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46lsto
|
government deficit spending like how the us did during the great depression. how can a government spend money it doesn't have?
|
[
{
"answer": "The same way anyone or any organization does: the government borrows it from other people.\n\nWhen you buy a government bond, that's lending the government money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They borrow money from others, mostly by selling bonds. You can buy a bond from the government essentially lending them money that they will pay back with interest later. The government can use that money to try to stimulate the economy, so they can theoretically get money from taxes once the economy gets better to pay off the bonds.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First, the definition of deficit spending is that you're spending money faster than you're making it. As long as you have money saved up, that's not much of a problem. (Most states have an emergency fund for this reason.)\n\nOnce the saved up money runs out, the government has to do something else. Like you and me, the government can borrow it (in the form of government bonds). Unlike you and me, the government can also make more money out of thin air. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Federal government issues Bonds. People, companies, governments buy these Bonds. The Bonds will mature over a period of time where the government will then buy back the Bond, plus interest, when it matures.\n\nSo the government is borrowing money from people who buy these Bonds. So the Bonds are effectively a loan to the government.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21282945",
"title": "Treasury view",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "In the late 1920s and early 1930s, during the height of the Great Depression, many economists (most prominently John Maynard Keynes) tried to persuade governments that increased government spending would mitigate the situation and reduce unemployment. In the United Kingdom, the staff of the Chancellor of the Exchequer, notably Ralph George Hawtrey and Frederick Leith-Ross, argued against increased spending by putting forward the \"Treasury view\". Simply put the Treasury view was the view that fiscal policy could only move resources from one use to another, and would not affect the total flow of economic activity. Therefore, neither government spending nor tax cuts could boost employment and economic activity. This view can historically be traced back to various statements of Say's law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13682",
"title": "Herbert Hoover",
"section": "Section::::Presidency.:Budget policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 922,
"text": "After a decade of budget surpluses, the federal government experienced a budget deficit in 1931. Though some economists, like William Trufant Foster, favored deficit spending to address the Great Depression, most politicians and economists believed in the necessity of keeping a balanced budget. In late 1931, Hoover proposed a tax plan to increase tax revenue by 30 percent, resulting in the passage of the Revenue Act of 1932. The act increased taxes across the board, rolling back much of the tax cut reduction program Mellon had presided over during the 1920s. Top earners were taxed at 63 percent on their net income, the highest rate since the early 1920s. The act also doubled the top estate tax rate, cut personal income tax exemptions, eliminated the corporate income tax exemption, and raised corporate tax rates. Despite the passage of the Revenue Act, the federal government continued to run a budget deficit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19283361",
"title": "New Deal",
"section": "Section::::Historiography and evaluation of New Deal policies.:Recovery.:Mainstream economics interpretation.:Keynesians: halted the collapse but lacked Keynesian deficit spending.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 172,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 172,
"end_character": 900,
"text": "At the beginning of the Great Depression, many economists traditionally argued against deficit spending. The fear was that government spending would \"crowd out\" private investment and would thus not have any effect on the economy, a proposition known as the Treasury view, but Keynesian economics rejected that view. They argued that by spending vastly more money—using fiscal policy—the government could provide the needed stimulus through the multiplier effect. Without that stimulus, business simply would not hire more people, especially the low skilled and supposedly \"untrainable\" men who had been unemployed for years and lost any job skill they once had. Keynes visited the White House in 1934 to urge President Roosevelt to increase deficit spending. Roosevelt afterwards complained that \"he left a whole rigmarole of figures – he must be a mathematician rather than a political economist\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49113863",
"title": "Causes of unemployment in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "BULLET::::- Fiscal policy: The Federal government has reduced its budget deficit significantly since the 2007–2009 recession, which resulted from a combination of improving economic conditions and recent steps to reduce spending and raise taxes on higher income taxpayers. Reducing the budget deficit means the government is doing less to support employment, other things equal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28688759",
"title": "Unemployment in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Causes of unemployment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "BULLET::::- Fiscal policy: The Federal government has reduced its budget deficit significantly since the 2007–2009 recession, which resulted from a combination of improving economic conditions and recent steps to reduce spending and raise taxes on higher income taxpayers. Reducing the budget deficit means the government is doing less to support employment, other things equal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14458980",
"title": "Presidency of Herbert Hoover",
"section": "Section::::Domestic affairs.:Taxes and deficits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1147,
"text": "Though some economists, like William Trufant Foster, favored deficit spending to address the Great Depression, most politicians and economists believed in the necessity of keeping a balanced budget. Hoover shared this belief, and he sought to avoid a budget deficit through greatly increased tax rates on the wealthy. To pay for government programs and to make up for revenue lost due to the Depression, Hoover signed the Revenue Act of 1932. The act increased taxes across the board, so that top earners were taxed at 63 percent on their net income - up from 25 percent when Herbert Hoover took office. The 1932 act also increased the tax on the net income of corporations from 12 percent to 13.75 percent. Additionally, under Hoover, the estate tax was doubled, corporate taxes were raised by almost 15 percent, and a \"check tax\" took effect, placing a 2-cent tax on all bank checks. Economists William D. Lastrapes and George Selgin conclude that the check tax was \"an important contributing factor to that period's severe monetary contraction\". Despite the passage of the Revenue Act, the federal government continued to run a budget deficit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28688759",
"title": "Unemployment in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Political debates.:2010–present debates.:Fiscal cliff.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "During 2012, there was significant debate regarding approximately $560 billion in tax increases and spending cuts scheduled to go into effect in 2013, which would reduce the 2013 budget deficit roughly in half. Critics argued that with an employment crisis, such fiscal austerity was premature and misguided. The Congressional Budget Office projected that such sharp deficit reduction would likely cause the U.S. to enter recession in 2013, with the unemployment rate rising to 9% versus approximately 8% in 2012, costing over 1 million jobs. The fiscal cliff was partially addressed by the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
61n56z
|
This week's theme: Oral History
|
[
{
"answer": "Wew, not a whole lot of answers this round. Shame too, a lot of these questions were pretty good :\\",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33869005",
"title": "NAMM Oral History Program",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "The NAMM Oral History program is unique, unlike any other collection in the world. The heart of the collection is the depth of its narratives that cover innovative creations, the evolution of musical instruments, the ever-changing world of music retail, as well as our collective quest to improve music education around the globe. Oral History participants have come from over 72 different countries, 49 U.S. states and were born between 1903 and 1997. This collection is our journal, our own way of chronicling ourselves and our community—the community we so eagerly embrace at the NAMM shows and so proudly celebrate throughout the year. This library of video interviews, now over 3,500 strong and always growing, contains the story of our industry told by those who helped to shape it and have watched it expand and develop through the years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33827619",
"title": "West Point Center for Oral History",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "The Center for Oral History was started in 2008 by Colonel Lance Betros, then head of West Point's history department. The founding director was noted journalist and author Todd Brewster, who served in that capacity from 2008-2013. Brewster remains a member of the Center's distinguished advisory board, which includes, among others, Ken Burns, Sebastian Junger, Martha Raddatz, Brent Scowcroft, and Jack Jacobs. The Center officially launched in October 2011 with its website and its first documentary film, \"Into Harm's Way\". This film was produced by The Documentary Group, a New York City based film production company founded by Tom Yellin and Kayce Freed Jennings, with Brewster serving as Executive Producer of the project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38656910",
"title": "Baylor University Institute for Oral History",
"section": "Section::::Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "In July 2009, BUIOH conducted its first online workshop, \"Getting Started with Oral History\". Fifteen oral history newcomers hailing from Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Georgia, Florida, Arizona, and Texas took part in the two-session interactive workshop. Participants are able to listen to the BUIOH staff explain key areas of oral history while viewing multimedia presentations on the topics. Practice project assignments are ascribed and Q&A sessions held after each session. BUIOH has since offered its workshop online twice a year and has serviced a total of 117 participants to date from five countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33869005",
"title": "NAMM Oral History Program",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "The NAMM Oral History Program is a collection of one-on-one interviews with people involved in the music products industry, including music instrument retailers, instrument and product creators, suppliers and sales representatives, music educators and advocates, publishers, live sound and recording pioneers, innovators, founders, and artists. The mission of the program is to preserve the history of the music products industry, including industry innovations, the evolution of musical instruments and music retail, as well as improving music education worldwide. The Oral History Program was established by the National Association of Music Merchants (NAMM) in 2000. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13777186",
"title": "Oral History Association",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "The Oral History Association (OHA) is a professional association for oral historians and others interested in oral history. It is based in the United States but has international membership. Its mission is \"to bring together all persons interested in oral history as a way of collecting and interpreting human memories to foster knowledge and human dignity.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39199071",
"title": "Samuel Proctor Oral History Program",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "The Samuel Proctor Oral History Program (SPOHP) is the official oral history program at the University of Florida. With over 6,500 interviews and more than 150,000 pages of transcribed material, it is one of the premier oral history programs in the United States. SPOHP's mission is \"to gather, preserve, and promote living histories of individuals from all walks of life.\" The program involves staff, undergraduate and graduate students, and community volunteers in its operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44664096",
"title": "Columbia Center for Oral History Research",
"section": "Section::::Projects.:Completed Projects.:September 11, 2001 Oral History Project.:The Telling Lives Oral History Project.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1057,
"text": "This was the first public oral history program because it was run in public schools as an after school program and worked with the Local 40 Ironworkers. The ironworkers were interviewed to talk about the incident, but this project focused on children both as a means to gain their perspective but also to help these children make sense of what happened as it pertains to them. Both the School for International Studies in Brooklyn and the Dr. Sun Yat Sen Middle School 131 participated. The original funding was provided by the New York Times Foundation and the 9/11 Neediest Fund but it wasn't until the ChevronTexaco Foundation began to fund the project did it become a permanent initiative in 2003. Initially the International School compiled a book of their experiences, and the Chinatown located Dr. Sun Yat Sen school created a museum exhibit for the Museum of Chinese in the Americas. Once ChevronTexaco got involved, and the permanent school program was introduced, classes were required to make either a book or a documentary to be shown publicly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
60pl5d
|
How is magnetized plasma created and what kind of gasses produce them?
|
[
{
"answer": "The gases can be most anything. Hydrogen (including its fusion-fuel isotopes deuterium and/or tritium) or helium are common choices. Storage generally requires some sort of magnetic confinement. A toroidal magnetic field geometry such as in a [tokamak](_URL_1_) is a common choice, though there are other geometries, such as [stellarators](_URL_0_). \n\nIn tokamaks, plasma is often made by pumping the chamber full of neutral gas and then sending current through a central coil, discharging in the medium. This acts to heat the medium (through Ohmic heating) as well as generates a toroidal magnetic field in the plasma. Alternatively, plasma can be heated by propagating energetic neutral beams into the medium or using some sort of radio-frequency or microwave heating. \n\nAlternatively, you can also make magnetized plasma in the laboratory by zapping matter with an intense laser beam. One way of generating magnetic fields in such plasma is to produce misaligned gradients in electron density and electron temperature, causing a thermoelectric magnetic field to grow in the medium. These magnetic fields can be quite large, up to ~10^9 Gauss in the case of the highest intensity lasers interacting with solid-density matter. \n\nEdit: added some links",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15743956",
"title": "Magnetized target fusion",
"section": "Section::::Devices.:FRX-L.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 904,
"text": "In the pioneering experiment, Los Alamos National Laboratory's FRX-L, a plasma is first created at low density by transformer-coupling an electric current through a gas inside a quartz tube (generally a non-fuel gas for testing purposes). This heats the plasma to about (~2.3 million degrees). External magnets confine fuel within the tube. Plasmas are electrically conducting, allowing a current to pass through them. This current, generates a magnetic field that interacts with the current. The plasma is arranged so that the fields and current stabilize within the plasma once it is set up, self-confining the plasma. FRX-L uses the field-reversed configuration for this purpose. Since the temperature and confinement time is 100x lower than in MCF, the confinement is relatively easy to arrange and does not need the complex and expensive superconducting magnets used in most modern MCF experiments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "751638",
"title": "Reactive-ion etching",
"section": "Section::::Method of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Plasma is initiated in the system by applying a strong RF (radio frequency) electromagnetic field to the wafer platter. The field is typically set to a frequency of 13.56 Megahertz, applied at a few hundred watts. The oscillating electric field ionizes the gas molecules by stripping them of electrons, creating a plasma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32004278",
"title": "Surface modification of biomaterials with proteins",
"section": "Section::::Fabrication techniques.:Plasma treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "Plasma techniques are especially useful because they can deposit ultra thin (a few nm), adherent, conformal coatings. Glow discharge plasma is created by filling a vacuum with a low-pressure gas (ex. argon, ammonia, or oxygen). The gas is then excited using microwaves or current which ionizes it. The ionized gas is then thrown onto a surface at a high velocity where the energy produced physically and chemically changes the surface. After the changes occur, the ionized plasma gas is able to react with the surface to make it ready for protein adhesion. However, the surfaces may lose mechanical strength or other inherent properties because of the high amounts of energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36871301",
"title": "Nano-PSI",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "The plasma is created by a Cascaded Arc Plasma Source, which exhausts into the spherical vacuum vessel. Gases such as Helium, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Argon, Xenon can be used to create plasma. Samples are mounted in direct view of the plasma. The plasma species interact with the atoms of the sample, leading to surface modifications. In general this process is called plasma processing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "261352",
"title": "Joint European Torus",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Surrounding the entire assembly is the 2,600 tonne eight-limbed transformer which is used to induce a current into the plasma. The primary purpose of this current is to generate a poloidal field that mixes with the one supplied by the toroidal magnets to produce the twisted field inside the plasma. The current also serves the secondary purpose of ionizing the fuel and providing some heating of the plasma before other systems take over.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39088107",
"title": "Instituto de Astronomía Teórica y Experimental",
"section": "Section::::Scientific Areas.:Astrophysical Plasmas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "A plasma is a fluid consisting of a large number of free charged particles (globally neutral and whose kinetic energy is larger than the electrostatic potential energy between them). The charges and currents that conform a plasma are sources of the electromagnetic fields and, in turn, these fields affect the distribution of charges and currents which makes its dynamics highly nonlinear and very different from that of a neutral gas. When the magnetic fields are capable of modifying an individual particle trajectory, it is said that the plasma is magnetized. The corona is highly magnetized and therefore, several structures are observed, some of which can maintain its stability for relatively long times as dark filaments on the surface of the sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55017",
"title": "Fusion power",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Plasma behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Plasma is an ionized gas that conducts electricity. In bulk, it is modeled using magnetohydrodynamics, which is a combination of the Navier–Stokes equations governing fluids and Maxwell's equations governing how magnetic and electric fields behave. Fusion exploits several plasma properties, including:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7x8edj
|
Where does sediments comes from?
|
[
{
"answer": "Sediment deposition somewhere is the product of erosion somewhere else. Imagine a mountain with a stream flowing down the side of it that eventually flows into a lake. Rocks are weathered (broken down into smaller bits by physical and chemical processes at the Earth's surface) and then the products of that weathering (sediment) are eroded (transported away from their initial location by some process, usually at least in part driven by gravity) by the stream and carried into the lake. The ability of the water to carry sediment is dictated by the flow speed of the water (which is largely driven by gravity) so once the water (with the sediment it's carrying) enters the lake, it slows down and the sediment falls out of suspension and is deposited. When that sediment is deposited it obviously begins to displace water (i.e. if you had a glass of water and poured some sand into it, the water level would go up), but there are a couple of processes acting to limit the amount by which the water would go up in a natural system. The first is [compaction](_URL_0_), basically as more sediment is deposited, the weight of the overlying sediment squeezes the sediment below it and forces gaps in the sediment (i.e. little air pockets we call pore space) to close. Additionally, as the weight of the sediment increases, [isostasy](_URL_1_) will cause the whole column of rock to sink a little bit, effectively lowering the elevation of the top of the sediment (i.e. the bottom of the lake). Eventually, even with compaction and isostasy, the lake could fill up with sediment, forcing the water to spill over into whatever the next lowest area is and sediment would begin to 'bypass' this former site of deposition and fill in a new area and may even start to erode this former site of deposition. All of this is balanced by the amount of erosion upstream (i.e. mass is conserved, you're just moving material from one place to another).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "199661",
"title": "Rock (geology)",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Sedimentary rock.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "Before being deposited, sediments are formed by weathering of earlier rocks by erosion in a source area and then transported to the place of deposition by water, wind, ice, mass movement or glaciers (agents of denudation). Mud rocks comprise 65% (mudstone, shale and siltstone); sandstones 20 to 25% and carbonate rocks 10 to 15% (limestone and dolomite). About 7.9% of the crust by volume is composed of sedimentary rocks, with 82% of those being shales, while the remainder consists of limestone (6%), sandstone and arkoses (12%). Sedimentary rocks often contain fossils. Sedimentary rocks form under the influence of gravity and typically are deposited in horizontal or near horizontal layers or strata and may be referred to as stratified rocks. A small fraction of sedimentary rocks deposited on steep slopes will show cross bedding where one layer stops abruptly along an interface where another layer eroded the first as it was laid atop the first.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1189275",
"title": "Seabed",
"section": "Section::::Sediments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 888,
"text": "Sediments in the seabed vary diversely in their origin, from eroded land materials carried into the ocean by rivers or wind flow, waste and decompositions of sea animals, and precipitation of chemicals within the sea water itself, including some from outer space. There are four basic types of sediment of the sea floor: 1.) \"Terrigenous\" describes the sediment derived from the materials eroded by rain, rivers, glaciers and that which is blown into the ocean by the wind, such as volcanic ash. 2.) Biogenous material is the sediment made up of the hard parts of sea animals that accumulate on the bottom of the ocean. 3.) Hydrogenous sediment is the dissolved material that precipitates in the ocean when oceanic conditions change, and 4.) cosmogenous sediment comes from extraterrestrial sources. These are the components that make up the seafloor under their genetic classifications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44412",
"title": "Sedimentary rock",
"section": "Section::::Deposition and transformation.:Sediment transport and deposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment is deposited out of air, ice, wind, gravity, or water flows carrying the particles in suspension. This sediment is often formed when weathering and erosion break down a rock into loose material in a source area. The material is then transported from the source area to the deposition area. The type of sediment transported depends on the geology of the hinterland (the source area of the sediment). However, some sedimentary rocks, such as evaporites, are composed of material that form at the place of deposition. The nature of a sedimentary rock, therefore, not only depends on the sediment supply, but also on the sedimentary depositional environment in which it formed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10210444",
"title": "Stratigraphic cycles",
"section": "Section::::Event stratigraphy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "This can refer to accumulation of sediments in one specific event. This event could be a large storm, landslide, volcanic eruption, or flood. The thickness of the bed could sometimes be over 50 feet in length. The uniform (or often the erratic) nature of the sediments in relation to the surrounding sediments is the only clue that a particular bed might have been deposited in a single event. A sandstone, for instance, that is well-sorted, contains erratic fossils (like brachiopods) and is wedged between sandstones that are generally poorly-sorted and contain minor siltstone layers and contains no fossils, can be interpreted as \"tempestite\". Other event indicators could be lava flows, lahars, and glacial ice-dam breaks- all of which have been identified in the rock record.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4639367",
"title": "Terrigenous sediment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "In oceanography, terrigenous sediments are those derived from the erosion of rocks on land; that is, they are derived from \"terrestrial\" (as opposed to marine) environments. Consisting of sand, mud, and silt carried to sea by rivers, their composition is usually related to their source rocks; deposition of these sediments is largely limited to the continental shelf.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1114005",
"title": "Geology of the Capitol Reef area",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1022,
"text": "The area's first known sediments were laid down as a shallow sea invaded the land in the Permian. At first sandstone was deposited but limestone followed as the sea deepened. After the sea retreated in the Triassic, streams deposited silt before the area was uplifted and underwent erosion. Conglomerate followed by logs, sand, mud and wind-transported volcanic ash were later added. Mid to Late Triassic time saw increasing aridity, during which vast amounts of sandstone were laid down along with some deposits from slow-moving streams. As another sea started to return, it periodically flooded the area and left evaporite deposits. Barrier islands, sand bars and later, tidal flats, contributed sand for sandstone, followed by cobbles for conglomerate, and mud for shale. The sea retreated, leaving streams, lakes and swampy plains to become the resting place for sediments. Another sea, the Western Interior Seaway, returned in the Cretaceous and left more sandstone and shale only to disappear in the early Cenozoic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183243",
"title": "Alluvium",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "The term \"alluvium\" is not typically used in situations where the formation of the sediment can clearly be attributed to another geologic process that is well described. This includes (but is not limited to): lake sediments (lacustrine), river sediments (fluvial), or glacially-derived sediments (glacial till). Sediments that are formed or deposited in a perennial stream or river are typically not referred to as alluvial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ib42c
|
how come cats get stuck in trees and need to be rescued? could they get down on their own given enough time?
|
[
{
"answer": "Cat claws are designed for climbing up. A cat is not a squirrel. Squirrels can climb up, down, and sideways, always headfirst, no problem. But a cat has to climb with her head up to avoid falling, and once she’s up, the only way down is to back down. A cat that's exhausted, scared, or injured can't make that climb, and sometimes the cat just has trouble figuring it out.\n\nThere have been cats that have eventually become too weak to climb down, and even after being rescued, have died later of the effects of starvation, dehydration, or exposure.\n\nWe don’t see cat skeletons in trees because Kitty becomes too weak to hold on, lets go, and falls. If the kitty were to actually die in a tree, they'd be picked apart by scavengers, insects, and then wind pretty quickly, and what was left wouldn't stay intact or in a tree very long. How many bird skeletons have you seen in trees? Truth is, skeletons just don't last long up in the elements. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3350315",
"title": "Cerebellar hypoplasia (non-human)",
"section": "Section::::Home Care Considerations and Accommodations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "CH cats don't understand that they are disabled, so they will not be self-inhibited from trying to climb or descend. Prevention of injuries requires careful consideration of the specific hazards posed by where they live and their potential abilities. Some cats that cannot walk well or jump, can still climb extremely well. Don't assume a CH cat can't or won't try to get up on something; it is in their nature to explore, jump, and climb. A cat can grip with its claws to get where it wants to go.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37196157",
"title": "Pet travel",
"section": "Section::::Travel methods.:Air travel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "If pets escape, they can face danger, even if they escape on the ground. A cat named Jack escaped from his carrier in American Airlines baggage handling at John F Kennedy airport, went missing for 61 days, and was eventually euthanized. Another cat escaped and was run over by a vehicle on the tarmac at Indira Gandhi International Airport in Delhi, India when traveling with Jet Airways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66365",
"title": "Kitten",
"section": "Section::::Etymology and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Kittens are vulnerable because they like to find dark places to hide, sometimes with fatal results if they are not watched carefully. Cats have a habit of seeking refuge under or inside cars or on top of car tires during stormy or cold weather. This often leads to broken bones, burns, heat stroke, damaged internal organs or death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33428815",
"title": "Birdy and the Beast",
"section": "Section::::Plot synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "The cat manages to survive, but he's still out to get Tweety. When he arrives at the bottom of the tree, he becomes a nest. Tweety attempts to get into it, but a hen, laying her eggs, causes him to get off. When she's finished, she flies off. The cat also arrives and his mouth is full of nothing but eggs. He attempts to catch Tweety once again but fails, then Tweety fakes his screaming and sets a hand grenade with its pin pulled next to him. Thinking it was the bird itself, the cat grabs the grenade. The real Tweety says, \"He got it and he can have it.\" The cat blows up and Tweety then confesses, \"You know, I get rid of more putty tats that way!\", then drew a line on the tree of how many cats he got rid of.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47062661",
"title": "Treetop Cat Rescue",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Airing in the US on channel Animal Planet beginning in May 2015, Treetop Cat Rescue episodes answer two compelling questions; \"can a cat be rescued from a tall tree\", and \"who is its owner?\" The program originally aired on Saturday evenings. Cats are helped down from the trees by a company called Canopy Cat Rescue, who use their own equipment and expertise as arborists to try and bring down cats at no charge to the animal owners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25801162",
"title": "Shattered Peace",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "The two cats decide they need to get out of the fire so they run through the window into the Twoleg nest. They think it is some kind of nightmare though they know the Twolegs are happy there they never want to go there again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3350315",
"title": "Cerebellar hypoplasia (non-human)",
"section": "Section::::Home Care Considerations and Accommodations.:Tips for Caring for CH Cats.:Outside.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Most CH cats are at a significant disadvantage when it comes to protecting themselves from other animals or predators. They can't fight, climb, or flee well; nor can they, if they get lost, fend for themselves adequately. If they are going to be allowed outside an enclosed safe area is strongly advised. CH cats that are impounded as strays are at risk of being mistaken as being injured and subsequently euthanized. Some ideas for keeping the cat safe when outside include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5x1d18
|
why do most foods taste better when drunk or high?
|
[
{
"answer": "in very simple terms, weed blocks certain neurotransmitter reuptake. so, if your brain sends a signal that something tastes good, that signal will have a hard time turning off. so, that \"this tastes good\" signal will just keep firing. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Alcohol consumption makes you crave greasy food. It has to do with stimulating the production of \"galanin\", a neuropeptide (signaling hormone) that leads to craving fats.\n\nMarijuana, on the other hand, actually flips the hunger switch in your brain, causing \"fullness\" to feel like \"hunger\". It also changes how we perceive flavors so common flavors/smells that you'd normally find mundane become novel.\n\nThese two, separate things for the respective drugs, each trigger the primal urges of your body and brain. We have evolved to fulfill such urges and so we find doing so a primitive whole-body pleasure. So the craving fulfilled is a pleasure.\n\nAnd both drugs will tweak your dopamine levels upward, which is a third direct pleasure event.\n\nSo pot will change the tastes of food more than booze, but both will turn eating into a direct tickle of your pleasure centers. That stimulus will, in turn, color your memory of the experience. When you are experiencing pleasure the experience is encoded in your memory as brighter and more valid in every way.\n\nBasically you are shorting \"good\" to \"happy\" in your brain and so \"good tasting\" comes along for the ride.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13044",
"title": "Gin and tonic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The drink is a particular phenomenon as its taste is quite different from the taste of its constituent liquids which are rather bitter. The chemical structures of both ingredients are of a similar molecular shape and attract each other, shielding the bitter taste.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "927688",
"title": "White wine",
"section": "Section::::Culinary aspects.:Harmony of white wine and food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 186,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 186,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "For an aperitif, flavoured dry wine or sparkling wine goes with all meals. Specialists in tasting consider that the sugar or alcohol in some wines has a saturating effect on the taste buds, by contrast the fruity liveliness awakens them to the meal to come.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21755880",
"title": "Spins",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Mixing alcohol with normal soft drinks, rather than diet drinks delays the dizzying effects of alcohol because the sugary mixture slows the emptying of the stomach, so that drunkenness occurs less rapidly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1879592",
"title": "Charles Spence",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Since then, his research has established that the sight, touch and sound of food can have large effects on its perceived taste. Other findings include that strawberry mousse is perceived as 10% sweeter when eaten from a white container over a black one, that coffee drunk from white mugs tastes almost two times more intense but only two-thirds as sweet as coffee drunk from a black mug, and that eaters perceive yogurt to be roughly 25% more filling when its plastic container weighs two and a half ounces more. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1045978",
"title": "Wine and food matching",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties of wine.:Alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Alcohol is the primary factor in dictating a wine's weight and body. Typically the higher the alcohol level, the more weight the wine has. An increase in alcohol content will increase the perception of density and texture. In food and wine pairing, salt and spicy heat will accentuate the alcohol and the perception of \"heat\" or hotness in the mouth. Conversely, the alcohol can also magnify the heat of spicy food making a highly alcoholic wine paired with a very spicy dish one that will generate a lot of heat for the taster.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1054902",
"title": "Sweetness of wine",
"section": "Section::::Residual sugar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "How sweet a wine will taste is also controlled by factors such as the acidity and alcohol levels, the amount of tannin present, and whether the wine is sparkling or not. A sweet wine such as a Vouvray can actually taste dry due to the high level of acidity. A dry wine can taste sweet if the alcohol level is elevated. Medium and sweet wines have a perception among many consumers of being of lower quality than dry wines. However, many of the world's great wines, such as those from Sauternes (including Barsac) or Tokaj, have a high level of residual sugar, which is carefully balanced with additional acidity to produce a harmonious result.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1781797",
"title": "Sweetness",
"section": "Section::::Cognition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The color of food can affect sweetness perception. Adding more red color to a drink increases its perceived sweetness. In a study darker colored solutions were rated 2–10% higher than lighter ones despite having 1% less sucrose concentration. The effect of color is believed to be due to cognitive expectations. Some odors smell sweet and memory confuses whether sweetness was tasted or smelled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5jbm1e
|
why do we react with anger upon hurting ourselves?
|
[
{
"answer": "Our brain has a complex reward system that is activated both when we receive a reward (food, money, etc.) and when we make an error.\n\nError detection is extremely important for our survival. For example, if touching a plant gives you a rash, you won't want to touch that plant anymore. \n\nBecause of this need, the areas of the brain associated with error detection have connections with e area associated with emotions. \n\nSo, take for example a game where you are told to push the letter on your keyboard that appears on the screen and you receive $1 for every correct button push and -$1 for every incorrect button push. When you correctly press a button, the reward system is activated (even if you haven't received the money yet) and if you press the incorrect button, and realized your mistake, the error detection system will activate emotional areas causing anger. These negative emotions make you less likely to make the same mistake again.\n\nSource: I'm a Cognitive Neuroscience student ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "68672",
"title": "Anger",
"section": "Section::::Psychology and sociology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "Anger can potentially mobilize psychological resources and boost determination toward correction of wrong behaviors, promotion of social justice, communication of negative sentiment, and redress of grievances. It can also facilitate patience. In contrast, anger can be destructive when it does not find its appropriate outlet in expression. Anger, in its strong form, impairs one's ability to process information and to exert cognitive control over their behavior. An angry person may lose his/her objectivity, empathy, prudence or thoughtfulness and may cause harm to themselves or others. There is a sharp distinction between anger and aggression (verbal or physical, direct or indirect) even though they mutually influence each other. While anger can activate aggression or increase its probability or intensity, it is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for aggression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42112603",
"title": "Perpetrator trauma",
"section": "Section::::Cycles of violence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Several of the symptoms are capable of causing or allowing for renewed acts of violence. The outbursts of anger can have an impact in domestic violence and street crime. The sense of emotional numbing, detachment and estrangement from other people can also contribute to these, along with contributing to participation in further battle activities or to apathetic reactions when violence is done by others. Associated substance abuse may also have connections to acts of violence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68672",
"title": "Anger",
"section": "Section::::Cognitive effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Anger causes a reduction in cognitive ability and the accurate processing of external stimuli. Dangers seem smaller, actions seem less risky, ventures seem more likely to succeed, and unfortunate events seem less likely. Angry people are more likely to make risky decisions, and make less realistic risk assessments. In one study, test subjects primed to feel angry felt less likely to suffer heart disease, and more likely to receive a pay raise, compared to fearful people. This tendency can manifest in retrospective thinking as well: in a 2005 study, angry subjects said they thought the risks of terrorism in the year following 9/11 in retrospect were low, compared to what the fearful and neutral subjects thought.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "445201",
"title": "Anger management",
"section": "Section::::Potential causes for development of problems.:Medical causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Drug addiction, alcoholism, a mental disability, biochemical changes and PTSD can all lead to a person committing an aggressive act against another person. Not having sufficient skills on how to handle oneself when faced with aggression can lead to very undesirable outcomes. These factors are typically associated with a heightened chance of anger, but there are other, less-known factors that can lead to people acting in a negative way. Prolonged or intense anger and frustration contributes to physical conditions such as headaches, digestive problems, high blood pressure and heart disease. Problems dealing with angry feelings may be linked to psychological disorders such as anxiety or depression. Angry outbursts can be a way of trying to cope with unhappiness or depression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68672",
"title": "Anger",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Anger can have many physical and mental consequences. The external expression of anger can be found in facial expressions, body language, physiological responses, and at times public acts of aggression. Facial expressions can range from inward angling of the eyebrows to a full frown. While most of those who experience anger explain its arousal as a result of \"what has happened to them,\" psychologists point out that an angry person can very well be mistaken because anger causes a loss in self-monitoring capacity and objective observability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68672",
"title": "Anger",
"section": "Section::::Cognitive effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "An angry person tends to anticipate other events that might cause them anger. They will tend to rate anger-causing events (e.g. being sold a faulty car) as more likely than sad events (e.g. a good friend moving away).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5043744",
"title": "Peace journalism",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Explaining violence is justifying it.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "Take the case where an individual’s anger (brought on from previous trauma) becomes bitterness, which is followed by their own violent acts, following Elworthy and Rogers (2002) cycle of violence noted above. An individual has still made a choice to deprive the victim of their violence of their human needs (probably safety and security) even though their own human needs have also been violated earlier. The point is not that they must be seen as either a innocent victim or an evil perpetrator. The practical point is the prevention of violence, and the healing of all those whose needs have been violated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
23ienu
|
what's the deal with muslims in the u.k.?
|
[
{
"answer": "Never been to the UK, but seeing this headlines from there scares me. Is it really as bad as the news say? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The same situation is going on in France, they do not assimilate where ever they assemble a large enough population they will then start to take over local government and keep insidiously working themselves into positions of power in order to establish autonomous self ruled areas where they will establish sharia law.\nIt is not just The U.K. or France, it's everywhere they go, the area around Hamtramck Michigan has the largest population of muslims outside the mideast, they have taken over many local governments and have exempted the morning and evening call to prayer form any noise ordinances, so now any non muslims have to listen to that twice a day.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the issue is removing the standards of schools from local authority's to any private group, meaning that different groups will impose different agendas. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > DailyMail\n\n > The Sun\n\nIf the story is from one of these sources, it is guaranteed to be at least 80% fiction and gross exageration\n\n > Telegraph\n\n > Guardian\n\nIf the story is from one of these sources, it is heavily biased and slanted to the right (telegraph) or left (guardian). Facts will be interspersed with lots of inference and suggestive conjecture.\n\nWhile this story is, to an as yet unknown extent, true and being investigated, the other stories about Sharia law being implemented are complete nonsense. Just because it comes from a UK newspaper doesn't make it trustworthy at all.\n\nAlso, these problems are almost entirely specific to certain urban areas in England^1 (other parts of the UK have much lower immigration and/or smaller, quieter existing muslim communities), where there is a lot of muslim radicalisation going on. It's not even so much immigration (which is very, very difficult if you're not from the EU e.g. Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc.) as it is easier access to extremist ideologies designed to warp impressionable minds.\n\nBut it's important to not develop an understanding of the situation from newspapers which, as we in Britain can easily recognise, are either biased or complete bullshit. FT, The Times, The Herald, BBC are all much more balanced reporting. \n\n1. parts of Birmingham, Bradford and London are the most noteworthy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You mean what's the deal with Muslims in England. They would have no chance doing this shit in Scotland.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Its not some kind of widespread epidemic or anything, as someone else said, places like Birmingham and Bradford are the hubs of the English Islamic community to a degree. This is normal though. Different parts of a country have different settlements. I'd say the Polish communities (that I've experienced first hand at least) stand out much more but the media obviously find it easier to make Islam into the villain and sell some papers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Middle Eastern mythology is everywhere, where was you brought up?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is no \"deal\".\r\rThere are deplorable muslim people in the uk and there are deplorable white people in the uk. In fact there will be people from most races who take part in criminal behaviour.\r\rJust like every population there are good people and bad people.\r\rTo be honest i don't know how much truth there is to the story.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it's important to differentiate between Muslims and Islamic Extremists. Every country has extremists, but it seems all too frequently being a muslim and being an extremist/terrorist are linked in the same sentence. Not to get all conspiratorial but it seems a handy way of producing a fear of other cultures which is coming in useful when we are being sold a new war. I'm from the UK, I live in London, I have many Muslim friends as I grew up going to a school in a high density muslim area. And I think the title of this post \"What's the deal with Muslims in the U.K.?\" is pretty retarded. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The issue is that political correctness is mad in this country, speaking about any minority group in a less than positive way and people flip.\nAs for Muslims specifically there are areas in England that they have amassed, Leicester, Bradford, Birmingham and areas of London that have large populations of Muslims. Which is of course fine, but the issue is if they don't assimilate then it leads to friction. Its going to be a very small minority but it creates tension. 99 percent of muslims are fine and lovely, but a very few what to turn these areas into sharia (Islam law) strongholds. Trying to ban alcohol and make halal meat be sold in shops (as many places in Bradford has happened.\n\n\nThat said, I have no problem with them wanting sharia law in a sense, but since no one can really talk about it without a backlash, newspapers bring it up and look like mental racists and it never gets brought up and discussed which I think is the problem. \n\n\nReally though, Sharia law isn't going to be a thing here, Muslims aren't trying to take over UK its just fearmongering, but because no debates happen stories like these can spread. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This question has been asked a few times before](_URL_0_), so it has been removed. It's perfectly fine to re-post questions, just be sure to mention that none of the past ones answer your question. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "404829",
"title": "Islam in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Integration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Unlike many Muslims in Europe, American Muslims overall do not tend to feel marginalized or isolated from political participation and have often adopted a politically proactive stance. Several organizations were formed by the American Muslim community to serve as \"critical consultants\" on U.S. policy regarding Iraq and Afghanistan. Other groups have worked with law enforcement agencies to point out Muslims within the United States that they suspect of fostering \"intolerant attitudes\". Still others have worked to invite interfaith dialogue and improved relations between Muslim and non-Muslim Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5336733",
"title": "Hispanic and Latino American Muslims",
"section": "Section::::Statistics and demographics.:Racial and ethnic ties to Islam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Islam in the United States has a unique context of shared self-discovery of historically marginalized groups like African Americans and Latinos, which make up a large proportion of the Muslim population in the U.S., along with Middle Eastern, South Asian, and other immigrant Muslim communities. As a result of the multicultural Islamic community and the concept of ummah, the term \"Raza Islámica\" is used to refer to \"the vision of the Prophet Muhammad—a society in which Islam, not tribe, color, nor clan, is the mark of one's identity.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1767413",
"title": "Apostasy in Islam",
"section": "Section::::Apostasy in the recent past.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 227,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 227,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "According to Pew Research Center estimate in 2016, there were about 3.3 million Muslims living in the United States, comprising about 1% of the total U.S. population. A 2015 survey by the Pew Research Center found that 23% of Americans who were raised as Muslims no longer identify with Islam. However, many of them are not open about their deconversion, in fear of endangering their relationships with their relatives and friends.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45384852",
"title": "Islamophobia in the media",
"section": "Section::::Arabophobia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "The fear of Muslims has become more intensified ever since the bombing of 911 in New York City. The media portrays Islams as a race of people directly associated with violence. In public discussions and in the media, Muslims are mostly portrayed as a monolithic bloc, a closed and united group of people who are totally different from or even intimidating and hostile to a likewise closed \"West\" which is Christian, secular, liberal, and democratic. The description of the Muslims and Western worlds as two contrasting, and contradictory poles leads to a dualistic understanding of relations, disregarding many fine distinctions and exceptions. The so called risk of Arabs has been hyped throughout by the media channels to an extent that now westerners see Muslims only in the context of somebody who is an adversary of the democratic world order and modernization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4447131",
"title": "Muslim Parliament of Great Britain",
"section": "Section::::Muslim Manifesto.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "BULLET::::- Islam allows Muslims to accept protection of life, property, and liberty from non-Muslim rulers and their political systems. Muslims placed in this situation may also pay taxes and other dues to a non-Muslim State.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "404829",
"title": "Islam in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 208,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 208,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Some Muslim Americans have been criticized because of perceived conflicts between their religious beliefs and mainstream American value systems. Muslim cab drivers in Minneapolis, Minnesota have been criticized for refusing passengers for carrying alcoholic beverages or dogs. The Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport authority has threatened to revoke the operating authority of any driver caught discriminating in this manner. There are reported incidents in which Muslim cashiers have refused to sell pork products to their clientele.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1838953",
"title": "Jamaat ul-Fuqra",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "It has been alleged that the groups Muslims of the Americas and Quranic Open University are the same as Jamaat ul-Fuqra, but this has not been confirmed. These allegations are primarily made by far-right organizations, many who believe the organizations are operating terrorist training camps in the United States. Muslims of America denies any connection. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ysvff
|
Can someone please explain medically what Lance Armstrong took and how he got away with it?
