "In mammals the cues for hearing are usually based on inter-aural intensity differences, which occur as a result of the diffraction of a progressive sound wave by the head and pinna. They could also be based on inter-aural time differences that are present because of the distance between their two ears. Moles have no pinnae so they are thought to hear at low frequencies. In addition to this, their inner ear is unusual for that of a mammal due to the large trabeculation of the posterior ventral skull between the ears. The tympana of the ear lies almost horizontally and the manubrial tips are separated by a distance of . The results of several studies confirm that there is good transmission through the European mole's head for a range of low frequencies. Because of this it is expected that there will be acoustic interaction at each tympanic membrane. The results of the study also suggest that the ears of this mole act as balanced pressure-difference receivers. This system has never been suggested for a mammal in the past, but reptiles, amphibia, birds, and crickets have been shown to have a direct air pathway between the tympana.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "768413",
"title": "Ear",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "The ear is the organ of hearing and, in mammals, balance. In mammals, the ear is usually described as having three parts—the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. The outer ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal. Since the outer ear is the only visible portion of the ear in most animals, the word \"ear\" often refers to the external part alone. The middle ear includes the tympanic cavity and the three ossicles. The inner ear sits in the bony labyrinth, and contains structures which are key to several senses: the semicircular canals, which enable balance and eye tracking when moving; the utricle and saccule, which enable balance when stationary; and the cochlea, which enables hearing. The ears of vertebrates are placed somewhat symmetrically on either side of the head, an arrangement that aids sound localisation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12082283",
"title": "Human vestigiality",
"section": "Section::::Anatomical.:Ear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 944,
"text": "The ears of a macaque monkey and most other monkeys have far more developed muscles than those of humans, and therefore have the capability to move their ears to better hear potential threats. Humans and other primates such as the orangutan and chimpanzee however have ear muscles that are minimally developed and non-functional, yet still large enough to be identifiable. A muscle attached to the ear that cannot move the ear, for whatever reason, can no longer be said to have any biological function. In humans there is variability in these muscles, such that some people are able to move their ears in various directions, and it can be possible for others to gain such movement by repeated trials. In such primates, the inability to move the ear is compensated mainly by the ability to turn the head on a horizontal plane, an ability which is not common to most monkeys—a function once provided by one structure is now replaced by another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21282020",
"title": "Hearing",
"section": "Section::::Hearing mechanism.:Outer ear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "The outer ear includes the pinna, the visible part of the ear, as well as the ear canal which terminates at the eardrum, also called the tympanic membrane. The pinna serves to focus sound waves through the ear canal toward the eardrum. Because of the asymmetrical character of the outer ear of most mammals, sound is filtered differently on its way into the ear depending on what vertical location it is coming from. This gives these animals the ability to localize sound vertically. The eardrum is an airtight membrane, and when sound waves arrive there, they cause it to vibrate following the waveform of the sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "326837",
"title": "Toothed whale",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Sonar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 182,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 182,
"end_character": 1053,
"text": "The cetacean ear has specific adaptations to the marine environment. In humans, the middle ear works as an impedance equalizer between the outside air's low impedance and the cochlear fluid's high impedance. In whales, and other marine mammals, no great difference exists between the outer and inner environments. Instead of sound passing through the outer ear to the middle ear, whales receive sound through the throat, from which it passes through a low-impedance, fat-filled cavity to the inner ear. The ear is acoustically isolated from the skull by air-filled sinus pockets, which allow for greater directional hearing underwater. Odontocetes send out high-frequency clicks from an organ known as a melon. This melon consists of fat, and the skull of any such creature containing a melon will have a large depression. The melon size varies between species, the bigger it is, the more dependent they are on it. A beaked whale, for example, has a small bulge sitting on top of its skull, whereas a sperm whale's head is filled mainly with the melon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "768413",
"title": "Ear",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.:Invertebrates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 1003,
"text": "Only vertebrate animals have ears, though many invertebrates detect sound using other kinds of sense organs. In insects, tympanal organs are used to hear distant sounds. They are located either on the head or elsewhere, depending on the insect family. The tympanal organs of some insects are extremely sensitive, offering acute hearing beyond that of most other animals. The female cricket fly \"Ormia ochracea\" has tympanal organs on each side of her abdomen. They are connected by a thin bridge of exoskeleton and they function like a tiny pair of eardrums, but, because they are linked, they provide acute directional information. The fly uses her \"ears\" to detect the call of her host, a male cricket. Depending on where the song of the cricket is coming from, the fly's hearing organs will reverberate at slightly different frequencies. This difference may be as little as 50 billionths of a second, but it is enough to allow the fly to home in directly on a singing male cricket and parasitise it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11669530",
"title": "Nose",
"section": "Section::::Structure in air-breathing forms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "The vomeronasal organ of mammals is generally similar to that of reptiles. In most species, it is located in the floor of the nasal cavity, and opens into the mouth via two \"nasopalatine ducts\" running through the palate, but it opens directly into the nose in many rodents. It is, however, lost in bats, and in many primates, including humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5i0syw
|
how does stephen hawking continually contribute to science despite his severe disability?