|
[
{
"answer": "He has been accused by the US Anti-Doping Agency of using erythropoietin and steroids. Erythropoietin (EPO) makes your body make more red blood cells, which increases how much oxygen your blood can carry and, to a lesser extent, how much CO2 it can carry away. This increases aerobic capacity greatly. Steroids, well you know what they do, increase muscle mass, etc.\n\nThe effect was not subtle and times have been about 10% slower after crackdowns on doping, which is an enormous difference.\n\nEPO and steroids have severe health risks, so it is vital to the safety of the athletes themselves that they are not allowed or feel forced to use these agents. EPO thickens the blood-\n\n\"Yes, EPO has its dangers. EPO injections thicken the blood, which increases the strain on the heart. This is particularly dangerous when the heart rate slows down, such as during sleep. The increased thickness, or viscosity, of the blood increases the risk of blood clots, heart attacks, and strokes. According to the book \"The death of Marco Pantani\" by Matt Rendell, **some cyclists reportedly set an alarm each night to wake up and cycle on a trainer for ten minutes to jump-start their circulation and reduce the possible health risks of using EPO.**\"\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52015940",
"title": "Doping at the 1999 Tour de France",
"section": "Section::::Confessions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1228,
"text": "BULLET::::- Lance Armstrong was in August 2012 - despite of not having confessed any guilt yet — given a lifetime ban by USADA for doping with EPO, testosterone and human growth hormones in 1996, and EPO, blood transfusions, testosterone and cortisone throughout 1998-2005, and having a positive indication of \"blood manipulation\" during his comeback to cycling in the 2009 Tour de France. Beside of being convicted for this long list of possession and use of doping, he was also ruled guilty of trafficking and administration of EPO, testosterone and corticosteroids, along with also — towards his teammates — having assisted, encouraged, aided, abetted and covered up doping use. Along with the lifetime ban, USADA decided, that because Armstrong previously had been lying under oath, then WADA's standard rule about eight years statute of limitations should be disregarded, and thus ruled all his competitive results since 1 August 1998 to be disqualified. Armstrong confessed on 18 January 2013 in a television interview conducted by Oprah Winfrey, that he indeed had doped throughout 1996-2005 (including his seven Tour wins), but denied the allegation of having manipulated his blood during his comeback years in 2009-11.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2224176",
"title": "Frankie Andreu",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Armstrong testimony.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "In a January 2013 interview, Lance Armstrong finally admitted that he had used performance-enhancing drugs for much of his professional career, including all seven of his Tour de France wins. In response to being asked if the 1996 claims by the Andreus were true, he responded; \"Um, I’m not gonna take that on. I’m laying down on that one\". He also admitted to describing Betsy as a \"crazy bitch\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277780",
"title": "General classification in the Tour de France",
"section": "Section::::Scandal in yellow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "In 2012, Lance Armstrong was stripped of his seven Tour de France titles by UCI, following a report by the United States Anti-Doping Agency revealing that Armstrong had systematically used performance-enhancing drugs for much of his career, including all seven Tour victories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4649515",
"title": "Doping at the Tour de France",
"section": "Section::::1990s: The era of EPO.:Lance Armstrong.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 813,
"text": "Lance Armstrong has become a symbol for doping at the Tour de France. Suspicions arose initially over his association with Italian physician Michele Ferrari and his extraordinary achievements on the road. In 1999, Armstrong failed tests for a glucocorticosteroid hormone. Armstrong explained he had used an external cortisone ointment to treat a saddle sore and produced a prescription for it. The amount detected was below the threshold and said to be consistent with the amount used for a topical skin cream, but UCI rules required that prescriptions be shown to sports authorities in advance of use. Armstrong's former assistant, Mike Anderson, stated that Armstrong used a substance with a trade name similar to \"androstenine\". This resulted in a lawsuit against Anderson and a countersuit against Armstrong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52015940",
"title": "Doping at the 1999 Tour de France",
"section": "Section::::Christophe Bassons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "\" . . . and then Lance Armstrong reached me. He grabbed me by the shoulder, because he knew that everyone would be watching, and he knew that at that moment, he could show everyone that he was the boss. He stopped me, and he said what I was saying wasn't true, what I was saying was bad for cycling, that I mustn't say it, that I had no right to be a professional cyclist, that I should quit cycling, that I should quit the tour, and finished by saying [*beep*] you. . . . I was depressed for 6 months. I was crying all of the time. I was in a really bad way.\" - \"Bassons, on BBC Radio 5, 2012 10 15\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2087922",
"title": "Blood doping",
"section": "Section::::Notable blood doping cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "On August 23, 2012 Lance Armstrong was stripped of his seven Tour de France titles and banned for life by cycling's governing body following a report from the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency that accused him of leading a doping program during his cycling career. He later admitted to using banned substances including blood doping with transfusions and EPO in an interview with Oprah Winfrey on January 17, 2013.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "860860",
"title": "Doping in sport",
"section": "Section::::Endurance sports.:Cycling.:Lance Armstrong doping case.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "On 22 October 2012 Lance Armstrong was stripped of his Tour de France titles since 1998. As a response to the decisions of the USADA and UCI, Armstrong resigned from the Lance Armstrong Foundation On 14 January 2013, Armstrong confessed to doping in an interview with Oprah Winfrey which was aired on 17 January on the Oprah Winfrey Network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
20in1y
|
Is freezing a feasible way to separate Heavy Water from Light Water?
|
[
{
"answer": "This effect is known as isotopic fractionation. Using water as an example, the heavy isotopes (deuterium, tritium, oxygen-17 and oxygen-18) tend to favour the solid phase during freezing. The ice becomes enriched in heavy isotopes and the leftover liquid is depleted in heavy isotopes. However the difference is very very small, therefore this would not be a practical way of manufacturing heavy water. You could work out theoretically how many times you would need to freeze, melt and refreeze water to get a decent concentration of heavy water, but it's getting late so I will think about it more tomorrow.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Freezing is a bad way to separate, because it's very much a nucleation and growth driven process. Pure water won't freeze until it's below -35 to -50C, depending on a bunch of factors, after which it freezes all at once. Distillation is much more practical, and electrocatalysis is even better.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5055146",
"title": "Thermal battery",
"section": "Section::::Types of thermal batteries.:Phase change thermal battery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Some applications use the thermal capacity of water or ice as cold storage; others use it as heat storage. It can serve either application; ice can be melted to store heat then refrozen to warm an environment which is below freezing (putting liquid water at 0°C in such an environment warms it much more than the same mass of ice at the same temperature, because the latent heat of freezing is extracted from it, which is why the phase change is relevant), or water can be frozen to \"store cold\" then melted to make an environment above freezing colder (and again, a given mass of ice at 0°C will provide more cooling than the same mass of water at the same temperature).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14283",
"title": "Heavy water",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "No physical properties are listed for \"pure\" semi-heavy water, because it is unstable as a bulk liquid. In the liquid state, a few water molecules are always in an ionised state, which means the hydrogen atoms can exchange among different oxygen atoms. Semi-heavy water could, in theory, be created via a chemical method, but it would rapidly transform into a dynamic mixture of 25% light water, 25% heavy water, and 50% semi-heavy water. However, if it were made in the gas phase and directly deposited into a solid, semi heavy water in the form of ice could be stable. This is due to collisions between water vapour molecules being almost completely negligible in the gas phase at standard temperatures, and once crystallized, collisions between the molecules cease altogether due to the rigid lattice structure of solid ice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14283",
"title": "Heavy water",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Heavy water is 10.6% denser than ordinary water, and heavy water's physically different properties can be seen without equipment if a frozen sample is dropped into normal water, as it will sink. If the water is ice-cold the higher melting temperature of heavy ice can also be observed: it melts at 3.7 °C, and thus does not melt in ice-cold normal water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "879501",
"title": "Norwegian heavy water sabotage",
"section": "Section::::Technical background.:Heavy water production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "The technology is straightforward. Heavy water (DO) is separated from normal water by electrolysis because the difference in mass between the two hydrogen isotopes translates into a slight difference in the speed at which the reaction proceeds. To produce pure heavy water by electrolysis requires a large cascade of electrolysis chambers, and consumes large amounts of power. Since there was excess power available, heavy water could be purified from the existing electrolyte. As a result, Norsk Hydro became the heavy water supplier for the world's scientific community, as a by-product of fertilizer production, for which the ammonia was used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23523889",
"title": "Enthalpy of fusion",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "A) To heat 1 kg (1.00 liter) of water from 283.15 K to 303.15 K (10 °C to 30 °C) requires 83.6 kJ. However, to melt ice also requires energy. We can treat these two processes independently; thus, to heat 1 kg of ice from 273.15 K to water at 293.15 K (0 °C to 20 °C) requires:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15185277",
"title": "Mikkel Frandsen",
"section": "Section::::Heavy Water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "In Frandsen et al.'s experiment, the scientists subjected water to electrolysis, and an isotope fractionation took place. The heavy water produced displayed a higher density than regular water. Heavy water has a higher freezing point, higher boiling point, and lower refractive index than regular water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "725256",
"title": "Consommé",
"section": "Section::::Gelatin-filtered \"consommé\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1422,
"text": "Freezing a water-based solution converts all bulk water into ice crystals, but water associated with solutes—in the case of a soup stock, gelatin, fat, and flavor compounds—remains unfrozen to much lower temperatures; in practice, the freezing temperature of this associated water is well below the reach of conventional freezers. Thus, gelatin filtration works by freezing a gelatin-containing, water-based solution and then allowing it to thaw in a mesh strainer at just above the freezing temperature of water. The gelatin and other solutes concentrate in the unfrozen, associated water, and the gelatin forms a stable network through cross-linking, just as it would in a standard gel. This stable network acts as a filter, trapping large particles of fat or protein, while allowing water and smaller, flavor-active compounds to pass. As the bulk water melts, it passes first through the gelatin network and then through the mesh strainer, into a receiving vessel. Because the temperature is kept just above the freezing point, the bulk water melts slowly and, as it is strained into a separate vessel, it is never in contact with the gelatin for long enough to begin dissolving the gelatin network. After all of the bulk water melts, the gelatin network remains in the strainer with the trapped macroscopic particles, and the clarified stock (the bulk water and flavor compounds) is collected in the receiving vessel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
80ezzn
|
when using a debit card, why do some merchants require me to enter a pin, sign a receipt, or simply swipe?
|
[
{
"answer": "Along with the other answer, most card providers do not require signatures or PINs for transactions under a certain amount, usually $20-$25. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can't remember the last time I swiped my card or signed a receipt. \n\nIn the UK it's pretty much chip and pin or contactless.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At my job, we recently implemented a policy where only receipts over $20 require a signature—it’s proof on our end if someone comes back and claims fraud ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "At the chick-fil-a I worked at they rang every card as credit, so no chips at all and orders over 25-35 needed signatures. Wasn’t told a reason but it would make the drive thru faster at least\n\nEdit:forgot a letter",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My store doesn't use a pin pad so your debit card is ran through the VISA or MasterCard service. We only require a signature for amounts over $15. \n\nMost supermarkets,etc will ask for your PIN on a debit card, or you can skip that step and it'll use the VISA or MasterCard service. Then they have you sign if over a certain amount like $30. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9008",
"title": "Debit card",
"section": "Section::::Debit cards around the world.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 222,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 222,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Some consumers prefer \"credit\" transactions because of the lack of a fee charged to the consumer/purchaser. A few debit cards in the U.S. offer rewards for using \"credit\". However, since \"credit\" transactions cost more for merchants, many terminals at PIN-accepting merchant locations now make the \"credit\" function more difficult to access. For example, if you swipe a debit card at Wal-Mart or Ross in the U.S., you are immediately presented with the PIN screen for online debit. To use offline debit you must press \"cancel\" to exit the PIN screen, and then press \"credit\" on the next screen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3687551",
"title": "Payment card",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Debit card.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Debit cards can also allow instant withdrawal of cash, acting as the ATM card, and as a cheque guarantee card. Merchants can also offer \"cashback\"/\"cashout\" facilities to customers, where a customer can withdraw cash along with their purchase. Merchants usually do not charge a fee for purchases by debit card.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4368047",
"title": "Debit card cashback",
"section": "Section::::Coverage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "BULLET::::1. When accepting payment by debit card, merchants pay a fixed commission fee (as opposed to a percentage) to their bank or merchant service provider. (This is because the commission paid by the merchant for accepting debit cards, unlike credit cards, does not need to fund interest free credit or other incentives).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4368047",
"title": "Debit card cashback",
"section": "Section::::Fees, operation and advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "The services are restricted to debit cards where the merchant pays a fixed fee for the transaction, it is not offered on payments by credit card because they would pay a percentage commission on the additional cash amount to their bank or merchant service provider.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "697301",
"title": "Financial transaction",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Debit card.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1003,
"text": "This is a special type of purchase. The item or good is transferred as normal, but the purchaser uses a debit card instead of money to pay. A debit card contains an electronic record of the purchaser's account with a bank. Using this card, the seller is able to send an electronic signal to the buyer's bank for the amount of the purchase, and that amount of money is simultaneously debited from the customer's account and credited to the account of the seller. This is possible even if the buyer or seller use different financial institutions. Currently, fees to both the buyer and seller for the use of debit cards are fairly low because the banks want to encourage the use of debit cards. The seller must have a card reader set up in order for such purchases to be made. Debit cards allow a buyer to have access to all the funds in his account without having to carry the money around. It is more difficult to steal such funds than cash, but it is still done. See also skimming and shoulder surfing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9008",
"title": "Debit card",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Debit cards usually also allow instant withdrawal of cash, acting as an ATM card for this purpose. Merchants may also offer cashback facilities to customers, so that a customer can withdraw cash along with their purchases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5522986",
"title": "Authorization hold",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "When a merchant swipes a customer's credit card, the credit card terminal connects to the merchant's acquirer, or credit card processor, which verifies that the customer's account is valid and that sufficient funds are available to cover the transaction's cost. At this step, the funds are \"held\" and deducted from the customer's credit limit (or available bank balance, in the case of a debit card), but are not yet transferred to the merchant. At the time of the merchant's choosing, the merchant instructs the credit card machine to submit the finalized transactions to the acquirer in a \"batch transfer,\" which begins the settlement process, where the funds are transferred from the customers' accounts to the merchant's accounts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4fq20x
|
what do insurance companies mean when they say "you can save $x when you switch to this company."?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's typically an annual savings amount. However, they only mention that \"those who switch save $X\", but they never mention what percentage of people who contact them for a quote actually switch. Maybe it's only a specific demographic that saves a lot and thus chooses to switch, while the vast majority realize they are getting a better deal with their current company.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They almost always mean X amount annually, but you need to read the fine print to be sure.\n\nOf course with annual savings, also come monthly savings if you are paying monthly.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7725383",
"title": "Stop-loss insurance",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Insurance companies themselves, as well as self-insuring employers, purchase stop-loss coverage for a premium to protect themselves. In the case of a participant reaching more than the specific (or \"individual\") stop-loss deductible ($300,000, for example), the insurer will reimburse the insured (the company, not the participant) for the remainder of the claim to be paid over that deductible amount.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46225806",
"title": "Life Care Funding",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "The company buys life insurance policies for a portion of their value, paying the policy premiums then collecting the death benefits. The purchase of a life insurance policy is paid into an FDIC insured account which sends monthly payments to a long-term care provider.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3172222",
"title": "Gross premiums written",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "When a non-life insurance company closes a contract to provide insurance against loss, the revenues (premiums) expected to be received over the life of the contract are called gross premiums written. Insurance companies often purchase reinsurance to protect themselves against the risk of a loss above a certain threshold; the cost of reinsurance (reinsurance premiums) is deducted from gross premiums written to arrive at \"net premiums written\". Net premiums written is the sum of all types of insurance premiums which a company may collect throughout the whole duration of existing insurance policies minus the costs like agent's commissions or payments made for reinsurance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2335596",
"title": "Front running",
"section": "Section::::Other uses of the term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "In insurance sales, front running is a practice in which agents \"leak\" information (usually false) to consumers about a competitor insurance company that leads the consumer to believe that the company's products or services are inferior, or worthless. The agent subsequently obtains a sale at the consumer's expense, earns a commission, and the consumer may have given up a perfectly good product for an inferior one as the result of the subterfuge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15176",
"title": "Insurance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "An entity which provides insurance is known as an insurer, insurance company, insurance carrier or underwriter. A person or entity who buys insurance is known as an insured or as a policyholder. The insurance transaction involves the insured assuming a guaranteed and known relatively small loss in the form of payment to the insurer in exchange for the insurer's promise to compensate the insured in the event of a covered loss. The loss may or may not be financial, but it must be reducible to financial terms, and usually involves something in which the insured has an insurable interest established by ownership, possession, or pre-existing relationship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "888146",
"title": "Gen Re",
"section": "Section::::Business.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Reinsurers \"insure insurance companies\", i.e., they will pay a portion of an insurance company's claims in exchange for a portion of the premium received by the insurance company for policies that cover those claims.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3998911",
"title": "Underwriting profit",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "For example, an auto insurer collects money every month from its customers in the form of a premium. Should a customer have a covered auto accident, the company pays out a claim. In the time between the receipt of each premium payment and the paying of the claim, the money received by the insurer can be invested. Returns from investments are the primary source of profits for an insurance company. If the amount of premiums taken in is greater than the claims paid out, even before taking into account investment returns, the excess additional profit is called \"underwriting profit\". Another prime example occurs when using Insured Profits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3403ox
|
Why does lithium not form a strong base, and florine a strong acid?
|
[
{
"answer": "The main difference between lithium and fluorine and the rest of the members of their groups is atomic size.\n\nIn general, atomic/ionic radii increase as you move down any group in the periodic table (because heavier elements have more electrons taking up space). Because lithium and fluorine lie at the top of their respective groups, they are significantly smaller than the other members of the group. When they form ions, the charge density is correspondingly higher - A F^- ion is like a small, 'hard' baseball of negative charge, while an I^- ion is like a giant 'soft' beach ball where the negative charge is dispersed over a much larger radius.\n\nIn order to act as an acid or base (in the Arrhenius sense), a compound like HF has to dissociate into H^+ and F^-, both dissolved in aqueous solution. But the concentrated negative charge of F^- favours bonding to the charged H^+ ion, over dissolution in the merely polar water. The less concentrated negative charge of I^-, however, is more similar to the water, and so dissolves and dissociates much more easily. More dissociation = stronger acid.\n\nLiOH behaves in a similar way, where it needs to dissociate into Li^+ and OH^- to act as a base.\n\nAs for francium and astatine, we would actually expect them to behave quite similarly to caesium and iodine, respectively, forming the strong base FrOH and the strong acid HAt. However, since both of these elements are so radioactive and unstable, experimental verification is challenging, and we don't have much data to confirm this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17561",
"title": "Lithium",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Atomic and physical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Like the other alkali metals, lithium has a single valence electron that is easily given up to form a cation. Because of this, lithium is a good conductor of heat and electricity as well as a highly reactive element, though it is the least reactive of the alkali metals. Lithium's low reactivity is due to the proximity of its valence electron to its nucleus (the remaining two electrons are in the 1s orbital, much lower in energy, and do not participate in chemical bonds). However, molten lithium is significantly more reactive than its solid form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48511144",
"title": "Magnesium battery",
"section": "Section::::Secondary cells.:Research.:Anodes and electrolytes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "One drawback compared to lithium is magnesium's higher charge (+2) in solution, which tends to result in increased viscosity and reduced mobility in the electrolyte. In solution a number of species may exist depending on counter ions/complexing agents – these often include singly charged species (e.g. MgCl in the presence of chloride) – though dimers are often formed (e.g. MgCl ). The movement of the magnesium ion into cathode host lattices is also (as of 2014) problematically slow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18237",
"title": "Lithium carbonate",
"section": "Section::::Properties and reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Unlike sodium carbonate, which forms at least three hydrates, lithium carbonate exists only in the anhydrous form. Its solubility in water is low relative to other lithium salts. The isolation of lithium from aqueous extracts of lithium ores capitalizes on this poor solubility. Its apparent solubility increases 10-fold under a mild pressure of carbon dioxide; this effect is due to the formation of the metastable bicarbonate, which is more soluble:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "666",
"title": "Alkali metal",
"section": "Section::::Periodic trends.:Electronegativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Because of the higher electronegativity of lithium, some of its compounds have a more covalent character. For example, lithium iodide (Li I) will dissolve in organic solvents, a property of most covalent compounds. Lithium fluoride (LiF) is the only alkali halide that is not soluble in water, and lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is the only alkali metal hydroxide that is not deliquescent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17561",
"title": "Lithium",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Chemistry and compounds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "Lithium reacts with water easily, but with noticeably less vigor than other alkali metals. The reaction forms hydrogen gas and lithium hydroxide in aqueous solution. Because of its reactivity with water, lithium is usually stored in a hydrocarbon sealant, often petroleum jelly. Though the heavier alkali metals can be stored in more dense substances, such as mineral oil, lithium is not dense enough to be fully submerged in these liquids. In moist air, lithium rapidly tarnishes to form a black coating of lithium hydroxide (LiOH and LiOH·HO), lithium nitride (LiN) and lithium carbonate (LiCO, the result of a secondary reaction between LiOH and CO).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "140459",
"title": "Base (chemistry)",
"section": "Section::::Strong bases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "The cations of these strong bases appear in the first and second groups of the periodic table (alkali and earth alkali metals). Tetraalkylated ammonium hydroxides are also strong bases since they dissociate completely in water. Guanidine is a special case of a species that is exceptionally stable when protonated, analogously to the reason that makes Perchloric acid and Sulfuric acid very strong acids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35508054",
"title": "Aluminium-ion battery",
"section": "Section::::Lithium-ion comparison.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Today’s lithium ion batteries have high power density (fast discharge) and high energy density (hold a lot of charge). It can also develop dendrites, similar to splinters, that can short-circuit a battery and lead to a fire. Aluminum also transfers energy more efficiently. Inside a battery, atoms of the element — lithium or aluminum — give up some of their electrons, which flow through external wires to power a device. Because of their atomic structure, lithium ions can only provide one electron at a time; aluminum can give three at a time. Aluminum is also more abundant than lithium, lowering material costs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
55gzff
|
what is the significance of the u.s. losing the contract giving them authority over internet ip addresses?
|
[
{
"answer": "They have not lost anything. They are contemplating releasing control of it over to the UN. That has not happened yet. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6852935",
"title": "IPv4 address exhaustion",
"section": "Section::::Post-exhaustion mitigation.:Markets in IP addresses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "BULLET::::- The concept of legal ownership of IP addresses as property is explicitly denied by ARIN and RIPE NCC policy documents and by the ARIN Registration Services Agreement, although ownership rights have been postulated based on a letter from the National Science Foundation General Counsel. NSF later indicated that the view was not official, and a statement from the Department of Commerce was subsequently issued indicating that \"The USG participates in the development of and is supportive of the policies, processes, and procedures agreed upon by the Internet technical community through ARIN.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8101417",
"title": "Domain name auction",
"section": "Section::::Recent Developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "The transition away from US government control over Internet domain names officially began in 1997 when oversight of the system’s technical operations were assigned to a nonprofit group, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), however, until now, the US government has remained a prominent force in regulating and monitoring these auctions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13996412",
"title": "Who Controls the Internet?",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Part One: The Internet Revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "In 1995, Network Solutions began charging individuals to register domain names. This brought the company, which had a monopoly on issuing domain names, large profits. When the International Ad Hoc Committee, set up by the Internet Society, released an \"Internet Constitution\" in 1997, they met with hostility from the U.S. government and were ultimately thwarted (41–43).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8426122",
"title": "Net neutrality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Regulatory history.:Net neutrality and the Trump administration (2017).:Criticism over public commenting period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Both \"The New York Times\" and \"BuzzFeed\" had filed Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests to the FCC to gain information on the IP addresses used in the public comment period. The FCC denied the requests in December 2018 citing that releasing this information would leave the US vulnerable to a cyberattack, and Pai wrote in an attached statement that at least 500,000 of the comments were tied to Russian addresses, interfering in the process and trying to swing the public opinion in favor of keeping the Obama-era net neutrality rules. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6852935",
"title": "IPv4 address exhaustion",
"section": "Section::::Post-exhaustion mitigation.:Reclamation of unused IPv4 space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Several organizations have returned large blocks of IP addresses. Notably, Stanford University relinquished their Class A IP address block in 2000, making 16 million IP addresses available. Other organizations that have done so include the United States Department of Defense, BBN Technologies, and Interop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36379363",
"title": "Russian Internet Restriction Bill",
"section": "Section::::Internet Registry.:Hosting providers, site owners, and ISPs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Internet Service Providers are required to restrict access to addresses listed in the proposed registry. The legislation ignores the fact that the same IP address may in fact be used by several thousand sites (earlier that year some ISPs have already blocked such an IP address included in the Federal List of Extremist Materials).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34726061",
"title": "Conflict-of-interest editing on Wikipedia",
"section": "Section::::Incidents.:2000s.:United States Congressional staffers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "In 2006, it was discovered that more than 1,000 changes had been made to Wikipedia articles originating from United States government IP addresses. Changes had been made to articles about Representative Marty Meehan, Senator Tom Coburn, Senator Norm Coleman, Representative Gil Gutknecht, Senator Joe Biden, Senator Conrad Burns, Senator Dianne Feinstein, Senator Tom Harkin, Representative David Davis, Tennessee state representative Matthew Hill and then-Representative Mike Pence. The edits removed accurate but critical information and embellished positive descriptions. In response to the controversy, certain affected IP addresses were temporarily blocked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2d4lxh
|
When and why did trousers become the standard garment for European men?
|
[
{
"answer": "My knowledge doesn't go back as far as their invention, but there's a great deal of discussion over the ancient usage of split leg garments in the other links already provided. As for trousers as we know them today, they begin to appear around the early 18th century. Prior to that you have hose, a fitted full leg garment that is more like a pair of non-stretch tights that have two separated legs. By the mid 16th century you see things like pumpkin hose, or what will develop into breeches in the late 17th century. Essentially a separation of the leg covering to sections above the knee and below the knee.\n\nTrousers themselves start out as a [sailors garment](_URL_2_). A very common runaway ad will read that they wore a \"sailors jacket and trousers\", a dead give away as to where they came from. Around 1750 trousers begin to show up more commonly in written references like court documents, without reference to sailors. Used mostly by the laboring class or military (gaiter trousers, for example), they really weren't accepted to be \"fashionable\" until the very late 18th century. While there is a lot of speculation that the French Revolution and the Sans Culottes (those that did not wear breeches, but trousers) caused this shift, it's very likely it would have occurred regardless. There was already a strong trend for country dress than began occurring in the 1780s with chemise gowns and other, almost nostalgic, clothing styles. While British and French fashion were closely tied, one did not ever wholly change the other. An exchange of ideas constantly occurred and each made the concept their own. To be honest, with as much distaste of French fashion as you see in British satire of [rich](_URL_3_) and [poor](_URL_1_), it's hard to believe that they would take up trousers solely because of the revolutionaries trends. Those that did take up French fashions during this time were [even mocked](_URL_0_). The British are still wearing breeches above all else in the 1790s, trousers becoming more common for day wear in the 1810s. It isn't really until the 1830s that breeches fade out (with the exception of court wear) and trousers are accepted in most situations, formal or casual, in both England and France.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19150105",
"title": "Trousers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "In most of Europe, trousers have been worn since ancient times and throughout the Medieval period, becoming the most common form of lower-body clothing for adult males in the modern world. Breeches were worn instead of trousers in early modern Europe by some men in higher classes of society. Distinctive formal trousers are traditionally worn with formal and semi-formal day attire. Since the mid-20th century, trousers have increasingly been worn by women as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19150105",
"title": "Trousers",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "Trousers of various designs were worn throughout the Middle Ages in Europe, especially by men. Loose-fitting trousers were worn in Byzantium under long tunics, and were worn by many tribes, such as the Germanic tribes that migrated to the Western Roman Empire in Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages, as evidenced by both artistic sources and such relics as the 4th-century costumes recovered from the Thorsberg peat bog (see illustration). Trousers in this period, generally called \"brais\", varied in length and were often closed at the cuff or even had attached foot coverings, although open-legged pants were also seen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12965084",
"title": "Trousers as women's clothing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 904,
"text": "Trousers (British English) or pants (American English) first appear in recorded history among nomadic steppe-people in Western Europe. Archaeological evidence suggests that men and women alike wore pants in that cultural context. However, for much of modern history, the use of trousers has been restricted to men. In many regions, this norm was enforced not only by social custom but also by law. There are, however, many historical cases of women wearing trousers in defiance of these norms, for a variety of reasons, including comfort, freedom of movement, fashion, disguise (notably for runaway slaves), attempts to evade the gender pay gap, and attempts to establish an empowered public identity for women. Especially in the 20th and 21st centuries, the customs and laws restricting this manner of dress have relaxed dramatically, reflecting a growing acceptance and normalization of the practice. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12496757",
"title": "1100–1200 in European fashion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Twelfth century European fashion was simple and differed only in details from the clothing of the preceding centuries. Men wore knee-length tunics for most activities, and men of the upper classes wore long tunics, with hose and \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19150105",
"title": "Trousers",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "By the 8th century there is evidence of the wearing in Europe of two layers of trousers, especially among upper-class males. The under layer is today referred to by costume historians as \"drawers\", although that usage did not emerge until the late 16th century. Over the drawers were worn trousers of wool or linen, which in the 10th century began to be referred to as breeches in many places. Tightness of fit and length of leg varied by period, class, and geography. (Open legged trousers can be seen on the Norman soldiers of the Bayeux Tapestry.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19150105",
"title": "Trousers",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "Men's clothes in Hungary in the 15th century consisted of a shirt and trousers as underwear, and a dolman worn over them, as well as a short fur-lined or sheepskin coat. Hungarians generally wore simple trousers, only their colour being unusual; the dolman covered the greater part of the trousers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47831094",
"title": "History of swimwear",
"section": "Section::::19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "In the 19th century, the woman's double suit was common, comprising a gown from shoulder to knees plus a set of trousers with leggings going down to the ankles. In the first half of the 19th century the top became knee-length while an ankle-length drawer was added as a bottom. By the second half of the 19th century, in France, the sleeves started to vanish, the bottom became shorter to reach only the knees and the top became hip-length and both became more form fitting. In the 1900s women wore wool dresses on the beach that were made of up to of fabric.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ahop5t
|
In Medieval Europe, women were considered inherently lustful and prone to sexual sin. Would modern stereotypes of male sexual appetite apply to them?
|
[
{
"answer": "No. Latin medieval culture could, and did, spin a fancy tale of the devil seducing Eve seducing Adam, and the humoral composition of women making them \"leaky\" and \"open\" to demonic influence. They made up theological and biological backing for this teaching.\n\nPopular comic literature came down equally hard on both sexes, each in their turn. Canon lawyers ruled that husbands and wives owed each other sex on demand ([within Church limits, of course](_URL_0_))\n\nBut when it came down to actual, on the ground practice: women might well be accused of being sluts, sure. In one of the texts I work with, widow Katharina Tucher has a vision of Christ calling her, essentially, a ho. Men, on the other hand? Could be *rapists*. Of course, the standards for conviction were ridiculously and hatefully high. This does not change that medieval people understood the force to come from men in cases that they did see as rape.\n\nThomas Aquinas wrote that prostitution was sinful but women prostitutes might well be tolerated, *because men can't control themselves* and otherwise would corrupt good women. His words can't be compartmentalized off as \"normative,\" either. Legal brothels in late medieval cities hosted women prostitutes, not men.\n\nThe medieval stereotype of the lusty women was a convenient veneer for and form of for misogyny. The late 20th-century figure of the \"player\" is aspirational.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44741890",
"title": "Medieval female sexuality",
"section": "Section::::Beliefs and superstitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Medieval women were assumed to be far more insatiable than men and a woman's lust would have been considered her ultimate sin. She was believed to receive far more pleasure from a sexual encounter than men and reach her sexual readiness far earlier than men. Perceived as more sexually mature than males, women were expected to conduct themselves to higher standards than men, leading to a double standard of sexual morality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "355643",
"title": "Al-Andalus",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Philosophy.:Homosexuality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 1069,
"text": "In the book \"Medieval Iberia: An Encyclopedia\" Daniel Eisenberg describes homosexuality as \"a key symbolic issue throughout the Middle Ages in Iberia\", stating that \"in al-Andalus homosexual pleasures were much indulged in by the intellectual and political elite. Evidence includes the behaviour of rulers, such as Abd al-Rahmn III, Al-Hakam II, Hisham II, and Al Mu'tamid, who openly kept male harems; the memoirs of Abdallah ibn Buluggin, last Zirid king of Granada, makes references to male prostitutes, who charged higher fees and had a higher class of clientele than did their female counter-parts: the repeated criticisms of Christians; and especially the abundant poetry. Both pederasty and love between adult males are found. Although homosexual practices were never officially condoned, prohibitions against them were rarely enforced, and usually there was not even a pretense of doing so.\" Male homosexual relations allowed nonprocreative sexual practices and were not seen as a form of identity. Very little is known about the homosexual behaviour of women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25846774",
"title": "Liber Gomorrhianus",
"section": "Section::::Against various sexual sins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "In the AD second century, Tertullian wrote that “all other frenzies of lusts which exceed the laws of nature and are impious toward both bodies and the sexes we banish … from all shelter of the Church”. Early medieval penitential books contained a wide array of different penances for such trespasses. Although various forms of same-sex behaviour were discussed in contemporary handbooks of penance, such as those by Burchard of Worms and Regino of Prüm, according to Paul Halsall, this is the only theological tract which exclusively addresses this theme.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145439",
"title": "Women's rights",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-classical history.:Western Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1575,
"text": "The English Church and culture in the Middle Ages regarded women as weak, irrational and vulnerable to temptation who was constantly needed to be kept in check. This was reflected on the Christian culture in England through the story of Adam and Eve where Eve fell to Satan's temptations and led Adam to eat the apple. It was belief based on St.Paul, that the pain of childbirth was a punishment for this deed that led mankind to be banished from the Garden of Eden. Women's inferiority also appears in many medieval writing for example the 1200 AD theologian Jacques de Vitry (who was rather sympathetic to women over others) emphasized for female obedience towards their men and expressed women as being slippery, weak, untrustworthy, devious, deceitful and stubborn. The church also promoted the Virgin Mary as a role model for women to emulate by being innocent in her sexuality, being married to a husband and eventually becoming a mother. That was the core purpose set out both culturally and religiously across Medieval Europe. Rape was also seen in medieval England as a crime against the father or husband and violation of their protection and guardianship of the women whom they look after in the household. Women's identity in the Middle Ages was also referred through her relations with men she was associated with for example \"His daughter\" or \"So and so's wife\". Despite all this, the Church still emphasized on the importance of love and mutual counselling within a marriage and prohibited any form of divorce so the wife would have someone to look after her.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50024",
"title": "Lust",
"section": "Section::::In philosophy.:St. Thomas Aquinas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "Adultery: One of the main forms of lust seen frequently during the Middle Ages was the sin of adultery. The sin of adultery occurs when a person is unfaithful to his or her spouse, hence \"invading of a bed not one's own,\" (Pg.235). Adultery is a special kind of ugliness and many difficulties arise from it. When a man enters the bed of a married woman it not only is a sin, but it \"wrongs the offspring,\" because the woman now calls into question the legitimacy of children. (Pg.235). If a wife has committed adultery before, then, her husband will question if all his wife's children are his offspring. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8900371",
"title": "Religious views on masturbation",
"section": "Section::::Abrahamic religions.:Christianity.:Roman Catholicism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Pierre Humbert states, \"During the Middle Ages, masturbation - so-called \"softness\" - was considered an unnatural sin, but for the vast majority of theologians, priests and confessors, the offense was much less serious than fornication, adultery or sodomy; and they generally preferred not to talk too much about it so as not to suggest its existence to those who did not know about it.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44741890",
"title": "Medieval female sexuality",
"section": "Section::::The Church and the law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Another large piece of female sexuality of concern for the courts was that of prostitution. A woman selling sexual services during the Middle Ages was, in theory, frowned upon by the Church as committing a sin, but in principle and in practice, the authorities believed that prostitution was a necessary evil and a public utility for preventing men from worse sins. By giving men the option of engaging in sex with a prostitute, it was believed to be saving esteemed women from corruption or the possibility of sodomy. While the Court and the Church sought to limit women's sexuality through the law, clearly in many ways it was a failure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
na63m
|
eli15 sn1 and sn2 reactions and their differences.
|
[
{
"answer": "Basically, SN1 favors stability, and SN2 favors a quick attack. If you have a large structure with many carbons attached to it, and/or with many conjugated bonds (which also increase stability) See benzene, SN1 will likely be favored thermodynamically. There are still reactions with SN2 models on larger compounds, but they are less common and will probably not be tested over. \n\nSN2 would not be favored in the in large bulky compounds because of steric hindrance. SN2 does that back attack thing remember? It likes to shoot in really fast and not bump into anything on it's way. SN2 favors a strong nucleophile (negatively charged) which basically attacks the nucleus (positively charged) quickly. \n\nThere are reactions that you can do at low temperatures that will favor SN1 because of it's love for stability and a thermodynamically favorable product, but will favor SN2 at high temperatures. Why? Well SN2 is fast and doesn't care about stability, and SN1 is slow and careful. Edit: To clarify this section, slowing down the reaction will favor the formation of thermodynamically stable products, while speeding up a reaction favors the product that forms most quickly.\n\nSo in a most basic sense, if you see a very stable molecule and/or a weak nucleophile, it will be SN1. If you see a unstable molecule as you carbo-cation and/or a strong nucleophile (strong base in most cases) it will be SN2 because a quick reaction will take place. Solvent is also important, but I can't go into that because it's been too long. Something about polar protic/aprotic or something. Good luck and I hope that helps clear things up. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Basically, SN1 favors stability, and SN2 favors a quick attack. If you have a large structure with many carbons attached to it, and/or with many conjugated bonds (which also increase stability) See benzene, SN1 will likely be favored thermodynamically. There are still reactions with SN2 models on larger compounds, but they are less common and will probably not be tested over. \n\nSN2 would not be favored in the in large bulky compounds because of steric hindrance. SN2 does that back attack thing remember? It likes to shoot in really fast and not bump into anything on it's way. SN2 favors a strong nucleophile (negatively charged) which basically attacks the nucleus (positively charged) quickly. \n\nThere are reactions that you can do at low temperatures that will favor SN1 because of it's love for stability and a thermodynamically favorable product, but will favor SN2 at high temperatures. Why? Well SN2 is fast and doesn't care about stability, and SN1 is slow and careful. Edit: To clarify this section, slowing down the reaction will favor the formation of thermodynamically stable products, while speeding up a reaction favors the product that forms most quickly.\n\nSo in a most basic sense, if you see a very stable molecule and/or a weak nucleophile, it will be SN1. If you see a unstable molecule as you carbo-cation and/or a strong nucleophile (strong base in most cases) it will be SN2 because a quick reaction will take place. Solvent is also important, but I can't go into that because it's been too long. Something about polar protic/aprotic or something. Good luck and I hope that helps clear things up. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "240935",
"title": "SN1 reaction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1375,
"text": "The S1 reaction is a substitution reaction in organic chemistry. \"S\" stands for \"nucleophilic substitution\", and the \"1\" says that the rate-determining step is unimolecular. Thus, the rate equation is often shown as having first-order dependence on electrophile and zero-order dependence on nucleophile. This relationship holds for situations where the amount of nucleophile is much greater than that of the carbocation intermediate. Instead, the rate equation may be more accurately described using steady-state kinetics. The reaction involves a carbocation intermediate and is commonly seen in reactions of secondary or tertiary alkyl halides under strongly basic conditions or, under strongly acidic conditions, with secondary or tertiary alcohols. With primary and secondary alkyl halides, the alternative S2 reaction occurs. In inorganic chemistry, the S1 reaction is often known as the \"dissociative mechanism\". This dissociation pathway is well-described by the cis effect. A reaction mechanism was first proposed by Christopher Ingold et al. in 1940. This reaction does not depend much on the strength of the nucleophile unlike the S2 mechanism. This type of mechanism involves two steps. The first step is the reversible ionization of Alkyl halide in the presence of aqueous acetone or an aqueous ethyl alcohol. This step provides a carbocation as an intermediate. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25433130",
"title": "Solvent effects",
"section": "Section::::Reaction examples.:Substitution reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1645,
"text": "The case for S2 reactions is quite different, as the lack of solvation on the nucleophile increases the rate of an S2 reaction.In either case (S1 or S2), the ability to either stabilize the transition state (S1) or destabilize the reactant starting material (S2) acts to decrease the ΔG=/=activation and thereby increase the rate of the reaction. This relationship is according to the equation ΔG = -RT ln K (Gibb's Free Energy). The rate equation for S2 reactions are bimolecular being first order in Nucleophile and first order in Reagent. The determining factor when both S2 and S1 reaction mechanisms are viable is the strength of the Nucleophile. Nuclephilicity and basicity are linked and the more nucleophilic a molecule becomes the greater said nucleophile’s basicity. This increase in basicity causes problems for S2 reaction mechanisms when the solvent of choice is protic. Protic solvents react with strong nucleophiles with good basic character in an acid/base fashion, thus decreasing or removing the nucleophilic nature of the nucleophile. The following table shows the effect of solvent polarity on the relative reaction rates of the S2 reaction of n-butyl bromide with azide, N . Note the gross increase in reaction rates when changing from a protic solvent to an aprotic solvent. This difference arises from acid/base reactions between protic solvents (not aprotic solvents) and strong nucleophiles. It is important to note that solvent effects as well as steric effects both affect the relative reaction rates; however, for demonstration of principle for solvent polarity on S2 reaction rates, steric effects may be neglected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "241878",
"title": "SN2 reaction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "The S2 reaction is a type of reaction mechanism that is common in organic chemistry. In this mechanism, one bond is broken and one bond is formed synchronously, i.e., in one step. S2 is a kind of nucleophilic substitution reaction mechanism. Since \"two\" reacting species are involved in the slow (rate-determining) step, this leads to the term substitution nucleophilic (bi-molecular) or \"S2\", the other major kind is S1. Many other more specialized mechanisms describe substitution reactions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "241878",
"title": "SN2 reaction",
"section": "Section::::E2 competition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "A common side reaction taking place with S2 reactions is E2 elimination: the incoming anion can act as a base rather than as a nucleophile, abstracting a proton and leading to formation of the alkene. This pathway is favored with sterically hindered nucleophiles. Elimination reactions are usually favoured at elevated temperatures because of increased entropy. This effect can be demonstrated in the gas-phase reaction between a sulfonate and a simple alkyl bromide taking place inside a mass spectrometer:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "241878",
"title": "SN2 reaction",
"section": "Section::::Reaction kinetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "This is a key difference between the S1 and S2 mechanisms. In the S1 reaction the nucleophile attacks after the rate-limiting step is over, whereas in S2 the nucleophile forces off the leaving group in the limiting step. In other words, the rate of S1 reactions depend only on the concentration of the substrate while the S2 reaction rate depends on the concentration of both the substrate and nucleophile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22576085",
"title": "Arrow pushing",
"section": "Section::::Heterolytic reaction mechanisms.:S2 reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Because an S2 reaction proceeds with the substitution of a leaving group with a nucleophile, the S designation is used. Because this mechanism proceeds with the interaction of two species at the transition state, it is referred to as a bimolecular process, resulting in the S2 designation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240935",
"title": "SN1 reaction",
"section": "Section::::Side reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "Two common side reactions are elimination reactions and carbocation rearrangement. If the reaction is performed under warm or hot conditions (which favor an increase in entropy), E1 elimination is likely to predominate, leading to formation of an alkene. At lower temperatures, S1 and E1 reactions are competitive reactions and it becomes difficult to favor one over the other. Even if the reaction is performed cold, some alkene may be formed. If an attempt is made to perform an S1 reaction using a strongly basic nucleophile such as hydroxide or methoxide ion, the alkene will again be formed, this time via an E2 elimination. This will be especially true if the reaction is heated. Finally, if the carbocation intermediate can rearrange to a more stable carbocation, it will give a product derived from the more stable carbocation rather than the simple substitution product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
nikjx
|
What is the limit of the size of an element's atomic nucleus? Could a neutron star be considered an element?
|
[
{
"answer": "A neutron star is held together by gravity, not by the strong nuclear force.\n\nAny normal element's nucleus is held together by the strong nuclear force.\nPretty much every element at the edge of the periodic table is unstable and only exists for a fraction of a second before it breaks apart... so take a look at the periodic table, and that will give you an idea of the limit.\n\nI've read about predictions of stable elements beyond the highest currently known elements [here.](_URL_0_)\nBut these have yet to be confirmed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The larger the atomic number of an atom, the more quickly it goes through radioactive decay. So, there is a limit to how long a very large atom can exist. The largest elements we have discovered have very short half-lives. There might be a theoretical limit, but it hasn't been confirmed yet so I couldn't say.\n\nThe problem with heavier and heavier atoms is that they\na] require increasingly larger amounts of energy to create them\nb] decay increasingly more rapidly.\n\nCan one say one has created a stable atom if it only lasts billionths of a second?\n\nWhy do larger atoms decay faster? The interplay of the strong, electrostatic, and weak forces create quantum fluctuations which allows for the build up of a potential energy. One interpretation might be that the protons and neutrons have not quite 'settled in.' An avalanche is a good analogy. Friction keeps the snow on the side of the slope until it is disturbed. This small disturbance causes the avalanche to follow a path to increased entropy. Fluctuations in the nucleus cause an analogous release of energy as the protons and neutrons 'settle in.' The problem starts around uranium where the electro-magnetic force in the nucleus first equals and then surpasses the strong force with increasing atomic number. \n\nThe nucleus is more stable when it has a certain number of nucleons. The numbers are referred to as magic numbers. If both nucleon numbers are a magic number, then the nucleus is at its most stable. The known numbers are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126\n\nThe structure of neutron stars is much more complex than a giant nucleon. They are thought to contain a core of quark-gluon plasma and mixed shells of electrons and neutrons. I would also say that because gravity has overcome the electrostatic force at that point, quantifying orbital properties for the gigantic element would be nonsensical. I wouldn't consider them to be giant nucleons either, but I guess it's really up to interpretation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a variety of possible limitations. There have been attempts to [extend the periodic table](_URL_0_) beyond the known elements. There's some arguments that models of an atom with more than 137 electrons would break down. Among other problems, many models suggest that some of the electrons would need to move faster than the speed of light. But these issues can be potentially overcome by more careful models, with some models going as high as the low 170s for atomic number. \n\nOf course, this is the numbers of a neutral atom. There's no reason one couldn't have larger atoms that could never be neutral. But half lives become shorter and shorter as atomic number goes up. Well before one gets to the limit imposed by electrons, the lifespan will be so short as to be irrelevant. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A neutron star is held together by gravity, not by the strong nuclear force.\n\nAny normal element's nucleus is held together by the strong nuclear force.\nPretty much every element at the edge of the periodic table is unstable and only exists for a fraction of a second before it breaks apart... so take a look at the periodic table, and that will give you an idea of the limit.\n\nI've read about predictions of stable elements beyond the highest currently known elements [here.](_URL_0_)\nBut these have yet to be confirmed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The larger the atomic number of an atom, the more quickly it goes through radioactive decay. So, there is a limit to how long a very large atom can exist. The largest elements we have discovered have very short half-lives. There might be a theoretical limit, but it hasn't been confirmed yet so I couldn't say.\n\nThe problem with heavier and heavier atoms is that they\na] require increasingly larger amounts of energy to create them\nb] decay increasingly more rapidly.\n\nCan one say one has created a stable atom if it only lasts billionths of a second?\n\nWhy do larger atoms decay faster? The interplay of the strong, electrostatic, and weak forces create quantum fluctuations which allows for the build up of a potential energy. One interpretation might be that the protons and neutrons have not quite 'settled in.' An avalanche is a good analogy. Friction keeps the snow on the side of the slope until it is disturbed. This small disturbance causes the avalanche to follow a path to increased entropy. Fluctuations in the nucleus cause an analogous release of energy as the protons and neutrons 'settle in.' The problem starts around uranium where the electro-magnetic force in the nucleus first equals and then surpasses the strong force with increasing atomic number. \n\nThe nucleus is more stable when it has a certain number of nucleons. The numbers are referred to as magic numbers. If both nucleon numbers are a magic number, then the nucleus is at its most stable. The known numbers are 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126\n\nThe structure of neutron stars is much more complex than a giant nucleon. They are thought to contain a core of quark-gluon plasma and mixed shells of electrons and neutrons. I would also say that because gravity has overcome the electrostatic force at that point, quantifying orbital properties for the gigantic element would be nonsensical. I wouldn't consider them to be giant nucleons either, but I guess it's really up to interpretation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are a variety of possible limitations. There have been attempts to [extend the periodic table](_URL_0_) beyond the known elements. There's some arguments that models of an atom with more than 137 electrons would break down. Among other problems, many models suggest that some of the electrons would need to move faster than the speed of light. But these issues can be potentially overcome by more careful models, with some models going as high as the low 170s for atomic number. \n\nOf course, this is the numbers of a neutral atom. There's no reason one couldn't have larger atoms that could never be neutral. But half lives become shorter and shorter as atomic number goes up. Well before one gets to the limit imposed by electrons, the lifespan will be so short as to be irrelevant. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28059841",
"title": "Black Widow Pulsar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "In 2010 it was estimated that the neutron star's mass was at least formula_1, and possibly as high as formula_2 (the latter of which, if true, would surpass PSR J1614−2230 for the title of most massive neutron star yet detected, and place it within range of the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30552217",
"title": "Stellar mass",
"section": "Section::::Range.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "With a mass only 93 times that of Jupiter (), or .09 , AB Doradus C, a companion to AB Doradus A, is the smallest known star undergoing nuclear fusion in its core. For stars with similar metallicity to the Sun, the theoretical minimum mass the star can have, and still undergo fusion at the core, is estimated to be about 75 . When the metallicity is very low, however, a recent study of the faintest stars found that the minimum star size seems to be about 8.3% of the solar mass, or about 87 . Smaller bodies are called brown dwarfs, which occupy a poorly defined grey area between stars and gas giants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17596012",
"title": "Minimum mass",
"section": "Section::::Stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "With a mass only 93 times that of Jupiter (), or .09 , AB Doradus C, a companion to AB Doradus A, is the smallest known star undergoing nuclear fusion in its core. For stars with similar metallicity to the Sun, the theoretical minimum mass the star can have, and still undergo fusion at the core, is estimated to be about 75 . When the metallicity is very low, however, a recent study of the faintest stars found that the minimum star size seems to be about 8.3% of the solar mass, or about 87 . Smaller bodies are called brown dwarfs, which occupy a poorly defined grey area between stars and gas giants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19916559",
"title": "Atomic nucleus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The diameter of the nucleus is in the range of () for hydrogen (the diameter of a single proton) to about for the heaviest atom uranium. These dimensions are much smaller than the diameter of the atom itself (nucleus + electron cloud), by a factor of about 26,634 (uranium atomic radius is about ()) to about 60,250 (hydrogen atomic radius is about ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19605",
"title": "Main sequence",
"section": "Section::::Energy generation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "The observed upper limit for a main-sequence star is 120–200 . The theoretical explanation for this limit is that stars above this mass can not radiate energy fast enough to remain stable, so any additional mass will be ejected in a series of pulsations until the star reaches a stable limit. The lower limit for sustained proton–proton nuclear fusion is about 0.08 or 80 times the mass of Jupiter. Below this threshold are sub-stellar objects that can not sustain hydrogen fusion, known as brown dwarfs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4180667",
"title": "Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "In the case of neutron stars this limit was first worked out by J. Robert Oppenheimer and George Volkoff in 1939, using the work of Richard Chace Tolman. Oppenheimer and Volkoff assumed that the neutrons in a neutron star formed a degenerate cold Fermi gas. They thereby obtained a limiting mass of approximately 0.7 solar masses,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "510340",
"title": "Stellar black hole",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The maximum mass that a neutron star can possess (without becoming a black hole) is not fully understood. In 1939, it was estimated at 0.7 solar masses, called the TOV limit. In 1996, a different estimate put this upper mass in a range from 1.5 to 3 solar masses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eo8cly
|
What caused Celtic languages in the British Isles to develop phonemes like Bh (V), Mh (W), and Y in place of U, when their conquerors who exposed them to the Latin alphabet didn’t?
|
[
{
"answer": "The use of the 'h' to represent a *séimhiú* (the lenition of a consonant) is relatively new. Traditionally Irish was written in Gaelic script (which some enthusiasts still use) which, while still clearly based on the Roman alphabet, is different enough from regular letters to take a while to get used to. Traditional Gaelic script does not use the 'h's, it instead uses a little dot above the consonant in question. Irish went through a spelling reform in the late 1940s and a move to using modern script happened more or less at around the same time - the letter 'h' was a convenient option to replace the dot. To consider this nonsensical, if I may, is somewhat anglo-centric. More on the 'h' later.\n\nThis [story](_URL_0_) was written down as part of the 1931 Schools' Folklore Collection. (A fascinating project in itself, but somewhat outwith the scope of this question). You can see several instances of the use of little dots (the dot is called a *buailte*) on the first line. For comparison, there is a transcription (using the 'h's and modern lettering) on the right hand side. There are many other examples (and many English-language texts also) if you have a browse around the website.\n\n[This](_URL_1_) link should take you to an Old Irish manuscript (circa 14C). I cannot understand it (it is significantly different from modern Irish), but you can see that, to complicate matters, some of the 'dots' look like little 'h's - the sound mutation involved is sometimes described as a 'softening' of the consonant, but is mostly more of an 'aspiration', a breathing-through of the letter, so using a little 'h' actually kinda makes sense.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17336491",
"title": "Genetic history of the British Isles",
"section": "Section::::Analyses of nuclear DNA.:Possible influence of Celtic Migrations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Little is known about the introduction of Celtic languages to the British Isles, though an increase in Mediterranean/Neolithic derived DNA into southern England during the Iron age suggests that a more southern influenced population than that of the Rhine Beaker Peoples was introduced. Celtic speakers associated with what is now South Germany and France may have been carriers of more Neolithic derived DNA than the British Beaker People, who show more affinity with populations in what is now Scandinavia, North Germany and the Netherlands. It is also likely that Roman input into the Gene pool of south England has been underestimated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144873",
"title": "Toponymy of England",
"section": "Section::::Languages.:Celtic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Celtic languages appear to have been spoken in the British Isles at the time of the Roman conquest (see above). It is therefore a general assumption that many placenames in the British Isles have a substrate of Celtic origin, if they are not indeed self-evidently Celtic. The language spoken in England in the Iron Age is known as Common Brittonic. Hundreds of placenames across the whole of England are of Brittonic origin, and the modern languages of Cornish and Welsh are descended from it. Cumbric was spoken in northwestern England, Northumbria and Lowland Scotland until the 11th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1872124",
"title": "Pronunciation of English ⟨th⟩",
"section": "Section::::History of the English phonemes.:Germanic origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Proto-Indo-European (PIE) had no dental fricatives, but these evolved in the earliest stages of the Germanic languages. In Proto-Germanic, and were separate phonemes, usually represented in Germanic studies by the symbols *đ and *þ.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3736",
"title": "British Isles",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "The linguistic heritage of the British Isles is rich, with twelve languages from six groups across four branches of the Indo-European family. The Insular Celtic languages of the Goidelic sub-group (Irish, Manx and Scottish Gaelic) and the Brittonic sub-group (Cornish, Welsh and Breton, spoken in north-western France) are the only remaining Celtic languages—the last of their continental relations were extinct before the 7th century. The Norman languages of Guernésiais, Jèrriais and Sercquiais spoken in the Channel Islands are similar to French. A cant, called Shelta, is spoken by Irish Travellers, often to conceal meaning from those outside the group. However, English, including Scots, is the dominant language, with few monoglots remaining in the other languages of the region. The Norn language of Orkney and Shetland became extinct around 1880. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6546",
"title": "Celts",
"section": "Section::::Distribution.:Insular Celts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Linguists have been arguing for many years whether a Celtic language came to Britain and Ireland and then split or whether there were two separate \"invasions\". The older view of prehistorians was that the Celtic influence in the British Isles was the result of successive invasions from the European continent by diverse Celtic-speaking peoples over the course of several centuries, accounting for the P-Celtic vs. Q-Celtic isogloss. This view has been challenged by the hypothesis that the Celtic languages of the British Isles form a phylogenetic Insular Celtic dialect group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55085503",
"title": "Celtic language decline in England",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Prior to about the 5th century CE, most people in Britain spoke Celtic languages (for the most part specifically Brittonic languages), although Vulgar Latin may have taken over in larger settlements, especially in the south-east. The fundamental reason for the demise of these languages in early medieval England was the arrival in Britain of settlers who spoke the Germanic language now known as Old English, particularly around the 5th century. Gradually, Celtic-speakers switched to speaking Old English until Celtic languages were no longer extensively spoken in what became England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "760776",
"title": "History of the British Isles",
"section": "Section::::Prehistoric.:Iron Age (1200 BC to 600 AD).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "In the course of the first millennium BC, and possibly earlier, some combination of trans-cultural diffusion and immigration from continental Europe resulted in the establishment of Celtic languages in the islands, eventually giving rise to the Insular Celtic group. What languages were spoken in the islands before is unknown, though they are assumed to have been Pre-Indo-European.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1m05jt
|
when people "catch the holy spirit" and start freaking out in church, what's that all about?
|
[
{
"answer": "The mind is a very powerful thing. Those people legitimately believe the Holy Spirit is with them and basically imagine and act out the entire thing. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mass hysteria, hysterical conversion, emotional contagion. Call it whatever you want, just don't use the word *real* or the word *science* in any of their various forms, manners, or contexts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This practically doesn't happen in Baptist churches. It's the Pentecostals and some of the other non-denominations. Source: I'm Baptist",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You should watch the documentary \"Hell House\" - a real phenomenon about Protestant church-run haunted houses that scare you into being \"saved\" from sin. Not only do the speak in tongues, but there's a scene where they sing in tongues- with a back-up band. Unfortunately, it doesn't answer you're question- it might raise more. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I suggest you watch this [Derren Brown](_URL_0_) special.\n\nBasically, it's a result of suggestibility coupled with their belief of how they're supposed to react. Firstly, people who attend these congregations already have a bias to believe in this sort of thing (self selection). Secondly, when they are touched, or \"healed\", or whatever, they are essentially being called up on stage. Once they are in this situation, coupled with their likely suggestibility, they have two options:\n\n1. They could stand there and not move or do anything awkwardly, or\n\n2. They can start speaking in tongues or spasm as they are *expected* to do.\n\nCheck out [this](_URL_1_) video to see how people can do things they wouldn't otherwise, without actually ever being *forced* to do it.\n\nThe same principle applies to stage hypnotists. A good \"hypnotist\" selects audience members that are the most suggestible. It is, as you state, a sort of \"act\". The members may feel regret later, **but in the heat of the moment, they may have found it too uncomfortable to let everybody down.**\n\nEdit: I neglected to mention that the person can genuinely believe in their experience (our brains take advantage of different coping mechanisms during intense experiences). The person speaking in tongues isn't necessarily being insincere. However, their behavior is a result of the pressure they feel (external *or* internal). After all, we're all participating in the \"act\" we call \"life\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It comes from the book of Acts. (Acts 2, to be specific.) In this chapter, the disciples have just witnessed Jesus returning to heaven, and are awaiting the 'sign' from God that Jesus promised in Acts 1. They are at [Pentecost](_URL_0_), which is/was a Hebrew holy day, and it says that \"what seemed to be tongues of fire...came to rest on each of them.\" (Acts 2:2b) They then began to 'speak in tongues.' In the context of this Biblical passage, it is to be taken literally; the Bible claims that these men were suddenly gifted by the Holy Spirit with the power to speak in a language they did not previously know. \n\nThe 'gift' of speaking in tongues is mentioned several other times in the Bible, mostly by the apostle Paul in talking about spiritual gifts. Some modern Christian denominations, most notably the Charismatics and the Protestants, have people that still believe that they are gifted with the ability to 'speak in tongues.' Their modern day 'tongues', however, are often (if not always) gibberish spouted as they 'feel the spirit move through them.' As to the actual cause, it depends on your belief system. The non-spiritual would say it's a placebo effect: they truly believe they can speak in tongues, they believe in the holy spirit, and so their brain produces a faux language. Some Christian denominations would agree, claiming that the 'gift of tongues' faded away centuries ago, or ended with the early church. And the true believers claim that they are truly being used as a conduit of the holy spirit, speaking prophecies and truths in a heavenly tongue. I think they'd all agree that it's being filtered through their brains, though, whatever the source. So, maybe just call it a \"mental episode\" and leave it at that? \n\nTL:DR - It is a practice that began with the apostles in the early church. It's claimed to be a gift of the Holy Spirit (of the Christian God) speaking through you in a heavenly tongue. Some people think it's basically a placebo effect, that because the people that it happens to believe it's real, their brains make it real. We can't know for sure, but whatever it is, it's filtered through the brain. \n\nEdit: Fixed some wording. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I'm a Christian, I've witnessed a person speaking in tongues, and it was not up on stage, she was not under pressure or \"expected\" to do it. I believe that some people's faith leads them to do this, and although it probably is disingenuous *sometimes,* I think it is usually sincere. Whether or not you believe that it is the Holy Spirit speaking through a person, it's a religious ritual, observed by religious people, and within the context of our faith, it is not considered sinful.\n\nYour logic breaks down when you consider the context. I mean, we also believe in the virgin birth and that Christ rose from the dead. You might as well be saying, \"that's impossible, isn't it sinful to say that something happened that clearly never happened?\" Do you see what I'm saying? There's a separate set of rules within religion, it's the whole idea of faith. Believing in something despite having no proof is the whole essence of religion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I like this thread more than I thought I would simply due to the **lack** of comments. There is plenty in here to discuss/argue/refute *but nobody is.*\n\nIt's like the entirety of Reddit saw the title and thought, \"... yeah I'm just gonna go ahead and stay out of that shit.\"\n\nAll thats left to be seen are the dregs of Reddit. Religious experiences go unrefuted, logical fallacies uncorrected, cognitive bias stands as fact and not a single Sagan, Dawkins or Hitchens to be seen.\n\n**10/10 would cringe again.**",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15532564",
"title": "Annalee Skarin",
"section": "Section::::Excommunication (June 11, 1952).:Joseph Smith (President: April 6, 1830 - June 27, 1844).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "\"We believe that we have a right to revelations, visions, and dreams from God, our heavenly Father; and light and intelligence, through the gift of the Holy Ghost, in the name of Jesus Christ, on all subjects pertaining to our spiritual welfare; if it so be that we keep his commandments, so as to render ourselves worthy in his sight.\" \"“No man can receive the Holy Ghost without receiving revelations. The Holy Ghost is a revelator.”\" \"When you feel pure intelligence flowing into you, it may give you sudden strokes of ideas, so that by noticing it, you may find it fulfilled the same day or soon; those things that were presented unto your minds by the Spirit of God, will come to pass; and thus by learning the Spirit of God and understanding it, you may grow into the principle of revelation, until you become perfect in Christ Jesus.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462657",
"title": "The Second Coming (TV serial)",
"section": "Section::::Storyline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1104,
"text": "There is also media frenzy surrounding the events, especially after a tape is leaked of Steve saying that the world will end if the testament is not found, and he is taken into police protection. Some of Steve's friends accept him as the Messiah - Pete (who kept his Christianity hidden, not knowing how his friends would react) and Fiona (who becomes crazed, as this is the first time she has ever believed). Judy (an atheist), remains sceptical. She and Steve have some heated arguments (at one point, in a fit of anger, Steve is tempted to use his godly powers to kill her), especially as despite being the son of God, Steve is neither omniscient (relying on information \"downloading\" into his head, which frustrates him too) nor omnipotent (e.g., he cannot heal the sick). Steve later says that he does have powers, but he refuses to use them as he could get power mad, and reiterates it is up to humanity to sort themselves out this time. Judy is also confronted by several demons and manipulated into situations to get her to believe, which is part of Satan's plan to have Steve fall into despair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17755621",
"title": "Beliefs and practices of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints",
"section": "Section::::Beliefs and doctrine.:God the Father, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost.:Holy Ghost.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "The Holy Ghost is regarded as \"a being endowed with the attributes and powers of Deity and not a mere force or essence.\" He testifies of the Father and the Son. \"By the power of the Holy Ghost ye may know the truth of all things.\" The Holy Ghost can sanctify people enabling them \"to put off the natural man and [become] a saint through the atonement of Christ the Lord\". The Holy Ghost is the comforter that Jesus promised to send: \"If ye love me, keep my commandments. And I will pray the Father, and he shall give you another Comforter, that he may abide with you forever.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "409114",
"title": "Church of God by Faith",
"section": "Section::::Beliefs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "The Holy Spirit- the church believes in the Holy Spirit, the third person of the Godhead. The Holy Spirit is ever present and efficiently active in and with the church of Christ, convincing the world of sin, regenerating those who repent and believe, sanctifying believers and guiding them into all truth as it is in Jesus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2309875",
"title": "Are You There God? It's Me, Jesus",
"section": "Section::::Plot synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "The crowd in Las Vegas for the New Year's concert is enraged upon seeing Rod Stewart (portrayed here as very old and incontinent) and they turn against Jesus. With them preparing to crucify him again, Stan asks Jesus why God does not answer his prayers, and Jesus explains that, if God does everything for you, then your existence has no real purpose. Jesus realizes that this was God's message: Jesus had to figure his \"own\" way to get people to follow him. And just as he realizes this, God arrives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7281389",
"title": "Inspiration of Ellen G. White",
"section": "Section::::Views.:White's own views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "\"I testify the things which I have seen, the things which I have heard, the things which my hands have handled of the Word of life. And this testimony I know to be of the Father and the Son. We have seen and do testify that the power of the Holy Ghost has accompanied the presentation of the truth, warning with pen and voice, and giving the messages in their order. To deny this work would be to deny the Holy Ghost, and would place us in that company who have departed from the faith, giving heed to seducing spirits.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41563596",
"title": "Holy Ghost People (2013 film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Holy Ghost People is a 2013 American psychological thriller directed by Mitchell Altieri and written by Kevin Artigue, Joe Egender, Altieri, and Phil Flores. It stars Emma Greenwell as a woman who goes in search of her missing sister, who has joined an isolated religious group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4cxmtq
|
how does the sun's heat reach us if there's so little matter to transfer it in space?
|
[
{
"answer": "It doesn't transfer through conduction or convection, but radiation. It travels in the form of infrared photons, which are emitted directly from the sun radiate outwards.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The sun's heat reaches us through radiation.\n\nAnything with a heat warmer than absolute zero emits heat, in the form of electromagnetic waves. The sun happens to emit a lot of electromagnetic waves, because it's very big and very hot. \n\nElectromagnetic waves don't need matter to transfer through, as I am sure you know. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Light! Or...more specifically and accurately, radiation. These things don't require a medium like convection or conduction, and aren't material dependent like transmission of sound. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A photon is a type of particle (it's also a wave, but let's not get into that right now). The heat from the sun radiates off the sun in the form of this photon (most photons are bouncing around inside the sun itself, but some get released). These photons then travel through space at the speed of light until it hits you, and the energy in the photon then excites the cells on your body that it hits, making them vibrate a bit faster, which makes them warmer. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What you're talking about, matter transferring heat, is only one way that heat can be transferred.\n\nThe way that the Earth receives so much heat from the sun is through radiation. It's essentially beams of energy which do not require any matter to move through. Think about how light moves around, it doesn't need any matter to travel through either.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are three ways to move heat: Conduction, Convection, and Radiation. \n\nConduction is the easiest to understand. When you touch a hot object, the heat from the object goes into your hand where you feel it through conduction. \n\nConvection is probably what you're thinking of when you ask about matter transfering heat. In convection, heat transfers to a fluid which then moves away from the heat source (eg. hot air gets less dense and rises) until it touches something cooler and transfers its heat away. \n\nRadiation is like convection only instead of fluid matter carrying the heat, the heat is carried by photons. Photons are what light is made of. They're sort-of like matter and sort-of not. The reaction going on in the sun spits out lots of photons. Each one carries only a tiny bit of heat, but there's so many of them hitting you all at once on a sunny day you still feel the heat. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The heat comes from light. Light can travel in a vacuum.\n\nHeat lamps for reptile cages emit IR light.\n\nMicrowaves emit... Microwaves (a form of light)\n\nFLIR cameras detect IR light emitted by hot things.\n\n\nShould I go on?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Heat (thermal energy) from the sun does not travel through space; light (electromagnetic energy) from the sun does. Light can travel through a vacuum no problem, unlike heat. When light particles (called photons) collide with something (the ground, your car, or your face) the atoms that make up that thing absorb the light and turn it into heat.\nMost light sources on earth produce so little light that the amount of heat generated when the light collides with something is not really noticeable. The sun, however, generates so much light that you can actually feel your skin heating up if you stand in direct sunlight on a sunny day. The warmth you're feeling is the result of photons being absorbed by your skin and turned into heat.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "To expand on the other replies:\n\nLight is light. Whether it's visible, infrared, ultraviolet, radio, all of it. They're all made of photons and follow the same rules. It's a spectrum, and people are the ones who separated light into different categories. \n\nThe differences are in wavelength and frequency. They're inversely related, so as frequency increases, wavelength decreases. Frequency also determines how much energy that photon has. \n\nRadio waves have really low frequencies, and thus low energy, making them safe, for the most part. We're surrounded by them what with all of our communications. \n\nUltraviolet light is higher frequency than visible light, and can cause sunburns. \n\nGamma radiation has a really high frequency, and is energetic enough to be deadly with enough exposure. \n\nNow let's talk about the Sun. The vast majority of the Sun's light that reaches the ground here on Earth is in the form of visible light. The next most common is infrared.\n\nSo visible light is more energetic than infrared, and by volume we get a lot more of it. Wouldn't you expect more 'heat' from the Sun to come from visible light? \n\nAll light is capable of being absorbed by a material, and heating that material up. \n\nThe key here is that every material absorbs light differently. It turns out that most things on Earth absorb infrared very well, and don't absorb visible light. \n\nWhen visible light hits something very little is absorbed, the rest is reflected or scattered, and the remaining light gives off the color of that object. And think about things that absorb a lot of visible light, we'd see these as black. That's why black things heat up faster in visible light. They absorb it better. \n\nInfrared is absorbed a lot more efficiently compared to visible light, and that's why we think of infrared light as heat. \n\nUs seeing in visible light makes sense from an evolutionary standpoint. There's a lot of visible light reaching the ground, and it's reflected and scattered a lot more than it's absorbed. Compared to other forms of light, it's an ideal way to see the world. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Heat transfers in three ways: convection, conduction and radiation.\n\nThe sun's light reaches us by radiation. The heat you're thinking of, when something hot touches something cold, is conduction. \n\nWhen an object is heated, it emits some of that heat as radiation. For most things they radiate infra-red wavelengths. As you get hotter and hotter the wave length gets shorter, from infra-red to visible light, from visible light to ultraviolet and so on. This is called black-body radiation.\n\nWhen those rays hit something some of them are reflected (this is why we can see things in light) and some are absorbed. The absorbed rays transfer their energy to what they hit, heating it up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The sun emits energy in the form of radiation, which is capable of traveling through a vacuum, the heat that we feel is caused by this radiation (which is reduced in intensity quite a bit by our atmosphere,) hitting the ground, your body, and everything else. Some of that is deflected away, but some of it is absorbed, which is the source of the heat you feel from standing in direct sunlight, why leaving something in the sun warms it up, and why excessive exposure to the sun without adequate protection can cause skin cancer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3545917",
"title": "Masonry oven",
"section": "Section::::Construction.:Thermodynamics of insulating masonry ovens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "Here on earth, the sun delivers lots of bounce, and the atmosphere surrounds it with a wall that reflects the energy back in. In outer space, however, there’s nothing — a vacuum — and the bounce all disappears very quickly, leaving very little moving. Lack of motion means little heat, and almost no transfer — very cold. Closer to home, if you wrap your hot coffee in a thermos — a hollow cylinder with all the air sucked out of it — there’s also very little in the way of excitable particles to move the energy from your hot coffee to the cold air around it. Your coffee stays hot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6890573",
"title": "Liquid cooling and ventilation garment",
"section": "Section::::Space applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "In a dependent space suit (such as the ones used in the Gemini program or within lunar orbit on the Apollo program), the heat is carried back to a host spacecraft through an umbilical connection, where it is ultimately radiated or sublimated via the spacecraft's own thermal control system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "344123",
"title": "Heat sink",
"section": "Section::::Design factors.:Surface color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "In a vacuum or in outer space, there is no convective heat transfer, thus in these environments, radiation is the only factor governing heat flow between the heat sink and the environment. For a satellite in space, a 100 °C (373 Kelvin) surface facing the Sun will absorb a lot of radiant heat, because the Sun's surface temperature is nearly 6000 Kelvin, whereas the same surface facing deep-space will radiate a lot of heat, since deep-space has an effective temperature of only a few Kelvin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28538",
"title": "Solar wind",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "Eugene Parker realised heat flowing from the Sun in Chapman's model and the comet tail blowing away from the Sun in Biermann's hypothesis had to be the result of the same phenomenon, which he termed the \"solar wind\". In 1957, Parker showed, even though the Sun's corona is strongly attracted by solar gravity, it is such a good heat conductor that it is still very hot at large distances. Since gravity weakens as distance from the Sun increases, the outer coronal atmosphere escapes supersonically into interstellar space. Furthermore, Parker was the first person to notice that the weakening effect of the gravity has the same effect on hydrodynamic flow as a de Laval nozzle: it incites a transition from subsonic to supersonic flow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25856",
"title": "Radiation",
"section": "Section::::Cosmic radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "There are two sources of high energy particles entering the Earth's atmosphere from outer space: the sun and deep space. The sun continuously emits particles, primarily free protons, in the solar wind, and occasionally augments the flow hugely with coronal mass ejections (CME).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "187407",
"title": "Genesis (spacecraft)",
"section": "Section::::Objectives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Clearly, the ideal sample collection option would be to send a spacecraft to the Sun itself and collect some solar plasma; however, that is difficult because of the intense heat of the Sun's superheated gases, as well as the dynamic electromagnetic environment of the solar corona, whose flares regularly interfere with the electronics of distant spacecraft. Fortunately, the Sun continuously sheds some of its outer layer in the form of solar wind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4640562",
"title": "Solar core",
"section": "Section::::Energy conversion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "The core produces almost all of the Sun's heat via fusion: the rest of the star is heated by the outward transfer of heat from the core. The energy produced by fusion in the core, except a small part carried out by neutrinos, must travel through many successive layers to the solar photosphere before it escapes into space as sunlight, kinetic or thermal energy of particles. The energy conversion per unit time (power) of fusion in the core varies with distance from the solar center. At the center of the Sun, fusion power is estimated by models to be about 276.5 watts/m. Despite its intense temperature, the peak power generating density of the core overall is similar to an active compost heap, and is lower than the power density produced by the metabolism of an adult human. The Sun is much hotter than a compost heap due to the Sun's enormous volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2kbnia
|
Did Romans know about elephants before the Punic Wars, or were they a completely new animal to them?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Romans faced war elephants a few years before the First Punic War. In 280 B.C. Pyrrhus brought 20 war elephants from Greece to Rome. As Cassius Dio (via Zonaras) reports in [book IX](_URL_0_):\n\n > Now Pyrrhus set out, not even awaiting the coming of spring, taking along a large, picked army, and twenty elephants, beasts never previously beheld by the Italians; hence they were invariably filled with alarm and astonishment.\n\nBefore the battle, the Roman consul Laevinus made a speech to alleviate fear among his legionaries, fear caused by the reputation of Pyrrhus and the presence of elephants. Pyrrhus kept his elephants in reserve initially. During the battle he used them to counter Roman cavalry which was threatening his rear. The account Cassius Dio / Zonaras gives is quite something: \n\n > Then, indeed, at the sight of the animals, which was out of all common experience, at their frightful trumpeting, and also at the clatter of arms which their riders made, seated in the towers, both the Romans themselves were panic-stricken and their horses became frenzied and bolted, either shaking off their riders or bearing them away. Disheartened at this, the Roman army was turned to flight, and in their rout some soldiers were slain by the men in the towers on the elephants' backs, and others by the beasts themselves, which destroyed many with their trunks and tusks (or teeth) and crushed and trampled under foot as many more.\n\nKeep in mind that Cassius Dio wrote his history in the 2nd century AD, more than four centuries after the battle, and this part was excerpted by Zonaras 1000 years after that. So this shouldn't be taken too literally, but the takeaway is that the Romans didn't manage the first encounter with elephants very well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "378625",
"title": "War elephant",
"section": "Section::::Antiquity.:The Mediterranean.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "By the time of Claudius however, such animals were being used by the Romans in single numbers only – the last significant use of war elephants in the Mediterranean was against the Romans at the battle of Thapsus, 46 BC, where Julius Caesar armed his fifth legion (\"Alaudae\") with axes and commanded his legionaries to strike at the elephant's legs. The legion withstood the charge, and the elephant became its symbol. Thapsus was the last significant use of elephants in the West. The remainder of the elephants seemed to have been thrown into panic by Caesar's archers and slingers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51948215",
"title": "Roman war elephants",
"section": "Section::::History.:History of Roman use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "By the time of Claudius however, such animals were being used by the Romans in single numbers only—the last significant use of war elephants in the Mediterranean was against the Romans at the battle of Thapsus in 46 BC, in which 60 of them were used, where Julius Caesar armed his fifth legion (\"Alaudae\") with axes and commanded his legionaries to strike at the elephant's legs. The legion withstood the charge, and the elephant became its symbol. Thapsus was the last significant use of elephants in the West. The remainder of the elephants seemed to have been thrown into panic by Caesar's archers and slingers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378625",
"title": "War elephant",
"section": "Section::::Antiquity.:The Mediterranean.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 957,
"text": "Rome brought back many elephants at the end of the Punic Wars, and used them in its campaigns for many years afterwards. The conquest of Greece saw many battles in which the Romans deployed war elephants, including the invasion of Macedonia in 199 BC, the battle of Cynoscephalae 197 BC, the battle of Thermopylae, and the battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, during which Antiochus III's fifty-four elephants took on the Roman force of sixteen. In later years the Romans deployed twenty-two elephants at Pydna in 168 BC. The role of the elephant force at Cynoscephalae was particularly decisive, as their quick charge shattered the unformed Macedonian left wing, allowing the Romans to encircle and destroy the victorious Macedonian right. A similar event also transpired at Pydna. The Romans' successful use of war elephants against the Macedonians might be considered ironic, given that it was Pyrrhus who first taught them the military potential of elephants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51948215",
"title": "Roman war elephants",
"section": "Section::::History.:History of Roman use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1059,
"text": "Elephants captured in 275 BC, after the end of the Pyrrhic war were displayed in a triumph. Later, Rome brought back many elephants at the end of the Punic Wars, and used them in its campaigns for many years afterwards. The conquest of Greece saw many battles in which the Romans deployed war elephants, including the invasion of Macedonia in 199 BC, the battle of Cynoscephalae 197 BC, the battle of Thermopylae, and the battle of Magnesia in 190 BC, during which Antiochus III's fifty-four elephants took on the Roman force of sixteen. In later years the Romans deployed twenty-two elephants at Pydna in 168 BC. The role of the elephant force at Cynoscephalae was particularly decisive, as their quick charge shattered the unformed Macedonian left wing, allowing the Romans to encircle and destroy the victorious Macedonian right. A similar event also transpired at Pydna. The Romans' successful use of war elephants against the Macedonians might be considered ironic, given that it was Pyrrhus who first taught them the military potential of these beasts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3066436",
"title": "Howdah",
"section": "Section::::Elephant and castle symbol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "In antiquity, the Romans war elephants, and turreted elephants feature on the coinage of Juba II of Numidia, in the 1st century BC. Elephants were used in the Roman campaigns against the Celtiberians in Hispania, against the Gauls, and against the Britons, the ancient historian Polyaenus writing, \"Caesar had one large elephant, which was equipped with armor and carried archers and slingers in its tower. When this unknown creature entered the river, the Britons and their horses fled and the Roman army crossed over.\" However, he may have confused this incident with the use of a similar war elephant in Claudius' final conquest of Britain. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51948215",
"title": "Roman war elephants",
"section": "Section::::History.:History of elephants and Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1037,
"text": "Although the use of war elephants in the Mediterranean is most famously associated with the wars between Carthage and Rome, the introduction of war elephants was primarily the result of the Greek kingdom of Epirus. King Pyrrhus of Epirus brought twenty elephants to attack the Romans at the battle of Heraclea in 280 BC, leaving some fifty additional animals, on loan from Pharaoh Ptolemy II, on the mainland. The Romans were unprepared for fighting elephants, and the Epirot forces routed the Romans. The next year, the Epirots again deployed a similar force of elephants, attacking the Romans at the battle of Asculum. This time the Romans came prepared with flammable weapons and anti-elephant devices: these were ox-drawn wagons, equipped with long spikes to wound the elephants, pots of fire to scare them, and accompanying screening troops who would hurl javelins at the elephants to drive them away. A final charge of Epirot elephants won the day again, but this time Pyrrhus had suffered very heavy casualties—a Pyrrhic victory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378625",
"title": "War elephant",
"section": "Section::::Antiquity.:The Mediterranean.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1049,
"text": "Although the use of war elephants in the Mediterranean is most famously associated with the wars between Carthage and Roman Republic, the introduction of war elephants was primarily the result of the Greek kingdom of Epirus. King Pyrrhus of Epirus brought twenty elephants to attack the Romans at the battle of Heraclea in 280 BC, leaving some fifty additional animals, on loan from Pharaoh Ptolemy II, on the mainland. The Romans were unprepared for fighting elephants, and the Epirot forces routed the Romans. The next year, the Epirots again deployed a similar force of elephants, attacking the Romans at the battle of Asculum. This time the Romans came prepared with flammable weapons and anti-elephant devices: these were ox-drawn wagons, equipped with long spikes to wound the elephants, pots of fire to scare them, and accompanying screening troops who would hurl javelins at the elephants to drive them away. A final charge of Epirot elephants won the day again, but this time Pyrrhus had suffered very heavy casualties – a Pyrrhic victory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
s2rm8
|
Did America ever steal tech or knowledge from the Soviet Union?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the first several years after the fall of the Soviet Union, the leading Russian export was... patents and inventions. Sorry, don't remember the source. \n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a layman\n\nWell, I don't know if you could really say the US stole technology from the Soviets or vice versa. Both sides were heavily engaged in espionage, but the real world isn't a game of of Civilization. Just because a spy gets you a blue print doesn't mean you suddenly have a new technology or the ability to immediately begin producing it.\n\nA big part of espionage was understanding the other side's military/economic capabilities so you could prepare strategically to counter it. The closest thing I can think of off the top of my head to the US \"stealing a tech\" is when Viktor Belenko decided to defect and take a MIG-25 with him. At the time Western intelligence had completely and utterly failed to assess the MIG-25 correctly. Belenko dropping the jet in our lap corrected this. It's not like suddenly we started producing MIG-25s though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The US did capture several MIG 15's at one point, but they were from defectors IIRC. By that time they were mostly only useful for comparison to the F-86 Sabre. \n\nThe one incident that was really incontestably stealing was the Glomar Explorer. [Link](_URL_0_) where the US custom built a ship to recover a sunken Russian nuclear missile Submarine. It did not go as planned, only about a third of the submarine was recovered. Eventually the US had to admit they had it and return it because there were bodies aboard the recovered section. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "158190",
"title": "Strategy of Technology",
"section": "Section::::Opposing views and controversies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "But the United States found a way to use its opponent's strengths for its own purposes. In the late 1990s, it emerged that many stolen technological secrets were funnelled by an arm of American intelligence to the Soviet Union. The documents were real. They were of versions of the product which contained a critical but not obvious flaw. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "797178",
"title": "First Chief Directorate",
"section": "Section::::Early operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "One of the biggest successes of Soviet foreign intelligence was the penetration of the American Manhattan Project, which was the code name for the effort during World War II to develop the first nuclear weapons of the United States with assistance from the United Kingdom and Canada. Information gathered in the United States, Great Britain and Canada, especially in USA, by NKVD and NKGB agents then supplied to Soviet physicists, allowed them to carry out the first Soviet nuclear explosion already in 1949.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "295282",
"title": "Igor Gouzenko",
"section": "Section::::Ramifications of the defection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "In February 1946, news spread that a network of Canadian spies under control of the Soviet Union had been passing classified information to the Soviet government. Much of the information taken then is public knowledge now, and the Canadian government was less concerned with the information stolen, but more of the potential of real secrets coming into the hands of future enemies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1217440",
"title": "Soviet atomic bomb project",
"section": "Section::::Espionage.:Soviet atomic ring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "The atomic and industrial espionages in the United States by American sympathisers of communism who were controlled by their \"rezident\" Russian officials in North America greatly aided the speed of the Soviet atomic project from 1942–54. Willingness of sharing classified information to Soviet Union by recruited American communist sympathizers increased when the Soviet Union faced possible defeat during the German invasion in World War II. The Russian intelligence network in the United Kingdom also played a vital role in setting up the spy rings in the United States when the Russian State Defense Committee approved resolution 2352, in September 1942.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5371832",
"title": "Propaganda in the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Soviet propaganda abroad.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 159,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 159,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "According to Oleg Kalugin, \"the Soviet intelligence was really unparalleled. ... The KGB programs -- which would run all sorts of congresses, peace congresses, youth congresses, festivals, women's movements, trade union movements, campaigns against U.S. missiles in Europe, campaigns against neutron weapons, allegations that AIDS ... was invented by the CIA ... all sorts of forgeries and faked material -- [were] targeted at politicians, the academic community, at the public at large.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1872276",
"title": "The Defenders (short story)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "The Americans believe that because the Soviets do not know that they were also tricked, the United States can quickly win the war. The robots reveal, however, that during their explanation they sealed all tubes to under ground. Although this prevents the expedition from leaving, the leadys expect that by the time their countrymen dig new tunnels, humanity will be ready for the truth. The robots invite Taylor and the others to join a group of Soviets who were similarly stranded after visiting the surface. \"The working out of daily problems of existence\", the leadys suggest, \"will teach you how to get along in the same world. It will not be easy, but it will be done.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "242883",
"title": "History of nuclear weapons",
"section": "Section::::Cold War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "The Soviet Union was less forthcoming about such incidents, but the environmental group Greenpeace believes that there are around forty non-U.S. nuclear devices that have been lost and not recovered, compared to eleven lost by America, mostly in submarine disasters. The U.S. has tried to recover Soviet devices, notably in the 1974 Project Azorian using the specialist salvage vessel \"Hughes Glomar Explorer\" to raise a Soviet submarine. After news leaked out about this boondoggle, the CIA would coin a favorite phrase for refusing to disclose sensitive information, called glomarization: \"We can neither confirm nor deny the existence of the information requested but, hypothetically, if such data were to exist, the subject matter would be classified, and could not be disclosed.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
62he0e
|
us citzens, what happens if someone commits a crime in a state and runs to another state that what he has done is not ilegal?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you commit a crime, and flee across State lines, the United States Federal Government is responsible for returning you to the State in question to face charges. This is accomplished by the US Marshall's. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation) steps in.\n\nSince the criminal has crossed state lines, the original state police no longer have jurisdiction. But neither do the police in the new state because the criminal hasn't committed a crime in their state. So the FBI comes in, they're kinda like police for the whole country. They work with the state police from both states to find the guy, then (generally) bring him back to the state where the original crime was committed for trial, etc.\n\nIt gets more complicated if it involves multiple crimes in multiple states, but the FBI will still be the ones to actually go after the guy in that case.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "depending on what you have done, the state you commited the crime in can put a warrant on you, and if another state finds you they arrest you and give the state thats looking for you the chance to come get you if they want to. it doesnt matter if you flee to a state where what you have done is not illegal. \n\nusually they are felony charges, and sometimes the state looking for you decides they dont want to spend the money extraditing you, so you will be released, but you will still have the active warrant, so you will be processed the same way every time law enforsement comes across you whereever you are. \n\nor you have done something really serious and the fbi steps in. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As per the agreements the States signed when they joined the Union the US Federal Government (Either FBI or US Marshals) will take them into custody and extradite them to the State where they committed the crime for trial. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53971079",
"title": "Murders of Abigail Williams and Liberty German",
"section": "Section::::Suspects.:Daniel J. Nations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "On January 5, 2018, Nations was sentenced to three years of probation for threatening members of the public in Colorado; however, he was not released since he had an active warrant out on him from another county, back in Indiana. On January 24, Nations was finally transferred to Indiana officials' custody on an unrelated charge, failure to register as a sex offender. In early February 2018, authorities proclaimed that Nations is no longer considered an active person of interest in the Delphi murders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9636670",
"title": "Aggravated felony",
"section": "Section::::Consequences of illegal re-entry after deportation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "According to the INA, it is a federal crime for any non-criminal alien to illegally enter the United States after that alien has been denied entry, excluded, removed, deported, or if he or she has departed the United States while an order of removal was outstanding. The maximum sentence for this crime is 2 years of imprisonment. However, if he or she was a criminal alien and \"whose removal was subsequent to a conviction for commission of three or more misdemeanors involving drugs, crimes against the person, or both, or a felony (other than an aggravated felony), such alien shall be fined under title 18, imprisoned not more than 10 years, or both.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47294635",
"title": "Death of Sandra Bland",
"section": "Section::::Legal proceedings.:Investigation into death and charges against Encinia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "On June 28, 2017, a judge granted a motion by prosecutors to dismiss the perjury charge against Encinia. In return, Encinia agreed that he would \"never seek, accept or engage in employment in any capacity with law enforcement\" in Texas or elsewhere. He also agreed not to seek expungement of the perjury charge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6518536",
"title": "Criminal Law (Temporary Provisions) Act (Singapore)",
"section": "Section::::Content.:Illegal strikes and lock-outs in essential services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "No person refusing to take part or to continue to take part in any illegal strike or lock-out is subject to expulsion from any trade union or society, or to any fine or penalty, or to the deprivation of any right or benefit to which he or his legal personal representatives would otherwise be entitled. He is also not liable to be placed in any respect, directly or indirectly, under any disability or at any disadvantage as compared with other members of the union or society, even if the rules of the trade union or society to which he belongs state otherwise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21205985",
"title": "Anu (film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "From here, Anu tries to find out the murderer and his reasons behind the unexplained murders. After her own investigations, she narrows down the suspect to Govind, a hospital attendant. She is surprised to find him physically challenged when he is brought to the police station for interrogation. She detests his disability and terms it as a sham, but the police don't quite convinced with her claims. Govind attempts to murder Anu in order to clear the hurdle in his scheme of things. In this process, the police surround him, but he escapes after murdering a couple of policemen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21205985",
"title": "Anu (film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "In another such attempt by him, Anu accidentally murders a person while in her self-defense. Unfortunately for her, she gets framed and is arrested. Anand, with whom she considers as a good friend after some verbal fights initially, gets her released on a bond. Again, when there is another attempt to kill her, the police trap him, but, the sequence of events suggest that he committed suicide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20992616",
"title": "Look out circular",
"section": "Section::::MHA Latter No 25016/31/2010-Imm.:Issuance of Look Out Circulars (LOC) in respect of Indian citizens and foreigners.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "BULLET::::8. h) In cases where there is no cognizable offence under IPC or other penal laws, the LOC subject canriot be detained/arrested or prevented from leaving the country. The originating agency can only request that they be informed about the arrival / departure of the subject in such cases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1q3vql
|
how does a new stock on the market open trading at a price different than it was offered?