|
[
{
"answer": "For the most part, he doesn't.\n\nHis scientific output has declined significantly since the 1980s, when he retained more control over his body. This actually isn't that unusual for even able bodied theoretical physicists, who tend to peak in their 20s and 30s.\n\nSince then, he has been more of a science popularizer than a hard core researcher, and most of his work has been with co-authors to assist him.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2886435",
"title": "Ken Money",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Some of his contributions in the scientific field include knowledge of the inner ear, motion sickness, disorientation, and biological effects of space flight. Other of Money’s interests include badminton, skiing, acrobatic flying, skydiving, fishing, and reading.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19376148",
"title": "Stephen Hawking",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.:Disability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 1115,
"text": "In the late 1960s, Hawking's physical abilities declined: he began to use crutches and could no longer give lectures regularly. As he slowly lost the ability to write, he developed compensatory visual methods, including seeing equations in terms of geometry. The physicist Werner Israel later compared the achievements to Mozart composing an entire symphony in his head. Hawking was fiercely independent and unwilling to accept help or make concessions for his disabilities. He preferred to be regarded as \"a scientist first, popular science writer second, and, in all the ways that matter, a normal human being with the same desires, drives, dreams, and ambitions as the next person.\" His wife, Jane Hawking, later noted: \"Some people would call it determination, some obstinacy. I've called it both at one time or another.\" He required much persuasion to accept the use of a wheelchair at the end of the 1960s, but ultimately became notorious for the wildness of his wheelchair driving. Hawking was a popular and witty colleague, but his illness, as well as his reputation for brashness, distanced him from some.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19376148",
"title": "Stephen Hawking",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.:Disability outreach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "In August 2012, Hawking narrated the \"Enlightenment\" segment of the 2012 Summer Paralympics opening ceremony in London. In 2013, the biographical documentary film \"Hawking\", in which Hawking himself is featured, was released. In September 2013, he expressed support for the legalisation of assisted suicide for the terminally ill. In August 2014, Hawking accepted the Ice Bucket Challenge to promote ALS/MND awareness and raise contributions for research. As he had pneumonia in 2013, he was advised not to have ice poured over him, but his children volunteered to accept the challenge on his behalf.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28170989",
"title": "Sandra Bond Chapman",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Chapman's research has resulted in more than 120 publications, nearly 60 funded research grants, and has served as a national public health road for maintaining cognitive fitness and building critical thinking and reasoning skills in adolescents. Chapman was the principal member writing the first state plan for BrainHealth fitness for adults. She is a core member for NIH's selection process of central data elements for nationwide clinical trials on acquired brain injury. Throughout her career, Chapman has received major federal, state, and private research support to advance the treatment of veterans, sports-related brain injuries, concussions, autism, schizophrenia, adolescent reasoning, and brain development, among others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20789493",
"title": "Marlene Behrmann",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "The major approach she uses in her research is to study the behavior of human adults who have sustained brain damage (usually through stroke or head injury), which selectively affects their ability to carry out these processes. Behrmann also conducts rehabilitation studies with brain damaged subjects in order to treat the observed deficits, which also sheds light on the mechanisms underlying visual cognition. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19376148",
"title": "Stephen Hawking",
"section": "Section::::Early life.:Graduate years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 990,
"text": "Hawking's first year as a doctoral student was difficult. He was initially disappointed to find that he had been assigned Dennis William Sciama, one of the founders of modern cosmology, as a supervisor rather than noted Yorkshire astronomer Fred Hoyle, and he found his training in mathematics inadequate for work in general relativity and cosmology. After being diagnosed with motor neurone disease, Hawking fell into a depressionthough his doctors advised that he continue with his studies, he felt there was little point. His disease progressed more slowly than doctors had predicted. Although Hawking had difficulty walking unsupported, and his speech was almost unintelligible, an initial diagnosis that he had only two years to live proved unfounded. With Sciama's encouragement, he returned to his work. Hawking started developing a reputation for brilliance and brashness when he publicly challenged the work of Fred Hoyle and his student Jayant Narlikar at a lecture in June 1964.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147368",
"title": "Shirley MacLaine",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "In 2015, she sparked criticism for her comments on Jews, Christians, and Stephen Hawking. In particular she claimed that victims of the Holocaust were experiencing the results of their own karma, and suggested that Hawking subconsciously caused himself to develop ALS as a means to focus better on physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
c95t6w
|
I am a proud member of the Soviet Union, and I have answered the call to defend the Mother Land against the Facists in WWII. What is the extent of my training, and what is my fate?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ah, the popular view of the Red Army; questions along these lines pop up every now and then.\n\nYou'll be most interested in u/Georgy_K_Zhukov's [answer on blocking detachments](_URL_1_), which also addresses several other matters along the way - namely, your question 2 and part of your question 3. The remainder of your question 3 is addressed in this [answer regarding 'human wave' attacks](_URL_2_), also by Zhukov, including his reply to a question beneath. For your question 1, u/kieslowskifan covers [training in this answer](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2129282",
"title": "1st Red Banner Army",
"section": "Section::::Soviet invasion of Manchuria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 951,
"text": "Until the war's end in 1945, the 1st Red Banner Army covered some of the long far eastern borders of the Soviet Union. In August 1945, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan, and the Soviet Far East Front attacked into Japanese-occupied Manchuria, as part of the Soviet invasion of Manchuria, led by Marshal of the Soviet Union Aleksandr Vasilevsky. The area the Army was to operate through was mountainous, rugged taiga, and it was specifically tailored to the conditions it would face, in common with the other formations earmarked for the operation. The Army's forces at the beginning of the offensive included 26th and 59th Rifle Corps, 6 rifle divisions, 3 tank brigades (75th, 77th, 257th), 3 SP regiments, 6 SP battalions, 1 heavy tank/SP gun regiment, 5 artillery brigades, and 410 tanks/SP guns and 1,413 guns/mortars. The 6th and 112th Fortified Regions also formed part of the Army. The First Army's attack was aimed at northern Manchukuo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "348444",
"title": "Persecution of Muslims",
"section": "Section::::Modern era.:Russia.:Soviet–Afghan War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "The Soviets used their air power to deal harshly with both rebels and civilians, levelling villages to deny safe haven to the mujahideen, destroying vital irrigation ditches, and laying millions of land mines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53182738",
"title": "Kantokuen",
"section": "Section::::Soviet response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "The primary entities responsible for protecting the USSR from Japanese aggression in 1941 were the Far Eastern and Trans-Baikal Fronts, under the command of Generals Iosif Apanasenko and Mikhail Kovalyov, respectively. The Trans-Baikal Front, with nine divisions (including two armored), a mechanized brigade, and a fortified region was tasked with defending the area west of the Oldoy River near Skovorodino, while the Far Eastern Front, with 23 divisions (including three armored), four brigades (excluding antiaircraft), and 11 fortified regions guarded the land to the east, including the crucial seaport of Vladivostok. Combined, the two fronts accounted for some 650,000 men, 5,400 tanks, 3,000 aircraft, 57,000 motor vehicles, 15,000 artillery pieces, and 95,000 horses. The distribution of manpower and equipment in prewar FER was as follows\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3495672",
"title": "Internal Troops",
"section": "Section::::History of the Soviet Internal Troops.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "During World War II, most units of the NKVD Internal Troops were engaged alongside Red Army forces against Axis troops. They participated in the defense of Moscow, Leningrad, the Brest Fortress, Kiev, Odessa, Voronezh, Stalingrad, the North Caucasus and were heavily engaged during the Battle of Kursk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49500470",
"title": "46th Rocket Division",
"section": "Section::::History.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "For exceptional Service to the Motherland in the Great Patriotic War, particularly distinguishing themselves in the battles for the liberation of Krivoi Rog, the division in February 1944 was awarded the Order of the Red Banner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6332272",
"title": "HIAS",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Soviet Jewry exodus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "On December 3, 1966, Premier Alexei Kosygin said in Paris that \"if there are some families divided by the war who want to meet their relatives outside of the USSR, or even to leave the USSR, we shall do all in our power to help them, and there is no problem.\" In stark contrast to the premier's words, the Soviet authorities did everything in their power to prevent Jews from leaving the country, implementing anti-Semitic, anti-emigration campaigns that included harassment, economic pressure, and an increasingly bureaucratic visa-application process. These methods deterred many would-be applicants, who abandoned the process once their initial applications were denied.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5371832",
"title": "Propaganda in the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Themes.:World War II.:Nationalist.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "In face of the threat of Nazi Germany, the international claims of Communism were played down, and people were recruited to help defend the country on patriotic motives. The presence of a real enemy was used to inspire action and production in face of the threat to the Father Soviet Union, or Mother Russia. All Soviet citizens were called on to fight, and soldiers who surrendered had failed in their duty. To prevent retreats from Stalingrad, soldiers were urged to fight for the soil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9fdpgv
|
article 13 meme ban?