|
[
{
"answer": "The market makers are the first ones to release the stock into the world. The stock is essentially private, controlled by the market makers. They bought it from Twitter at $x, and are now reselling it on the open market. They want to get as much money as possible for their stock. \n\nThey initially announced $26/share, but when they started to get offers in, they realized they could charge much more. So, they started feeling out offers, and decided that $45.10 was a good place to start. \n\nNow that it has hit the open market, we will really see what people think about Twitter. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26564623",
"title": "Buying in (securities)",
"section": "Section::::Securities market use.:Buy-in rule on the UK equity market.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "On the English stock exchange, a transaction by which, if a member has sold securities which he fails to deliver on settling day, or any of the succeeding ten days following the settlement, the buyer may give instructions to a stock exchange official to \"buy in\" the stock required. The official announces the quantity of stock, and the purpose for which he requires it, and whoever sells the stock must be prepared to deliver it immediately. The original seller has to pay the difference between the two prices, if the latter is higher than the original contract price. A similar practice, termed \"selling out,\" prevails when a purchaser fails to take up his securities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28504786",
"title": "Stock market data systems",
"section": "Section::::Stock market quotation systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "In the late 1950s brokers had become accustomed to several problems doing business with their customers. To make a trade, an investor had to know the current price for the stock. The investor got this from a broker who could find it on his board. If the last trade (or the stock itself) hadn't made it to the board (or there was no board) the broker telegraphed a request for the price to that firm's \"wire room\" in New York. There, such requests would be forwarded to the floor of the appropriate exchange, where messengers could copy down prices at the locations where those stocks were traded, and telephone answers back to the wire room. Typical elapsed times were between 15 and 30 minutes just to inform the broker.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "447844",
"title": "Market maker",
"section": "Section::::How a market maker makes money.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "The difference between the price at which a market maker is willing to buy a stock (the bid price) and the price that the firm is willing to sell it (the ask price) is known as the market maker spread, or bid–ask spread. Supposing that equal amounts of buy and sell orders arrive and the price never changes, this is the amount that the market maker will gain on each round trip. Market makers also provide liquidity to their own firm's clients, for which they earn a commission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "243931",
"title": "Futures exchange",
"section": "Section::::Nature of contracts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "Before the market opens on the first day of trading a new futures contract, there is a specification but no actual contracts exist. Futures contracts are not issued like other securities, but are \"created\" whenever Open interest increases; that is, when one party first buys (goes long) a contract from another party (who goes short). Contracts are also \"destroyed\" in the opposite manner whenever Open interest decreases because traders resell to reduce their long positions or rebuy to reduce their short positions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30875225",
"title": "Reverse auction",
"section": "Section::::Dutch reverse auctions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The auction opens with the first item with a specified start price and increases by the price change value (amount or percentage) after a fixed interval. The start price keeps on increasing until any supplier places a bid or the start price reaches the reserved price. After the bidding is closed for the item it moves to another item sequentially.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25847973",
"title": "IPredict",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Traders could either buy (go long on) contracts, indicating that the event would happen or sell (go short on) contracts, indicating the event would not happen. The trading unit was a contract with a settlement value, typically either $0 or $1 and the contract could trade between these values where 1 percent equals $0.01 in value. If the event specified in a given contract occurred, the contract settled at 100 percent or $1; otherwise, the contract settled at 0 or $0 in value. Thus, the current price of the contract could be imputed as the market's global opinion of the probability that the specified event would occur. Traders could trade both before and during an event. iPredict often had a market maker to provide a two way price at almost all times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25844798",
"title": "Convergence trade",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Cash and Carry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "This is when a trader notices a difference in the price of a futures contract (for delivery in the future) and the underlying asset (purchased immediately). For example, if gold is trading at $1000/oz, and there is a futures contract for $1200/oz, the trader would long (buy) the gold and short (sell) the futures contract. They would make money as the prices converged together, and the profit would be $200 dollars in this example, as the gold price equaled the futures price.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1m361e
|
Is it possible to determine where in Africa modern humans originated?
|
[
{
"answer": "[National Geographic](_URL_2_): \"*Most paleoanthropologists and geneticists agree that modern humans arose some 200,000 years ago in Africa. The earliest modern human fossils were found in Omo Kibish, Ethiopia. Sites in Israel hold the earliest evidence of modern humans outside Africa, but that group went no farther, dying out about 90,000 years ago.*\"\n\n[Human Origins Project](_URL_1_) and the [Genografic](_URL_0_) will probably tell us more.\n\nNothing else so far.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48916027",
"title": "2016 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events.:September.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 243,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 243,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "BULLET::::- 21 September – Scientists report that, based on human DNA genetic studies, all non-African humans in the world today can be traced to a single population that exited Africa between 50,000 and 80,000 years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186406",
"title": "Toba catastrophe theory",
"section": "Section::::External links.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "BULLET::::- Geography Predicts Human Genetic Diversity ScienceDaily (Mar. 17, 2005) – By analyzing the relationship between the geographic location of current human populations in relation to East Africa and the genetic variability within these populations, researchers have found new evidence for an African origin of modern humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30860272",
"title": "Lake Mungo remains",
"section": "Section::::Lake Mungo 3 (LM3).:Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "The current mainstream thinking, the recent African origin of modern humans model, suggests that all humans outside of Africa alive today descended from a small group which left Africa at a specific time, currently generally estimated at about 60,000 years ago. This estimate of 60,000 years is arrived at from the recent breakthrough of widespread genetic investigation. In the model, humans then fairly quickly spread over the whole globe, from that starting point or bottleneck (indeed, with Australia being perhaps the farthest, most difficult to reach, area). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10326",
"title": "Human evolution",
"section": "Section::::History of study.:Human dispersal.:Dispersal of modern \"Homo sapiens\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "A broad study of African genetic diversity, headed by Sarah Tishkoff, found the San people had the greatest genetic diversity among the 113 distinct populations sampled, making them one of 14 \"ancestral population clusters\". The research also located a possible origin of modern human migration in south-western Africa, near the coastal border of Namibia and Angola. The fossil evidence was insufficient for archaeologist Richard Leakey to resolve the debate about exactly where in Africa modern humans first appeared. Studies of haplogroups in Y-chromosomal DNA and mitochondrial DNA have largely supported a recent African origin. All the evidence from autosomal DNA also predominantly supports a Recent African origin. However, evidence for archaic admixture in modern humans, both in Africa and later, throughout Eurasia has recently been suggested by a number of studies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "328736",
"title": "Archaeogenetics",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Human archaeology.:Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "Modern humans are thought to have evolved in Africa at least 200 kya (thousand years ago), with some evidence suggesting a date of over 300 kya. Examination of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), Y-chromosome DNA, and X-chromosome DNA indicate that the earliest population to leave Africa consisted of approximately 1500 males and females. It has been suggested by various studies that populations were geographically “structured” to some degree prior to the expansion out of Africa; this is suggested by the antiquity of shared mtDNA lineages. One study of 121 populations from various places throughout the continent found 14 genetic and linguistic “clusters,” suggesting an ancient geographic structure to African populations. In general, genotypic and phenotypic analysis have shown “large and subdivided throughout much of their evolutionary history.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42888",
"title": "Human genome",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "In September 2016, scientists reported that, based on human DNA genetic studies, all non-Africans in the world today can be traced to a single population that exited Africa between 50,000 and 80,000 years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22877870",
"title": "The Incredible Human Journey",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.:1. Out of Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "In the first episode, Roberts introduces the idea that genetic analysis suggests that all modern humans are descended from Africans. She visits the site of the Omo remains in Ethiopia, which are the earliest known anatomically modern humans. She visits the San people of Namibia to demonstrate the hunter-gatherer lifestyle. In South Africa, she visits Pinnacle Point, to see the cave in which very early humans lived. She then explains that genetics suggests that all non-Africans may descend from a single, small group of Africans who left the continent tens of thousands of years ago. She explores various theories as to the route they took. She describes the Jebel Qafzeh remains in Israel as a likely dead end from a crossing of Suez, and sees a route across the Red Sea and around the Arabian coast as the more probable route for modern human ancestors, especially given the lower sea levels of the past.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yz3wz
|
why is mediafire still online but megaupload got taken down?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because megaupload had many many more users, plus brought in more money",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To my understanding, it's because\n \n * Megaupload had tons of illegal uploads and barely anything was being done about it, while MediaFire actively takes down illegal files\n * Megaupload was used way more than MediaFire to upload illegal files\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mostly because MegaUpload actively encouraged piracy, as shown through the e-mails leaked. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "With third-party sites, they can avoid legal prosecution if they can show that they're trying hard to keep illegal material off their site.\n\nSo, say if Lawyer Guy emailed Mediafire and said \"Hey, Filmy Film is being hosted illegally on your site through this link, please remove it\", then Mediafire would email them back saying \"We'll take it down immediately\". If a laywer emailed the same thing to Megaupload, Megaupload would check that Filmy Film was available to download elsewhere on their site, before agreeing to remove it. \n\nAnother reason is the way Megaupload's advertising worked. With Mediafire, they have adverts around the site, and Mediafire would get a little bit of money for people clicking on those pages. Megaupload also set up a system where they would be paid a little bit of money due to *downloads*. That meant that Lawyer Guy could point out that if a person downloaded Filmy Film, Megaupload profited directly from those downloads, and so they're profiting from copyright infringement.\n\nWhile there was a lot of legal downloads/uploads going on, the sheer number of people who used MegaUpload meant that even if the illegal stuff was a fraction of the whole thing, it was still a *buttload* of illegal stuff that they weren't doing much to try and stop. So the whole site got shut down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46377537",
"title": "GreatFire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "GreatFire has been targeted with distributed denial-of-service attacks that attempt to take down the website by overloading its servers with traffic. In April 2015 it was targeted by a Chinese attack tool named Great Cannon that redirected massive amounts of Internet traffic to servers used by GreatFire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11387385",
"title": "Firebug (software)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Firebug is a discontinued free and open-source web browser extension for Mozilla Firefox that facilitated the live debugging, editing, and monitoring of any website's CSS, HTML, DOM, XHR, and JavaScript.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35050832",
"title": "Seizure of Megaupload",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The seizure of Megaupload, a popular filesharing website with 150 million registered users, occurred on 19 January 2012, following a US indictment accusing Megaupload of harbouring millions of copyrighted files. According to the indictment, Megaupload was costing copyright holders over $500 million in lost revenues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6100089",
"title": "Megaupload",
"section": "Section::::2012 indictments by the United States.:Other reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "According to MediaFire CEO Derek Labian, he and his file hosting company are not concerned by the Megaupload incident because \"Megaupload was making a ridiculous amount of money with a ridiculously bad service... We don't have a business built on copyright infringement.\" A spokesperson for RapidShare similarly expressed a lack of concern, saying that \"file hosting itself is a legitimate business\", pointing out that Microsoft's SkyDrive operates on a similar basis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6100089",
"title": "Megaupload",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "In January 2011, MarkMonitor published a report entitled \"Traffic Report: Online Piracy and Counterfeiting\", which said that Megaupload and Megavideo were, along with RapidShare, the top three websites classified as \"digital piracy\", with more than 21 billion visits per year. Megaupload responded by stating: \"Activity that violates our terms of service or our acceptable use policy is not tolerated, and we go to great lengths to swiftly process legitimate DMCA takedown notices\". Mark Mulligan, an analyst at Forrester Research, pointed out that the number of visits did not necessarily indicate the number of downloads of illegal material.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35050832",
"title": "Seizure of Megaupload",
"section": "Section::::Seizure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "On Thursday 19 January 2012, Megaupload and its sister sites were closed due to allegations that its founder and its other executives were in violation of \"piracy\" laws. The allegations stated that Megaupload was costing copyright holders and legitimate businesses $500 million in revenue from \"pirated\" movies, music, and other media. The MPAA retained the data for use in prosecution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35050832",
"title": "Seizure of Megaupload",
"section": "Section::::Seizure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Megaupload countered by stating that the allegations were \"grotesquely overblown\". Megaupload later proposed a partnership with content providers by stating that \"the vast majority of Mega's Internet traffic is legitimate and we are here to stay. If the content industry would like to take advantage of our popularity, we are happy to enter into a dialogue. We have some good ideas. Please get in touch.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
hjoy4
|
Would using a heavier head on a golf club give the ball more distance?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes, moving at the same speed, a heavier head would make the golf ball go faster. But there are other factors, such as moriaantje mentioning the contact time would likely not be the same. Also, you won't be swinging a heavier golf club at exactly the same speed, which complicates the issue. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For simplicity, we assume an elastic collision: the kinetic energy of the golf ball is proportional to the kinetic energy of the club, which is a function of its mass times the square of its velocity. While it initially seems that more mass would be beneficial, the force accelerating that mass (you swinging the club) is constant. As force = mass times acceleration, doubling the mass would cut the acceleration (and velocity) in half. \n\nPut simply, KE = 0.5mv^2 , while F (constant) = ma. Looking at the equations we see that to maximize the energy of the golf ball we actually need to *minimize* the mass of the club head, which may seem counter intuitive.\n\nPractically, engineers design club heads to be as light as possible while still retaining their structural characteristics.\n\ntl;dr: Less club head mass = faster golf ball.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the wind, terrain, and ball materials & construction are kept constant, more initial ball speed equals greater distance.\n\nThe initial ball speed cannot exceed the maximum speed of the contact area of the club head and ball through the duration of impact. Since the club face and ball are both elastic (metals and woods do compress and rebound slightly, and the springiness of the club shaft is a factor as well), the speed of this contact area through the impact can and does vary through the time of impact. The time of impact is brief, from a human experiential standpoint, but it is nonzero and important.\n\nAside from maximizing the speed of the club head at the initiation of ball impact, other factors relating to maximizing the speed of the contact point include maintaining the speed of the club head through the time of impact. Continued application of force on the club handle through the time of impact will tend to propel club face at a speed approximating that of initial impact, and the various elasticities in the club head, club shaft, and ball may accelerate the contact area to a speed greater than that of the club head generally. This is why you are told to swing through the ball; this is a way of communicating the importance of the speed of the club head not only at the instant of initial impact, but throughout the entire duration of contact. Shifting your weight assists you in applying force to the club handle for the duration of impact, and so assists you in maintaining the speed of the club head through the impact.\n\nIncreasing the mass of the club head will increase the force you must apply to the club handle in order to accelerate the club head to the same speed at the instant of initial impact. Assuming you can apply this force, the greater mass of the club head would tend to better maintain the speed of the club head through the time of impact, which *may* positively affect the speed of the contact area and thus the initial speed of the ball. \n\nHowever, as a practical matter, a golfer driving the ball for distance may be reasonably expected to bring to bear all available force on the club handle regardless of the mass of the head; it is not reasonable to assume that the golfer has reserve strength available to accelerate a heavier club head to a speed equivalent to that attainable with a club head of standard mass. In practical application, due to limitations of the golfer, increasing the mass of the club head will result in a *slower* club head speed at the instant of initial impact, and better maintenance of club head speed through the time of impact is unlikely have enough positive effect to overcome this deficiency.\n\ntl;dr: Developing your strength and technique have a lot more to do with increasing the ball's distance than playing with the mass of club head does.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1804774",
"title": "Park golf",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Clubs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "It is played using a club similar in appearance to a standard golf driver with a thicker, shorter shaft. The head on a Park Golf club is rarely varied, but the length of stick can change according to the height of the Parker. The club is flat, and only the most skillful Parker can hit the ball in the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13857068",
"title": "Iron (golf)",
"section": "Section::::Design and manufacture.:Comparison and preference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 634,
"text": "Clubs intended for skilled amateurs and professionals, while still incorporating some perimeter-weighting characteristics, generally have less extreme weight distribution, instead placing more weight closer to the center and higher, and reducing overall clubhead mass slightly. This allows the golfer to \"work the ball\" while still giving some advantage based on the lower center of mass as compared to older designs. The slightly reduced mass of some sets also increases clubhead speed allowing for more variation in swing strength and thus carry distance than would be possible with the heavier mass of most game improvement irons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1092612",
"title": "Glossary of golf",
"section": "Section::::B.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "BULLET::::- Blade: (i) A type of \"iron\" where the weight is distributed evenly across the back of the club-head as opposed to mainly around the perimeter (see \"cavity back\").(ii) A type of \"putter\" with a striking face considerably wider than the distance from the face to the rear of the club-head. (iii) a shot struck \"thinly\" with the bottom of an iron striking high up on the golf ball, causing a low trajectory shot with a lack of control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19568112",
"title": "Golf",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Golf clubs are used to hit the golf ball. Each club is composed of a shaft with a lance (or \"grip\") on the top end and a club head on the bottom. Long clubs, which have a lower amount of degree loft, are those meant to propel the ball a comparatively longer distance, and short clubs a higher degree of loft and a comparatively shorter distance. The actual physical length of each club is longer or shorter, depending on the distance the club is intended to propel the ball.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44390226",
"title": "915 line",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Head Structure Changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the top of the head, the weight of the 915 head was shifted from the front to the back. The top of the head right behind the face was made thinner while the toe and back of the club were thickened. This allowed the center of mass to shift away from the leading edge and more towards the back which allows the face to stay more stable through the impact. This keeps the face squarer when you come in contact with the ball which in turn leads to more consistent ball flights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1085894",
"title": "Golf ball",
"section": "Section::::Aerodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Backspin is imparted in almost every shot due to the golf club's loft (i.e., angle between the clubface and a vertical plane). A backspinning ball experiences an upward lift force which makes it fly higher and longer than a ball without spin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13856589",
"title": "Wood (golf)",
"section": "Section::::Drivers.:Driver customization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "The furthest shooting drivers of all are long-drive-clubs, which may have a 48-inch shaft. This is the maximum legal shaft length in golf. Maximum length shafts are unpopular even in professional golf, due to the shot inconsistency and smaller error margin they provide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1b74g2
|
Why is walking/running up a hill so much harder despite physical condition?
|
[
{
"answer": "When you walk up a flight of stairs or see a gradual hill, your body begins to 'prepare' itself by activating the sympathetic nervous system. This will increase your heart rate and respiratory rate. So even if your a marathon runner, just walking up a few flights of stairs will get your HR/resp rate up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42930501",
"title": "Sure-footedness",
"section": "Section::::Limitation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Nor does sure-footedness imply a head for heights, something that is often stated as a requirement for using mountain paths. In this context, a head for heights means having the ability to negotiate exposed sections of a route without feeling unduly frightened. However, it is no accident that both requirements are often referred to together because, on exposed routes, the consequences of falling are likely to be serious.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51053611",
"title": "El Greco fallacy",
"section": "Section::::In perception research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "Chaz Firestone and Brian Scholl have alleged that this fallacy has been the cause for mistaken thinking in perception research, including in studies that presumed to show that wearing a heavy backpack makes hills literally appear steeper, or holding rods outstretched horizontally would make doorways look narrower.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5437805",
"title": "Backward running",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Running backwards down a hill is more dangerous, and it is advised that someone learn how to drop into a backward roll before attempting it, to deal with any resulting tripping or loss of balance in the prone movement. Although the distance to the ground is greater running downhill backwards, the incline makes it much easier to perform rolls in downhill running, than when running level ground, so it can be done more instinctively. This applies to backward running and the backroll as it does to front running and the front roll.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5437805",
"title": "Backward running",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Running backwards up a hill is not very dangerous. It will always be at a lower speed due to the enhanced difficulty, and if one trips there is less of a distance towards the ground and it is easier to absorb the impact with the arms and buttocks so that the head is not as likely to hit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26032",
"title": "Running",
"section": "Section::::Running injuries.:High impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Some runners may experience injuries when running on concrete surfaces. The problem with running on concrete is that the body adjusts to this flat surface running, and some of the muscles will become weaker, along with the added impact of running on a harder surface. Therefore, it is advised to change terrain occasionally – such as trail, beach, or grass running. This is more unstable ground and allows the legs to strengthen different muscles. Runners should be wary of twisting their ankles on such terrain. Running downhill also increases knee stress and should, therefore, be avoided. Reducing the frequency and duration can also prevent injury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "308411",
"title": "Tuned mass damper",
"section": "Section::::Dampers in buildings and related structures.:Sources of vibration and resonance.:Mechanical human sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Masses of people walking up and down stairs at once, or great numbers of people stomping in unison, can cause serious problems in large structures like stadiums if those structures lack damping measures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4910228",
"title": "Arches of the foot",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "The anatomy and shape of a person’s longitudinal and transverse arch can dictate the types of injuries to which that person is susceptible. The height of a person’s arch is determined by the height of the navicular bone. Collapse of the longitudinal arches results in what is known as flat feet. A person with a low longitudinal arch, or flat feet will likely stand and walk with their feet in a pronated position, where the foot everts or rolls inward. This makes the person susceptible to heel pain, arch pain and plantar fasciitis. Flat footed people may also have more difficulty performing exercises that require supporting their weight on their toes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2e19li
|
why do big websites such as reddit and facebook not require their users to verify their emails?
|
[
{
"answer": "I recently worked on a project and I had to make this decision, so I'll share my thought process.\n\nFirst of all, verifying emails takes a long time and a lot of clicks. I'd estimate that 50% of users probably would close the tab if they saw that an email was required on registration.\n\nSecond, there's not a huge use for emails. All you can really do with an email address is use it to help a user recover their account, and if a user really cares about their account enough to recover it, they'll add it in an optional step later on anyway.\n\nBasically, requesting an email reduces how many people use your service and it provides very little utility, so it's not worth it for a lot of sites.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4928626",
"title": "DomainKeys Identified Mail",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "The need for email validated identification arises because forged addresses and content are otherwise easily created - and widely used in spam, phishing and other email-based fraud. For example, a fraudster may send a message claiming to be from \"[email protected]\", with the goal of convincing the recipient to accept and to read the email - and it is difficult for recipients to establish whether to trust this message. System administrators also have to deal with complaints about malicious email that appears to have originated from their systems, but did not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48736239",
"title": "Privacy concerns regarding Google",
"section": "Section::::Potential for data disclosure.:Gmail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Google Inc. claims that mail sent to or from Gmail is never read by a human being other than the account holder, and content that is read by computers is only used to improve the relevance of advertisements and block spam emails. The privacy policies of other popular email services, like Outlook.com and Yahoo, allow users' personal information to be collected and utilized for advertising purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34844326",
"title": "Anti-spam techniques (users)",
"section": "Section::::Confirmed opt-in for mailing lists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "One difficulty in implementing opt-in mailing lists is that many means of gathering user email addresses remain susceptible to forgery. For instance, if a company puts up a Web form to allow users to subscribe to a mailing list about its products, a malicious person can enter other people's email addresses — to harass them, or to make the company appear to be spamming. (To most anti-spammers, if the company sends e-mail to these forgery victims, it \"is\" spamming, albeit inadvertently.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3329984",
"title": "Opt-in email",
"section": "Section::::Forms.:Unconfirmed opt-in/Single opt-in.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Someone first gives an email address to the list software (for instance, on a Web page), but no steps are taken to make sure that this address belongs to the person submitting it. This can cause email from the mailing list to be considered spam because simple typos of the email address can cause the email to be sent to someone else. Malicious subscriptions are also possible, as are subscriptions that are due to spammers forging email addresses that are sent to the email address used to subscribe to the mailing list.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51622583",
"title": "Cold email",
"section": "Section::::Factors decreasing email deliverability.:Bad email address reputation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "An email address can be appointed with a bad or good reputation based on its sending history. If the emails are treated as spam by spam filters or reported by the recipients, the email address loses its reputation and further emails are placed into the spam folder or are entirely blocked by the Internet Service Provider.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5839294",
"title": "Email bomb",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:List linking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 524,
"text": "A large amount of confirmation emails initiated by registration bots signing up a specific email address to a multitude of services can be used to distract the view from important emails indicating that a security breach has happened elsewhere. If for example an Amazon account has been hacked, the hacker may contrive to have a flood of confirmation emails sent to the email address associated with the account to mask the fact that the Amazon shipment address has been changed and purchases have been made by the hacker. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "569005",
"title": "Gmail",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1125,
"text": "Google's mail servers automatically scan emails for multiple purposes, including to filter spam and malware, and to add context-sensitive advertisements next to emails. This advertising practice has been significantly criticized by privacy advocates due to concerns over unlimited data retention, ease of monitoring by third parties, users of other email providers not having agreed to the policy upon sending emails to Gmail addresses, and the potential for Google to change its policies to further decrease privacy by combining information with other Google data usage. The company has been the subject of lawsuits concerning the issues. Google has stated that email users must \"necessarily expect\" their emails to be subject to automated processing and claims that the service refrains from displaying ads next to potentially sensitive messages, such as those mentioning race, religion, sexual orientation, health, or financial statements. In June 2017, Google announced the upcoming end to the use of contextual Gmail content for advertising purposes, relying instead on data gathered from the use of its other services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2w07es
|
why do companies like ferrari which advertise minimally still achieve international recognition?
|
[
{
"answer": "Supercar and luxury car manufacturers often advertise on the professional racing circuit instead of TV.\n\nA Lamborghini ad will be wasted on the vast majority of the populace, but a Lamborghini winning a prestigious endurance race will put that car above others in the minds of millionaire racing enthusiasts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This isn't helpful but it reminds of the quote (I'm paraphrasing here) \"You don't see lamborghini's being advertised on TV because the people who can afford them aren't at home watching TV\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They do advertise. You just don't see it because you aren't the target market. \n\nHave you seen advertisements for audemars piguet, leerjet, lurssen? Probably not. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14532",
"title": "Italy",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "The automotive industry is a significant part of the Italian manufacturing sector, with over 144,000 firms and almost 485,000 employed people in 2015, and a contribution of 8.5% to Italian GDP. Fiat Chrysler Automobiles or FCA is currently the world's seventh-largest auto maker. The country boasts a wide range of acclaimed products, from very compact city cars to luxury supercars such as Maserati, Lamborghini, and Ferrari, which was rated the world's most powerful brand by Brand Finance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "283846",
"title": "Culture of Italy",
"section": "Section::::Arts.:Science and technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "The Italians love of automobiles and speed has made Italy famous for its production of many of the world's most famous sports cars and the industry that flourishes there. Some of the world's most elite vehicles were developed in Italy: Lamborghini, Ferrari, Alfa Romeo, and Maserati are but a few of the well-known luxury cars that originated in Italy. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33950556",
"title": "Ferrari 250 GT Lusso",
"section": "Section::::Heritage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "The Ferrari 250 GT Lusso also marked the conclusion of a marketing strategy of Enzo Ferrari, according to which \"Ferrari racing cars were sold, for car racing lined with the traffic, so that it can make the race competitive\". Thus, Ferrari became a fully functional car manufacturer that attracted important customers interested in funding its passion for motor racing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60713342",
"title": "Automotive industry in Argentina",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Some global companies are present in Argentina, including Fiat, Volkswagen, Ford, Iveco, General Motors, Nissan, Toyota, Scania, Mercedes-Benz, Renault, Honda, Groupe PSA (Peugeot-Citroen), etc., as well as national companies, in particular Materfer, ТАТ SA, Helvetica, Crespi, PurSang, etc. The latter produce modern replicas of classic cars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26260602",
"title": "Economy of Turin",
"section": "Section::::Industry.:Automotive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Data from 2006 indicated that growth in Italian GDP at that time was due to resumption of exports of cars from the Fiat Group. Associated automotive industries also benefited. Such automotive companies include Iveco, Alfa Romeo, Abarth and Lancia, Pininfarina, Bertone and Giugiaro).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6644682",
"title": "Sport in Italy",
"section": "Section::::Motorsports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Italians have a great passion for their motorsport, and their F1 team Ferrari has had great success over the many years as they started the sport back in 1950, when the sport first started. They have won 16 constructors' championships and 15 drivers' championships. This team is also the most successful engine manufacturer in the sport, and this shows in their performance in their F1 team and cars. Their greatest driver statistically is Michael Schumacher and their latest F1 drivers are Sebastian Vettel and Charles Leclerc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3800060",
"title": "Nation branding",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Different ways that nation project their nation brand include export, foreign direct investment, and tourism. One example of exporting products is that the country Germany is known for their motor industry because famous car companies like Mercedes, Audi, and BMW are German companies. An example of foreign direct investments that help the nation brand are US companies building maquiladoras and other European countries having factories in different countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
q2v5g
|
Does Boxing/MMA headgear protect against trauma?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'll give this my best shot, since none have answered yet.\n\nThe headgear/padding used in most fighting sports are there to protect you from the most serious injuries: skull fractures, fingers/knuckles cracking, wrists breaking. As far as protection from concussions or brain trauma, again it protects against the worst f it.\n\nAll safety gear in fighting sports has to allow for enough trauma to allow the fighters to hurt each other enough for a knockout/win. The gear just acts to prevent the athletes from going to the hospital/dying.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This has been extremley helpful :) thanks guys!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "152884",
"title": "Boxing training",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Safety Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "BULLET::::- Headgear: Used to protect boxers from soft tissue damage, (bruises, cuts, etc.), during sparring - also used in competition in amateur boxing. Headgear offers no protection from the effects of hard punches (stunning, knockdowns, KOs). It is important that boxers are aware of this otherwise headgear can produce a false sense of security leading a boxer to take punches rather than defend himself or herself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6822383",
"title": "Boxing styles and technique",
"section": "Section::::Equipment and safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Headgear protects against cuts, scrapes, and swelling, but does not protect very well against concussions. Headgear does not sufficiently protect the brain from the jarring that occurs when the head is struck with great force. Also, most boxers aim for the chin on opponents, and the chin is usually not padded. Thus, a powerpunch can do a lot of damage to a boxer, and even a jab that connects to the chin can cause damage, regardless of whether or not headgear is being utilized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4817276",
"title": "Headgear (martial arts)",
"section": "Section::::Point fighting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Point fighting headgear, which is commonly required in sport karate tournaments is made of a molded and dipped foam. This type of headgear is most common in no contact and semi contact fighting. It is designed to protect against accidental impact, including the head hitting the floor after a slip or knockdown. This sort of headgear can be open face, full faced and sometimes even a full plastic face shield.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8542143",
"title": "Mixed martial arts rules",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "BULLET::::- Protection of the health of the fighters: This goal was partially motivated to clear the stigma of \"barbaric, no rules, fighting-to-the-death\" matches that MMA obtained because of its vale tudo and no holds barred roots. It also helps athletes avoid injuries which would otherwise hamper the training regimens that improve skill and ability and lead to better fights in the future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5158836",
"title": "Helmet Boxing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Helmet boxing or Locker Boxing (also called a \"Cage Rage,\" \"Buckets,\" \"Helmet fight\" or \"Helmets and Gloves\") is a game played by primarily teenage hockey or lacrosse players in their dressing rooms, basements, or locker rooms. These are generally not supervised by adults. Participants wear helmets and sometimes gloves and fight in a locker room. The object of the game is to score as many hits on the head as possible until the opponent is knocked down, gives up, or their helmet falls off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6822383",
"title": "Boxing styles and technique",
"section": "Section::::Defense.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "All fighters have their own variations to these styles. Some fighters may have their guard higher for more head protection while others have their guard lower to provide better protection against body punches. Many fighters don't strictly use a single position, but rather adapt to the situation when choosing a certain position to protect them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4817276",
"title": "Headgear (martial arts)",
"section": "Section::::Boxing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Headgear is a padded helmet, worn on the head by contestants in Amateur and Olympic boxing. It effectively protects against cuts, scrapes, and swelling, but does not protect very well against concussions. It will not protect the brain from the jarring that occurs when the head is struck. Also, most boxers aim for the chin on opponents, and the chin is usually not protected by headgear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10pq5r
|
Can you identify what decade this picture was from based on the clothes worn?
|
[
{
"answer": "The buildings are probably a better bet.\n\nContext: The image is looking roughly south (the Pacific -- west -- is to the right, Santa Monica -- east -- is to the left). The rings are just south of the famous Santa Monica Pier.\n\n* The two tall buildings by the acrobat's hands look to be the Santa Monica Shores buildings. Note the \"3-2-2\" pattern of windows/balconies. They're a few blocks south of the Santa Monica Pier. They were built in 1965 and 1966 according to [Emporis](_URL_0_).\n* The pier extending out to the ocean would then probably be [Pacific Ocean Park](_URL_1_), which opened in 1958, closed in 1967 and was demolished in the mid 70s.\n\nGuess: No earlier than 1966 and no later than 1975.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4081374",
"title": "National Museum of Costume",
"section": "Section::::Rooms.:Sitting room.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "\"This room features four figures in clothes that date from the 1873 to early 1880s period. It was typical of the time that some people wore more up-to-date styles than others; whether people wore the very latest fashions depended on their tastes, income and also their age.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "262831",
"title": "Miami Vice",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Impact on popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Many of the fashion styles and trends popularized by the TV show, such as fast cars and speed boats, unshaven beard stubble, a T-shirt under pastel suits, no socks, rolled up sleeves, boat shoes and Ray Ban sunglasses symbolize the stereotypical image of 1980s fashion and culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13312476",
"title": "Breeching (boys)",
"section": "Section::::Celebrations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "In the 19th century, photographs were often taken of the boy in his new trousers, typically with his father. He might also collect small gifts of money by going round the neighbourhood showing off his new clothes. Friends, of the mother as much as the boy, might gather to see his first appearance. A letter of 1679 from Lady Anne North to her widowed and absent son gives a lengthy account of the breeching of her grandson:\"...Never had any bride that was to be dressed upon her wedding-night more hands about her, some the legs and some the armes, the taylor buttn'ing and other putting on the sword, and so many lookers on that had I not a ffinger amongst them I could not have seen him. When he was quit drest he acted his part as well as any of them... since you could not have the first sight I resolved you should have a full relation...\". The dresses he wore before she calls \"coats\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4483239",
"title": "Sally Grossman",
"section": "Section::::\"Bringing It All Back Home\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "The photograph was taken by Daniel Kramer in the Woodstock, New York, home. The chaise longue in the photograph was a wedding gift to the Grossmans from Mary Travers of Peter, Paul and Mary. As for the red jersey dress, Grossman says, \"I don't think I've worn it again.\" As of 2010, Grossman operates the Woodstock-based Bearsville Records following the death of her husband. Grossman says, \"It's amazing to be on an album cover that people remember 30 years later.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9571696",
"title": "People Today (magazine)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "Purchased by Hillman Periodicals end of January 1951, the magazine was published from the 1950s to the 1970s, following the steps of \"Playboy\" and \"Modern Man\". The small 4 X 6 magazine format fit perfectly in the breast pocket of a gentleman's suit coat or in a woman's pocket book. One of the unique characteristics of \"People Today\" was the attractive photos of beautiful, sexy women often scantily clothed on the front and back covers. Because of this, \"People Today\" soon became categorized as a risque or cheesecake periodical. \"People Today\" featured models, celebrities, the elite, news you can use and people in the know. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2121778",
"title": "Fashion photography",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Fashion photography has been in existence since the earliest days of photography. In 1856, Adolphe Braun published a book containing 288 photographs of Virginia Oldoini, Countess di Castiglione, a Tuscan noblewoman at the court of Napoleon III. The photos depict her in her official court garb, making her the first fashion model.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54613149",
"title": "John Launois",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Represented by the Black Star photo agency in New York, Launois recorded some of the most iconic images of the 1950s, 60s and 70s, including life behind the Iron Curtain for Life magazine, the discovery of a modern day Stone Age tribe for National Geographic, human rights activist Malcolm X in Cairo, Egypt during his final pilgrimage, as well as the rise of rock stars such as the Beatles and Bob Dylan for the Saturday Evening Post, among others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
465xaw
|
why is it called hemophilia?
|
[
{
"answer": "You bleed a lot I guess. You love blood so much you just can't clot your wounds.\n\nPhilia also means \"tendency toward\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "According to _URL_0_\nit's using an alternative emphasis on the latter part of the word.\n > [philia](_URL_1_) \"to love\", here with a sense of \"tendency to.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18866828",
"title": "Obligate carrier",
"section": "Section::::X-linked Recessive.:Hemophilia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Hemophilia, or haemophilia, is an X-linked recessive disorder that impairs the body's control over blood clotting. Haemophilia A and Haemophilia B arise from mutations in the genes for factor VIII and factor IX, respectively. Females with this disease are almost exclusively unaffected, obligate carriers. The mutations can be passed on to offspring by mothers and fathers, but the phenotype is only expressed in males that inherit the mutation. All daughters of a hemophiliac father are obligate carriers of the disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "275216",
"title": "Hemodynamics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Hemodynamics or haemodynamics is the dynamics of blood flow. The circulatory system is controlled by homeostatic mechanisms, such as hydraulic circuits are controlled by control systems. Hemodynamic response continuously monitors and adjusts to conditions in the body and its environment. Thus hemodynamics explains the physical laws that govern the flow of blood in the blood vessels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4318651",
"title": "Eddy (fluid dynamics)",
"section": "Section::::Research and development.:Hemodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Hemodynamics is the study of blood flow in the circulatory system. Blood flow in straight sections of the arterial tree are typically laminar (high, directed wall stress), but branches and curvatures in the system cause turbulent flow. Turbulent flow in the arterial tree can cause a number of concerning effects, including atherosclerotic lesions, postsurgical neointimal hyperplasia, in-stent restenosis, vein bypass graft failure, transplant vasculopathy, and aortic valve calcification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "199312",
"title": "Haemophilia A",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Haemophilia A (or hemophilia A) is a genetic deficiency in clotting factor VIII, which causes increased bleeding and usually affects males. In the majority of cases it is inherited as an X-linked recessive trait, though there are cases which arise from spontaneous mutations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2166658",
"title": "Hemothorax",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "A hemothorax (derived from hemo- [blood] + thorax [chest], plural \"hemothoraces\") is an accumulation of blood within the pleural cavity. The symptoms of a hemothorax include chest pain and difficulty breathing, while the clinical signs include reduced breath sounds on the affected side and a rapid heart rate. Hemothoraces are usually caused by an injury but may occur spontaneously: due to cancer invading the pleural cavity, as a result of a blood clotting disorder, as an unusual manifestation of endometriosis, in response to a collapsed lung, or rarely in association with other conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5312299",
"title": "Impedance cardiography",
"section": "Section::::Hemodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Hemodynamics is a subchapter of cardiovascular physiology, which is concerned with the forces generated by the heart and the resulting motion of blood through the cardiovascular system. These forces demonstrate themselves to the clinician as paired values of blood flow and blood pressure measured simultaneously at the output node of the left heart. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "221228",
"title": "Hemoptysis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Hemoptysis is the coughing up of blood or blood-stained mucus from the bronchi, larynx, trachea, or lungs. In other words, it is the airway bleeding. This can occur with lung cancer, infections such as tuberculosis, bronchitis, or pneumonia, and certain cardiovascular conditions. Hemoptysis is considered massive at . In such cases, there are always severe injuries. The primary danger comes from choking, rather than blood loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
99rwz8
|
My high school history teachers always said that the Manhattan Project scientists had some degree of not knowing what was going to happen during the Trinity Test. How much of these allegations, specifically that some thought they'd light the sky on fire, were true?
|
[
{
"answer": "More can be written, but you might like to start with [\"Was there really any fear during the development of the atomic bomb that it could detonate the atmosphere?\"](_URL_1_) by /u/restricteddata.\n\nIf you're also interested in post-war calculations, a later discussion by the same is [\"I just read that, when they tested the atomic bomb, there was a belief it might light the atmosphere on fire. If they believed this, why did they still test it?\"](_URL_2_). I hope that I can also point to his recent blog post -- not in AskHistorians -- [\"Cleansing thermonuclear fire\"](_URL_0_).\n\nThis is not to discourage discussion. More questions, data and debate are welcome.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was certainly a lot of uncertainty, but the uncertainty was bounded. Here is a _very_ abridged rundown of what I think the interesting areas of uncertainty were:\n\n* To get it out of the way, _very minor_ uncertainty about whether the test might ignite the atmosphere in a giant fusion reaction. Which is to say, they were almost totally sure that wouldn't happen. [_Almost_ is not _100% certain_](_URL_0_), but they did not really think it was a realistic possibility. But it isn't as uncertain as it sometimes is portrayed. \n\n* They had _considerable_ uncertainty about the efficiency of the implosion mechanism being tested, which meant they had considerable uncertainty about the explosive power of the bomb. The \"solid\" bet was around 4-5 kilotons of power. The pessimists thought it might not work at all. The \"optimists\" thought it might be several tens of kilotons. In the end, it was 20 kilotons, which is 4-5X more powerful than they expected. That's not _terrible_ (especially since damage is mostly an issue of order of magnitude; you have to increase the explosive power by a factor of 8 to increase the damage by a factor of 2), but it's still an uncomfortably large factor to be off by when we're talking about a nuclear weapon.\n\n* They had _a lot_ of uncertainty about where the radioactive cloud would go, or how intense it would be. They had monitors and soldiers in nearby towns, ready to evacuate them if the radiation levels got unacceptably high. They didn't end up evacuating anybody but [a considerable area was exposed to fallout](_URL_2_).\n\n* They had a _lot_ of uncertainty about how nearby people would react, whether they would buy their \"an ammunition dump\" exploded story, and so on. Would their secrecy hold? They hoped so, but there wasn't much they could do about it beyond what they did.\n\n* They had a _fair amount_ of uncertainty about the actual effects of the weapon. They could guess how some of the effects (blast, radiation, pressure) would scale up to kiloton ranges, but they really didn't know. They tried to use instrumentation to gauge it; some of it succeeded in getting good data, while some of it failed (a bunch of it was destroyed by the test itself). This means they went into the bombing of Japan with only a rough idea of what was going to happen to the cities they were dropped on (destroyed, yes, but there are a lot of other details — they [didn't expect so many people would be exposed to acute radiation and survive the initial attack](_URL_1_), for example). \n\nThere are other areas one could probe for uncertainty (if you or anyone else have questions, feel free to ask them), but this I think gives a gist of what they were thinking. I think it's important to note that uncertainty exists on a scale, which is to say, it's not all or nothing. In some areas you might have a little uncertainty, in some areas you might have a lot, in some areas you might have none, etc. Separately there are the areas where you don't even know you have uncertainty (the oft-mocked but not-dumb idea of \"unknown unknowns\"), which can be their own sources of deep uncertainty (an example from Trinity might be, \"were there any spies at the Trinity test?\", which nobody appears to have even considered at the time; at least one spy, Klaus Fuchs, was present). \n\nThe best overall book on the Trinity test is F.M. Szasz, _The Day the Sun Rose Twice_, which has a _lot_ of detail in it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2246401",
"title": "Kenneth Bainbridge",
"section": "Section::::World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "On July 16, 1945, Bainbridge and his colleagues conducted the Trinity nuclear test. \"My personal nightmare,\" he later wrote, \"was knowing that if the bomb didn't go off or hangfired, I, as head of the test, would have to go to the tower first and seek to find out what had gone wrong.\" To his relief, the explosion of the first atomic bomb went off without such drama, in what he later described as \"a foul and awesome display\". He turned to Oppenheimer and said, \"Now we are all sons of bitches.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15942",
"title": "John von Neumann",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear weapons.:Manhattan Project.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 984,
"text": "On July 16, 1945, von Neumann and numerous other Manhattan Project personnel were eyewitnesses to the first test of an atomic bomb detonation, which was code-named Trinity. The event was conducted as a test of the implosion method device, at the bombing range near Alamogordo Army Airfield, southeast of Socorro, New Mexico. Based on his observation alone, von Neumann estimated the test had resulted in a blast equivalent to but Enrico Fermi produced a more accurate estimate of 10 kilotons by dropping scraps of torn-up paper as the shock wave passed his location and watching how far they scattered. The actual power of the explosion had been between 20 and 22 kilotons. It was in von Neumann's 1944 papers that the expression \"kilotons\" appeared for the first time. After the war, Robert Oppenheimer remarked that the physicists involved in the Manhattan project had \"known sin\". Von Neumann's response was that \"sometimes someone confesses a sin in order to take credit for it.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12841891",
"title": "Mythology of Carnivàle",
"section": "Section::::Historical and cultural allusions.:Trinity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1291,
"text": "Reviews interpreted these visions as Ben's challenge to find and defeat Brother Justin; Ben has to ultimately stop the creation of the atomic bomb as \"the world's march towards doomsday.\" The Season 1 prologue already suggested this interpretation, mentioning \"a false sun explod[ing] over Trinity,\" at which point \"man forever traded away wonder for reason.\" The Trinity test near Alamogordo, New Mexico was humankind's first test of a nuclear weapon in 1945, and Daniel Knauf would have finished \"Carnivàle\"'s six-year run with the explosion of an atomic bomb as the beginning of the \"Age of Reason\". Still, Knauf's story is \"not about the deployment of the bomb, it's more about the invention of the bomb,\" with the focus \"around Alamogordo and the Trinity test site rather than Hiroshima and Nagasaki.\" Much research was put into the visual effects of the explosion. Stock footage of the first beats of nuclear explosions and a self-created explosion of 300 gallons of gasoline were used for reference. The ground effects and blowing dust were created with combinations of volumetric computer graphics smoke, and the fireball of the nuclear explosion was built from Hubble images of the Sun. Knauf left the interpretation of the kiss vision open to both the characters and the audience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19603",
"title": "Manhattan Project",
"section": "Section::::Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.:Bombings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 163,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 163,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "At the Potsdam Conference in Germany, Truman was informed that the Trinity test had been successful. He told Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, that the US had a new superweapon, without giving any details. This was the first official communication to the Soviet Union about the bomb, but Stalin already knew about it from spies. With the authorization to use the bomb against Japan already given, no alternatives were considered after the Japanese rejection of the Potsdam Declaration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40407137",
"title": "Lawrence H. Johnston",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Manhattan Project.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Johnston and Alvarez's next task for the Manhattan Project was to develop a set of calibrated microphone/transmitters to be parachuted from an aircraft to measure the strength of the blast wave from the atomic explosion, so as to allow the scientists to calculate the bomb's energy. He observed the Trinity nuclear test from a B-29 Superfortress that also carried fellow Project Alberta members Harold Agnew and Deak Parsons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38279543",
"title": "Kenneth Greisen",
"section": "Section::::Trinity test eyewitness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "\"From 1943 to 1946 Greisen was a member of the group of physicists who worked on the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos. As one of the leaders of the denotation team, he was an observer at the Trinity test on 16 July 1945. His eyewitness report of that world-changing event is an important historical document. His comment \"My God! It worked!\" was typical of him.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47675366",
"title": "Joe Steele (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Evidence of German nuclear testing, captured by the Western Allies near the end of the war, is brought to the attention of Steele, who demands answers from Einstein. Einstein states the potential for a weapon of enormous destructive power, but says he did not want such a weapon in the hands of Joe Steele. Steele has Einstein executed (along with J. Robert Oppenheimer, Enrico Fermi, and other colleagues), and the American nuclear project hastily gets underway.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2twmg7
|
What, on the atomic level, causes cooling when a gas is expanding?
|
[
{
"answer": "In order for the gas molecules to expand, it uses energy to push away the surrounding molecules. It loses energy and will therefore be at a lower temperature than the surrounding molecules. Being at a lower temperature will mean that heat will flow from the hotter surroundings to the cold expanded gas.\n\nAlso compressing gas doesn't necessarily mean it will increase in temperature. It depends if it is adiabatic compression or isothermal. If it's the former, then it will increase in temperature and then cool down to the same temperature as its surroundings (equilibrium).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14066275",
"title": "Inversion temperature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "where formula_11 is the critical temperature of the substance. So for formula_12, an expansion at constant enthalpy increases temperature as the work done by the repulsive interactions of the gas is dominant, and so the change in energy is negative. But for formula_13, expansion causes temperature to decrease because the work of attractive intermolecular forces dominates, giving a positive change in energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1440776",
"title": "Adiabatic invariant",
"section": "Section::::Thermodynamics.:Adiabatic expansion of an ideal gas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "If a container with an ideal gas is expanded instantaneously, the temperature of the gas doesn't change at all, because none of the molecules slow down. The molecules keep their kinetic energy, but now the gas occupies a bigger volume. If the container expands slowly, however, so that the ideal gas pressure law holds at any time, gas molecules lose energy at the rate that they do work on the expanding wall. The amount of work they do is the pressure times the area of the wall times the outward displacement, which is the pressure times the change in the volume of the gas:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1419",
"title": "Adiabatic process",
"section": "Section::::Adiabatic heating and cooling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "The adiabatic compression of a gas causes a rise in temperature of the gas. Adiabatic expansion against pressure, or a spring, causes a drop in temperature. In contrast, free expansion is an isothermal process for an ideal gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1867005",
"title": "Joule expansion",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Real gases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Unlike ideal gases, the temperature of a real gas will change during a Joule expansion. Empirically, it is found that almost all gases cool during a Joule expansion at all temperatures investigated; the exceptions are helium, at temperatures above about 40 K, and hydrogen, at temperatures above about 200 K. This temperature is known as the inversion temperature of the gas. Above this temperature gas heats up during Joule expansion. Since internal energy is constant, cooling must be due to the conversion of internal kinetic energy to internal potential energy, with the opposite being the case for warming.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1185498",
"title": "Fugacity",
"section": "Section::::Pure substance.:Condensed phase.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "When calculating the fugacity of the compressed phase, one can generally assume the volume is constant. At constant temperature, the change in fugacity as the pressure goes from the saturation press to is\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "695523",
"title": "Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "The Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism is an astronomical process that occurs when the surface of a star or a planet cools. The cooling causes the pressure to drop, and the star or planet shrinks as a result. This compression, in turn, heats the core of the star/planet. This mechanism is evident on Jupiter and Saturn and on brown dwarfs whose central temperatures are not high enough to undergo nuclear fusion. It is estimated that Jupiter radiates more energy through this mechanism than it receives from the Sun, but Saturn might not. The latter process causes Jupiter to shrink at a rate of two centimetres each year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113469",
"title": "Joule–Thomson effect",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "BULLET::::- If the expansion process is reversible, meaning that the gas is in thermodynamic equilibrium at all times, it is called an \"isentropic\" expansion. In this scenario, the gas does positive work during the expansion, and its temperature decreases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lp52f
|
How widely used was the French Revolutionary Calendar?
|
[
{
"answer": "It was VERY widely used. All government documents from that period bear the Republican calendar date. Passports issued use that calendar. Birth certificates. \n\nPeople were quick to adopt it, too, because it signified that you were favorable to the new Republican regime. Using words like \"citoyen(nne)\" (\"citizen\") to address a stranger or as an honorific (\"Citizen Boulanger\") was another way to show that you were most definitely not monarchist, nope no way. \n\nYou can still see some buildings in Paris that have their erection date displayed in Republican calendar terms.\n\nWhen Paris declared itself independent from France in 1871 during the Commune, they briefly switched back to the Republican calendar to show their ideological roots as from the Revolution. \n\nAs for your bonus question... I don't think it was ever intended to make people less religious. I'd love to see contradictory evidence, but I think it was partially symbolic and partially to develop a new labor schedule that was more fair to more people. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12025",
"title": "Genealogy",
"section": "Section::::Types of information.:Dates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The French Republican Calendar or French Revolutionary Calendar was a calendar proposed during the French Revolution, and used by the French government for about 12 years from late 1793 to 1805, and for 18 days in 1871 in Paris. Dates in official records at this time use the revolutionary calendar and need \"translating\" into the Gregorian calendar for calculating ages etc. There are various websites which do this.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11396",
"title": "French Republican calendar",
"section": "Section::::Overview and origins.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1496,
"text": "The calendar is frequently named the \"French Revolutionary Calendar\" because it was created during the Revolution, but this is a slight misnomer. Indeed, there was initially a debate as to whether the calendar should celebrate the Great Revolution, which began in July 1789, or the Republic, which was established in 1792. Immediately following 14 July 1789, papers and pamphlets started calling 1789 year of Liberty and the following years and . It was in 1792, with the practical problem of dating financial transactions, that the legislative assembly was confronted with the problem of the calendar. Originally, the choice of epoch was either 1 January 1789 or 14 July 1789. After some hesitation the assembly decided on 2 January 1792 that all official documents would use the \"era of Liberty\" and that the year of Liberty started on 1 January 1792. This usage was modified on 22 September 1792 when the Republic was proclaimed and the Convention decided that all public documents would be dated Year I of the French Republic. The decree of 2 January 1793 stipulated that the year II of the Republic began on 1 January 1793; this was revoked with the introduction of the new calendar, which set 22 September 1793 as the beginning of year . The establishment of the Republic was used as the epochal date for the calendar; therefore, the calendar commemorates the Republic, not the Revolution. In France, it is known as the \"calendrier républicain\" as well as the \"calendrier révolutionnaire\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11396",
"title": "French Republican calendar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "The French Republican calendar (), also commonly called the French Revolutionary calendar (\"calendrier révolutionnaire français\"), was a calendar created and implemented during the French Revolution, and used by the French government for about 12 years from late 1793 to 1805, and for 18 days by the Paris Commune in 1871. The revolutionary system was designed in part to remove all religious and royalist influences from the calendar, and was part of a larger attempt at decimalisation in France (which also included decimal time of day, decimalisation of currency, and metrication). It was used in government records in France and other areas under French rule, including Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Malta, and Italy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30012",
"title": "Time",
"section": "Section::::Temporal measurement and history.:History of the calendar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "During the French Revolution, a new clock and calendar were invented in an attempt to de-Christianize time and create a more rational system in order to replace the Gregorian calendar. The French Republican Calendar's days consisted of ten hours of a hundred minutes of a hundred seconds, which marked a deviation from the 12-based duodecimal system used in many other devices by many cultures. The system was abolished in 1806.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11097960",
"title": "Sabbath",
"section": "Section::::Secular traditions.:State-mandated rest days.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "The reform calendar of the French Revolution was used from 1793 to 1805. It contained twelve months of three ten-day weeks; the five or six extra days needed to approximate the tropical year were placed after the months at the end of each year. The tenth day of each week, \"décadi\", replaced Sunday as the day of rest and festivity in France.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41113",
"title": "Epoch",
"section": "Section::::Calendar eras.:Modern eras.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the French Republican Calendar, a calendar used by the French government for about twelve years from late 1793, the epoch was the beginning of the \"Republican Era\", September 22, 1792 (the day the French First Republic was proclaimed, one day after the Convention abolished the monarchy).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2620487",
"title": "Units of measurement in France",
"section": "Section::::Revolutionary France (1795–1812).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The French Revolution and subsequent Napoleonic Wars marked the end of the Age of Enlightenment. The forces of change that had been brewing manifest themselves across all of France, including the way in which units of measure should be defined. The savants of the day favoured the use of a system of units that were inter-related and which used a decimal basis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2rx24b
|
if potatoes are relatively healthy, olive oil is very healthy, and salt isn't that bad for you, why are french fries so terrible?
|
[
{
"answer": "Potatoes are starch (sugar storage for plants) oil is fat ( energy storage) and salt is actually fine as long as your water consumption is on par.\n\nYou end up eating a lot of calories for very little nutritional benefit. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1) Olive oil is not used in deep fryers. Vegetable, canola, or peanut oils are the most common, as well as lard. None of these is particularly healthy. \n\n2) Deep frying allows more oils to be absorbed by the food, as opposed to sautéeing. So you're not just cooking the fries in those unhealthy fats, you're also ingesting more of it than you realize. \n\n3) The high temperatures of deep fryers (something something food chemistry) that make the food more delicious, but less healthy. Analogous to the char on a steak or burger. \n\nNeed a nutritionist or chemist to better explain #3",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "762763",
"title": "Baked potato",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Once a potato has been baked, some people discard the skin and eat only the softer and moister interior, while others enjoy the taste and texture of the crisp skin, which is rich in dietary fiber. Potatoes baked in their skins may lose between 20 and 40% of their vitamin C content because heating in air is slow and vitamin inactivation can continue for a long time. Small potatoes bake more quickly than large ones and therefore retain more of their vitamin C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2381355",
"title": "Salt potatoes",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Preparation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "The resulting potatoes are creamy, as the starch in the potatoes cooks more completely due to the higher boiling temperature of the extra-salty water. The salty skin stands up particularly well to both herbed and plain melted butter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10885",
"title": "French fries",
"section": "Section::::Health aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Experts have criticized french fries for being very unhealthy. According to Jonathan Bonnet, MD, in a \"TIME\" magazine article, \"fries are nutritionally unrecognizable from a spud\" because they \"involve frying, salting, and removing one of the healthiest parts of the potato: the skin, where many of the nutrients and fiber are found.\" Kristin Kirkpatrick, RD, calls french fries \"...an extremely starchy vegetable dipped in a fryer that then loads on the unhealthy fat, and what you have left is a food that has no nutritional redeeming value in it at all.\" David Katz, MD states that \"French fries are often the super-fatty side dish to a burger—and both are often used as vehicles for things like sugar-laced ketchup and fatty mayo.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10885",
"title": "French fries",
"section": "Section::::Health aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "French fries contain some of the highest levels of acrylamides of any foodstuff, and experts have raised concerns about the effects of acrylamides on human health. According to the American Cancer Society, it is not clear whether acrylamide consumption affects people's risk of getting cancer. A meta-analysis indicated that dietary acrylamide is not related to the risk of most common cancers, but could not exclude a modest association for kidney, endometrial or ovarian cancers. A lower-fat method for producing a French fry-like product is to coat \"Frenched\" or wedge potatoes in oil and spices/flavoring before baking them. The temperature will be lower compared to deep frying, and which also reduces acrylamide formation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51628",
"title": "Sweet potato",
"section": "Section::::Nutrient content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Sweet potato cultivars with dark orange flesh have more beta-carotene than those with light-colored flesh, and their increased cultivation is being encouraged in Africa where vitamin A deficiency is a serious health problem. A 2012 study of 10,000 households in Uganda found that children eating beta-carotene enriched sweet potatoes suffered less vitamin A deficiency than those not consuming as much beta-carotene.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5355",
"title": "Cooking",
"section": "Section::::Health and safety.:Effects on nutritional content of food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Proponents of raw foodism argue that cooking food increases the risk of some of the detrimental effects on food or health. They point out that during cooking of vegetables and fruit containing vitamin C, the vitamin elutes into the cooking water and becomes degraded through oxidation. Peeling vegetables can also substantially reduce the vitamin C content, especially in the case of potatoes where most vitamin C is in the skin. However, research has shown that in the specific case of carotenoids a greater proportion is absorbed from cooked vegetables than from raw vegetables.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2366191",
"title": "Instant mashed potatoes",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Instant mashed potatoes have substantially more sodium than fresh potatoes, and much less dietary fiber. In other respects they are similar to mashed fresh potatoes in their nutritional qualities, about two-thirds starch by dry weight, with smaller amounts of protein, dietary fiber, and vitamins. The largest difference is the loss of vitamin C, although some products may be enriched to compensate. One hundred grams of unenriched instant mashed potatoes provides 11% of the Dietary Reference Intake of vitamin C, compared to 18% provided by the fresh potato version.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1mpv36
|
"jesus died for our sins" - what exactly does this mean?
|
[
{
"answer": "The idea as I understand it is thus:\n\nGod is perfectly good and perfectly just. Being Good, he loves his creations and wants to bless them and be with them forever. However, being Just, he cannot reward evil. The penalty for transgressions has to be paid.\n\nJesus had no sin of his own. He took the sins of everyone on himself, making us justified in the eyes of God. And, because Jesus is a part of God (or also God, whatever), sin, death and damnation have no real power over him anyway, so after paying this penalty he came back to life, still as sinless as ever.\n\nDoes that help?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the old testament, the way to atone for sins and attain forgiveness was through sacrifice of so-called \"clean\" animals. There are some theologians that state that Jesus represents a human sacrifice (an \"ultimate sacrifice\" if you will) that permanently absolves mankind of their sins so long as they repent. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When Adam and Eve ate the fruit from the tree of knowledge, God got really pissed. He basically set up this whole paradise for them and let them do whatever they wanted except for *one thing*, and they broke that rule anyway.\n\nThis pissed God off so much that he kicked humanity out of the Garden of Eden, and gave them all sorts of punishments for it. It's referred to as the Original Sin, and it was so bad that everybody who descended from Adam and Eve (ie everybody) is responsible for it.\n\nJesus sacrificed himself in order to repent for the Original Sin. He went through a tremendous amount of torment in order to make up for the wrongs of humanity, basically. It's well-established in the Bible (at least the New Testament) that God will forgive sin if the sinner repents for it.\n\nSo, the idea is that by accepting Christ, you get to piggyback onto his repentance, and are thus forgiven for original sin. That's part of what baptism is for (and why more extreme sects believe that unbaptized babies go to Hell).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well there is the idea of Christian Gnosticism.\n\nWhich as I understand comes down to this:\n\nThere is a true God, this true God created lesser divinities, one of which created the Jewish god. The Jewish God was a poor creation, and was hidden behind a shroud and kept secret by its creator, as its creator was ashamed of its creation.\n\nThe Jewish god believes it is the only being and a perfect one at that (due to the shroud), and creates man. The Jewish god is (as far as divinity goes) imperfect, incompetent or plain evil. \n\nThe true God eventually finds out about the Jewish god and Jesus is a messenger/incarnation of the true God and sets us free from the tyranny of the Jewish God by his sacrifice.\n\nI think its an interesting idea, though it didn't survive past the 3rd or 4th century CE.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you don't sin, Jesus died for nothing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I understand the blood sacrifice, but isn't this sacrifice invalidated when he got resurrected? I mean how is the temporal death of a virtually inmortal being a sacrifice?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Let's God is the judge at your local court house and Jesus a public defender. You get a ticket for speeding and have to stand before God. You're guilty, you know it, God knows it. God says your speeding potentially endangers innocent bystanders and it's not fair to people who follow the rules to have to put up your reckless behavior. God takes your license but you need it to get to work. You look over to Jesus to help you out. \n\nLet me explain something about Jesus. He has perfect credit with God, Jesus knows that laws inside and out and always abides by them so God values anything Jesus has to say. Jesus works out a deal with God on your behalf. Jesus tells God that he will teach you how stop driving like a mad man if God let's you keep your license. In fact Jesus will teach you how to abide by all the laws. God agrees as long as you remain in Jesus's program be God knows that Jesus's program eventually works. \n\nJesus having to now spend all of his down time helping you is analogous to his sacrifice. The idea is that if you have redeemable qualities that you will at least try to take some of Jesus's advice since he put is neck out for you to keep your license, even if your progess is so slow at time that you actually move backwards. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Jesus' death and resurrection is the foundations of Christianity so you would first need a little understand of events that previously happened in the Bible starting with the Book of genesis. \n\nIn the book of Genesis Adam and Eve where banished from the Garden of Eden for disobeying God and subsequently allowed sin to enter the world. Their actions alienated mankind from God and their sin was past onto their children, this is known as original sin. \n\nSince then, Jews waited for the arrival of the The Messiah who would restore their relationship with God and until then they sacrificed animals, usually Lambs, in the name of God to repent for their sin. \n\nChristians believe that Jesus was this Messiah and by following this teachings they can be forgiven for their sin and repair the relationship they once had with God. When Jesus was crucified he was the last sacrifice to God, otherwise known as the Lamb of God. It was Jesus crucifixion and resurrection that verified that he was the Son of God. '...So whoever believes in him will not perish but have eternal life' in Heaven with God. \n\nWithout Jesus' sacrifice mankind would still be alienated from God and living in sin. It is only through Jesus that man can be free from sin and have a restored relationship with God. This is what is meant when people say 'Jesus died for our sins'.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yeah I never really got this concept either. How did God give his only son for our sins, when all Jesus seemed to do was live on Earth for like 30 years, produce the materials for a book, then die and go to Heaven? Seems to me that it's not much of a sacrifice for God, who is omnipotent and omniscient. He knew Jesus was coming back in 30 years or whatever, so what was he giving up exactly? I don't get it :S ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26414",
"title": "Resurrection of Jesus",
"section": "Section::::Biblical accounts.:Paul and the first Christians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "In the Jerusalem \"ekklēsia\", from which Paul received this creed, the phrase \"died for our sins\" probably was an apologetic rationale for the death of Jesus as being part of God's plan and purpose, as evidenced in the scriptures. For Paul, it gained a deeper significance, providing \"a basis for the salvation of sinful Gentiles apart from the Torah.\" The phrase \"died for our sins\" was derived from Isaiah, especially , and Maccabees 4, especially . \"Raised on the third day\" is derived from : \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "388133",
"title": "Salvation in Christianity",
"section": "Section::::Atonement.:New Testament.:Paul.:Vicarious atonement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 512,
"text": "Traditionally, this \"kerygma\" is interpreted as meaning that Jesus' death was an atonement or ransom for, or propitiation or expiation of, God's wrath against humanity because of their sins. With Jesus death, humanity was freed from this wrath. In the classical Protestant understanding, which has dominated the understanding of Paul's writings, humans partake in this salvation by faith in Jesus Christ; this faith is a grace given by God, and people are justified by God through Jesus Christ and faith in Him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17991095",
"title": "1 Corinthians 15",
"section": "Section::::Verse 1–11: \"kerygma\" of the death and resurrection of Jesus.:Verses 3–7.:\"Died for our sins\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "In the Jerusalem \"ekklēsia\", from which Paul received this creed, the phrase \"died for our sins\" probably was an apologetic rationale for the death of Jesus as being part of God's plan and purpose, as evidenced in the scriptures. The phrase \"died for our sins\" was derived from Isaiah, especially , and Maccabees 4, especially . (NRSV):\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22911628",
"title": "Christianity in the 1st century",
"section": "Section::::Emerging Church.:Paul and the inclusion of Gentiles.:Inclusion of Gentiles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 1305,
"text": "For Paul, Jesus' death and resurrection solved the problem of the exclusion of the gentles from God's covenant, since the faithful are redeemed by participation in Jesus' death and rising. In the Jerusalem \"ekklēsia\", from which Paul received the creed of 1 Corinthisnas 15:1-7, the phrase \"died for our sins\" probably was an apologetic rationale for the death of Jesus as being part of God's plan and purpose, as evidenced in the scriptures. For Paul, it gained a deeper significance, providing \"a basis for the salvation of sinful Gentiles apart from the Torah.\" According to Sanders, Paul argued that \"those who are baptized into Christ are baptized into his death, and thus they escape the power of sin [...] he died so that the believers may die with him and consequently live with him.\" By this participation in Christ's death and rising, \"one receives forgiveness for past offences, is liberated from the powers of sin, and receives the Spirit.\" Paul insists that salvation is received by the grace of God; according to Sanders, this insistence is in line with Judaism of ca. 200 NCE until 200 CE, which saw God's covenant with Israel as an act of grace of God. Observance of the Law is needed to maintain the covenant, but the covenant is not earned by observing the Law, but by the grace of God.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "388133",
"title": "Salvation in Christianity",
"section": "Section::::Atonement.:New Testament.:Jerusalem \"ekklēsia\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "In the Jerusalem \"ekklēsia\", from which Paul received this creed, the phrase \"died for our sins\" probably was an apologetic rationale for the death of Jesus as being part of God's plan and purpose, as evidenced in the scriptures. The phrase \"died for our sins\" was derived from Isaiah, especially , and Maccabees 4, especially . \"Raised on the third day\" is derived from : \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "364322",
"title": "Jesus in Christianity",
"section": "Section::::Core teachings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Christians predominantly profess that through Jesus' life, death, and resurrection, he restored humanity's communion with God with the blood of the New Covenant. His death on a cross is understood as a redemptive sacrifice: the source of humanity's salvation and the atonement for sin which had entered human history through the sin of Adam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "984789",
"title": "Word of Faith",
"section": "Section::::Critics and controversy.:Jesus died spiritually.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 928,
"text": "Jesus died spiritually (abbreviated JDS) is a view of the substitutionary atonement of Christ in which Jesus is considered to have suffered both physical death (on the cross) and spiritual death (in Hell) as the complete penalty for sin. In this view, spiritual death (defined as separation from God) is considered the ultimate penalty for original sin, and proponents assert that Jesus must have suffered the complete penalty for sin in order for his substitutionary sacrifice to be effective. Accordingly, those who support the JDS view also teach that Jesus was spiritually born again at his resurrection. Not all Word of Faith teachers believe this, rather preaching something similar to the Harrowing of Hell. The Word of Faith group does believe that the Harrowing of Hell was part of the plan of redemption, and that Jesus himself was never a sinner, but on the cross Jesus was forsaken by God as a payment for all sins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1p5yb7
|
Is the cell we each started off as still part of our body when we're born? If so, what part of the body is it in?
|
[
{
"answer": "While I do not know the answer to the question, you have to remember that what would you call the \"original\" cell of the body. When a cell goes through mitosis, it splits into two. How would you determined which cell was the \"original\" cell?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The original cell divides about 12 hours after conception through a process called mitosis. Mitosis creates two identical cells, both are exactly the same as the first. Quick background first though: mitosis is just the spliting of the DNA, your genetic material. It has four 'phases' prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. The first three aren't as central to this question; the last phase telophase, is where the DNA currently in the form of chromatids decondenses and forms back into a nucleus. At the same time there is another process called cytokinesis occurring. In cytokinesis the cell splits, you can basically imagine the cell ripping itself in two, but instantly healing itself where the rip is. Ok back to the meat and potatoes of your question. When cytokinesis happens each of the cells formed is half the size of the first cell, it has half of the organelles of the first cell, each new cell formed is entirely half of the first cell. That first cell is gone, or you can think of it as that first cell is both of the new cells. The two new cells spend some time building up their size, the amount of DNA they have, and the reproducing all the organelles until they are about the size of their parent cell, the cell they came from, then they both split again making four cells. This happens again the again until you reach the 16 cell stage. Humans are a kind of animal that based on development are called deuterostomes. One thing this means is that up until the 16 cell stage our cells are undifferentiated. Any cell can become any part of the body. When the cells all divide again they create a liquid filled sac made up of 32 differentiated cells this is called the blastocyst and your fluid filled center is the blastocoele. All of these cells have been made by the process of mitosis and cytokinesis splitting the cells in half. You continue to develop with your cells splitting the same way from this point on but until the blastocyst each cell is identical and undifferentiated. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the short answer is \"yes\" to some degree, the original cell is present but in no specific area. The best way to describe it would be the acorn to tree; is the acorn still part of the tree, if so which part? The obvious answer would be the acorn is within all of the tree as it was the engine that took the raw materials and converted them into \"more\" tree and thus a bigger engine- the atoms that made up the acorn were diffused and spread through out the tree. Same could be said of the original cell that is you and me.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Previous comments are somewhat correct. However, almost no cell in the body lives forever. Cells grow, divide and eventually die. The only cells that have the possibility of living forever are certain stem cells and your germ cell line. If you're in your 30s, it is likely that no cell from your early life (say your teens) still exists as they eventually got old and died. The germ line is the only cell that has remained unchanged your entire life. It is the basal group of cells that replicate and differentiate to create sperm. Their immortality may be due to the enzyme telomerase. In women, all their eggs are created prior to birth and no new eggs are produced during their life time. These eggs can also be considered as \"originals\" as they are within the female body, dormant her entire life until ovulation. \n\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1790775",
"title": "Acorn worm",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Similarities to chordates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "One theory is that the three-part body originates from an early common ancestor of all the deuterostomes, and maybe even from a common bilateral ancestor of both the deuterostomes and protostomes. Studies have shown that the gene expression in the embryo share three of the same signaling centers that shape the brains of all vertebrates, but instead of taking part in the formation of their neural system, they are controlling the development of the different body regions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2041938",
"title": "Mansur ibn Ilyas",
"section": "Section::::Notable Works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1386,
"text": "Physicians and philosophers often argued whether the heart or brain was formed first in the fetus, and this debate forms an important part of Mansur ibn Ilyas' written works. In his works, Mansur ibn Ilyas argues that the heart is the first organ to form, unlike Hippocrates who argued that the brain is the first organ. Mansur ibn Ilyas' reasoning for the heart as the primary organ was that the semen is composed of air and strong heat, creating a substance called pneuma, which needs to be contained or it will decompose. The containment of the pneuma is within the heart, creating the body and making the heart the main source of the body’s natural heat. The heart also acts as the main force in forming the other organs; using the heat from the heart, the heart is able to provide the rest of the body with nourishment. This marks the start of the formation of the liver, which holds the source of nourishment within it. Lastly, Mansur argued that the brain is the organ that contains the senses, and these senses are what gives life force to the body. If the brain is formed first, like Hippocrates said, then there is nothing for the brain to give life to. The heart needs to be formed before the brain, so that the brain can give its life force to the rest of the body. Throughout his works, Mansur made references to the works of Aristotle, Hippocrates, al-Razi, and Avicenna.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4099",
"title": "Bone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "In the human body at birth, there are over 300 bones, but many of these fuse together during development, leaving a total of 206 separate bones in the adult, not counting numerous small sesamoid bones. The largest bone in the body is the femur or thigh-bone, and the smallest is the stapes in the middle ear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1771587",
"title": "Pregnancy",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Development of embryo and fetus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "The development of the mass of cells that will become the infant is called embryogenesis during the first approximately ten weeks of gestation. During this time, cells begin to differentiate into the various body systems. The basic outlines of the organ, body, and nervous systems are established. By the end of the embryonic stage, the beginnings of features such as fingers, eyes, mouth, and ears become visible. Also during this time, there is development of structures important to the support of the embryo, including the placenta and umbilical cord. The placenta connects the developing embryo to the uterine wall to allow nutrient uptake, waste elimination, and gas exchange via the mother's blood supply. The umbilical cord is the connecting cord from the embryo or fetus to the placenta.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4527356",
"title": "Gray matter heterotopia",
"section": "Section::::Preliminary Material: Neurological Development of the Human Fetus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "The development of the brain in the human fetus is extraordinarily complex and is still not fully understood. Neural matter originates in the outer, ectodermic layer of the gastrula; thus, it originates from the cell layer primarily responsible for skin, hair, nails, etc., rather than from the layers that develop into other internal organs. The nervous system originates as a tiny, simple open tube called the neural tube; the front of this tube develops into the brain (and retinas of the eye), while the spinal cord develops from the very back end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44290",
"title": "DNA profiling",
"section": "Section::::Profiling processes.:DNA family relationship analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "During conception, the father's sperm cell and the mother's egg cell, each containing half the amount of DNA found in other body cells, meet and fuse to form a fertilized egg, called a zygote. The zygote contains a complete set of DNA molecules, a unique combination of DNA from both parents. This zygote divides and multiplies into an embryo and later, a full human being.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2190913",
"title": "Prenatal development",
"section": "Section::::Development of the fetus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "All major structures are already formed in the fetus, but they continue to grow and develop. Since the precursors of all the major organs are created by this time, the fetal period is described both by organ and by a list of changes by weeks of gestational age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21qcgb
|
what is a "tontine?"
|
[
{
"answer": "The money from a tontine is usually put into some sort of interest earning fund. This could be as simple as a savings account or it could mean stocks, bonds, money markets, or many other financial instruments.\n\nSince this money collects interest the amount gets bigger.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically, everyone pools their money and invests in a bond/stock/whatever and the interest/dividends are split equally between everyone in the tontine. When one of the investors in the tontine dies, his share of the dividend is split between the remaining investors. When only one person is still alive, he is allowed to \"cash out\" the original investment money and keep it all for himself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Gemmabeta's answer is pretty explanatory, and you know the saying, you gotta have money to make money. Well you can get some sweet interest if everybody pools their money together. Just throw it into a relatively safe diversified stock portfolio (where you invest pieces in different stocks so as to be safe in case one tanks), and the people who live longest will make a ton.\n\nAlso, remember the power of compound interest. The longer you can keep money invested, the faster it will make you money. The nature of a Tontine prevents people from just taking there money out, that money will keep compounding until almost everyone literally dies. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "319454",
"title": "Tontine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "A tontine (English pronunciation: ) is an investment plan for raising capital, devised in the 17th century and relatively widespread in the 18th and 19th centuries. It combines features of a group annuity and a lottery. Each subscriber pays an agreed sum into the fund, and thereafter receives an annuity. As members die, their shares devolve to the other participants, and so the value of each annuity increases. On the death of the last member, the scheme is wound up.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14410453",
"title": "Franklin Place",
"section": "Section::::The Tontine Crescent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "The name \"Tontine\" derives from a financial scheme originated by Neapolitan banker Lorenzo de Tonti, which he introduced in France in the 17th century. Money for the enterprise was to be raised by selling shares of stock to the members of the public, who would later share in the profits from the sale of the homes. It is essentially an annuity, the shares passing on the death of each beneficiary to the surviving partner until all are held by a single shareholder, or being divided among surviving stockholders at the end of a stated period. Although this method of financing was in rather wide use in Europe at the time, the Massachusetts General Court refused articles of incorporation and the project ultimately rested on Bulfinch's meager business talent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "319454",
"title": "Tontine",
"section": "Section::::Alternative uses of the term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "In French-speaking cultures, particularly in developing countries, the meaning of the term \"tontine\" has broadened to encompass a wider range of semi-formal group savings and microcredit schemes. The crucial difference between these and tontines in the traditional sense is that benefits do not depend on the deaths of other members.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47953508",
"title": "Armstrong Investigation",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "A tontine is an investment plan for raising capital in which each subscriber pays an agreed sum into the fund, and thereafter receives an annuity. As members die, their shares devolve to the other participants, and so the value of each annuity increases. On the death of the last member, the scheme is wound up. After an initial introduction in 1868 in the United States, they soon grew in popularity, to the point that by 1905, two-thirds of the life insurance in the United States was in the form of tontines. Tontine insurance was first developed in the United States by Sheppard Homans, an actuary of The Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "203875",
"title": "Orders of magnitude (mass)",
"section": "Section::::Units of mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "The \"tonne\" (t) is a SI-compatible unit of mass equal to a megagram, or 10 kg. The unit is in common use for masses above about 10 kg and is often used with SI prefixes. For example, a gigagram or 10 g is 10 tonne, commonly called a \"kilotonne\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31185",
"title": "Tonne",
"section": "Section::::Derived units.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "For multiples of the tonne, it is more usual to speak of thousands or millions of tonnes. Kilotonne, megatonne, and gigatonne are more usually used for the energy of nuclear explosions and other events in equivalent mass of TNT, often loosely as approximate figures. When used in this context, there is little need to distinguish between metric and other tons, and the unit is spelt either as \"ton\" or \"tonne\" with the relevant prefix attached.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59446",
"title": "Celestine (mineral)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Celestine or celestite is a mineral consisting of strontium sulfate (SrSO). The mineral is named for its occasional delicate blue color. Celestine and the carbonate mineral strontianite are the principal sources of the element strontium, commonly used in fireworks and in various metal alloys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4t16p3
|
how is it decided how far to watch for deer/elk along the freeway?