|
[
{
"answer": "It just bans copyrighted imagery, so if someone draws/makes something/takes a photo then you can’t steal it to make a meme out of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Anybody can claim copyright of any image. There is no proof needed, and it has to be removed from the entire Internet until proof of ownership can be done. That means if you post a meme, someone will claim copyright of it, hoping to get rich, and then it will get taken down before it can go viral and make you famous.\n\nThis might be a good or bad thing, I've got no opinion there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "666817",
"title": "Orange County Choppers",
"section": "Section::::Popular meme.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "A popular internet meme, started in 2011 and based on the show, became widely popular on social media in early 2018. The meme consists of five panels depicting a dispute between Paul Sr. and his son Paul Jr. In the original scene, Paul Sr. shouts at Paul Jr. for being late to work and Paul Jr. shouts back, throws a chair, and then eventually storms away. In the meme, users enter the dialogue of the five panels to create a dispute over any issue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50381084",
"title": "Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme",
"section": "Section::::Origin and spread.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "A January 2016 investigation by Miles Klee of \"The Daily Dot\" found the first use of the meme to be by a Twitter user in March 2013, as Cruz was speaking at the Conservative Political Action Conference and vowing to repeal the Affordable Care Act. The meme was not repeated until November 2014, by another Twitter user writing about Cruz's proposal against net neutrality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57957331",
"title": "Distracted boyfriend meme",
"section": "Section::::Meme.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Some brands started using the meme when it started going viral. In early January 2018, a version of the meme referencing the biblical story of Lot's wife turning into a pillar of salt went viral on Twitter. The meme was used in a sign for the \"Enough! National School Walkout\" gun violence protest in March 2018. On June 25, 2018, Twitter user Ernie Smith noted other stock images in which the girlfriend from the original meme is surprised looking at screens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56129092",
"title": "Paul Nehlen",
"section": "Section::::Views.:Lawful speech.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "On December 14, 2017, Nehlen's campaign released a statement calling for a federal law banning large social media companies from censoring or restricting \"lawful speech\" on their platforms. Nehlen's proposed bill includes fines of $500,000 for each violation. Supporters of Nehlen have used the hashtag #ShallNotCensor online to show their support for this position. Limitations to \"lawful speech\" would include \"No publishing any individual's \"nonpublic\" residential address, telephone number, or email address without their consent\". However, Nehlen's campaign has posted private phone and email addresses without their consent on the website and then tweeted a link to them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1186897",
"title": "Communications Act 2003",
"section": "Section::::Malicious communications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Section 127 of the act makes it an offence to send a message that is grossly offensive or of an indecent, obscene or menacing character over a public electronic communications network. The section replaced section 43 of the Telecommunications Act 1984 and is drafted as widely as its predecessor. The section has been used controversially to prosecute users of social media in cases such as the Twitter Joke Trial and Facebook comments concerning the murder of April Jones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48324219",
"title": "ICanHazPDF",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "BULLET::::1. ICanHazPDF is a hashtag used on Twitter to request access to academic journal articles which are behind paywalls. It began in 2011 by scientist Andrea Kuszewski. The name is derived from the meme I Can Has Cheezburger?.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1616492",
"title": "Internet meme",
"section": "Section::::Copyright protection.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "For the meme to successfully claim protection, it would have to show that it is original work of the author and has a modest amount of creativity, since the United States has a low threshold for what constitutes creativity. Memes are comments about the popular culture or social ideas and therefore the use of the text would have some amount of creativity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7onlbb
|
History questions about the medieval period
|
[
{
"answer": "I think a good place to start for you would be Ian Mortimer's *The Time Traveller's Guide to Fourteenth-Century England* (or, if you prefer early modern, *The Time Traveller's Guide to Elizabethan England*--you might find that some of the issues you're asking about are more relevant later). It's a solid, well-sourced book but written with a light and very readable tone that provides a great overview of what it was like to live back then.\n\nGreenwood Press also has a series of \"Daily Life\" books, some of which might be of interest--Daily Life in Medieval Europe, Daily Life during the Black Death, Daily Life in Chaucer's England are the major later medieval ones. There are also more specialized volumes dedicated to topics like sports & games.\n\nHappy researching!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1632710",
"title": "Universal history",
"section": "Section::::Universal chronicles.:Middle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "The close of the medieval history is also variously fixed; some make it coincide with the rise of Humanism and the Renaissance in Italy, in the 14th century; with the Fall of Constantinople, in 1453; with the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492; or, again, with the great religious schism of the 16th century. A series of famines and plagues, such as the medieval Great Famine and the Black Death, reduced the population around half before the calamities in the late medieval history. Along with depopulation came social unrest and endemic warfare. Western Europe experienced serious peasant risings: the Jacquerie, the Peasants' Revolt, and the Hundred Years' War. To add to the many problems of the period, the unity of the Catholic Church was shattered by the Western Schism. Collectively the events are a crisis of the Late medieval history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2646489",
"title": "Medievalism",
"section": "Section::::Twentieth and twenty-first centuries.:Living history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "In the second half of the twentieth century interest in the medieval was increasingly expressed through form of re-enactment, including combat reenactment, re-creating historical conflict, armour, arms and skill, as well as living history which re-creates the social and cultural life of the past, in areas such as clothing, food and crafts. The movement has led to the creation of medieval markets and Renaissance fairs, from the late 1980s, particularly in Germany and the United States of America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1632710",
"title": "Universal history",
"section": "Section::::Universal chronicles.:Middle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 924,
"text": "The Early medieval history saw the continuation of trends set up in ancient history (and, for Europe, late Antiquity). The period is usually considered to open with those migrations of the German Tribes which led to the destruction of the Roman Empire in the West in 375, when the Huns fell upon the Gothic tribes north of the Black Sea and forced the Visigoths over the boundaries of the Roman Empire on the lower Danube. A later date, however, is sometimes assumed, viz., when Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus, the last of the Roman Emperors of the West, in 476. Depopulation, deurbanization, and increased barbarian invasion were seen across the Old World. North Africa and the Middle East, once part of the Eastern Roman Empire, became Islamic. Later in European history, the establishment of the feudal system allowed a return to systemic agriculture. There was sustained urbanization in northern and western Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1130298",
"title": "English society",
"section": "Section::::Historiography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "The social history of the medieval period was primarily developed by Eileen Power, H. S. Bennett, Ambrose Raftis, Rodney Hilton, and Sylvia Thrupp before the rise of the New Social History in the 1960s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53452169",
"title": "Annie Abram",
"section": "Section::::Books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "In 1919 she published her third and final book, \"English Life and Manners in the Later Middle Ages\" summarising medieval society based on her own research of primary sources. The book covers the time from the Black Death which started in 1348 and goes on to include the whole of the fifteenth century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34013218",
"title": "History Alive! The Medieval World and Beyond",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "History Alive! The Medieval World and Beyond is a history textbook published by Teachers' Curriculum Institute (TCI) – an organization created by teachers – that is used primarily by 7th grade students. The textbook and supporting materials cover the Medieval era in Europe, and also examines other world cultures during the same time period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3525088",
"title": "Crisis of the Late Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Historiography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "In his \"Introduction to the History of the Middle Ages in Europe\", Mitre Fernández wrote in 2004 that \"[t]o talk about a general crisis of the Late Middle Ages is already a commonplace in the study of medieval history.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5l5zci
|
how does color work and does it exist in the dark?
|
[
{
"answer": "Color is something your brain generates, to represent various wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, the part of the spectrum we call visible light. It does this in response to those wavelengths falling upon receptor cells in your retina that are sensitive to those wavelengths.\n\nColor does not exist 'outside' your brain, although those wavelengths of light do. However, as darkness is the absence of light, neither are present. \n\nThat being said, there can still be wavelengths of light we cannot see, like infrared, in a location that would appear to be dark to us. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "color is perception of the reflection of light, but isolated to the wave-particles within a narrow band of the roygbv spectrum. when you see something that is green, for example, the item is absorbing all colors of light except for green which it reflects. if you're in the dark, no color is \"happening\", until the light comes back on. it doesn't go away, but you can't perceive it unless there is light particles shining on it. interesting to think about the anatomy of the human eye, and its ability to absorb/perceive different bands of color, and color blindness.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4243273",
"title": "Elements of art",
"section": "Section::::Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "Color is the element of art that is produced when light, striking an object, is reflected back to the eye. There are three properties to color. The first is hue, which simply means the name we give to a color (red, yellow, blue, green, etc.). The second property is intensity, which refers to the vividness of the color. A color's intensity is sometimes referred to as its \"colorfulness\", its \"saturation\", its \"purity\" or its \"strength\".The third and final property of color is its value, meaning how light or dark it is. The terms shade and tint refer to value changes in colors. In painting, shades are created by adding black to a color, while tints are created by adding white to a color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33337534",
"title": "Comparison of color models in computer graphics",
"section": "Section::::Basics of color.:Primary colors and hue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "First, \"color\" refers to the human brain's subjective interpretation of combinations of a narrow band of wavelengths of light. For this reason, the definition of \"color\" is not based on a strict set of physical phenomena. Therefore, even basic concepts like \"primary colors\" are not clearly defined. For example, traditional \"Painter's Colors\" use red, blue, and yellow as the primary colors, \"Printer's Colors\" use cyan, yellow, and magenta, and \"Light Colors\" use red, green, and blue. \"Light colors\", more formally known as additive colors, are formed by combining red, green, and blue light. This article refers to additive colors and refers to red, green, and blue as the primary colors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1822919",
"title": "Composition (visual arts)",
"section": "Section::::Elements of design.:Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "There are three properties of color. Hue, brightness or chroma, and value. Hue is simply the name of a color, (red, yellow, and blue, etc.) Brightness and chroma refer to the intensity and strength of the color. A high chroma color is more pure and less greyed than a low chroma color. The lightness and darkness to a color is the value. Color also has the ability to work within our emotions. Given that, we can use color to create mood. It can also be used as tone, pattern, light, movement, symbol, form, harmony, and contrast. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "248581",
"title": "Darkness",
"section": "Section::::Cultural.:Artistic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Color paints are mixed together to create darkness, because each color absorbs certain frequencies of light. Theoretically, mixing together the three primary colors, or the three secondary colors, will absorb all visible light and create black. In practice it is difficult to prevent the mixture from taking on a brown tint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18802785",
"title": "Finishing (textiles)",
"section": "Section::::Finishing of cotton.:Coloration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Color is a sensation caused when white light from a source such as the sun is reflected off a pigment on the surface. The pigment selectively reflects certain wavelengths of light while absorbing others. A dye can be considered as a substance that can be fixed to a material that has these properties. The colour it reflects is defined by the structure of the molecule, and particular the parts of the chromogen molecule called the chromophore group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60475502",
"title": "Optimal stimulation level",
"section": "Section::::Advertisement's color.:Hypothetical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Colors are used to perform symbolical and aesthetic, and also refer to time, cosmic, space, religious symbols, symbolize, ethical, etc. For example, orange and red can represent fire and stimulation, green associates with water, blue relates to dimension, and white and black correlate to timeless and time, respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19097368",
"title": "On Vision and Colours",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Chapter 2—On Colors.:§ 13.:Physical colors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 2047,
"text": "Physical colors are temporary. They exist when light combines with cloudy transparent or translucent media, such as smoke, fog, or a glass prism. They are comprehensible because we know that they result from part of the qualitative division of retinal activity. Light is the external physical stimulus of the retina's activity. The more that we know about the effect (color as physiological fact), the more we can know \"a priori\" about its external cause. (1) The external stimulus can only excite color, which is the retina's polar division. (2) There are no individual colors. Colors come in pairs because each color is the qualitative part of the retina's full activity. The remaining part is the color's complementary color. (3) There are an infinite number of colors. Three pairs are distinguished by names of their own, however, because the retina's activity is bipartitioned in a rational proportion that consists of simple numbers. (4) A color's external cause, acting as a stimulus, must be capable of being changed and infinitely modified as much as the retina's activity can be infinitely divided qualitatively. (5) In the eye, color is a cloudy shade of white. This shadiness is the retina's resting part while the other retinal part is active. Newton's theory asserts that each prismatic color is 1/7 of the whole of light. If an infinite number, instead of seven, of light rays is assumed, then each color would be an infinitely small fraction of the whole of light. Schopenhauer's theory, however, claims that yellow is ¾ as bright as white. Orange is 2/3, red is ½, green is ½, blue is 1/3, and violet is ¼ as bright as white. The external cause of color is a diminished light that imparts just as much light to the color as it imparts darkness to the color's complement. Unlike Goethe, for Schopenhauer the primary phenomenon, or limit of explanation, is not an external cause, but the \"organic capacity of the retina to let its nervous activity appear in two qualitatively opposite halves, sometimes equal, sometimes unequal...\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2d3xs0
|
Does a map of North and/or South America pre-colonialism exist?