|
[
{
"answer": "This may be wrong but my grandfather told me its figured out by collecting information based on deer population in the area along with the amount of accidents due to deer on certain roads. Let's say there's a car accident a day due to deer on a certain section of road then they will deem that particular stretch as deer crossing. \n\nAgain my grandfather told me this so he could easily be talking out of his ass, though it seems like this could actually be how it's done. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > At 51 miles am I in the clear and don’t have to worry about it any longer?\n\nYou *always* worry about shit jumping out into the road. The sign just tells you \"This area has a higher concentration of deer and elk jumping out onto the road than usual, so keep on your toes.\" You aren't ever \"clear\" of the danger, and probably the danger lessens to background well before the 50 mile point. It is just a broad swath of a warning.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9761644",
"title": "Mullum Mullum Creek Trail",
"section": "Section::::Following the path.:Lower section.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "After 1.1 km the path opens up into a more open area and meets the Greengully Trail that enters from the left (south). The intersection is badly signed. Continue past large open areas on the right (east) where Kangaroos/Wallabies can be seen on a regular basis, just 20 km from the Melbourne CBD. Deer have also been sighted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1792500",
"title": "Deerfoot Trail",
"section": "Section::::Route description.:Traffic and collisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "Deerfoot Trail is Alberta's busiest highway by a significant margin over Glenmore Trail, with peak daily congestion lasting as many as four hours. Its most travelled stretch is between Memorial Drive and 16 Avenue NE (Trans-Canada Highway) as traffic from Calgary's northern and eastern suburbs converge to travel via Memorial Drive into downtown, in addition to traffic transiting the city and other intra-city trips. The freeway was designed to carry approximately 65,000 vehicles per day but as of 2015 carries almost triple that volume near Memorial Drive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42730638",
"title": "Triple C Rail Trail",
"section": "Section::::Activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "Wildlife viewing is also popular. Hawks and other large birds are commonly seen along the trail. Canada geese and ducks are also common. wild turkeys and white-tailed deer live in the wooded areas and are seen along the trail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15688037",
"title": "Pine Creek Rail Trail",
"section": "Section::::Activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Wildlife viewing is also popular. Hawks and other large birds are commonly seen along the trail. Canada geese and ducks are also common. Bald eagles are occasionally seen in the area. Bears and white-tailed deer live in the wooded areas and are seen along the trail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "261105",
"title": "Roadkill",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Wildlife crossings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "In the US, sections of road known to have heavy deer cross-traffic will usually have warning signs depicting a bounding deer; similar signs exist for moose, elk, and other species. In the American West, roads may pass through large areas designated as \"open range\", meaning no fences separate drivers from large animals such as cattle or bison. A driver may round a bend to find a small herd standing in the road. Open range areas are generally marked with signage and protected by a cattle guard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1792500",
"title": "Deerfoot Trail",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 931,
"text": "Deerfoot Trail is a freeway segment of Highway 2 in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. It stretches the entire length of the city from south to north and links suburbs to downtown via Memorial Drive and 17 Avenue SE. It also forms part of the CANAMEX Corridor which connects Calgary to Edmonton and Interstate 15 in the United States via Highways 3 and 4. The freeway begins south of Calgary where it splits from Macleod Trail, crosses the Bow River into city limits, and reaches the Stoney Trail ring road. Crisscrossing twice more with the river, it intersects Glenmore Trail and Memorial Drive; the former is a major east–west expressway while the latter is a freeway spur into downtown. In north Calgary, it crosses Highway 1 and passes Calgary International Airport before ending at a second interchange with Stoney Trail. Highway 2 becomes the Queen Elizabeth II Highway as it continues north into Rocky View County towards Edmonton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6695593",
"title": "Great Western Cattle Trail",
"section": "Section::::Landmarks on the trail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1599,
"text": "Due to the project launched in 2003 it is easy for people to find where the Great Western Cattle Trail was since there are now cement markers every six to ten miles along the way. It was not always so, however. Cowboys used to have to find their way using landmarks. The major ones were Mt. Tepee, Big Elk Crossing, and Soldier's Spring. Mt. Tepee is actually Mount Webster, but it looked like a giant white Tepee standing out against the rest of the Wichita Mountains, and so was a useful landmark. It wouldn't be long before they reached Big Elk Creek, and needed to cross it. Big Elk Crossing was an ideal place to get the job done. Most of the time river crossings are unfortunate because they will bog down the cattle in mud that will be difficult to push lagers and sore-footed animals through at the end.There also is the danger that an animal will break a leg. Finding a stone crossing such as Big Elk was ideal. It was placed at a horseshoe bend in the creek, which acted like a natural corral to contain and herd the animals during the crossing. After crossing, it would take maybe a day or so to reach the next landmark: Soldier's Spring. Soldier's Spring is not as easily found today. It was a huge, red, sandstone bluff that was taller than a man's head, with spring water spilling out of its face and pooling at the bottom. The reason it was called Soldier's Spring was that it reportedly had names and ranks cut into it and the surrounding rocks. It was a fantastic place to camp while along the trail. All that remains of it today is a few broken rocks and a small, spring-fed pool.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
69vfwj
|
how big of a plant would you need in a sealed room for enough oxygen to survive?
|
[
{
"answer": "According to this guy _URL_0_ probably about 400 house plants (he doesnt give more detail) per person.\n\nYou might want to google the term Biodome (not the film) for experiments where they have actually tried putting people in sealed environments and using plants to generate the oxygen for them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends on the plant. You're not only looking at oxygen generation, but also carbon dioxide removal. \n\nDifferent species produce differing amounts and remove differing amounts, and produce oxygen at differing times (stuff like Neem (IIRC) can produce oxygen at night, others will only do it during the day as they use light-based reactions to break water down to into O2 and H+). Larger trees will store and process more C02 due to a more extensive structure ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21376719",
"title": "Oxygen plant",
"section": "Section::::Membrane oxygen plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "With the incorporation of the membrane technology, oxygen plants have outstanding technical characteristics. Membrane oxygen plants are highly reliable due to the absence of moving parts in the gas separation module.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21376719",
"title": "Oxygen plant",
"section": "Section::::Membrane oxygen plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Membrane oxygen plants are finding increasingly broad application in various industries all over the world. With moderate requirements to oxygen purity in product - up to 30-45%, membrane systems generally prove more economically sound than adsorption and cryogenic systems. Besides, membrane plants are much simpler in operation and more reliable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1044136",
"title": "Aeroponics",
"section": "Section::::Benefits and drawbacks.:Benefits of oxygen in the root zone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Oxygen (O) in the rhizosphere (root zone) is necessary for healthy plant growth. As aeroponics is conducted in air combined with micro-droplets of water, almost any plant can grow to maturity in air with a plentiful supply of oxygen, water and nutrients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1044136",
"title": "Aeroponics",
"section": "Section::::Benefits of aeroponics for earth and space.:Less nutrient solution throughout.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Plants grown using aeroponics spend 99.98% of their time in air and 0.02% in direct contact with hydro-atomized nutrient solution. The time spent without water allows the roots to capture oxygen more efficiently. Furthermore, the hydro-atomized mist also significantly contributes to the effective oxygenation of the roots. For example, NFT has a nutrient throughput of 1 liter per minute compared to aeroponics’ throughput of 1.5 milliliters per minute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21376719",
"title": "Oxygen plant",
"section": "Section::::Adsorption oxygen plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "The adsorption oxygen plants produce 5 to 5,000 Nm/h of oxygen with a purity of 93-95%. These systems, designated for indoor operation, are set to effectively produce gaseous oxygen from atmospheric air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21376719",
"title": "Oxygen plant",
"section": "Section::::Adsorption oxygen plants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Where gaseous oxygen purity is required at the level of 90-95% with the capacity of up to 5,000 Nm per hour, adsorption oxygen plants are the optimal choice. This oxygen purity may also be obtained through the use of systems based on the cryogenic technology; however, cryogenic plants are more cumbersome and complex in operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4068993",
"title": "Microecosystem",
"section": "Section::::Some examples.:Closed microecosystem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "One that is sealed and completely independent of outside factors, except for temperature and light. A good example would be a plant contained in a sealed jar and submerged under water. No new factors would be able to enter this ecosystem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
174c9t
|
- why, exactly, were biggie smalls and tupac so influential?
|
[
{
"answer": "With regards to Biggie Smalls he arguably under the influence of Puff Daddy changed how samples were used, \"Juicy\" being a break out track for using an old funk record. In comparison to \"Boyz in the Hood\" with Eazy E whose style relied on synths. Arguably rap before then was lead by the DJ and the group took it in turns to rap, this second wave of Gangsta rap brought about the emergence of specific personalities. Tupacs influence was arguably similar and one mustn't forget that until Tupac and Biggie fell out they were good friends whose music often crossed over.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tupac isn't a great lyricist. He was known for his raw, visceral emotions. Getting super personal, and gritty. Biggie had everything from flow, to lyrics, to storytelling. He also was one of the first to have crossover appeal to the mainstream, without changing his content at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Listen to Biggie's track Unbelieveable, dope as fuck lyrically. He was such a raw talented rhymer and lyricsist. Had a natural flow and style. For the little of him that we have the quality is there and I dont doubt he was put on this earth to be a rapper. If you really wanna appreciate his flow... listen to his verse in Notorious Thugz, he killed it. Everyday Struggle! Who Shot Ya! Biggie was anything BUT fake. While Pac had diff faces...gansgter, thug, revolutionary. Biggie busted rhyme after rhyme with style and flow. The epitomy of a rapper/hip hop artist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They uniquely fit a time and place. Biggie and Tupac were releasing records right when hip-hop was first reaching suburban kids in a big way. I am not a hip hop fan now, but I went through a stage where I owned Snoop Dogg's Doggie Style, Dre's The Chronic, a BlackSheep album, and a mix tape with Wu-Tang and others. \n\nI was a white kid from a medium sized town in Tennessee, and I was listening to hip-hop because artists like Biggie and Tupac were making great records that were edgy and authentic in a way I hadn't heard before. I started by listening to Vanilla Ice, MC Hammer, and Kris Kross. That was very tame hip hop, made for white audiences, but it got us used to the idea of hip-hop. Then BAM I heard Snoop, Dre, Tupac, Biggie, and Wu. The music is angry, raw and exciting. \n\nAlso, Rock music seemed boring at that time. Grunge had blown up a few years before, and was simmering down. there weren't too many things to be excited about on the musical front. [Check out the BillBoard top 100 for 1995](_URL_0_) its all R & B, pop, lame rock and.....Hip hop. What else could angry kids supposed to listen to?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The characters behind the words play to it as well. Tupac was more than just a rapper; he was a revolutionary, born into a family of revolutionaries. Pac had vision: while many rappers were happy simply living the 'Scarface' lifestyle at the time, Pac wanted more, not just for blacks, but for humanity as a whole. Although in many of his songs it sounds like he just hated the idea of whites ruling blacks, in reality he didn't like the idea of anyone ruling anyone. Remember that at the time, saying something like that wasn't gangsta, and gangsta was what people wanted. As a result, Pac often came across as quite contradictory, releasing songs like Keep Ya Head Up, praising strong women, while also talking about his bitches in other songs, or talking about how we all need to get along in Ghetto Gospel while seemingly advocating violence in Ride On Our Enemies. Pac was a great lyricist, a great rapper, but his message was what mattered most. If it wasn't for that, he would probably just be remembered as a great rapper, but not an icon.\n\nNotorious B.I.G was the East Coast's big star. He may not have had the same level of vision as Pac (although he certainly wasn't merely a 'bitches, bling and guns' rapper), but he was a master of flow and lyrical construction. Even if the themes of his music get boring (and they do to many), there's no doubt that he could write and perform the hell out of a song. The relationship with Pac was a very interesting one as well: originally close friends, paranoia destroyed the relationship after Pac was shot and Biggie released Who Shot Ya? at quite an unfortunate time. Their rivalry was big and nasty, not like the little bullshit Twitter beefs of nowadays, and it helped build their image as 'hip-hop warriors'. Biggie is an artist that you need to *really* analyse to fully appreciate. The best song I can think of is Hypnotize, which is the one that most people know but few really listen to. In it he employs a style that, to this day, very few rappers can pull off... and he does it effortlessly. Even the greats like Nas or Em, who can pull off similar things, just can't do it like Big. He was, like Pac, ahead of his time, even if it was in a different way.\n\nThe big thing that many people remember, though, is their deaths. Many have said that if they hadn't died, they wouldn't have the rep they do. That may be true, but there's no way of knowing. The eerie thing was that they both seemed to... know. While recording *The Don Killuminati*, Pac was reported to have been chain smoking, on edge, paranoid, and whenever something went wrong, apparently proclaimed \"we don't have the time for this!\". And they didn't; Pac was shot dead the month after recording the album. Biggie was a similar case. The dude's first album was called *Ready to Die*, and the final song was him dying. In his songs he often talked about his death, and his second album, released after his death, was titled... *Life After Death*. This album actually formed a turning point for rap; you know how gangsta rap and pop kinda intertwined with artists like 50 Cent? It all started with this. The mystery and apparent premonitions of the rapper's deaths affected how they were seen, and has given them an almost 'divine' aura. \n\nTheir deaths were also a big shock in rap. Now a lot of people have died in rap; Big L, ODB, Dolla, Big Pun, Eazy E... I could go on. But they were killed in events separate from hip-hop. Pac and Big's death... it almost seemed to be caused by hip-hop. It's very likely it wasn't; I'm sure that they had mixed with dangerous people, but a lot of people even to this day view the killings as a result of beef in hip-hop. This was a wake-up call, and beef was taken more seriously. Nobody wants another Tupac and Biggie incident, and so their deaths stand as a dark lesson in how bad things can get if beef gets too out of hand.\n\nI'm gonna wrap this up now because I've gone on. Basically, their character, personal lives and deaths all contribute to their reputation as legendary, along with their technical skill. If *anybody* says that either Big or Pac were the greatest to ever live, then that person needs to listen to more hip-hop. There have been better rappers since and better rappers before. They may have been two *of* the best, but the very best? Move on son. I love both, but they are two of the most overrated people in hip-hop in terms of technical skills. If you want to really understand why they're so influential, you have to look at the men behind the music, as there was a lot going on.\n\n**EDIT**: I just realised that, even though I've tried to use understandable language, this is a fucking huge wall of text that no 5 year old would read, so I'll do a sum up:\n\n*Tl;DR*: There was a lot more to them than their songs, and their character, ideas, relationship and shocking deaths all contribute to what make them so influential.\n\n**EDIT 2: Electric Boogaloo**: [This piece](_URL_0_) was just posted on /r/hiphop101 that goes into depth on Tupac. It covers far more than I would ever be able to in one post, and is well written. If anyone's interested and doesn't mind a long read, check it out; even if you don't agree with it all, it certainly helps explain why Pac is so influential.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The hip-hop you listen to today was shaped and formed by them. It's somewhat like coming from a rock background and today trying to listen to Elvis, the Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Frank Zappa, etc - in many respects, you simply cannot appreciate what they were doing at the time as artists since then have taken what they were doing and pushed it farther.\n\nOf course it doesn't sound special **today**. Fifteen-twenty years ago it was game changing.\n\nTo put it another way - when both Tupac and Biggie were gaining traction, Will Smith still had a serious music career. The Humpty Dance and Rump Shaker were big songs. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31341",
"title": "Tupac Shakur",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Tupac Amaru Shakur ( ; born Lesane Parish Crooks, June 16, 1971September 13, 1996), also known by his stage names 2Pac and Makaveli, was an American rapper and actor. He is considered by many to be one of the greatest rappers of all time. Much of Shakur's work has been noted for addressing contemporary social issues that plagued inner cities, and he is considered a symbol of resistance and activism against inequality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60425779",
"title": "Hip hop and social injustice",
"section": "Section::::Notable artists.:2Pac.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Tupac has been an influence to hip hop artists since his death as both a musical artist and as an icon of social justice. Artists such as Kendrick Lamar, Tory Lanez, J. Cole, and Eminem have all cited Shakur as an influence on their music and their message.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60425779",
"title": "Hip hop and social injustice",
"section": "Section::::Notable artists.:2Pac.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Tupac Shakur, more commonly known by his stage name 2Pac, is one of the best-selling artists of all time and has influenced countless hip hop artists, making his social commentary in his lyrics all the more visible. Shakur's parents were both members of the Black Panther Party, and Tupac's lyrical content had a relatively wide range which included violent and aggressive gangsta rap (\"Hit 'Em Up\", \"Me and My Girlfriend\", \"Ambitionz Az a Ridah\") to emotionally-charged conscious rap (\"Changes\", \"Trapped\", \"Keep Ya Head Up\", \"Brenda's Got a Baby\"). A few of these songs in particular serve as strong denunciations of social injustice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40981629",
"title": "Tony Pizarro",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "Contributing to selling over 75 million albums as Tupac Shakur's producer, songwriter, recording engineer, and mixing engineer. Tony Pizarro is one of Hip Hop's most notable producers playing an instrumental part in Tupac achieving one of the Best-Selling Music Artists In The World. Memorable for co-writing & producing the hit single \"Dear Mama\" which was inducted into the Library of Congress. Making Tupac Shakur the 3rd American rapper to have a song honored in the National Recording Registry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48919161",
"title": "All Eyez on Me (film)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Tupac's music career begins when he joins Digital Underground for their hit \"Same Song\". Under manager Leila Steinberg, he begins to have hip-hop albums produced. Although his music becomes popular, some songs' controversial lyrics cause tensions between him and his record producers. Tupac begins acting in movies such as \"Juice\", as well as collaborating with performers including Biggie Smalls. He generates both praise and controversy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48866901",
"title": "DJ King Assassin",
"section": "Section::::Musical career.:1990s-2000s: Career beginnings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "While Tupac Shakur worked on \"Me Against The World\", Venegas began producing music with Shakur, later witnessing the creation and scratching on original version of \"Dear Mama\", one of Shakur's most successful hip-hop records. Venegas, thereafter, produced, mixed and mastered an inordinate number of records for hip-hop recording artists in the west coast of the US, influencing the unique funk sound established by rappers like Eazy-E and 2Pac.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34032047",
"title": "Political poetry",
"section": "Section::::American.:Tupac Shakur's political lyrical content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "Karin L. Stanford argues that Tupac Shakur wrote political lyrics: \"Tupac's lyrics underscore his refusal to accept economic inequality and inadequate employment opportunities. He also continues his attack on patriotic symbolism...Tupac's life and political advocacy prove that hip hop music and activism are not mutually exclusive...Tupac's political work reveals his aspiration for social change.\" Tupac's music also focused on civil rights and oppression to minorities. For example, in his lyrics he criticizes Americans who \"pledge allegiance to a flag that neglects us Honor a man that who refuses to respect us Emancipation, Proclamation, Please! Ni*ga just said that to save the nation These are lies and we all accepted...\" This refers back to the revolutionary war when colonists promised African slaves that they would abolish slavery if they aided them in the war. This also shows the struggles that African Americans had to endure throughout history to get to where they are today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
8fz9a0
|
Why the electron cannot be view as a spinning charged sphere?
|
[
{
"answer": "I guess the question is why you can't explain spin of an electron as effect caused by rotation of charged sphere.\n\nFirst it is important to understand why we sometimes speak of spin as \"sort of rotation but not really\". The reason is simple: The quantum mechanical \\(QM\\) equations that describe the spin look more or less the same as the equation for QM rotation. For example the discreet allowed values of angular momentum in some direction are integer \\(or half\\-intiger\\) multiples of hbar. The same goes for the spin.\n\nHowever, the spin is not any kind of movement at all. The spin of particles arises naturally when you try to put together special relativity and quantum mechanics. \n\nBasically, for an electron you arrive at equation of the form A\\^2\\-B\\^2=0. Now this has two solutions A = B and A = \\-B, but that is a problem since B corresponds to energy and you don't get a ground state \\(the state with the least energy\\) if there are solutions like this.\n\nNormally, you would solve this problem by factoring out the equation into \\(A\\-B\\)\\(A\\+B\\)=0 and only keeping for example A\\-B=0. This however can't be done here, because we live in 4D spacetime and so actually A\\^2=dX\\^2\\+dY\\^2\\+dZ\\^2. Paul Dirac performed a neat trick, by putting in some matrices. This allowed the equation to be factored down \\(thus solving the ground state problem\\), but as a side effect, we now don't have one wave function \\(as in classical quantum mechanics\\), but rather a set of four of them \\(so called bispinor\\).\n\nIt turns out that the first two parts of the bispinor correspond to wave functions of electron with spin up and down and the other two correspond to electron's antiparticle \\- pozitron.\n\nTL;DR: Spin is a necessary consequence of special relativity in 4D spacetime that is \\(by \"coincidence\"\\) described by similar equations as rotation. \n\nA btw fact: There is difference between spin and rotation when it comes to magnetism. For any object the magnetic moment is proportional to angular momentum \\([Gyromagnetic ratio](_URL_0_)\\). If spin would be just a rotation, the gyromagnetic ratio would be twice less than what it actually is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Electrons are pointlike particles in the Standard Model, and a single point can’t “rotate”. If you try to interpret the electron as a classical, rotating spherical charge, you get nonsense conclusions, like that the “surface” of the sphere has to move faster than c.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Aren't electrons more or less a percentage chance of negative charge existing in a quantum field? My understanding of quantum physics is very limited but as far as i know an electron isn't really \"something tangible\". Its like a tiny probability of electrical potential. It seems difficult to create a model that properly represents something like this when nothing physical or tangible really behaves anything like this. It's very contradictory to human perception.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ok, this is silly, I know, but this thread seemed like a good place to ask:\n\nIs there any \"research\" into considering the electron as a \"higher-dimensional\" particle?\n\nThe part that's visible in our 4D world is the point - the very tip of the electron if it were a hyper-sphere.\n\nWouldn't this also explain how during tunneling or when \"moving\" around a nucleus, it seems to jump from location to location and not actually travel in a contiguous path?\n\nI'm quite sure the maths will prove this ridiculous but just a thought that keeps popping up in my brain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The angular momentum of a solid sphere is L=Iw, where I is the moment of inertia and w is the angular velocity. For a solid sphere, I = 2/5 mr^2, where m is mass and r is radius. w=v/r, where v is the tangential velocity. This is all covered in classical mechanics. So L = (0.4 m r^2) * (v/r). The tangential velocity is therefore (5L)/(2mr). We know the mass of an electron is roughly 10^(-30) kg and the classical radius of an electron is 10^(-15). So all that we need now is L.\n\nNow a bit of quantum. The eigenvalues of the spin operator on a state is hbar * sqrt (s (s+1)). hbar is planck's constant over 2*pi, s is the spin of the electron. You can refer to Chapter 4 of Griffiths Quantum Mechanics if you want to learn more, but basically we can consider this quantity to be the angular momentum L from the classical formula L=Iw. so L= sqrt (3)* hbar/2. Plug this into the formula we derived for v classically.\n\nWe therefore find that v is roughly 800 times the speed of light. However, nothing can travel faster than the speed of light. This is a contradiction. Therefore, there is now way that the electron is spinning.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2840",
"title": "Plum pudding model",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "In this model, the orbits of the electrons were stable because when an electron moved away from the centre of the positively-charged sphere, it was subjected to a greater net positive inward force, because there was more positive charge inside its orbit (see Gauss's law). Electrons were free to rotate in rings which were further stabilized by interactions among the electrons, and spectroscopic measurements were meant to account for energy differences associated with different electron rings. Thomson attempted unsuccessfully to reshape his model to account for some of the major spectral lines experimentally known for several elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1573372",
"title": "Scale (map)",
"section": "Section::::Point scale (or particular scale).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "As proved by Gauss’s \"Theorema Egregium\", a sphere (or ellipsoid) cannot be projected onto a plane without distortion. This is commonly illustrated by the impossibility of smoothing an orange peel onto a flat surface without tearing and deforming it. The only true representation of a sphere at constant scale is another sphere such as a globe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1228679",
"title": "Gyromagnetic ratio",
"section": "Section::::For an isolated electron.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "An isolated electron has an angular momentum and a magnetic moment resulting from its spin. While an electron's spin is sometimes visualized as a literal rotation about an axis, it cannot be attributed to mass distributed identically to the charge. The above classical relation does not hold, giving the wrong result by a dimensionless factor called the electron \"g\"-factor, denoted \"g\" (or just \"g\" when there is no risk of confusion):\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1673288",
"title": "Electron magnetic moment",
"section": "Section::::Magnetic moment of an electron.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "The electron is a charged particle with charge −1\"e\", where \"e\" is the unit of elementary charge. Its angular momentum comes from two types of rotation: spin and orbital motion. From classical electrodynamics, a rotating electrically charged body creates a magnetic dipole with magnetic poles of equal magnitude but opposite polarity. This analogy does hold, since an electron indeed behaves like a tiny bar magnet. One consequence is that an external magnetic field exerts a torque on the electron magnetic moment depending on its orientation with respect to the field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19975340",
"title": "Rotating spheres",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Mach took some issue with the argument, pointing out that the rotating sphere experiment could never be done in an \"empty\" universe, where possibly Newton's laws do not apply, so the experiment really only shows what happens when the spheres rotate in \"our\" universe, and therefore, for example, may indicate only rotation relative to the entire mass of the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "790468",
"title": "Pulfrich effect",
"section": "Section::::Demonstration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "In the classic Pulfrich effect experiment, a subject views a pendulum swinging in a plane perpendicular to the observer's line of sight. When a neutral density filter (a darkened lens—typically gray) is placed in front of, say, the right eye, the pendulum seems to take on an elliptical orbit, appearing closer as it swings toward the right and farther as it swings toward the left, so that if it were to theoretically be viewed from above, it would appear to be revolving counterclockwise. Conversely, if the left eye is covered, the pendulum would appear to be revolving clockwise-from-top, appearing closer as it swings toward the left and farther as it swings toward the right.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1393135",
"title": "Illusory motion",
"section": "Section::::Occurrences.:Stroboscopic images.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Rotating objects can appear stationary under strobe light; also, they can appear to be counter-rotating. This second effect can occur in daylight, such as the apparent counter-rotation of wheels. Because of the illusion of counter-rotation in constant light, it is reasonable to assume that the eye views the world in a series of still images, and therefore the counter-rotation is a result of under-sampling (aliasing).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
526ijf
|
which has more caffeine and why? dark coffee beans (dark roasts) or greenish/tan coffee beans (light roasts).
|
[
{
"answer": "If you measure your coffee by scoops, light roasted coffee will have more caffeine. Since the beans are denser than a darker roast. However if you weigh out your scoops, darker roasts will have more caffeine, because there is less mass. What should also be noted is that Arabica beans vary in levels of caffeine depending on the plant species.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Light roast has more caffeine. The longer roasting time means more of the caffeine is cooked out of the dark beans. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2796757",
"title": "Coffee roasting",
"section": "Section::::Roasts.:Flavors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Caffeine content varies by roast level, diminishing with increased roasting level: light roast, 1.37%; medium roast, 1.31%; and dark roast, 1.31%. However, this does not remain constant in coffee brewed from different grinds and brewing methods. Because the density of coffee changes as it is roasted, different roast levels will contain respectively different caffeine levels when measured by volume or mass, though the bean will still have the same caffeine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1566948",
"title": "Coffee bean",
"section": "Section::::Composition.:Nonvolatile alkaloids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1000,
"text": "Caffeine (\"1,3,7-trimethyl-xanthine\") is the alkaloid most present in green and roasted coffee beans. The content of caffeine is between 1.0% and 2.5% by weight of dry green coffee beans. The content of caffeine does not change during maturation of green coffee beans. Lower concentrations of theophylline, theobromine, paraxanthine, liberine, and methylliberine can be found. The concentration of theophylline, an alkaloid noted for its presence in green tea, is reduced during the roasting process, usually about 15 minutes at , whereas the concentrations of most other alkaloids are not changed. The solubility of caffeine in water increases with temperature and with the addition of chlorogenic acids, citric acid, or tartaric acid, all of which are present in green coffee beans. For example, of caffeine dissolves in of water at room temperature, and at . The xanthine alkaloids are odorless, but have a bitter taste in water, which is masked by organic acids present in green coffee, however.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2165666",
"title": "White coffee",
"section": "Section::::Other coffee drinks.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "In the United States, white coffee may also refer to coffee beans which have been roasted to a yellow roast level. When prepared as espresso these beans produce a thin yellow brew, with a high acidic note. There is a debate about whether white coffee is more highly caffeinated than darker roasted coffee. In fact, the sublimation point of caffeine is , about one hundred degrees lower than the typical very dark roast. Coffee beans can catch fire at temperatures lower than . White coffee is generally used only for making espresso drinks, not simple brewed coffee. With shorter roasting times, natural sugars are not caramelized within the coffee beans, making the coffee less bitter. The flavor of white coffee is frequently described as nutlike, with pronounced acidity. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12326205",
"title": "List of energy drinks",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "The following is a notable list of energy drinks, with a few coffee variants, and some soft drinks such as Coca-Cola, Mountain Dew, and Pepsi listed for comparison, and marked in a different color. The caffeine content in coffee and tea varies, depending on how the coffee beans were roasted, among other factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "604727",
"title": "Coffee",
"section": "Section::::Processing.:Roast characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "The degree of roast has an effect upon coffee flavor and body. Darker roasts are generally bolder because they have less fiber content and a more sugary flavor. Lighter roasts have a more complex and therefore perceived stronger flavor from aromatic oils and acids otherwise destroyed by longer roasting times. Roasting does not alter the amount of caffeine in the bean, but does give less caffeine when the beans are measured by volume because the beans expand during roasting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "604727",
"title": "Coffee",
"section": "Section::::Caffeine content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "While the percent of caffeine content in coffee seeds themselves diminishes with increased roast level, the opposite is true for coffee brewed from different grinds and brewing methods using the same proportion of coffee to water volume. The coffee sack (similar to the French press and other steeping methods) extracts more caffeine from dark roasted seeds; the percolator and espresso methods extract more caffeine from light roasted seeds:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19619306",
"title": "List of coffee drinks",
"section": "Section::::Decaffeination of coffee.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Decaffeinated coffee grew in popularity over the last half of the 20th century, mainly due to health concerns that arose regarding the over-consumption of caffeine. Decaffeinated coffee, sometimes known as \"decaf,\" may be drunk as regular brewed coffee, instant, espresso, or as a mix of regular caffeine beans and decaffeinated beans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10fcqu
|
After the sun expands to consume the earth, will earth continue to orbit as before, just inside the corona now?
|
[
{
"answer": "You are on the right track. The sun will expand to a maximum radius of about 1.2 AU. During this expansion the sun will have lost about one third of its mass. As a result of the loss of mass, it loses some of its \"tug\" on the Earth.\n\nNow because of the decreased mas of the Sun, the Earth's orbit will increase up to 150%. But as the Sun's expansion continues, drag on the Earth from the sun’s outermost layers will cause Earth to drift inward, countering the effects of the Sun's mass loss. At this point, the Earth will essentially be spiraling into the Sun and will only survive a few hundred years more before being destroyed by the Sun.\n\n\n\n\nsources:\n\nSchröder, K.-P.; Connon Smith, Robert (2008), \"Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited\", Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 386 (1): 155–163, Bibcode 2008MNRAS.386..155S, DOI:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x\n\nGoldstein, J. (May 1987), The fate of the earth in the red giant envelope of the sun, 178, Astronomy and Astrophysics, pp. 283–285, Bibcode 1987A & A...178..283G",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6139438",
"title": "Formation and evolution of the Solar System",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "In roughly 5 billion years, the Sun will cool and expand outward to many times its current diameter (becoming a red giant), before casting off its outer layers as a planetary nebula and leaving behind a stellar remnant known as a white dwarf. In the far distant future, the gravity of passing stars will gradually reduce the Sun's retinue of planets. Some planets will be destroyed, others ejected into interstellar space. Ultimately, over the course of tens of billions of years, it is likely that the Sun will be left with none of the original bodies in orbit around it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6139438",
"title": "Formation and evolution of the Solar System",
"section": "Section::::Future.:The Sun and planetary environments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "As the Sun expands, it will swallow the planets Mercury and Venus. Earth's fate is less clear; although the Sun will envelop Earth's current orbit, the star's loss of mass (and thus weaker gravity) will cause the planets' orbits to move farther out. If it were only for this, Venus and Earth would probably escape incineration, but a 2008 study suggests that Earth will likely be swallowed up as a result of tidal interactions with the Sun's weakly bound outer envelope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9228",
"title": "Earth",
"section": "Section::::Chronology.:Future.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "The Sun will evolve to become a red giant in about . Models predict that the Sun will expand to roughly , about 250 times its present radius. Earth's fate is less clear. As a red giant, the Sun will lose roughly 30% of its mass, so, without tidal effects, Earth will move to an orbit from the Sun when the star reaches its maximum radius. Most, if not all, remaining life will be destroyed by the Sun's increased luminosity (peaking at about 5,000 times its present level). A 2008 simulation indicates that Earth's orbit will eventually decay due to tidal effects and drag, causing it to enter the Sun's atmosphere and be vaporized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6139438",
"title": "Formation and evolution of the Solar System",
"section": "Section::::Future.:The Sun and planetary environments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "As the Sun dies, its gravitational pull on the orbiting bodies such as planets, comets and asteroids will weaken due to its mass loss. All remaining planets' orbits will expand; if Venus, Earth, and Mars still exist, their orbits will lie roughly at , , and . They and the other remaining planets will become dark, frigid hulks, completely devoid of any form of life. They will continue to orbit their star, their speed slowed due to their increased distance from the Sun and the Sun's reduced gravity. Two billion years later, when the Sun has cooled to the 6000–8000K range, the carbon and oxygen in the Sun's core will freeze, with over 90% of its remaining mass assuming a crystalline structure. Eventually, after roughly 1 quadrillion years, the Sun will finally cease to shine altogether, becoming a black dwarf.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8111079",
"title": "Gravitational wave",
"section": "Section::::Sources.:Binaries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "In theory, the loss of energy through gravitational radiation could eventually drop the Earth into the Sun. However, the total energy of the Earth orbiting the Sun (kinetic energy + gravitational potential energy) is about 1.14 joules of which only 200 watts (joules per second) is lost through gravitational radiation, leading to a decay in the orbit by about 1 meters per day or roughly the diameter of a proton. At this rate, it would take the Earth approximately 1 times more than the current age of the Universe to spiral onto the Sun. This estimate overlooks the decrease in \"r\" over time, but the majority of the time the bodies are far apart and only radiating slowly, so the difference is unimportant in this example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21221594",
"title": "Global catastrophic risk",
"section": "Section::::Potential sources of risk.:Non-anthropogenic.:Cosmic threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "The most predictable outcome for the future of the Earth is the Sun's expansion into a red giant star. The Sun will be about 12 billion years old and expand to swallow both Mercury and Venus, reaching a maximum radius of . The Earth will interact tidally with the Sun's outer atmosphere, which would serve to decrease Earth's orbital radius. Drag from the chromosphere of the Sun would also reduce the Earth's orbit. These effects will act to counterbalance the effect of mass loss by the Sun, and the Earth will probably be engulfed by the Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24179592",
"title": "Future of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Solar evolution.:Post-red giant stage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Currently, the Moon is moving away from Earth at a rate of 4 cm (1.5 inches) per year. In 50 billion years, if the Earth and Moon are not engulfed by the Sun, they will become tidelocked into a larger, stable orbit, with each showing only one face to the other. Thereafter, the tidal action of the Sun will extract angular momentum from the system, causing the lunar orbit to decay and the Earth's spin to accelerate. In about 65 billion years, it is estimated that the Moon may end up colliding with the Earth, due to the remaining energy of the Earth–Moon system being sapped by the remnant Sun, causing the Moon to slowly move inwards toward the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22ivss
|
Is using a "mind palace" an effective memory tool, or is it pseudo-scientific bunk and other memory methods are more effective?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is a popular [model developed by Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch in 1974](_URL_2_) that describes memory as an information processing system with specialized components, much like a computer. As I understand it, learned associations are easier to recall using this \"memory palace\" technique because it simultaneously activates the components of memory responsible for processing semantic and spatial information. For a more in-depth examination of this technique, which is also called the *Method of Loci*, see Allan Paivio's classic article [*Mental Imagery in Associative Learning and Memory* (1969)](_URL_0_). As far as how it compares with other techniques, it depends on the task and the kind of information [(e.g., Herrmann, 1987)](_URL_1_). The method of loci seems to be most effective for paired-associate learning (i.e., one item of a pair evokes the other item), and is less effective for serial learning (i.e., a sequence of items).",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1008632",
"title": "Baddeley's model of working memory",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Visuo-spatial working memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
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"text": "Alan Baddeley's theory of working memory has yet another aspect to which memory can be stored short term. The visuo-spatial sketchpad is this store that holds visual information for manipulation. The visuo-spatial sketchpad is thought to be its own storage of working memory in that it does not interfere with the short term processes of the phonological loop. In research, it has been found that the visuo-spatial sketchpad can work simultaneously with the phonological loop to process both auditory and visual stimuli without either of the processes affecting the efficacy of the other. Baddeley re-defined the theory of short-term memory as a working memory to explain this phenomenon. In the original theory of short-term memory, it is understood that a person only has one store of immediate information processing which could only hold a total of 7 items plus or minus two items to be stored in a very short period of time, sometimes a matter of seconds. The digit-span test is a perfect example of a measurement for classically defined short-term memory. Essentially, if one is not able to encode the 7 plus or minus two items within a few minutes by finding an existing association for the information to be transferred into long-term memory, then the information is lost and never encoded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18374763",
"title": "Active recall",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Active recall exploits the psychological testing effect and is very efficient in consolidating long-term memory. Research revealed that it is the quickest, most efficient, and effective way to study written materials, at least for factual and problem-solving tests. Aside from passive review, it is said to be better than mindmapping and note-taking since it is extremely efficient for committing details and ideas into one's memory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3704475",
"title": "Executive functions",
"section": "Section::::Models.:Working memory model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "One influential model is Baddeley's multicomponent model of working memory, which is composed of a central executive system that regulates three other subsystems: the phonological loop, which maintains verbal information; the visuospatial sketchpad, which maintains visual and spatial information; and the more recently developed episodic buffer that integrates short-term and long-term memory, holding and manipulating a limited amount of information from multiple domains in temporal and spatially sequenced episodes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41924",
"title": "Mnemonic major system",
"section": "Section::::The system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 302,
"text": "Whilst this is unwieldy at first, with practice it can become a very effective technique. Longer-term memory may require the formulation of more object-related mnemonics with greater logical connection, perhaps forming grammatical sentences that apply to the matter rather than just strings of images.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1684561",
"title": "Method of loci",
"section": "Section::::Method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 385,
"text": "The \"Rhetorica ad Herennium\" and most other sources recommend that the method of loci should be integrated with elaborative encoding (i.e., adding visual, auditory, or other details) to strengthen memory. However, due to the strength of spatial memory, simply mentally placing objects in real or imagined locations without further elaboration can be effective for simple associations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31058472",
"title": "Adaptive memory",
"section": "Section::::Alternative viewpoints/explanations.:Basic memory processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "Basic memory processes have also been examined in terms of their relation to survival processing, in hopes of explaining the survival recall advantage. Weinstein, Bugg and Roediger contrasted two basic memory processes: schematic processing (the memory performance is made easier and more efficient with the creation of schemas) and self-referential processing (elaboration becomes easier when relating the concept to oneself). Weinstein and colleagues conducted two experiments, the first duplicating Nairne's findings, and the second comparing the survival advantage to schematic and self-referential processing. Weinstein's findings verified Nairne's survival advantage and found it unlikely that the survival advantage can be explained in terms of schematic processing or self-reference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32354",
"title": "Virtual memory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "The primary benefits of virtual memory include freeing applications from having to manage a shared memory space, increased security due to memory isolation, and being able to conceptually use more memory than might be physically available, using the technique of paging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
] | null |
47ikxb
|
When did the Bishop of Rome become the Pope and primary figure of the Christian faith?