|
[
{
"answer": "There are some old petroglyphs and other items you may find interesting here:\n\n'Maps, mapmaking and use of maps by native North Americans'\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5230611",
"title": "Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Sciences.:Astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The Piri reis map was discovered in 1929 while Topkapi Palace, Constantinople, Turkey was being converted into a museum. It consists of a map drawn on gazelle skin, primarily detailing the western coast of Africa and the eastern coast of South America. The map is considered to have been drawn in 1572 by piri reis, a famous admiral of the Turkish fleet. The alan walker map was one of the earliest world maps to include the Americas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24047312",
"title": "Map of Juan de la Cosa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "This map is the earliest undisputed representation of the Americas. The map contains a body of water to the north of Cuba which is within a landmass, a hint of the undiscovered Gulf of Mexico. Some historians have claimed that some of the Antilles appear on earlier maps such as the Pizzigano map of 1424 but there is no consensus about it. Furthermore, the Vinland map shows part of North America but it is most probably fake. The La Cosa map shows the lands discovered up to the end of the 15th century by Castilian, Portuguese and English expeditions to America. It also depicts a large fraction of the Old World, according to the style of medieval portolan charts and including news of the arrival of Vasco de Gama to India in 1498.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4684783",
"title": "Diogo Ribeiro",
"section": "Section::::First scientific world map.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "Diogo's map delineates very precisely the coasts of Central and South America. It shows the whole east coast of the Americas but of the west coast only the area from Guatemala to Ecuador. However, neither Australia nor Antarctica appear, and the Indian subcontinent appears too small. The map shows, for the first time, the real extension of the Pacific Ocean. It also shows, for the first time, the North American coast as a continuous one (probably influenced by Estêvão Gomes's exploration in 1524/25). It also shows the demarcation of the Treaty of Tordesillas. The absence of any large continent south of Asia is evidence that there had been no discovery of Australia at that date.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "160235",
"title": "Abraham Ortelius",
"section": "Section::::External links.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 841,
"text": "BULLET::::- Online Map, Americae sive novi orbis 1579, Ortelius, Abraham, published Antwerp, Christopher Plantin, early Handcoloured map of the Americas, Mer Pacifico [i.e. Pacific Ocean], Mer Atlantica [i.e. Atlantic Ocean] with Nova Guinea [i.e. New Guinea] and Terra del Fuego. This map is considered historically significant because Ortelius provided a popular and fairly accurate image of the Americas. The New World is heavily annotated with place-names documenting Ponce de Leon's penetration of the Southeast in 1521, the Gulf coast explorations of Navaez in 1521 and Cabeza de Vaca in 1528, as well as de Soto's expedition in 1539 combined with information from Cortes in Mexico, Franciscan Fr. de Nizza in the Southwest, and Cabrillo along the California coast in 1542, Dixon Map Collection at the State Library of New South Wales\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10579652",
"title": "Codex canadensis",
"section": "Section::::Cartography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Apart from its depictions of plants, animals, and native peoples, the \"Codex Canadensis\" also includes two maps. The inside front cover of the tome contains a map of the Mississippi River and its environs, while the inside back cover contains a map of northeastern North America, including territories such as New France and Acadia, as well as New England, New York, Newfoundland and the region of the Great Lakes. Hence, both of the maps depict French colonial spaces in North America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10579652",
"title": "Codex canadensis",
"section": "Section::::Cartography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "Both maps contain quite a large amount of detail when it comes to labeling settlements, particularly in coastal areas and along rivers. This is consistent with European cartography of the Americas in the early modern period. The detailed depictions of coastal and fluvial settlements was important due to the importance ships had in the transportation systems of the time, particularly in the New World. Furthermore, the mapping of settlements as can be seen in the \"Codex Canadensis\", and cartography in general, played an important role in the imperial endeavours of European powers in this period. In that sense, the maps in the \"Codex\" can be seen as part of the wider context of cartography as a colonial tool, a way of asserting control over certain spaces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1670610",
"title": "South-up map orientation",
"section": "Section::::History of south-up oriented maps as political statements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The history of south-up map orientation as political statement can be traced back to the early 1900s. Joaquín Torres García, a Uruguayan modernist painter, created one of the first maps to make a political statement related to north-south map positions entitled \"América Invertida.\" \"Torres-García placed the South Pole at the top of the earth, thereby suggesting a visual affirmation of the importance of the (South American) continent.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
xofj7
|
[Opinion]How has the American Civil War and Reconstruction affected the forming of the two modern political parties and modern American politics in general?
|
[
{
"answer": "In my opinion, the modern condition of the two parties is a result of things much more recent - Nixon's Southern Strategy and the rise of Fox News. The Civil War and Reconstruction certainly played their part, see the Civil Rights Act, but in terms of meaningful effect I would still focus on more recent times. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4140746",
"title": "Third Party System",
"section": "Section::::Postbellum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1059,
"text": "The Civil War and Reconstruction issues polarized the parties until the Compromise of 1877 finally ended the political warfare. War issues resonated for a quarter century, as Republicans waved the \"bloody shirt\" (of dead union soldiers), and Democrats warned against Black supremacy in the South and plutocracy in the North. The modernizing Republicans who had founded the party in 1854 looked askance at the undisguised corruption of Ulysses S. Grant and his war veterans, bolstered by the solid vote of freedmen. The dissenters formed a \"Liberal Republican\" Party in 1872, only to have it smashed by Grant's reelection. By the mid-1870s it was clear that Confederate nationalism was dead; all but the most ardent Republican “Stalwarts” agreed that the southern Republican coalition of African-American Freedmen, scalawags and carpetbaggers was helpless and hopeless. In 1874 the Democrats won big majorities in Congress, with economic depression a major issue. People asked how much longer the Republicans could use the Army to impose control in the South.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43186833",
"title": "1874 United States elections",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "The Panic of 1873, a series of scandals, and an unpopular Congressional pay raise all damaged the Republican Party's brand. With the passage of the Reconstruction amendments, the importance of the parties' roles in the Civil War also receded in the minds of many. Though Republicans won governorships in Northern states such as Pennsylvania, the election increased Democratic power in the South, which it later dominated after the end of Reconstruction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "249433",
"title": "Political parties in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History and early political parties.:Third Party System: 1854–1890s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Civil war and Reconstruction issues polarized the parties until the Compromise of 1877, which ended the latter. Thus both parties became broad-based voting coalitions and the race issue pulled newly enfranchised African Americans (Freedmen) into the Republican Party while white southerners (Redeemers) joined the Democratic Party. The Democratic coalition also had conservative pro-business Bourbon Democrats, traditional Democrats in the North (many of them former Copperheads), and Catholic immigrants, among others. The Republican coalition also consisted of businessmen, shop owners, skilled craftsmen, clerks, and professionals who were attracted to the party's modernization policies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40525",
"title": "1880 United States presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Since before the Civil War, the two major parties were the Republicans and the Democrats, and after the end of the Reconstruction Era in 1877, the national electorate was closely divided between them. Party membership was only partly based on ideology; party identification often reflected ethnic and religious background, as well as Civil War loyalties that were still keenly felt by many voters. Most Northern Protestants voted Republican, as did black Southerners. On the other hand, white Southerners and Northern Catholics generally voted Democratic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9427370",
"title": "Louisiana Democratic Party",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Dominated by the planter elite through much of the 19th century, the party was historically prominent in politics since before the American Civil War. After struggling to regain power through Reconstruction, after the Republican Party became competitive due to support by most African Americans and many other Unionists, the party used violence and fraud to regain control of the state. Since the official end of reconstruction in 1877, the Democratic Party won 31 of 35 elections for governor. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3791177",
"title": "Alabama Legislature",
"section": "Section::::History.:Reconstruction era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "As in other states during Reconstruction, former Confederate and insurgent \"redeemer\" forces from the Democratic Party gradually overturned the Republicans by force and fraud. Elections were surrounded by violence as paramilitary groups aligned with the Democrats worked to suppress black Republican voting. By the 1874 state general elections, the General Assembly was dominated by white Bourbon Democrats from the elite planter class.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265084",
"title": "History of the United States (1865–1918)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1232,
"text": "With a decisive victory in 1865 over Southern secessionists in the Civil War, the United States became a united and powerful nation with a strong national government. Reconstruction brought the end of legalized slavery plus citizenship for the former slaves, but their new-found political power was rolled back within a decade, and they became second-class citizens under a \"Jim Crow\" system of deeply pervasive segregation that would stand for the next 80–90 years. Politically, during the Third Party System and Fourth Party System the nation was mostly dominated by Republicans (except for two Democratic presidents). After 1900 and the assassination of President William McKinley, the Progressive Era brought political, business, and social reforms (e.g., new roles for and government expansion of education, higher status for women, a curtailment of corporate excesses, and modernization of many areas of government and society). The Progressives worked through new middle-class organizations to fight against the corruption and behind-the-scenes power of entrenched, state political party organizations and big-city \"machines\". They demanded—and won—women's right to vote, and the nationwide prohibition of alcohol 1920-1933.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21slir
|
how did the 9 month school/3 month break system develop and how come it's universal?
|
[
{
"answer": "It has to do with buildings being hot and sweaty and poorly ventilated during the summer.\n\nCompletely an urban thing -- nothing to do with agriculture.\n\nEdit: It may have started as an agricultural thing, but as soon as school schedules became synchronized (no more rural schoolhouses), that went out the window. It's also not universal, there are many places that do year-round school -- mostly overseas, but some in the US too.\n\nEdit again: [Source](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "its as universal as Miss Universe is universal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2077393",
"title": "Summer vacation",
"section": "Section::::By country.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 211,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 211,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "As school systems grew throughout the United States they became more aligned with college and university schedules, which already observed a break during summer. Breaks became more frequent as well. Original schools observed New Year’s Day, Easter, Fourth of July, Thanksgiving, and Christmas. The duration of breaks at these observances varied from school to school. More observances have been honored as time has passed, continually changing the school calendar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2671631",
"title": "Education in Romania",
"section": "Section::::Students' life in Romanian schools.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Most schools follow the tradition of school shifts (originally done for lack of space, but now tradition). Thus, school starts for some groups (usually years I to IV and VIII) at 7:30 or 8:00 and ends at 12:00–14:30, while other groups (years V–VII) start at 11:00–13:30 and end at 17:00–19:30. Normally, a class lasts 50 minutes, followed by a 10-minute break (and sometimes one 20-minute break). From November until March, some schools reduce classes to 45 minutes and breaks to 5 minutes, for fear that 6:30 or 7:30 in the evening is a too late and a too dangerous hour to leave school during the dark. School days are Monday to Friday.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "407843",
"title": "Education in China",
"section": "Section::::Education system.:Compulsory education law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "The 9-year System is called \"Nine Years - One Policy\", or \"九年一贯制\" in Chinese. It usually refers to the educational integration of the elementary school and the middle school. After graduating from the elementary school, graduates can directly enter into the junior middle school. The grades in schools which implement the 9-year System are usually called Grade 1, Grade 2, and so on through Grade 9.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44944798",
"title": "Four-year junior college",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "A four-year junior college was a type of educational institution in the United States in the 20th century that provided education from the 11th to the 14th grades, corresponding to the last two years of high school and the first two years of college. Although these are now considered secondary education and tertiary education respectively, advocates of the four-year junior college argued that all four years should be considered part of secondary education.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "811205",
"title": "Education in the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "In 1923 a new school statute and curricula were adopted. Schools were divided into three separate types, designated by the number of years of instruction: \"four year\", \"seven year\" and \"nine year\" schools. Seven and nine-year (secondary) schools were scarce, compared to the \"four-year\" (primary) schools, making it difficult for the pupils to complete their secondary education. Those who finished seven-year schools had the right to enter Technicums. Only nine-year school led directly to university-level education.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44944798",
"title": "Four-year junior college",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The four-year junior college movement was closely associated with a broader movement for a 6-4-4 educational system: six years of elementary school, four years of junior high school, and four years of junior college (or \"senior school\"). Under this plan, graduation from junior college would \"mark the end of the period of general education\", and students who wished would then proceed to more specialized education leading to the bachelor's degree and beyond.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23047788",
"title": "Christ the King College, Isle of Wight",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "In the college's first academic year (2008-2009), it accommodated the original age ranges that the two middle schools had before. The next year, the school increased their range to include year 9. Years 5 and 6 were removed from the school's range in the following two years. Each year, higher age ranges were progressively accommodated at the school. By the academic year 2013-2014, the school had reached its goal to become a secondary school and sixth form. It was unique in the United Kingdom in accommodating these age ranges, a reflection of its changing status from middle to secondary school.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3m3zri
|
what would happen if everyone maxed out all of their credit cards at once?
|
[
{
"answer": "I like this question, generally banks or lending institutions extend lines of credit, but use statistical algorithms to decide how much money to keep available, so it's possible Visa might run out of money, since this is an essentially impossible occurrence, for which they are not prepared. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15905434",
"title": "Credit card hijacking",
"section": "Section::::Cancellation barrier.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "This second form of credit card hijacking was created by marketers who recognized that subscription based services generally have relatively low periodic billing amounts which will generally go unnoticed on any given credit card statement. So what happens is that long after the user loses interest in the subscription, they forget to cancel the subscription and because the periodic billing is so low, they don’t tend to notice it on their credit card statement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15905434",
"title": "Credit card hijacking",
"section": "Section::::Cancellation barrier.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "A simple solution to this problem is to call the credit card company, request a new card with a different account number, and cancel the previous account. They will transfer the debt amount from the old account to the new account. This makes companies that have the credit card information unable to continue charging the credit card of the person. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26052049",
"title": "Nessa Feddis",
"section": "Section::::Media Interviews.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Subsequently, in another interview on PBS' News Hour with Jim Lehrer when asked whether the Credit CARD Act could mean credit cards would be more difficult for some to obtain, Ms. Feddis responded, “Congress understood when they passed this law that one of the effects would be that many people, many small businesses wouldn't be able to get credit cards as easily, accounts would be closed, limits would be lowered. They also understood that, across-the-board, interest rates would go up a bit for everybody.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9008",
"title": "Debit card",
"section": "Section::::Types of debit card systems.:Prepaid debit cards.:Risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "If you lose the card, and have not somehow registered it, you likely lose the money. If a provider has technical issues, the money might not be accessible when you need it. Some companies' payment systems do not appear to accept prepaid debit cards. And there is a risk that prolific use of prepaid debit cards could lead data provider companies to miscategorize you in unfortunate ways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1198837",
"title": "Egg Banking",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "On 2 February 2008, Egg chose to cancel the credit cards of 161,000 (7%) of its customers. The bank gave customers 35 days' notice, after which they would not be able to spend more on their cards. While publicised as an attempt to purge \"risky\" customers from their books, many affected customers came forward with claims that they had excellent credit histories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "509648",
"title": "Perception management",
"section": "Section::::Business.:Marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 858,
"text": "This fact has necessitated the need for almost every citizen to have a credit card. However, many credit cards companies manage their perception to make sure that people continue to need credit cards, and control their perception so that many people do not fully understand what they are getting into. However, the fact that the average household in the United States is in over fifteen thousand dollars worth of debt never reaches the widespread public. Instead, they publicize how they will help if a card gets stolen, or that they have the lowest interest percentage compared to the other major competitors. But no company tells their customers that the promoted interest rate more than doubles if they do not pay the minimum balance on time. For instance, Discover's interest rate increases to 18.99% after the first minimum balance is not paid on time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8960673",
"title": "Tokyo Star Bank",
"section": "Section::::Products.:Master Debit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Customers can use it almost like credit card, but the money used is immediately withdrawn from the account. So users need not worry about \"credit-limit\", as the card can be uses up to one's balance of the account (200,000 daily transaction limit).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ztjy2
|
how does the vocaloid software work?