|
[
{
"answer": "That's a hard one to answer in a way that's going to satisfy everybody, since the question itself is kind of hard to pin down and narratives can be easily, even unconsciously, twisted in favor of an agenda. This is an excerpt from a post I wrote on BH.\n\n > *Papal Supremacy*\n\n > The doctrine that the Bishop of Rome has authority over the rest of the Bishops. While the modern Church holds that bishops are appointed by the authority of the Pope, this is quite a modern practice. The earliest bishops were chosen by the faithful, by the priests over whom he'd have authority, by secular rulers or simply chosen by the bishop they'd replace. The Investiture Controversy wasn't fully settled until the middle of the 19th Century, which event probably had more to do with secular authorities generally adopting a separation of Church and State rather than the Papacy imposing itself.\n\n > The doctrine of Papal Supremacy is canonically based on a reading of [Matthew 16:17-19](_URL_0_). However, the earliest Bishops of Rome seem to have made no such claim, and authority over the Nicene Church (to which the Bishops of Rome belonged pre-schism) was held by a mix of clerical and temporal powers, importantly the Byzantine Emperors. From 537 to 752 the Bishops of Rome depended on Byzantine Imperial approval for episcopal consecration (selection of bishops) even for parishes directly dependent on the Pope. Constantius II went as far as to exile Pope Liberius (ruled 352-356) from Rome, as happened again to Martin I in 653 and several others. Damasus I (ruled 356 to 384) was named \"Bishop of Bishops\" by the Emperor, which may speak to the authority of the Bishop of Rome, but *also* speaks to the authority of the Emperor over him. The first claimant of Papal supremacy as we understand it seems to have been Innocent I (ruled 401-417), but this was not generally accepted within the Church. From 476 Rome was generally ruled by so-called heretics, occasionally occupied by Byzantine troops who had no interest in undermining Imperial authority, and overshadowed by more important parishes within the Church. Only in 616 did a Catholic inherit the throne to the Kingdom of Lombardy, and the struggle with the Emperors for supremacy within the Church would continue until the Great Schism in 1054.\n\n > This is not to say that the Bishops of Rome did not hold a position of honor among other Bishops. The point here is that for about half of Church history, the Pope was *not* the boss.",
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"answer": "It is tempting to create a narrative of papal history that marches inexorably towards the monarchical papacy of the High Middle Ages and its role at the center of Latin Christianity. However, the question is a bit problematic—what elements we decide are essential or fundamental to the office of the papacy will ultimately determine when we decide the papacy ‘began’. I am not sure that is as useful, as it superimposes onto the past our image of what a pope –medieval or modern— ought to be. I realize that comes across as a bit pedantic, and maybe it’s not completely necessary, but I hope it will help illuminate the special role the *papa* of Rome has held for most of the position’s history.\n \nI am happy to leave the early histories of the bishops in Rome to other, more qualified posters, but by the fifth century, the bishop in Rome held the title of *papa*. The title was not unique to the Roman see, and was commonly used to refer to a senior bishop who was to act in an advisory position to other sees in his sphere of influence. The title would, however, become unique to the apostolic see by the eighth century. The apostolic see was also one of five patriarchs (Rome, Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem) that placed them atop an admittedly decentralized ecclesiastical hierarchy. Even among these, Rome was singled out as special—it was after all the resting place of not one, but *two* apostles, on top of countless* martyrs. The legacy of the city as the old capital of the Empire was also hard to shake. Even Constantinople was willing to recognized Rome’s special preeminence among the episcopal sees, but it's worth pointing out that this garnered no additional jurisdictional or theological clout. \n\nThe papacy of the earliest medieval period was largely oriented towards the East and Constantinople, and as a result was often caught up in the theological disputes and politics of the Eastern Roman Empire-- central and southern Italy were part of the Empire for much of the period. Until the papacy of Zachary in 741, the election of a new pope required confirmation from the Emperor. As the only Latin patriarch, the pope represented the West (in theory) in eastern affairs, but in terms of real, enforceable authority, the pope exercised little to no control over the western bishops. Like other patriarchs, the pope had a number of civic responsibilities. The sees of Ravenna and Rome paid the imperial armies in Italy and Rome fed the poor of the city from its estates. The acquisition of civic and administrative duties was not itself unusual, but among the metropolitan bishops of the West, Rome was particularly wealthy; the patrimony of St. Peter during the papacy of Gregory the Great numbered over 400 estates, many of which were located in Sicily.\n\nDespite its eastern orientation and the increasingly fragmented condition of the western churches, the apostolic see was still held a position of special deference. During the fifth century, bishops from Gaul would occasionally petition Rome (addressing him as *papa*) or, as in the case of some African bishops, seek intervention in local conciliar affairs. This \", however, was not regular, and more often than not the bishops involved were in trouble back home. As the western half of the empire continued to disintegrate, regional bishops became increasingly focused on the affairs of the various successor kingdoms to which they belonged. With the conversion of the Visigothic nobility from the 'Arian' heresy, the ecclesiastical life of that kingdom became increasingly centered on Toledo. The bishop of Arles in Gaul, theoretically and at times functioned as the papal representative in the region, but Rome lacked real jurisdictional authority over the bishoprics of the West.\n\nAgain, it's important to emphasize the slow and incremental changes in papal prerogatives in the West. Fifth century popes like Leo and Gelasius both emphasized the importance of their spiritual authority, but it's hard to gauge the extent of their vision for the role of their office; they were certainly unable to impose their will on the Latin bishops. Gregory the Great at the close of the sixth century certainly grew the prestige of the office, and while there was indeed an expansion of the papal bureaucracy over the course of the sixth and seventh centuries, the authority of the popes rarely extended beyond Rome, the surrounding territories and at times in Northern Italy.\n\nI suppose most people conceive of the pope as the head of a centralized Latin church. In that respect, the eighth century, during which the papacy began to look north to the Carolingian Franks rather than East to Constantinople.^1 The Franks increasingly looked to Rome in matters of the liturgy and instruction. Even still, the real authority of the papacy was limited--but it was growing. Beginning with Louis the Pious,^EDIT the pope would ~~periodically anoint emperors~~ take a more prominent role in the anointing of emperors, a reversal of the days when the Eastern emperor confirmed the pope’s position (though the Frankish emperors were still *usually* notified of the election of a new pope). Over the course of the ninth century, archbishops in greater numbers sought the conferral of the *pallium*, the ceremonial woolen vestment symbolizing the authority of their office, from the pope. It was an old practice^2 , but the increased frequency speaks to the extent to which the ecclesiastical leaders of Francia were beginning to look towards Rome for legitimacy, even if the pope as of yet was unable to dictate who was elected. \n\nThe tenth century saw the continuation of several trends established in the preceding centuries and the papal offices were quite busy, even when the popes themselves were rather lackluster. Charters connecting the papacy to various corners of the Latin West are a testament to the increasingly centrality of Rome. Monasteries in particular sought the protection and patronage of the apostolic see^3 —and it is out of these relationships that we witness the birth of the reform movements that would characterize the papacies of the eleventh century. Otherwise the eleventh century would look back on the tenth with not a little disdain. Papal election had always been a political affair, but the tenth century is notorious for the contests between leading Roman families, West Frankish rulers, and German kings—though the condemnation of the period overlooks continuity and consistency with earlier papal models. It is also at the end of tenth century that we witness the first ‘official’ papal canonizations. These, however, would not become a sole papal prerogative until the thirteenth century. \n\nIf there is a case to be made for when the pope emerged as *the Pope*, or at least what modern folks imagine when they picture the medieval papacy, it would be during the great reform movements of the eleventh and subsequent centuries. For the sake of brevity, the reforms championed among popes, monastic foundations and other centers would attempt to unify and regulate the far-flung communities of believers and establish papal authority in the farthest reaches of Christendom. It is under the reform popes that we see our first ‘crusades’ and stronger appeals to a universal Christian community. Excommunication and the suspension of the sacraments –long-standing papal prerogatives, if rarely used—were also utilized more frequently and papal insistence on investing bishops with the symbols of their office, as opposed to the temporal princes of Western Europe, would spark its own controversy. It was not an easy transition and the conflicts between popes and princes that would play out over the next few centuries would see emperor’s excommunicated, popes bloodied, anti-popes raised, and much angst and gnashing of teeth all around. Papal developments beyond the eleventh and twelfth centuries, including the crystallization of canon law, are a bit outside of my wheelhouse—I will leave that to hopefully another poster who might be able to elaborate further. \n\nAny time you cover six centuries worth of history things are going to be left out—I have tried to stick to general trends, but even then some things are inevitably left out (so please follow-up!) What I have attempted to demonstrate, however, is that the papacy as an office and institution evolved over time, reacting and adapting to various circumstances within the spheres of influence it found itself. Like any long-standing institution, it will only become more recognizable to us over time, and for me at least, some of those familiar kernels are recognizable quite early. \n\n----\n\n^1 I don’t quite want to get into all the complexities, but the weakening presence of Constantinople in its Italian holdings and increased Lombard hostilities ‘encouraged’ the pope to look elsewhere for a protector. \n\n^EDIT As noted below, Charlemagne was crowned by the pope in 800. Carolingians had also been anointed by the pope at various points prior to this event. ~~While I am having trouble tracking down the reference~~ (FOUND IT: in McKitterick's chapter in vol. 3 of the New Cambridge Medieval History), the emphasis on the anointing of Louis the Pious is ~~probably~~ with regards to the pope's insistence that he anoint the new emperor at Rheims in 816. Other than that, please excuse the lazy writing on my part. Whoops! \n\n^2 Pope Marcus (d.336) conferred the pallium on the bishop of Ostia, and Symmachus on Caesarius of Arles in 513; Augustine received the pallium before his mission to Kent—in fact, I have not mentioned it above, but the burgeoning English church looked to Rome in a way that Gaul and Hispania were not during the seventh century (but hey, there’s only so much of 600+ years of history that one can cover, right?)\n\n^3 For ex: the foundation at Cluny—the Starbucks of medieval monasticism. The monastery would produce a couple of popes over the next century, including Gregory VII and Urban II\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "25458",
"title": "Rome",
"section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.\n",
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"text": "The Bishop of Rome, called the Pope, was important since the early days of Christianity because of the martyrdom of both the apostles Peter and Paul there. The Bishops of Rome were also seen (and still are seen by Catholics) as the successors of Peter, who is considered the first Bishop of Rome. The city thus became of increasing importance as the centre of the Catholic Church. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, Rome was first under the control of Odoacer and then became part of the Ostrogothic Kingdom before returning to East Roman control after the Gothic War, which devastated the city. Its population declined from more than a million in 210 AD to 500,000 in 273 to 35,000 after the Gothic War (535–554), reducing the sprawling city to groups of inhabited buildings interspersed among large areas of ruins, vegetation, vineyards and market gardens. It is generally thought the population of the city until 300 AD was 1 million (estimates range from 2 million to 750,000) declining to 750–800,000 in 400 AD, 450–500,000 in 450 AD and down to 80–100,000 in 500 AD (though it may have been twice this).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35610028",
"title": "Outline of the Catholic Church",
"section": "Section::::History of the Catholic Church.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "History of the Catholic Church – the church says that its bishops are the successors to the Apostles of Jesus, and that the Bishop of Rome, also known as the Pope, is the sole successor to Saint Peter, who is believed to have been appointed head of the church in the New Testament and who is said to have ministered in Rome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4909685",
"title": "Papal supremacy",
"section": "Section::::Institution of papal supremacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1461,
"text": "Some scholars as well as critics believe that there was no single “bishop” of Rome until well after the year 150 AD, and that there was no papacy for the first three centuries. Catholic theologian Francis A. Sullivan \"expressed agreement with the consensus of scholars that available evidence indicates that the church of Rome was led by a college of presbyters, rather than a single bishop, for at least several decades of the second century.\" The research of Jesuit historian Klaus Schatz led him to state that, \"If one had asked a Christian in the year 100, 200, or even 300 whether the bishop of Rome was the head of all Christians, or whether there was a supreme bishop over all the other bishops and having the last word in questions affecting the whole Church, he or she would certainly have said no.\" But he believes it likely that 'there very quickly emerged a presider or ‘first among equals.’\" Critics argue that, in contrast to a universal papacy to which all were subject, Roman bishops who tried to exert authority as supreme heads were severely reprimanded by other bishops, and that it was not until the 4th and 5th centuries that papal primacy, helped by myths and legends, began to take shape. This marked the beginning of the rise of the Bishops of Rome to the position of not just religious authority, but also of the power to be the ultimate ruler of the kingdoms within the Christian community (Christendom), which it has since retained. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21967718",
"title": "History of Rome",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Rome.:Roman Empire.:Christianization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "The Empire's conversion to Christianity made the Bishop of Rome (later called the Pope) the senior religious figure in the Western Empire, as officially stated in 380 by the Edict of Thessalonica. In spite of its increasingly marginal role in the Empire, Rome retained its historic prestige, and this period saw the last wave of construction activity: Constantine's predecessor Maxentius built buildings such as its basilica in the Forum, Constantine himself erected the Arch of Constantine to celebrate his victory over the former, and Diocletian built the greatest baths of all. Constantine was also the first patron of official Christian buildings in the city. He donated the Lateran Palace to the Pope, and built the first great basilica, the old St. Peter's Basilica.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31665644",
"title": "Saint Peter",
"section": "Section::::Connection to Rome.:Papacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "The Catholic Church speaks of the pope, the bishop of Rome, as the successor of Saint Peter. This is often interpreted to imply that Peter was the first Bishop of Rome. However, it is also said that the institution of the papacy is not dependent on the idea that Peter was Bishop of Rome or even on his ever having been in Rome. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3349430",
"title": "History of the papacy",
"section": "Section::::During the Roman Empire (until 493).:Early Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Catholics and the Orthodox recognize the pope as the successor to Saint Peter, and recognize him as the first bishop of Rome. Official declarations of the Church speak of the popes as holding within the college of the bishops a position analogous to that held by Peter within the \"college\" of the Apostles, namely Prince of the Apostles, of which the college of the Bishops, a distinct entity, is viewed by some to be the successor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23056",
"title": "Pope",
"section": "Section::::History.:Position within the Church.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the bishop of Rome had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, as even a letter from the bishop, or patriarch, of Antioch acknowledged the Bishop of Rome as \"a first among equals\", though the detail of what this meant is unclear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1f3lvf
|
What can we do to help future historians?
|
[
{
"answer": "I've been curious about that myself. I think we need to make sure a good amount of human readable records are preserved. We have ancient books, but floppy discs from thirty years ago are obsolete and difficult to find readers for at best, or damaged and unreadable. It's important to make sure our records and media will be accessible a thousand years from now. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Preserving our own digital cultures is incredibly important, but I'm going to address this question from a slightly different angle. One of the other things we need to do to help future historians (and present-day historians too) is embrace an open-access philosophy when creating digital archives of *existing* historical materials. A lot of sources that were once available freely through public libraries and archives are currently being digitised by commercial publishing companies and then placed behind a paywall. In the process, the original documents are being put into storage, sold off, or (in some rare cases) even destroyed in the expectation that we'll all use the digital surrogates instead. I work in the digital humanities, so I'm certainly not adverse to promoting this kind of research - but I am concerned about how our past is being privatised in the process.\n\nIn Britain, the most obvious example is our newspaper archive. The British Library's flagship digitisation program feeds content into the [British Newspaper Archive](_URL_0_), which is owned and operated by a family history company named Brightsolid. You need to take out a subscription in order to use the archive - not an *enormous* amount of money, but enough to restrict the archive's use in schools and for speculative research. Once this company scans a newspaper, they hold long-term copyright over the scanned images (even if the copyright on the original texts has long-since expired). This becomes particularly problematic if access to the original documents is restricted. They also control the future of the archive - if it ceases to be commercially viable in a few decades' time, then how will we access these sources? The choice of materials for digitisation and the design of the archive's interface is also influenced by commercial rather than academic aims - I can't take their data and do something else with it because they control access.\n\nThis isn't just happening with newspapers. Loads of our archives are being broken up into small chunks, sold off to digitisation companies, and then placed behind separate paywalls. This process is creating an increasingly fractured archival environment - everything is held within its own walled-garden. This, in turn, is creating a divide between researchers who can afford the necessary subscriptions (either personally or through their institution) and those who can't. I'm an enormous fan of digitisation, but in our rush to fund it we've sacrificed control over our archives and erected barriers to access that will be extremely difficult to pull down. \n\nSo, what can we do to help future historians? We could start by making sure that the records we have *already* been trusted to protect remain in public control, and adopt a flexible, open-access approach to digitisation that doesn't require us to sell-out to commercial publishers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The science fiction writer [Charlie Stross](_URL_0_) did think a bit of history of the near future. And he notes that the availability of cheap storage means that future historians will likely see a boundary around our time. Before they have only information, that is deemed valuable enough to warrant the labor and expense to write it down. Afterwards they will have everything. ( The current cost to store 1 year of DVD quality video (~30 TBit) is roughly $300, less than $1000/yr including backup.) \n\nSo to think a bit of what a historian of 2050 (or someone with access to the Facebook database today) could do with the Facebook Database: It would be possible to look at the subset of users who did identify themselves as Obama voter in 2012 and Republican voter in 2016. Then this future historian could look at the \"Likes\" and groups these users have joined and try to identify important correlations about these. In addition, depending on the state of natural language parsing, the historian could try to sort through the messages the user has send or received. It is at least possible to count the frequency of certain words. For example the use of 'Gun control' indicates that the user is thinking about 'Gun control,' a more sophisticated approach would try to extract enough meaning to identify if the user is concerned about guns or concerned about too much gun control. (None of this is speculative, [source for stuff Facebook stores.](_URL_1_) )\n\nOn the other hand, for high level decision making the sources would likely be not much better than today. The social media profiles of many politicians are created by PR companies, and as such are written with a lot more bias than a supposedly private conversation at Facebook. So for an important meeting during the financial crisis, the historian may or may not have access to the protocol of that meeting, but it is unlikely that the thought process is documented in a similar way as the thought process of someone who discusses openly on Facebook. \n\nSo to finally discuss the question, the two preceding paragraphs assume that the Facebook database survives. This is by no means a certainty. And the database needs to be readable, so future historians need to be able to read the file system of the hard disks and the format of the database. And in addition, they need to be able to judge the bias introduced by reconstructing new media: Most of the world population is still off line and my parents use email only for work related stuff. And of course the historical fashion may change and future historians may only be interested in the story of kings, just like many past historians. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "371299",
"title": "Qualitative research",
"section": "Section::::Specialized uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "BULLET::::12. Historical research allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the present condition, and allows one to reflect and provide possible answers to current issues and problems. Historical research helps us in answering questions such as: Where have we come from, where are we, who are we now and where are we going?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9506106",
"title": "European History Network",
"section": "Section::::CLIOH-WORLD.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "It builds on the efforts of previous European History Network projects (CLIOH, CLIOHnet, CLIOHnet2, CLIOHRES) to improve the understanding of national histories as they are studied, taught and learned in European universities. These projects have linked national historical narratives, and prepared tools and materials to structure history programs. These help make learners aware of how national historical viewpoints have been created, and how and why they may contrast with the beliefs and understandings about history in neighboring countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7213860",
"title": "English local history",
"section": "Section::::Researching local history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Local history research, like that of family history, is accessible to people without prior historical training or experience. This is because the very nature of local history is such that starting points are always available locally. An intelligent lay researcher can learn the necessary skills as they research. Archivists and societies can provide advice, encouragement, and information; formal courses of study are also widely available. Many local historians are non-specialists whose enthusiasm for history and have applied this to their area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18622081",
"title": "HistoAtlas",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "It is an open project making sure everyone benefits from it. Everyone can use the information and can collaborate on the project. Its main audience is the general public but it should also have enough historical details so also historians should be able to enjoy it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38656910",
"title": "Baylor University Institute for Oral History",
"section": "Section::::Mission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "\"To foster a deepening understanding of the past by collecting, preserving, and sharing the historically significant memories of individuals according to the highest ethical and professional standards, to work with scholars across disciplines to design and execute innovative research projects, to equip community groups in their oral history endeavors, and to mentor students in the interdisciplinary field of oral history.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146649",
"title": "Living history",
"section": "Section::::In education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "Individuals can participate in living histories as a type of experiential learning in which they make discoveries firsthand, rather than reading about the experience of others. Living history can also be used to supplement and extend formal education. Collaborations between professional historians who work at living history sites and teachers can lead to greater enthusiasm about studying history at all grade levels. Many living history sites profess a dedication to education within their mission statements. For instance, the motto of Colonial Williamsburg, “That the Future May Learn from the Past,” proclaims the site’s commitment to public edification, as does the portion of the website created for the sole purpose of aiding teachers in instruction on the village.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9355174",
"title": "Georgia Historical Society",
"section": "Section::::Vincent J. Dooley Distinguished Fellows Program.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "The Dooley Distinguished Research Fellows Program will also mentor the next generation of historians by giving younger scholars the opportunity to conduct research for a specific period of time in the vast collection of primary sources at the Georgia Historical Society Research Center. The research is expected to lead to a major piece of scholarly work such as: a dissertation, a book, an article in a refereed scholarly journal, a chapter in an edited collection, or an academic paper presented at a scholarly conference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3br7s3
|
how to get infinite chocolate from a chocolate bar
|
[
{
"answer": "The gif is subtly doctored. When the piece moves from the left to the right, you can, if you pay attention, see it growing slightly.\n\nPay attention to the left edge of the piece. You see it growing from 2+1/2 to 2+2/3",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22649022",
"title": "Chocolate Surpresa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "The chocolate itself was a common black milky bar, flat and thin. But what really made it achieve so much success was that each of them would come with a figure made on a thin cardboard paper with a picture of an animal on it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "728528",
"title": "3 Musketeers (chocolate bar)",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "The candy is made of a whipped nougat covered with milk chocolate. The nougat chocolate center is first formed into very large slabs, which are cut to size, and after the centers are formed they are coated with milk chocolate through a process called \"enrobing\" wherein the centers pass through a continuous flowing vertical \"sheet\" of chocolate while, at the same time, a rotating, chocolate-covered wheel beneath the mesh belt coats the base of the bar. The bar is then cooled and prepared for wrapping. The candy is made in Chicago, Illinois; Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania; and Newmarket, Ontario.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49599312",
"title": "Chocolat Jacques",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "The factory invented and launched an original chocolate bar, obtaining a patent for it in 1936. This chocolate bar is composed of six different pieces that can be broken off and it is still the most well-known product of the brand. It is made of chocolate milk with one of seven tastes: mocha and rum, banana, three fruits, praline 100, crispy praline, biscuit 100, and nuts. The last piece is black chocolate filled with melting cappuccino biscuits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55644828",
"title": "To'ak Chocolate",
"section": "Section::::Chocolate bars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "The chocolate bar is handcrafted, and production involves fermenting the cocoa beans. It has been considered to be one of the most expensive in the world, with prices ranging from $270-$375 for a 50-gram bar. The chocolate bar is composed entirely of the Nacional cocoa bean, with a slight amount of cane sugar added. In the middle of the bar is a single roasted cacao bean, showcasing the unadulterated flavor of Nacional Cacao and serving as a reminder where chocolate comes from. To'ak chocolate is pure chocolate, not embellished with nuts, gold dust, or ganache, as is the case with some of the world's other expensive chocolates. Each bar of chocolate comes in a Spanish Elm wooden box and has the individual bar number engraved in the back.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3396350",
"title": "The chocolate game",
"section": "Section::::Setting up the game.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "The bar of chocolate is kept in its original foil and paper wrapper and/or it is wrapped with several layers of wrapping paper. The participants sit or stand in a circle around the wrapped chocolate bar. The chocolate bar can be placed on a plate for hygiene and also to make the game harder, funnier and therefore last longer. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "247079",
"title": "Mars (chocolate bar)",
"section": "Section::::Worldwide version.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "In 1932, Forrest Mars, son of American candy maker Frank C. Mars, rented a factory in Slough and with a staff of twelve people, began manufacturing a chocolate bar consisting of nougat and caramel covered in milk chocolate (originally advertised as using Cadbury's chocolate couverture), modelled after his father's Milky Way bar, which was already popular in the US. The bar and the proportions of the main components have changed over the years. With minor variations, this version is sold worldwide, except for the US, and is packaged in a black wrapper with red gold-edged lettering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18509922",
"title": "List of chocolate bar brands",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "This is a list of chocolate bar brands, in alphabetical order. A chocolate bar (British English) or candy bar (American English) is a confection in an oblong or rectangular form containing chocolate, which may also contain layerings or mixtures that include nuts, fruit, caramel, nougat, and wafers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5462ei
|
In terms of harvesting power from radio waves, is there an equivalent to a solar panel?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is what all satellite dishes and radio telescopes already do in the sense that they convert radio waves into some electrical signal. However, there's no step in there where they interact with some semiconductor wafer or anything like that. The signals typically need to be drastically amplified in the electronics and remember that a single radio photon has significantly less energy than an optical photon. Instead of a wavelength of 500 nm you might be talking about 50 cm, and so if the wavelength changes by a factor of one million then the energy also drops by that amount. So it's not really practical to harvest energy via radio waves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People talk about building satellites in orbit to collect energy with solar panels, \n\n\nand then convert it to microwaves (radio frequency energy), beam it down to the ground, \n\nand collect it with a \"rectenna\" \n\n\\- that would be the radio-frequency equivalent of a solar panel. \n\n\n\\- _URL_1_ \n\n\\- _URL_0_ \n\n. \n\nWe have a convenient source of light-frequency energy - the Sun - so building solar panels to collect this energy directly is reasonable.\n\nHowever, as far as I know, if you build a \"rectenna\" to collect microwave / radio energy directly, you can't collect enough to be useful \n\nunless (as mentioned) you're actually collecting the energy from a different source, and just using the microwave / radio energy as a way of transmitting it to the rectenna. \n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6757017",
"title": "Space-based solar power",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1035,
"text": "Space-based solar power (SBSP) is the concept of collecting solar power in outer space and distributing it to Earth. Potential advantages of collecting solar energy in space include a higher collection rate and a longer collection period due to the lack of a diffusing atmosphere, and the possibility of placing a solar collector in an orbiting location where there is no night. A considerable fraction of incoming solar energy (55–60%) is lost on its way through the Earth's atmosphere by the effects of reflection and absorption. Space-based solar power systems convert sunlight to microwaves outside the atmosphere, avoiding these losses and the downtime due to the Earth's rotation, but at great cost due to the expense of launching material into orbit. SBSP is considered a form of sustainable or green energy, renewable energy, and is occasionally considered among climate engineering proposals. It is attractive to those seeking large-scale solutions to anthropogenic climate change or fossil fuel depletion (such as peak oil).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10418624",
"title": "Renewable energy commercialization",
"section": "Section::::Third-generation technologies.:Advanced solar concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Space-based solar power (SBSP) is the concept of collecting solar power in space (using an \"SPS\", that is, a \"solar-power satellite\" or a \"satellite power system\") for use on Earth. It has been in research since the early 1970s. SBSP would differ from current solar collection methods in that the means used to collect energy would reside on an orbiting satellite instead of on Earth's surface. Some projected benefits of such a system are a higher collection rate and a longer collection period due to the lack of a diffusing atmosphere and night time in space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10424615",
"title": "Third-generation photovoltaic cell",
"section": "Section::::Technologies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Solar cells can be thought of as visible light counterparts to radio receivers. A receiver consists of three basic parts; an antenna that converts the radio waves (light) into wave-like motions of electrons in the antenna material, an electronic valve that traps the electrons as they pop off the end of the antenna, and a tuner that amplifies electrons of a selected frequency. It is possible to build a solar cell identical to a radio, a system known as an optical rectenna, but to date these have not been practical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "570662",
"title": "Wireless power transfer",
"section": "Section::::Far-field (radiative) techniques.:Microwaves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Power transmission via radio waves can be made more directional, allowing longer-distance power beaming, with shorter wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, typically in the microwave range. A rectenna may be used to convert the microwave energy back into electricity. Rectenna conversion efficiencies exceeding 95% have been realized. Power beaming using microwaves has been proposed for the transmission of energy from orbiting solar power satellites to Earth and the beaming of power to spacecraft leaving orbit has been considered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42302371",
"title": "Mars habitat",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Another idea for power is to beam the power to the surface, a solar power satellite would send the power down to the surface to a rectifying antenna (aka rectenna) receiver. 245 GHz, laser, in-situ rectenna construction, and 5.8 GHz designs have been studied. One idea is combine this technology to with Solar Electric Propulsion to achieve a lower mass that the surface solar power. The big advantage is that the rectennas should be immune to dust and weather changes, and with the right orbit, a solar power Mars satellite could beam power down continuously to the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "533487",
"title": "Energy development",
"section": "Section::::Transmission.:Wireless energy transfer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Orbiting solar power collectors would require wireless transmission of power to Earth. The proposed method involves creating a large beam of microwave-frequency radio waves, which would be aimed at a collector antenna site on the Earth. Formidable technical challenges exist to ensure the safety and profitability of such a scheme.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29248",
"title": "Space colonization",
"section": "Section::::Method.:Energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Transmitting solar energy wirelessly from the Earth to the Moon and back is also an idea proposed for the benefit of space colonization and energy resources. Physicist Dr. David Criswell, who worked for NASA during the Apollo missions, came up with the idea of using power beams to transfer energy from space. These beams, microwaves with a wavelength of about 12 cm, will be almost untouched as they travel through the atmosphere. They can also be aimed at more industrial areas to keep away from humans or animal activities. This will allow for safer and more reliable methods of transferring solar energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6y2sek
|
how are saturn's rings clean if they have existed for millions to billions of years?
|
[
{
"answer": "They are not clean. They have drawn in countless meteors and such. Thus their current color instead of just looking snowy white.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To begin the rings are not solid but are made up of lose dust, gravel and rocks. A meteor would likely just pass straight though them without impacting anything. Secondly they are likely not millions of years old. They might just be a few thousand years old but it is very hard to tell. Thirdly most objects that far from the Sun is made up of mostly snow, ice and dry ice which are all white. They are only dark because the little dust on them is concentrated on the surface as ice sublimates from the surface. You get the same effect on Earth during the spring when the snow melts which turns the surface of the snow dark but if you disturb it there is still crystal white snow underneath. So when two meteors crash into each other they become whiter and not darker. So the rings of Saturn is getting lighter with meteor impacts and not darker.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6964189",
"title": "The Rings of Saturn",
"section": "Section::::Title.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The rings of Saturn consist of ice crystals and probably meteorite particles describing circular orbits around the planet's equator. In all likelihood these are fragments of a former moon that was too close to the planet and was destroyed by its tidal effect. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14336886",
"title": "Inge King",
"section": "Section::::Major works.:\"Rings of Saturn\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "\"Rings of Saturn\" is located in the Sir Rupert Hamer Garden, in the grounds of the Heide Museum of Modern Art in Bulleen, a suburb of Melbourne. Shortly after the dedication of this work, in August 2006, King said:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "977592",
"title": "Rings of Saturn",
"section": "Section::::Formation and evolution of main rings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "A more recent variant of this type of theory by R. M. Canup is that the rings could represent part of the remains of the icy mantle of a much larger, Titan-sized, differentiated moon that was stripped of its outer layer as it spiraled into the planet during the formative period when Saturn was still surrounded by a gaseous nebula. This would explain the scarcity of rocky material within the rings. The rings would initially have been much more massive (≈1,000 times) and broader than at present; material in the outer portions of the rings would have coalesced into the moons of Saturn out to Tethys, also explaining the lack of rocky material in the composition of most of these moons. Subsequent collisional or cryovolcanic evolution of Enceladus might then have caused selective loss of ice from this moon, raising its density to its current value of 1.61 g/cm, compared to values of 1.15 for Mimas and 0.97 for Tethys.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46326758",
"title": "Satellite system (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::Features and interactions.:Ring systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Most rings were thought to be unstable and to dissipate over the course of tens or hundreds of millions of years. Studies of Saturn's rings however indicate that they may date to the early days of the Solar System. Current theories suggest that some ring systems may form in repeating cycles, accreting into natural satellites that break up as soon as they reach the Roche limit. This theory has been used to explain the longevity of Saturn's rings as well the moons of Mars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1369029",
"title": "The Martian Way",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "When Asimov wrote \"The Martian Way\" in 1952, it was thought that the fragments making up Saturn's rings might be over a mile in diameter. It is now known that none of the ring fragments is more than a few meters in diameter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "977592",
"title": "Rings of Saturn",
"section": "Section::::Formation and evolution of main rings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1057,
"text": "The brightness and purity of the water ice in Saturn's rings has also been cited as evidence that the rings are much younger than Saturn, as the infall of meteoric dust would have led to darkening of the rings. However, new research indicates that the B Ring may be massive enough to have diluted infalling material and thus avoided substantial darkening over the age of the Solar System. Ring material may be recycled as clumps form within the rings and are then disrupted by impacts. This would explain the apparent youth of some of the material within the rings. Evidence suggesting a recent origin of the C ring has been gathered by researchers analyzing data from the Cassini Titan Radar Mapper, which focused on analyzing the proportion of rocky silicates within this ring. If much of this material was contributed by a recently disrupted centaur or moon, the age of this ring could be on the order of 100 million years or less. On the other hand, if the material came primarily from micrometeoroid influx, the age would be closer to a billion years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40772439",
"title": "Rings of Saturn (band)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "Rings of Saturn is an American deathcore band from the Bay Area, California. The band was formed in 2009 and was originally just a studio project. However, after gaining a wide popularity and signing to Unique Leader Records, the band formed a full line-up and became a full-time touring band. Rings of Saturn's music features a highly technical style, heavily influenced by themes of alien life and outer space. They have released four full-length albums, with their third, \"Lugal Ki En\", released in 2014 and peaking at 126 on the American \"Billboard\" 200 chart while their fourth, \"Ultu Ulla\" was released in 2017 and peaked at 76 on the Billboard 200 chart, making it the band's highest peak to date.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
304unr
|
Why were ship designs so different in Asia compared to Europe?
|
[
{
"answer": "You're going to need to clarify a few things: what parts of Asia/Europe? Time period? Are you referring to hull design or rigging? Warships or merchantmen? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "435268",
"title": "History of the world",
"section": "Section::::Modern history.:Early modern period.:European expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "Geography contributed to important geopolitical differences. For most of their histories, China, India, and the Middle East were each unified under a single dominant power that expanded until it reached the surrounding mountains and deserts. In 1600 the Ottoman Empire controlled almost all the Middle East, the Ming dynasty ruled China, and the Mughal Empire held sway over India. By contrast, Europe was almost always divided into a number of warring states. Pan-European empires, with the notable exception of the Roman Empire, tended to collapse soon after they arose. Another doubtless important geographic factor in the rise of Europe was the Mediterranean Sea, which, for millennia, had functioned as a maritime superhighway fostering the exchange of goods, people, ideas and inventions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58012588",
"title": "Shipbuilding in the early modern era",
"section": "Section::::Asian designs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Many of the ships that were developed in Asia were characterized by a series of traits. For example, flat-bottomed craft was often prevalent in many Chinese vessels as they are adapted for navigating in the shallow waters of the rivers that are common in China. For example, the Chinese treasure ship, known for its usage during Zheng He's seven voyages to bring distant goods and establish political and economic relationships with foreign powers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3704148",
"title": "Maritime history",
"section": "Section::::Age of Discovery.:European expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Although Europe is the world's second-smallest continent in terms of area, it has a very long coastline, and has arguably been influenced more by its \"maritime history\" than any other continent. Europe is uniquely situated between several navigable seas and intersected by navigable rivers running into them in a way which greatly facilitated the influence of maritime traffic and commerce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27008",
"title": "Ship",
"section": "Section::::History.:14th through the 18th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 971,
"text": "At this time, ships were developing in Asia in much the same way as Europe. Japan used defensive naval techniques in the Mongol invasions of Japan in 1281. It is likely that the Mongols of the time took advantage of both European and Asian shipbuilding techniques. During the 15th century, China's Ming dynasty assembled one of the largest and most powerful naval fleets in the world for the diplomatic and power projection voyages of Zheng He. Elsewhere in Japan in the 15th century, one of the world's first iron-clads, \"Tekkōsen\" (), literally meaning \"iron ships\", was also developed. In Japan, during the Sengoku era from the fifteenth to 17th century, the great struggle for feudal supremacy was fought, in part, by coastal fleets of several hundred boats, including the atakebune. In Korea, in the early 15th century during the Joseon era, \"Geobukseon\"(거북선), was developed. The \"turtle ship\", as it was called is recognized as the first armored ship in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2586840",
"title": "Colonial war",
"section": "Section::::Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Ultimately, Asia's antiquated governments and military establishment were unable to match the Europeans'. European military dominance over Asia would become apparent in India in the eighteenth century and in China and Japan in the nineteenth century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1141140",
"title": "Pinta (ship)",
"section": "Section::::Detail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "\"La Niña\", \"La Pinta\", and \"Santa María\" were not the largest ships in Europe at the time. They were small trade ships surpassed in size by ships like , built in Scotland in 1511 with a length of , and a crew of 300 sailors, 120 gunners, and up to 1,000 soldiers. of the Hanseatic League was built in 1462 and was long. Another large ship, the English carrack , was built during the period 1420–1439, was long, and weighed between 1,400 tons and 2,750 tons. Ships built in Europe in the fifteenth century were designed to sail the Mediterranean sea and the Atlantic Ocean coastlines. Columbus' smaller-sized ships were considered riskier on the open ocean than larger ships. This made it difficult to recruit crew members, and a small number were jailed prisoners given a lighter sentence if they would sail with Columbus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9714884",
"title": "Medieval ships",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "The ships of Medieval Europe were powered by sail or oar, or both. There was a large variety, mostly based on much older conservative designs. Although wider and more frequent communications within Europe meant exposure to a variety of improvements, experimental failures were costly and rarely attempted. Ships in the north were influenced by Viking vessels, while those in the south by classical or Roman vessels. However, there was technological change. The different traditions used different construction methods; clinker in the north, carvel in the south. By the end of the period, carvel construction would come to dominate the building of large ships. The period would also see a shift from the steering oar or side rudder to the stern rudder and the development from single to multi-masted ships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4yfh08
|
how power banks understand the difference between being charged and charging?
|
[
{
"answer": "You plug it in the laptop via a USB port, and in the mobile phone via a micro USB port. This means you use two different ports on the powerbank as well. This decides if you're charging the bank or the device.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "actually it is very simple.\n\nfor mobile device, the port that you plug it in is the receiptor of input voltage, so it draw current therefore it plug the power out from the power bank.\n\nfor laptop, all USB port are sending out voltage of 5volt 500ma for the normal USB port (not USB C), hence it push the current into the bank which charge it.\n\na smarter bank would have a over-voltage protection such that it has a very small circuit which calculate the total capacity at the moment.\n\nsince all IC chip can do maths, hence one small part of the code consist of the below.\n\nVt=(vc/5)*100\n\nwhereby Vt is the variable of Voltage total and vc is the variable of current amount of voltage. 5 is the max voltage if let say it is a 5volt battery bank, 100 is just ensuring it is in percentage.\n\ni does that for all my electronic project for low battery detection and max cut off.\n\nanyway, most power bank has 2 port, 1 for input and other for output. my above statement is for 1 port style of bi-directional power bank.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60373822",
"title": "Smart charging",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Smart charging is a form of electric vehicle charging in which the time and rate at which an EV's battery pack is charged can be controlled in a more \"intelligent\" way than the simple use of a manual on/off switch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16662777",
"title": "Charge control",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Charge control is a technology that lets an electric utility control, in real time, the charging of a \"gridable\" (plug-in) vehicle, such as a plug-in hybrid (PHEV) or a battery electric vehicle (BEV). Through charge control, the utility is able to postpone charging of the vehicle during time of peak demand. Additionally, this technology may enable the owner and the power company to track the vehicle's usage and performance, while on the road and while charging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10592503",
"title": "Charging station",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "For charging at home or work, some EVs have onboard converters that can plug into a standard electrical outlet or a high-capacity appliance outlet. Others either require or can use a charging station that provides electrical conversion, monitoring, or safety functionality. These stations are also needed when traveling, and many support faster charging at higher voltages and currents than are available from residential EVSEs. Public charging stations are typically on-street facilities provided by electric utility companies or located at retail shopping centers, restaurants and parking places, operated by a range of private companies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6039814",
"title": "Financial management for IT services",
"section": "Section::::Sub-processes.:Charging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Charging need not necessarily mean money changing hands (full charging). It may take the form of information passed to management on the cost of provision of IT services (no charging), or may detail what would be charged if full charging were in place without transactions actually being applied to the financial ledgers (notional charging). Notional charging may also be used as a way of piloting full charging. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11570212",
"title": "Bank charge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "The term bank charge covers all charges and fees made by a bank to their customers. In common parlance, the term often relates to charges in respect of personal current accounts or checking account. These charges may take many forms, including:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10592503",
"title": "Charging station",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "An electric vehicle charging station, also called EV charging station, electric recharging point, charging point, charge point, ECS (electronic charging station), and EVSE (electric vehicle supply equipment), is an element in an infrastructure that supplies electric energy for the recharging of plug-in electric vehicles—including electric cars, neighborhood electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1277811",
"title": "Hybrid Synergy Drive",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Phases of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "BULLET::::- Battery charging: The HSD can charge its battery without moving the car, by running the engine and extracting electrical power from MG1. The power gets shunted into the battery, and no torque is supplied to the wheels. The onboard computer does this when required, for example when stopped in traffic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2bs4t4
|
if you got in a plane and started flying flat along with earth then maintained that direction, would you eventually begin flying out of the atmosphere?