|
[
{
"answer": "In order to understand it, you first have to understand a bit about the difference between English and Japanese. English writing breaks everything down into letters (c+a+t = cat). Japanese breaks things down into the sounds (kuh+at = cat).\n\nSo, in Japanese they have this huge list of phonemes (that's the most basic unit of sound). By having singers sing each of those sounds at a bunch of different pitches and in different octaves, they can then put those sounds back together into singing.\n\nThat singing would be unbelievably disjointed, except for the \"autotuning\" of the voices. That smooths out differences in changes in pitch and key, to make it sound fluid. It's done with most modern real signers, too.\n\nBut, back to Vocaloid. Part of the appeal of Vocaloid for a lot of people is that the various voices that can be used have actually come to have a sort of \"character.\" So, instead of simply having voice A, B, C, and D, they treat them as Andrew, Bethany, Cody, and Danielle.\n\nThat's about it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1698102",
"title": "Vocaloid",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 907,
"text": "Vocaloid's technology is generally categorized into the concatenative synthesis in the frequency domain, which splices and processes the vocal fragments extracted from human singing voices, in the forms of time-frequency representation. The Vocaloid system can produce the realistic voices by adding vocal expressions like the vibrato on the score information. Initially, Vocaloid's synthesis technology was called on the release of Vocaloid in 2004, although this name is no longer used since the release of Vocaloid 2 in 2007. \"Singing Articulation\" is explained as \"vocal expressions\" such as vibrato and vocal fragments necessary for singing. The Vocaloid and Vocaloid 2 synthesis engines are designed for singing, not reading text aloud, though software such as Vocaloid-flex and Voiceroid have been developed for that. They cannot naturally replicate singing expressions like hoarse voices or shouts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44595752",
"title": "Vocaloid 2",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Vocaloid 2 is a singing voice synthesizer and the successor to the Vocaloid voice synthesizer application by Yamaha. Unlike the first engine, Vocaloid 2 based its output on vocal samples, rather than voice analysis. The synthesis engine and the user interface were completely revamped, with Japanese Vocaloids possessing a Japanese interface, as opposed to the previous version, which used English for both versions. It is noteworthy for introducing the popular character Hatsune Miku.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44598295",
"title": "Vocaloid 3",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "Vocaloid 3 is a singing voice synthesizer and successor to Vocaloid 2 in the Vocaloid series. This version of the software is a much more expansive version, containing many new features, three new languages and many more vocals than past software versions combined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44595752",
"title": "Vocaloid 2",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Vocaloid 2 was announced in 2007. Unlike the first engine, Vocaloid 2 based its synthesis on vocal samples, rather than analysis of the human voice. Due to time constraints, unlike the previous engine, it did not have a public beta test and instead bugs were patched as users reported them. The synthesis engine and the user interface were completely revamped, with Japanese Vocaloids possessing a Japanese interface, as opposed to all versions being in English, as was the case with its predecessor. New features included note auditioning, transparent control track, toggling between playback and rendering, and expression control. One's breath and voice could also be recorded into the library to make realistic sounds. This version was not backward compatible with the original Vocaloid engine, and its editor could not load libraries built for the previous version.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1698102",
"title": "Vocaloid",
"section": "Section::::Software history.:Vocaloid 2.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Vocaloid 2 was announced in 2007. Unlike the first engine, Vocaloid 2 based its results on vocal samples, rather than analysis of the human voice. The synthesis engine and the user interface were completely revamped, with Japanese Vocaloids possessing a Japanese interface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1698102",
"title": "Vocaloid",
"section": "Section::::Marketing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Though developed by Yamaha, the marketing of each Vocaloid is left to the respective studios. Yamaha themselves do maintain a degree of promotional efforts in the actual Vocaloid software, as seen when the humanoid robot model HRP-4C of the National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST) was set up to react to three Vocaloids—Hatsune Miku, Megpoid and Crypton's noncommercial Vocaloid software \"CV-4Cβ\"—as part of promotions for both Yamaha and AIST at CEATEC in 2009. The prototype voice CV-4Cβ was created by sampling a Japanese voice actress, Eriko Nakamura.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1698102",
"title": "Vocaloid",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:System architecture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 855,
"text": "The main parts of the Vocaloid 2 system are the Score Editor (Vocaloid 2 Editor), the Singer Library, and the Synthesis Engine. The Synthesis Engine receives score information from the Score Editor, selects appropriate samples from the Singer Library, and concatenates them to output synthesized voices. There is basically no difference in the Score Editor and the Synthesis Engine provided by Yamaha among different Vocaloid 2 products. If a Vocaloid 2 product is already installed, the user can enable another Vocaloid 2 product by adding its library. The system supports three languages, Japanese, Korean, and English, although other languages may be optional in the future. It works standalone (playback and export to WAV) and as a ReWire application or a Virtual Studio Technology instrument (VSTi) accessible from a digital audio workstation (DAW).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
sbs9g
|
How and where does our brain store the "voices" of people/friends so that when we imagine them, we can hear them in our heads.
|
[
{
"answer": "There may actually be one neuron in your brain that fires in response to a familiar voice. I heard someone found evidence of voice-activation of the \"grandmother cell\", but unfortunately I can't find a reference for it now. The [grandmother cell](_URL_0_) is a single neuron that fires in response to the face of a specific person (i.e. your grandmother). The idea is that one cell represents your recognition of that individual, whether you see their face, hear their voice, read their name, etc. This stuff is controversial and I don't know much about it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36449834",
"title": "Voxeet",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "During a real-life conversation, sounds follow a complex journey before reaching the listener's ears for decoding by the brain. The human brain analyses the sounds and all their alterations to determine the source's position in the room. This enables the brain to know instantly who the speaker is, even without recognizing his voice or seeing the speaker. In a crowded room with lots of background noise, the brain can isolate specific sounds and can focus on decoding the information or voice that matters while disregarding the others, a phenomenon also called the cocktail party effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2181792",
"title": "Bicameralism (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::\"The Origin of Consciousness\".:Jaynes’ evidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Jaynes inferred that these \"voices\" came from the right brain counterparts of the left brain language centres; specifically, the counterparts to Wernicke's area and Broca's area. These regions are somewhat dormant in the right brains of most modern humans, but Jaynes noted that some studies show that auditory hallucinations correspond to increased activity in these areas of the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41742094",
"title": "River (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Describing how she addressed the subject of living with voices in your head, as River does, Morgan told the BBC, \"I know from myself, I talk out loud. I've got children and they say to me 'mummy, you talk to yourself all the time'. I realised how much I do have other people in my head and what a comfort they are to me. It's not just about those who experience voices through mental health, it's the voices we carry from our past, our future or experiences, that we manifest and I hope that's something that an audience will identify with\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "524233",
"title": "Brodmann area 45",
"section": "Section::::Research findings.:On Broca, brain, and binding: a new framework.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1190,
"text": "A person is highly interconnected with other regions of the brain, especially those in the left frontal language network. Though its function seems to be distinct from its neighbors, this high degree of connectivity supports the idea that language can be integrated into many of the seemingly unrelated thought processes we have. This is not a difficult idea to imagine. For instance, attempting to remember the name of a brand new acquaintance can be challenging, and it often demands the attention of the person doing the remembering. In this example, a person is trying to comprehend sound as a part of language, place the word they just heard in the category \"names\", while associating it also as a tag for the face they just saw, simultaneously committing all of these pieces of data to memory. In this view, it hardly seems far-fetched that the roles of pars triangularis in language processing, semantic comprehension, and conscious control of memory are unrelated. In fact, it would be unlikely for pars triangularis not to have multiple roles in the brain, especially considering its high degree of connectivity, both within the left frontal language center, and to other regions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46135",
"title": "George Lakoff",
"section": "Section::::Work.:Embodied mind.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "\"We are neural beings\", Lakoff states, \"Our brains take their input from the rest of our bodies. What our bodies are like and how they function in the world thus structures the very concepts we can use to think. We cannot think just anything — only what our embodied brains permit.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1605494",
"title": "Auditory imagery",
"section": "Section::::Image properties.:Verbal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "The auditory imagery developed from lyrics or words generally is also considered a part of inner speech. When people image their voice or the voices of others it is considered inner speech but some researchers argue that it is a lack of self-monitoring of speech. This generally refers to imagining speech which can occur when trying to remember what someone said or the sound of their voice which can be elicited voluntarily or involuntarily. Auditory verbal imagery is considered useful for practicing and organizing things people would like to say in person. For instance, practicing a speech or getting ready to sing a part in a song.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7973164",
"title": "Anomalous experiences",
"section": "Section::::Subtypes.:Auditory hallucinations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "This case would be an example of what Posey and Losch call \"hearing a comforting or advising voice that is not perceived as being one's own thoughts\". They estimated that approximately 10% of their population of 375 American college students had this type of experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
36bg0e
|
What would be the first language of the Irish who arrived in the United States in the 19th century? What impact or relation did it have to their relation to society?
|
[
{
"answer": "By far the majority of the Irish who arrived in the US in the 19th Century spoke only English, or were bilingual in English and Gaelic.\n\nThe 1861 census of Ireland (a few years after the large potato famine immigration, but the best data I could find, and unlikely to have been much different in 1846) found that only 2% of the Irish population spoke only Gaelic. By far the majority spoke only English, and most that spoke Gaelic also spoke English.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nAs the Irish were one of the few immigrant groups arriving in the US in the 19th century already speaking English, this, of course gave them numerous advantages over immigrants who could not speak the language.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27553816",
"title": "Irish language outside Ireland",
"section": "Section::::North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Irish people brought the language with them to North America as early as the 17th century (when it is first mentioned). In the 18th century it had many speakers in Pennsylvania. Immigration from Irish-speaking counties to America was strong throughout the 19th century, particularly after the Famine, and many manuscripts in Irish came with the immigrants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46284800",
"title": "Irish Americans",
"section": "Section::::Irish immigration to the United States.:Mid-19th century and later.:Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "Down to the end of the 19th century a large number of Irish immigrants arrived speaking Irish as their first language. This continued to be the case with immigrants from certain counties even in the 20th century. The Irish language was first mentioned as being spoken in North America in the 17th century. Large numbers of Irish emigrated to America throughout the 18th century, bringing the language with them, and it was particularly strong in Pennsylvania. It was also widely spoken in such places as New York City, where it proved a useful recruiting tool for Loyalists during the American Revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46284800",
"title": "Irish Americans",
"section": "Section::::Irish immigration to the United States.:Mid-19th century and later.:Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Irish immigrants fell into three linguistic categories: monolingual Irish speakers, bilingual speakers of both Irish and English, and monolingual English speakers. Estimates indicate that there were around 400,000 Irish speakers in the United States in the 1890s, located primarily in New York City, Philadelphia, Boston, Chicago and Yonkers. The Irish-speaking population of New York reached its height in this period, when speakers of Irish numbered between 70,000 and 80,000. This number declined during the early 20th century, dropping to 40,000 in 1939, 10,000 in 1979, and 5,000 in 1995.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "171574",
"title": "Legacy of the Great Irish Famine",
"section": "Section::::Political and cultural impact of the Famine.:Linguistic consequences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The emigration of numerous Irish speakers to America as an immediate or long-term result of the Famine led to a movement there for the maintenance of the Irish language. This was marked in part by the foundation of Philo-Celtic Societies and the founding of the monthly journal \"An Gaodhal\" in 1881, the first such publication anywhere in which Irish was extensively used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7143848",
"title": "Americanization (immigration)",
"section": "Section::::Irish.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "The Irish were the most influential ethnic group regarding the initial waves of immigration to the United States and of Americanization. Newly arrived immigrants in American cities had a hard time avoiding the Irish. There was no way around the Irish for the newcomers, as the Irish were present in every aspect of American working-class society. Between 1840 and 1890, more than 3,000,000 Irish immigrants had entered the United States, and by 1900, about 5,000,000 of their first and second generations were settled in. There were more Irish living in the United States than in Ireland. Irish Americans played a major role in the newcomer's Americanization. In other words, identity in the United States emerged from dynamic relationships among ethnic groups, as well as from particular groups' own distinct history and traditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24671103",
"title": "19th-century history of the Catholic Church in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Immigration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Between 1820 and 1860, the Irish constituted over one third of all immigrants to the United States. In the 1840s, they comprised nearly half of all immigrants to this nation. American Catholics were not exactly happy to see the new immigrants. Not only did the exponential growth set off nativist alarms among Protestants, they presented problems for the existing Catholic parishes. The wave of immigration from Ireland led to tension between the Irish and the French-dominated American Catholic Church. French Catholics were contemptuous of the Irish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46284800",
"title": "Irish Americans",
"section": "Section::::Religion.:Irish Catholic and Irish Protestant relations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Between 1607 and 1820, the majority of emigrants from Ireland to America were Protestants who were described simply as \"Irish\". The religious distinction became important after 1820, when large numbers of Irish Catholics began to emigrate to the United States. Some of the descendants of the colonial Irish Protestant settlers from Ulster began thereafter to redefine themselves as \"Scotch Irish\", to stress their historic origins, and distanced themselves from Irish Catholics; others continued to call themselves Irish, especially in areas of the South which saw little Irish Catholic immigration. By 1830, Irish diaspora demographics had changed rapidly, with over 60% of all Irish settlers in the US being Catholics from rural areas of Ireland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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