|
[
{
"answer": "tl;dr: The plane would need to follow the curvature of the earth. \n\nAs an airplane gets higher in the atmosphere a few things happen. First, as the plane encounters less air resistance, it can move faster, generating more lift. Counteracting this, however, is the fact that the air gets thinner, so less of it is displaced by the airfoil, so overall less lift is created. \n\nAt a certain point, even if you have a plane that can somehow generate enough lift to get to the very top of the atmosphere, the oxygen content is not high enough to fuel the combustion of the fuel inside the jet engines, so the engines will flame out. \n\nThere are certain ways to get around this problem by using different air compression designs. Ramjets and scramjets are for ultra high altitude planes that travel many times the speed of sound. These engines do not have traditional fans to compress the air, relying instead on the shockwave of the air hitting the engine intake to compress the air for it. Because of this, you have to already be flying at very high speeds to use these types of engines, making them a logistical challenge on commercial aircraft (along with many other reasons this is completely infeasible.) \n\nHowever, even these engines fail at high enough altitudes, so you would need to carry your own oxygen supply for combustion, like traditional rockets. You may notice now that we are no longer talking about the original subject, so the short answer is that the plane would follow the curvature of the Earth unless you had very special engines to get it to the upper atmosphere. Even then, it would eventually need to follow the earth's curvature unless you are flying a rocket ship. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When flying the airplane tends to enter an equilibrium of air speed and altitude. Where that equilibrium lies depends on the aircraft, wing configuration, weight, wind, thrust applied etc.\n\nIf you have a light aircraft with high thrust and low drag the equilibrium will lie at high altitude at high speed. But if you have a heavy aircraft laden with fuel that equilibrium will lie at a lower altitude at a lower speed. This is why long distance aircraft climb slowly over several thousand kilometers as they shed fuel weight.\n\nSince the aircraft reaches an altitude equilibrium it will NOT go flying out og the atmosphere, it will more or less follow the curvature of the earth because the aircraft due to its dyanimcs prefers to be a certain altitude.\n\nIf it goes too high, lift drops and the ascent slow stops of reverses and the aircraft comes back down. If it goes too low, lift increases ascent increases. But again this is a co-equilibrium with airspeed. If you drop speed you drop altitude, if you gain speed you gain altitude.\n\nSo to climb into the atmosphere indefinitely you need to gain speed indefinitely too, which means you need unconstrained engine power, which we obviously dont have.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you have set your power to maintain a certain cruise speed, say 2,500 rpm, and have adjusted your trim tabs to maintain level flght, the aircraft will generally fly at a constant altitude AGL (Above Ground Level), you will be in relative equilibrium with the forces of gravity and you will follow the curvature of the earth. Additionally, whether you are using a propellor-driven or jet aircraft, both types of propulsion require an atmosphere for ignition and have their own service ceilings above which they cannot climb.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Aircraft work on a principle called lift. Lift requires air to work, and at really high altitudes the atmosphere does not contain much air. It's not very dense, therefore the plane could not provide enough lift to keep it in flight. \n\nalso,\nEvery planet has something called an escape velocity. On earth it's about 11.2 Km per second, any normal plane can't get anywhere close to that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Think of it like trying to swim out of a pool. If you're swimming at an angle, you eventually hit the surface, then if you keep trying to swim at that angle you don't get out of the water but you keep going forward (albeit not as fast as if you would simply change the angle to swim along the surface). \n\nSo the plane would eventually be flying one altitude whilst \"dragging\" (for lack of a better word) the tail end slightly lower than the nose yet in equilibrium. This is all hypothetical in the fact that a real plane would probably eventually achieve engine failure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "233636",
"title": "Spherical Earth",
"section": "Section::::Effects and empirical evidence.:Spherical vs. flat triangles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 669,
"text": "For example, consider an airplane that travels in a straight line, takes a 90-degree right turn, travels another , takes another 90-degree right turn, and travels a third time. On a flat Earth, the aircraft would have travelled along three sides of a square, and arrive at a spot about from where it started. But because the Earth is spherical, in reality it will have travelled along three sides of a triangle, and arrive back very close to its starting point. If the starting point is the North Pole, it would have travelled due south from the North Pole to the equator, then west for a quarter of the way around the Earth, and then due north back to the North Pole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4282957",
"title": "Hot air ballooning",
"section": "Section::::Flight techniques.:Sequence.:Flight.:Steerage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "The ability to change direction with altitude is called steerage. In the ideal case, in the northern hemisphere, wind direction turns to the right with an increase in altitude. This is due to the Coriolis effect. Winds spiral clockwise, when seen from above, out of a high pressure system and counter clockwise into a low pressure system. However, air traveling close to the ground will tend to move in more of a straight line from high to low pressure due to drag with the ground. Thus, a pilot may hope to find a turn to the left during the descent to landing. In the southern hemisphere, the direction of the spirals are reversed. In reality, interaction with an uneven terrain may lessen or completely eliminate this phenomenon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1407627",
"title": "China Airlines Flight 676",
"section": "Section::::Investigation and conclusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "On initial approach to land, the aircraft was more than 300 meters above its normal altitude when it was only six nautical miles away from the airport. Nonetheless it continued the approach. Only when approaching the runway threshold, a go around was initiated. During this time, the pilot had unknowingly disengaged the plane's autopilot but was not aware of it. During the go around he therefore did nothing to actively take control of the plane as he thought the autopilot would initiate the maneuver. For 11 seconds, the plane was under no one's control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56943837",
"title": "Boland 1911 Tailless Biplane",
"section": "Section::::Design and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "The resulting airplane was very easy to fly. To go left or right, you would turn the wheel in the direction you wished to go and up and down was controlled by pushing and pulling on the control wheel. From a description of his flight in Mineola, Long Island in 1911: \"There is no grandstand play about Boland's flying. He just gets in the machine and off he goes turning as he leaves the ground, if he likes, which no other aviator thinks of doing. He just imagines himself in an automobile and drives accordingly. He says he never bothers about lateral balance or other minor things like that.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "465569",
"title": "Stall turn",
"section": "Section::::Flying technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Another problem in this maneuver is that higher lift from the faster moving outside wing will roll the airplane to the left (or to the right). Most pilots find holding forward right (or left) stick necessary throughout the pivot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4282957",
"title": "Hot air ballooning",
"section": "Section::::Flight techniques.:Competition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Some experienced pilots are able to take a flight in one direction then rise to a different altitude to catch wind in a returning direction. With experience, luck, and the right conditions, some pilots are able to control a precision landing at the destination. On rare occasions, they may be able to return to the launch site at the end of the flight. This is sometimes called a box effect, when winds at altitude flow in the opposite direction of surface winds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "940299",
"title": "Ground loop (aviation)",
"section": "Section::::Contributing factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "In the case of the 1947 crash of Pan Am Flight 121, Captain Michael Graham, one of the surviving passengers said that the landing would have been successful had an engine on the port wing not dug into the ground, dragging the plane in that direction in a ground loop and breaking it in two.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
90g3v1
|
how did those inbuilt battery testers work?
|
[
{
"answer": "The bar is made of a thermochromic strip of paper/film (paper that changes colour based on temperature) layered on top of a strip of some conductor.\n\nWhen you press down on the two ends, the strip makes contact with the battery terminals and allows electricity to flow through it. This causes the strip to heat up and change the colour of the paper/film.\n\nThe width of the strip is also not constant, so different parts of the strip requires different currents to heat up enough to cause the colour change. The \"0%\" end of the strip requires less current, the \"100%\" end of the strip requires more current. That corresponds to a discharged and fully charged battery.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39387193",
"title": "Battery tester",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "A battery tester is an electronic device intended for testing the state of an electric battery, going from a simple device for testing the charge actually present in the cells and/or its voltage output, to a more comprehensive testing of the battery's condition, namely its capacity for accumulating charge and any possible flaws affecting the battery's performance and security.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5081562",
"title": "Arc flash",
"section": "Section::::Precautions.:Live testing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "When testing in energized high-power circuits, technicians will observe precautions for care and maintenance of testing equipment and to keep the area clean and free of debris. A technician would use protective equipment such as rubber gloves and other personal protective equipment, to avoid initiating an arc and to protect personnel from any arc that may start while testing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55901398",
"title": "Battery simulator",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "BULLET::::- Test battery chargers (current or voltage of any kind) eliminating the need to connect a battery to the charger to test it; simulates the behavior of a battery during the charging process and allows the technician the ability to perform complete tests quickly, safely and accurately any charger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39387193",
"title": "Battery tester",
"section": "Section::::Integrated battery testers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "There are many types of integrated battery testers, each one corresponding to a specific condition testing procedure, according to the type of battery being tested, such as the “421” test for lead-acid vehicle batteries. Their common principle is based on the empirical fact that after having applied a given current for a given number of seconds to the battery, the resulting voltage output is related to the battery's overall condition, when compared to a healthy battery's output.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3183132",
"title": "Continuity tester",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "The tester consists of an indicator in series with a source of electrical power - normally a battery, terminating in two test leads. If a complete circuit is established between the test-leads, the indicator is activated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9090858",
"title": "Portable appliance testing",
"section": "Section::::Testing.:Earth continuity test.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 725,
"text": "The choice of which of the tests to use is at the operator's discretion as there is merit in each test for given situations. Later model testers that are battery powered are limited to doing the \"screen test\". Older mains powered units can do all tests. The purpose of the high current test is to simulate a fault condition: if a live part contacts the earthed metalwork, the earth conductor should be able to carry sufficient current to blow the fuse and render the appliance safe, without the earth conductor itself burning out. On the other hand, some equipment (especially IT equipment) could be damaged by this test, as the earth connection is only for functional purposes and is not meant to be relied upon for safety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45239392",
"title": "Allen V. Astin",
"section": "Section::::AD-X2 controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "In addition to testing batteries for other government agencies, the NBS also tested battery additives of various kinds purported to improve battery life and performance. Even though testing continued until 1957 no additive was ever found to have beneficial effects. As far back as 1931, in order to respond to an increasing number of requests for battery additive testing, the Bureau issued Letter Circular (LC) 302, \"Battery Compounds and Solutions\". The letter stated: \"The later tests confirm the Bureau's previous conclusions that these materials do not charge storage batteries nor do they materially improve the performance of the batteries.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1z9dm0
|
During the late 19th century, why was Japan able to modernize its military better than China?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is an age old topic.\n\nMy answer is pretty simple. Japan could modernize because it became a nation-state by using ethnic nationalism. Qing China (1644-1911) could not modernize because it was multiethnic empire ruled by the minority Manchus.\n\nSo in Japan's case, the new Meiji state (1868-1912) could rely upon the age-old imperial family (going back to at least the 500sAD) and a relatively quick construction of Japanese identity based upon a shared language and culture. So despite the massive changes brought upon by Westernization, they could say that they remained Japanese and continue to swear loyalty to the new Westernizing government.\n\nIn Qing China's case the imperial family was Manchu. These Manchus were a non-Chinese people who came from north of the Great Wall and conquered the Han Chinese in the 1600s. The Manchus spoke and wrote in their own language, they were Tibetan Buddhists, and culturally they were semi-nomadic. The Chinese wrote in classic Chinese, they were a fusion of Daoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism, and they were agriculturalists who practiced foot-binding. To govern this China (that also included other minorities like the Mongols, Tibetans, and central Asian Muslims) the Manchus set up a system of diarchy where top government posts in China proper were divided evenly between Manchus and Han Chinese.\n\nThe only thing that really bound the Manchus together with the Chinese was Confucianism. The Manchus adopted Confucianism as the philosophy to govern China and continued to use it as the basis for the Civil Service Exams that selected government officials.\n\nFast forward to 19th century and the need to reform. One of the things that both countries needed to do was learn Western technology and adopt schools that taught many of the Western sciences.\n\nIn Japan, adopting that Western curriculum to modernize its military did not endanger Japanese identity nor endanger the basis of Meiji government. (Because of the ethnic nationalism mentioned above.)\n\nIn Qing China, however, if you adopted the Western curriculum you were abandoning the Confucian curriculum and the Civil Service Exams. It took a bright person at least 20 years of studying classical Chinese and Confucianism to pass the Civil Service Exams. It was unrealistic to add another 10 years of Western education. So if you pull out Confucianism from the curriculum, then what binds the Manchu people with the Han Chinese people? Very little I'm afraid. So when members of Qing China's leadership realize this, they pull back from full scale Westernization and reforms. Chinese students who study a Western curriculum instead of the Confucian curriculum also begin to question why they have to have an alien Manchu emperor in China. Thus it wasn't accidental that the father of the 1911 Revolution in China, Sun Yat-sen, got his education in the West (Hawaii and Hong Kong). And that the 1911 Revolution starts right after the Manchus abandon diarchy and staff 80% of the top government posts with Manchu princes in 1910.\n\nTL:DR Japan could push through the necessary reforms to learn how to use ships and guns they bought, but also to eventually make them. Qing China could only buy ships and guns but not teach the students how to make them.\n\nThis also explains why once China became ruled by the Han Chinese, they could do lots of reforms (particularly social reforms) in the 20th century.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2998679",
"title": "Foreign relations of Meiji Japan",
"section": "Section::::Overseas expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "Once created, the Meiji military machine was used to extend Japanese power overseas, for many leaders believed that national security depended on expansion and not merely a strong defense. Room was also needed for population expansion. Within thirty years, the country's military forces had fought and defeated imperial China in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–95), winning possession of Taiwan and China's recognition of Korea's independence. Ten years later, in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–5), Japan defeated tsarist Russia and won possession of southern Sakhalin as well as a position of paramount influence in Korea and southern Manchuria. By this time, Japan had been able to negotiate revisions of the unequal treaties with the Western powers and had in 1902 formed an alliance with the world's leading power, Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41334796",
"title": "Military of the Qing dynasty",
"section": "Section::::Self-Strengthening and military modernization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "The military improvements that resulted from modernizing reforms were substantial, but they still proved insufficient, as the Qing was soundly defeated by Meiji Japan in the Sino-Japanese War of 1894–1895. Even China's best troops — the Huai Army and the Beiyang Fleet, both commanded by Li Hongzhang — were no match for Japan's better-trained, better led, and faster army and navy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "261240",
"title": "Shōwa (1926–1989)",
"section": "Section::::Second Sino-Japanese War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The years of 1937–38 were a time of rapid and remarkable success by the Japanese, who had a number of advantages over the Chinese army. While the Japanese army possessed a smaller force of armour and artillery than many Western powers, it was far ahead of China in this respect, and was also in command of the world's third largest navy with 2,700 watercraft at its disposal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277552",
"title": "Hundred Days' Reform",
"section": "Section::::Beginning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Before the First Sino-Japanese War, China engaged in technological modernization only, buying modern weapons, ships, artillery, and building modern arsenals to produce these weapons, and only giving their soldiers modern weapons without institutional reform, all the while declining to reform the government or civil society according to western standards – unlike Japan, which adopted western-style government with a Parliament and completely reorganized its army along western lines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69972",
"title": "First Sino-Japanese War",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 1486,
"text": "The Japanese success during the war was the result of the modernisation and industrialisation embarked upon two decades earlier. The war demonstrated the superiority of Japanese tactics and training from the adoption of a Western-style military. The Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy were able to inflict a string of defeats on the Chinese through foresight, endurance, strategy and power of organisation. Japan's prestige rose in the eyes of the world. The victory reflected the success of the Meiji Restoration. Japan only suffered a small loss of lives and treasure in return for the dominance of Taiwan, the Pescadores and the Liaotung Peninsula in China. Their decisions of abandoning the policy of isolation and learning advanced policy from Western countries also became a good example for other Asian countries to follow. After this war, Japan started to have equal status with the West powers. The victory established Japan as the dominant power in Asia. It also heightened their ambitions of aggression and military expansion in Asia. At the same time, because Japan had benefited a lot from the Treaty, it stimulated Japanese ambition to continue invade China. It made the Chinese national crisis unprecedentedly serious. The degree of semi-colonization was greatly deepened. After Japan's victory, the other Imperialist powers thought they could also get benefits from China. Then these Imperialist powers started to partition China over the next few years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54108025",
"title": "History of Japanese foreign relations",
"section": "Section::::1910-1941.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "The Japanese modelled their industrial economy closely on the most advanced European models. They started with textiles, railways, and shipping, expanding to electricity and machinery. the most serious weakness was a shortage of raw materials. Industry ran short of copper and coal became a net importer. A deep flaw in the aggressive military strategy was a heavy dependence on imports including 100 percent of the aluminum, 85 percent of the iron ore, and especially 79 percent of the oil supplies. it was one thing to go to war with China or Russia, but quite another to be in conflict with the key suppliers, especially the United States Britain and the Netherlands, which supply the oil and iron. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "481708",
"title": "Imperial Japanese Army",
"section": "Section::::Further development and modernization (1873–1894).:Taiwan Expedition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "By the 1890s, the Imperial Japanese Army had grown to become the most modern army in Asia: well-trained, well-equipped, and with good morale. However, it was basically an infantry force deficient in cavalry and artillery when compared with its European contemporaries. Artillery pieces, which were purchased from America and a variety of European nations, presented two problems: they were scarce, and the relatively small number that were available were of several different calibers, causing problems with ammunition supply.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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] | null |
fush1m
|
Question regarding using the blood plasma of recovered people to treat sick people: When the plasma is injected, is it just the antibodies in the donated plasma that attacks the virus, or does the body detect the antibodies and create more ?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not the plasma that is injected. That is just what is extracted from the donor. The donated plasma is processed, refined, and the desired elements are extracted. In this case, the anti-Covid19 antibodies. Do a quick search of Anti-D, or Anti-Tetanus, or Anti-Rabies. It would be the same process.",
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"answer": "Antibodies attach themselves to proteins on the surfaces of cells, but don't actually attack anything. They act as markers for other cells like macrophages in the body to recognize \"Hey that's the bad guy!\" so the offending cells can be engulfed and destroyed. Viruses are not cells and are not technically \"alive\", so I'm not sure about that interaction. They may be able to attach to the protein coat on the outside of the virus but I'm not 100% on that!",
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"answer": "I don’t see the right answer yet so:\n\nThe plasma contains antibodies from the donor. Presumably there are antibodies in the donor that have neutralized the virus. Antibodies are just proteins that latch on to a target and help flag it so the hosts immune system recognizes the problem and eliminates it. \n\nThe donor antibodies will circulate for weeks to months in the host, but they cannot make more of themselves — they are just proteins originally made by B cells in the host. Therefore plasma infusions for these critically ill patients are just a temporary measure until their own bodies hopefully learn to eliminate the virus without help.",
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},
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"answer": "The plasma contains anti-viral antibodies which were produced by the donor's immune response. These antibodies attach to surface proteins on the viral particles and serve to block the interaction between human cells and the viral surface proteins, thus inhibiting the ability of the virus to enter and infect cells.\n\nThe body may actually react to the antibodies as foreign (since they are from another individual) resulting in serum sickness.\n\nAnother thing to note is that antibodies can also serve as a homing marker for destruction by other immune cells. This is classically seen in a bacterial infection. The antibodies coat the bacteria (opsonization) and are then detected by white blood cells which eat (phagocytose) and destroy the bacteria. This process does not occur with a virus as it is far too small. In this case, the immunity is conferred trough functionally blocking viral entry into the human cell.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "The human immune system is a fantastic system & it is very complicated. There are scientists & physicians who do nothing but study & work with the Immune System. One major component of the Immune System is the Lymphatic System, but there are many different parts that function together to protect their human host, including the bone marrow, the Thymus gland, the large intestine, the peritoneal cavity, lymph glands... The antibodies to some infectious agents provide a lifetime immunity, such as to Smallpox. If you get Hepatitis B through infection directly from another person, that will give you a lifetime of being an active Hepatitis carrier, you can pass it to other people & die from liver failure or liver cancer @ anytime in your life. But, if you get the Hepatitis B vaccine, you will develop antibodies & have a lifetime immunity. Some infections, for example, from a strain of influenza or a cold virus, you will develop antibodies, but not for a lifetime, usually only approx. 12-18 months where the antibody titer (count of the number) gradually goes down monthly. The blood from survivors, of certain infections can be removed, is strained to isolate the antibodies & infused into the overwhelmingly sick patient. The donor antibodies will actively fight the infectious organism, but all antibodies, like almost all human cells, have a limited lifetime. The hope is that the donated antibodies will give enough of an ‘edge’ to the victim/patient, to give the victim/patient enough time for their own immune system to catch up & develop it’s own antibodies. Sometimes the severity of an infection in a human host is because the human patient gets overwhelmed with a very strong organism that replicates quicker than the human host’s body can respond strong enough to fight it off. This very new concept of taking the antibodies from a survivor & injecting it into a failing human host patient, worked with Ebola patients, but it isn’t known whether it will work with COVID-19. I think that the desperation of the situation dictates whether the scientific & medical community chooses antibody donation as an option, because there are big risks with it also. Anyway, I believe that the time that is chosen is dictated by 1) the antibody donor is strong, health & fully recovered, 2) the donor is fully recovered - not still infected, 3) there is a blood donor program that is able to handle this. It’s wonderful for you to offer to donate blood, plasma, antibodies... Our nations Blood Services & Hospitals are always in great need for blood products & those blood products do save lives!",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1002590",
"title": "Plasmapheresis",
"section": "Section::::As a manufacturing process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "BULLET::::- Antibodies: Donors are sometimes immunized against agents such as tetanus or hepatitis B so that their plasma contains the antibodies against the toxin or disease. In other donors, an intentionally incompatible unit of blood is transfused to produce antibodies to the antigens on the red cells. The collected plasma then contains these components, which are used in manufacturing of medications. Donors who are already ill may have their plasma collected for use as a positive control for laboratory testing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505536",
"title": "Blood donation",
"section": "Section::::Obtaining the blood.:Whole blood.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "The plasma from whole blood can be used to make plasma for transfusions or it can also be processed into other medications using a process called fractionation. This was a development of the dried plasma used to treat the wounded during World War II and variants on the process are still used to make a variety of other medications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1002590",
"title": "Plasmapheresis",
"section": "Section::::As a manufacturing process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 1070,
"text": "Plasma donors undergo a screening process to ensure both the donor's safety and the safety of the collected product. Factors monitored include blood pressure, pulse, temperature, total protein, protein electrophoresis, health history screening similar to that for whole blood, as well as an annual physical exam with a licensed physician or an approved physician substitute under the supervision of the physician. Donors are screened at each donation for viral diseases that can be transmitted by blood, sometimes by multiple methods. For example, donations are tested for HIV by ELISA, which shows if they have been exposed to the disease, as well as by nucleic acid methods (PCR or similar) to rule out recent infections that the ELISA test might miss and are also screened for hepatitis B and hepatitis C. Industry standards require at least two sets of negative test results before the collected plasma is used for injectable products. The plasma is also treated in processing multiple times to inactivate any virus that was undetected during the screening process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1002590",
"title": "Plasmapheresis",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "After plasma separation, the blood cells are returned to the person undergoing treatment, while the plasma, which contains the antibodies, is first treated and then returned to the patient in traditional plasmapheresis. Rarely, other replacement fluids, such as hydroxyethyl starch, may be used in individuals who object to blood transfusion but these are rarely used due to severe side-effects. Medication to keep the blood from clotting (an anticoagulant) is given to the patient during the procedure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55309",
"title": "Blood type",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Universal donors and universal recipients.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "For transfusions of plasma, this situation is reversed. Type O plasma, containing both anti-A and anti-B antibodies, can only be given to O recipients. The antibodies will attack the antigens on any other blood type. Conversely, AB plasma can be given to patients of any ABO blood group, because it does not contain any anti-A or anti-B antibodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22088204",
"title": "Plasma Economy",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "In plasmapheresis, blood plasma is taken from donors, while the remaining blood constituents such as red blood cells are returned to the donor. The blood plasma is then sold to pharmaceutical companies to produce blood-based products. As a cost-cutting measure, some stations mixed several bloods in the same centrifuge, resulting in large-scale blood contamination. As a result, by 1995, such stations were shut down in Henan province, while blood collection was restricted by area, although demand for blood plasma still remained strong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "472537",
"title": "Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "With plasma exchange the risk of death has decreased from more than 90% to less than 20%. Immunosuppressants, such as glucocorticoids, and rituximab may also be used. Platelet transfusions are generally not recommended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
p9eer
|
...the difference between behaviorism and cognitive science.
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm just going off memory here, and it's been a little while since I learned about this stuff, but I'll give it a shot. (Note: I'm not familiar with Chomsky's particular arguments or ideas on the topic, but hopefully my answer isn't entirely useless)\n\nAs I recall, Behaviourism is the study of observable behaviour, and that's it. That is to say, if I was a Behaviourist and I was studying a child, I would simply observe his or her behaviour, in the most objective way possible. If the child were to start crying, for example, I would simply write that s/he had cried, without trying to explain the behaviour as a result of unobservable, intangible things, like the child's thought processes or emotions. \nI believe Behaviourism arose from a desire to make Psychology more scientific, as a lot of the research done at the time relied on imprecise methods such as introspection (ie having subjects describe their feelings, etc). Lacking the modern technology we currently have, observing behaviour was about the best they could do.\n\nCognitive Science, as the name implies, does what Behaviourism couldn't: it looks at things like emotions, learning and thought processes. It's a broad field that covers a lot of topics, but I'll focus on the things I listed. Thanks to major technological advances, we have at least a general idea what different areas of the brain are used for. Neuroimaging techniques allow researchers to see which areas of your brain are most active when you're talking, when you're laughing, or in any variety of moods. So instead of just observing that a child is crying, they now have the ability (theoretically, at least) to see what emotions she's feeling. With animal test subjects (such as rats), researchers are more able to directly interact with their subjects' brains, by methods such as lesions (cutting out portions of their brain) or direct stimulation. Given how similar the structure of a rat's brain is to ours, this provides a lot of insight into how many behaviours are linked to certain emotions, and does so in a scientific way. \n\nTo sum it all up: people aren't especially reliable when explaining their motivations for an action, so it was all but impossible to obtain accurate data via 'introspective methods'. Behaviourism was an attempt to emulate the 'natural sciences' (chemistry, biology, etc) by being completely objective, but fell short in explaining the causes of the behaviours observed. Cognitive Science is sort of the best of both worlds. We can measure objective things, like emotions, in a subjective way.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "5626",
"title": "Cognitive science",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Simply put: Cognitive Science is the interdisciplinary study of cognition in humans, animals, and machines. It encompasses the traditional disciplines of psychology, computer science, neuroscience, anthropology, linguistics and philosophy. The goal of cognitive science is to understand the principles of intelligence with the hope that this will lead to better comprehension of the mind and of learning and to develop intelligent devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37080",
"title": "Thought",
"section": "Section::::Psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "Cognitive psychologists use psychophysical and experimental approaches to understand, diagnose, and solve problems, concerning themselves with the mental processes which mediate between stimulus and response. They study various aspects of thinking, including the psychology of reasoning, and how people make decisions and choices, solve problems, as well as engage in creative discovery and imaginative thought. Cognitive theory contends that solutions to problems either take the form of algorithms: rules that are not necessarily understood but promise a solution, or of heuristics: rules that are understood but that do not always guarantee solutions. Cognitive science differs from cognitive psychology in that algorithms that are intended to simulate human behavior are implemented or implementable on a computer. In other instances, solutions may be found through insight, a sudden awareness of relationships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22403616",
"title": "Basic science (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Cognitive psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary research enterprise that involves cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, artificial intelligence, linguists, human–computer interaction, computational neuroscience, logicians and social scientists. Computational models are sometimes used to simulate phenomena of interest. Computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind whereas neuroscience is more concerned with brain activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5626",
"title": "Cognitive science",
"section": "Section::::Principles.:Interdisciplinary nature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary field with contributors from various fields, including psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, philosophy of mind, computer science, anthropology and biology. Cognitive scientists work collectively in hope of understanding the mind and its interactions with the surrounding world much like other sciences do. The field regards itself as compatible with the physical sciences and uses the scientific method as well as simulation or modeling, often comparing the output of models with aspects of human cognition. Similarly to the field of psychology, there is some doubt whether there is a unified cognitive science, which have led some researchers to prefer 'cognitive sciences' in plural.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1589303",
"title": "Behavioural sciences",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 721,
"text": "Behavioural sciences explore the cognitive processes within organisms and the behavioural interactions between organisms in the natural world. It involves the systematic analysis and investigation of human and animal behavior through the study of the past, controlled and naturalistic observation of the present, and disciplined scientific experimentation and modeling. It attempts to accomplish legitimate, objective conclusions through rigorous formulations and observation. Examples of behavioral sciences include psychology, psychobiology, anthropology, and cognitive science. Generally, behavior science deals primarily with human action and often seeks to generalize about human behavior as it relates to society. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "24984",
"title": "Personality psychology",
"section": "Section::::Personality theories.:Social cognitive theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "In cognitive theory, behavior is explained as guided by cognitions (e.g. expectations) about the world, especially those about other people. Cognitive theories are theories of personality that emphasize cognitive processes, such as thinking and judging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22921",
"title": "Psychology",
"section": "Section::::Major schools of thought.:Cognitive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise of cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, researchers in artificial intelligence, linguists, human–computer interaction, computational neuroscience, logicians and social scientists. The discipline of cognitive science covers cognitive psychology as well as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience. Computer simulations are sometimes used to model phenomena of interest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1pmhm3
|
what causes the "stitch"
|
[
{
"answer": "It's said that it's caused by the midriff, a muscle that important for breathing. If you are breathing in a fast maner, it can feel the same pain as any other muscle that you overuse. Running more and breathing deeper and more slowly will do the trick.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"The primary theory as to the cause is that the jarring motion of running bounces your internal organs (especially your liver and stomach) around. Those organs are kept in place by ligaments, and when those ligaments stretch, they send out pain signals. There are other possibilities, such as limited blood flow to the diaphragm, but the ligament theory seems the best explanation for running-related side stitches. It’s most common among runners who exhale when their right foot hits the ground. That’s because the diaphragm contracts during exhalation, just at the moment when the body weight is jarred on the right side of the body, where the liver is.\"\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My Rugby coach (Who has a Degree in physiotherapy and sports science) told me that a stitch is the same as when you get cramp in your calf.\n\nWhen you run, especially downhill, your abs and surrounding muscles tense up in order for you to keep your balance (might also tie into what another user explained about your organs moving around).\n\nYou have to appreciate running is essentially organised falling. You propel yourself forward and catch your balance your other leg. Your core muscles, especially your abs, have to work extra hard to coordinate your balance.\n\nA \"Cramp\" is a build up of lactic acid in your muscle, which can be caused by not stretching before running or a lack of glucose or glucogen.\n\nI find the best way to stop my cramps are to stretch thouroughly beforehand, take an easy pace for 10 minutes (even walk for the first ten minutes) then kick into your normal gear. I also keep my blood sugar up during my runs (I take energy bars or glucose rich energy supplement gel)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1095574",
"title": "Side stitch",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "There is no single precise known reason for a stitch to occur. There are, however, a number of popular theories as to what may cause, increase the chances of, or otherwise exacerbate a stitch. A leading theory is that the pain may be caused by an increase in blood flow to the liver or spleen. Increases in the heart rate during exercise will force extra red blood cells into the liver which can cause temporary hepatomegaly and portal hypertension. Temporary hepatomegaly and portal hypertension can restrict blood flow through the portal vein of the liver thus slowing blood flow to the rest of the body; this is why most runner's cramps are felt on the right side near the liver. A plausible mechanism for the pain is that high internal pressure in the liver or spleen restricts blood flow, causing hypoxia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1095574",
"title": "Side stitch",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "A side stitch (also called a side ache, a side cramp, a side crampie, a side sticker, a muscle stitch, or simply the stitch) is an intense stabbing pain under the lower edge of the ribcage that occurs while exercising. It is also referred to as exercise-related transient abdominal pain (ETAP). Some people think that this abdominal pain may be caused by the internal organs (like the liver and stomach) pulling downwards on the diaphragm, but that hypothesis is inconsistent with its frequent occurrence during swimming, which involves almost no downward force on these organs. If the pain is present only when exercising and is completely absent at rest, in an otherwise healthy person, it does not require investigation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27700678",
"title": "Stitch (textile arts)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "In the textile arts, a 'stitch' is a single turn or loop of thread, or yarn. Stitches are the fundamental elements of sewing, knitting, embroidery, crochet, and needle lace-making, whether by hand or machine. A variety of stitches, each with one or more names, are used for specific purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "939745",
"title": "Embroidery stitch",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "In everyday language, a stitch in the context of embroidery or hand-sewing is defined as the movement of the embroidery needle from the back of the fibre to the front side and back to the back side. The thread stroke on the front side produced by this is also called \"stitch\". In the context of embroidery, an embroidery stitch means one or more \"stitches\" that are always executed in the same way, forming a figure. Embroidery stitches are also called \"stitches\" for short.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2523070",
"title": "Lilo & Stitch 2: Stitch Has a Glitch",
"section": "Section::::\"The Origin of Stitch\" short film.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "The Origin of Stitch is an animated short film included on the DVD release of \"Lilo & Stitch 2: Stitch Has a Glitch\". The short has a total running time of 4:35 minutes and serves as a bridge between \"Stitch Has a Glitch\" and \"Stitch! The Movie\" (as well as \"\"). In the short, Stitch discovers Jumba's secret computer that reveals what creatures Jumba had used to create Stitch and also hints at his other 625 experiments. Stitch is scared to find out what a monster he is, only for Jumba to come and explain how he found love when he met Lilo. The short was directed by Mike Disa and co-directed by Tony Bancroft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55542260",
"title": "Husband stitch",
"section": "Section::::Medical perspective.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "While repair of the perineum may be medically necessary, an \"extra\" stitch is not, and may cause discomfort or pain. Use of the term in the medical literature can be traced to \"Transactions of the Texas State Medical Association\" in 1885. There is also a reference to it in \"What Women Want to Know\" (1958), a book co-written by an American gynaecologist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37917046",
"title": "Pierre-Alexis Dumas",
"section": "Section::::Quotes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "\"It's not really about the stitch. It's about being aware of the sense of touch, being able to stitch with your eyes closed, being able to represent yourself and the object you're making in space, being able to listen to what your hands tell you.\" - Reminiscing about learning the saddle stitch by age 10\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7dcxmj
|
why does an object traveling at the speed of light gain infinite mass
|
[
{
"answer": "\nRelativistic mass is an outdated concept.\n\nMany contemporary authors such as Taylor and Wheeler strongly argue against the concept of dynamic mass, and most modern textbooks actually avoid it. \n\nTaylor and Wheeler state [1]\n\n > The concept of \"relativistic mass\" is subject to misunderstanding. That's why we don't use it. First, it applies the name mass - belonging to the magnitude of a 4-vector - to a very different concept, the time component of a 4-vector. Second, it makes increase of energy of an object with velocity or momentum appear to be connected with some change in internal structure of the object. In reality, the increase of energy with velocity originates not in the object but in the geometric properties of spacetime itself.\n\nIt is a lot more more useful to simply stick to rest mass and consider the increase in kinetic energy of a fast moving object. \n\n\n[1] E. F. Taylor, J. A. Wheeler (1992), Spacetime Physics",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To be precise, relativistic mass approaches infinity as velocity approaches the speed of light. Objects with mass can't reach light speed.\n\n[This](_URL_0_) is the equation that gives the relativistic mass of an object traveling at velocity v. As v gets close to c, the denominator gets very small, meaning mass get s very large. When v = c, the denominator is zero, and loosely interpreted, mass in infinite. You'll also note that when v > c, you have to take the square root of a negative, giving an imaginary result. Most physicists consider both to be meaningless, like trying to pour 2 L of water out of a 1 L bottle. You can write an equation for it, but that doesn't mean there is such a thing as having -1 L of water in a bottle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2443",
"title": "Acceleration",
"section": "Section::::Relation to relativity.:Special relativity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "As speeds approach that of light, the acceleration produced by a given force decreases, becoming infinitesimally small as light speed is approached; an object with mass can approach this speed asymptotically, but never reach it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422481",
"title": "Mass–energy equivalence",
"section": "Section::::Conservation of mass and energy.:Fast-moving objects and systems of objects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "When an object is pushed in the direction of motion, it gains momentum and energy, but when the object is already traveling near the speed of light, it cannot move much faster, no matter how much energy it absorbs. Its momentum and energy continue to increase without bounds, whereas its speed approaches (but never reaches) a constant value—the speed of light. This implies that in relativity the momentum of an object cannot be a constant times the velocity, nor can the kinetic energy be a constant times the square of the velocity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55278",
"title": "Warp drive",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "Einstein's theory of special relativity states that energy and mass are interchangeable, and speed of light travel is impossible for material objects that weigh more than photons. The problem of a material object exceeding light speed is that an infinite amount of kinetic energy would be required to travel at exactly the speed of light. This can theoretically be solved by warping space to move an object instead of increasing the kinetic energy of the object to do so. Such a solution to the faster than light travel problem leads to two directly opposite approaches to light-speed travel in science fiction: in the first, spaceships themselves are brought to light speed and beyond; in the second, not-yet-local space itself is made to come to the ship while the ship moves at sub-light speeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23535",
"title": "Photon",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Experimental checks on photon mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Current commonly accepted physical theories imply or assume the photon to be strictly massless. If the photon is not a strictly massless particle, it would not move at the exact speed of light, \"c\", in vacuum. Its speed would be lower and depend on its frequency. Relativity would be unaffected by this; the so-called speed of light, \"c\", would then not be the actual speed at which light moves, but a constant of nature which is the upper bound on speed that any object could theoretically attain in spacetime. Thus, it would still be the speed of spacetime ripples (gravitational waves and gravitons), but it would not be the speed of photons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26962",
"title": "Special relativity",
"section": "Section::::Dynamics.:Equivalence of mass and energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 150,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 150,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "As an object's speed approaches the speed of light from an observer's point of view, its relativistic mass increases thereby making it more and more difficult to accelerate it from within the observer's frame of reference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28736",
"title": "Speed of light",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental role in physics.:Upper limit on speeds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "According to special relativity, the energy of an object with rest mass \"m\" and speed \"v\" is given by , where \"γ\" is the Lorentz factor defined above. When \"v\" is zero, \"γ\" is equal to one, giving rise to the famous formula for mass–energy equivalence. The \"γ\" factor approaches infinity as \"v\" approaches \"c\", and it would take an infinite amount of energy to accelerate an object with mass to the speed of light. The speed of light is the upper limit for the speeds of objects with positive rest mass, and individual photons cannot travel faster than the speed of light. This is experimentally established in many tests of relativistic energy and momentum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422481",
"title": "Mass–energy equivalence",
"section": "Section::::History.:Einstein: mass–energy equivalence.:Alternative version.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "The object has not changed its velocity before or after the emission. Yet in this frame it has lost some right-momentum to the light. The only way it could have lost momentum is by losing mass. This also solves Poincaré's radiation paradox, discussed above.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3jsd9s
|
Have there been recorded cases of randomly decreasing entropy?
|
[
{
"answer": "Something like that happening on the macro scale is statistically less likely than everyone independently hallucinating that it happened and was recorded and well established. The standard deviation increases with the square root of the number of independent events added together, so for 6\\*10^23 atoms, the standard deviation would be the momentum to move around 8\\*10^11 of them, or 800 billion. So you'd need about 800 billion standard deviations to move the entire mole of atoms. Normal z-score calculators can't do that many standard deviations. Wolfram Alpha can't even do it. But I did manage to use Wolfram Alpha to figure out how to approximate it. It's something like a probability of e^(-x^2). So you're looking at a probability on the order of e^(-Avogadro's number). So basically, you'd need around the same number of zeros to express how unlikely this is as there are atoms in the object you're looking at. If it's one or two atoms, it will happen constantly. If it's 6.022\\*10^(23), not so much.\n\nOn a smaller scale, sure. If you look at it electron by electron, it will decrease entropy about half the time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "286947",
"title": "Self-organization",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Sadi Carnot (1796–1832) and Rudolf Clausius (1822–1888) discovered the second law of thermodynamics in the 19th century. It states that total entropy, sometimes understood as disorder, will always increase over time in an isolated system. This means that a system cannot spontaneously increase its order without an external relationship that decreases order elsewhere in the system (e.g. through consuming the low-entropy energy of a battery and diffusing high-entropy heat).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333170",
"title": "Fluctuation theorem",
"section": "Section::::Statement of the fluctuation theorem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "This means that as the time or system size increases (since formula_4 is extensive), the probability of observing an entropy production opposite to that dictated by the second law of thermodynamics decreases exponentially. The FT is one of the few expressions in non-equilibrium statistical mechanics that is valid far from equilibrium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333170",
"title": "Fluctuation theorem",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "The fluctuation theorem (FT), which originated from statistical mechanics, deals with the relative probability that the entropy of a system which is currently away from thermodynamic equilibrium (i.e., maximum entropy) will increase or decrease over a given amount of time. While the second law of thermodynamics predicts that the entropy of an isolated system should tend to increase until it reaches equilibrium, it became apparent after the discovery of statistical mechanics that the second law is only a statistical one, suggesting that there should always be some nonzero probability that the entropy of an isolated system might spontaneously \"decrease\"; the fluctuation theorem precisely quantifies this probability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3015758",
"title": "Maximum entropy thermodynamics",
"section": "Section::::Philosophical Implications.:The Second Law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "The extended, wispy, evolved probability distribution, which still has the initial Shannon entropy \"S\", should reproduce the expectation values of the observed macroscopic variables at time \"t\". However it will no longer necessarily be a maximum entropy distribution for that new macroscopic description. On the other hand, the new thermodynamic entropy \"S\" assuredly \"will\" measure the maximum entropy distribution, by construction. Therefore, we expect:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312152",
"title": "Spontaneous process",
"section": "Section::::Using entropy to determine spontaneity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "This criterion can then be used to explain how it is possible for the entropy of an open or closed system to decrease during a spontaneous process. A decrease in system entropy can only occur spontaneously if the entropy change of the surroundings is both positive in sign and has a larger magnitude than the entropy change of the system:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "424440",
"title": "H-theorem",
"section": "Section::::Gibbs' \"H\"-theorem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Josiah Willard Gibbs described another way in which the entropy of a microscopic system would tend to increase over time. Later writers have called this \"Gibbs' \"H\"-theorem\" as its conclusion resembles that of Boltzmann's. Gibbs himself never called it an \"H\"-theorem, and in fact his definition of entropy—and mechanism of increase—are very different from Boltzmann's. This section is included for historical completeness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9891",
"title": "Entropy",
"section": "Section::::Second law of thermodynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Statistical mechanics demonstrates that entropy is governed by probability, thus allowing for a decrease in disorder even in an isolated system. Although this is possible, such an event has a small probability of occurring, making it unlikely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3cppf9
|
how do you make an app?
|
[
{
"answer": "It depends on what operating system (Android, iOS, Windows).\n\nBut in either case there is software that exists which lets you write code in a specific programming language. That code is compiled and then you're able to either distribute that app directly or submit it to an app store.\n\nFor each OS:\n\n* Android - You use Eclipse to write apps often in Java, and put them on the Google Play Store\n* iOS - You use xCode to write apps in Object-C (or Swift), and put them on the apple app store.\n* Windows - You use Visual Studio to write apps in C# or _URL_0_ normally, and put them on the windows app store.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another cross platform option (it will run on nearly anything that is rapidly growing is node.js (nw.js, electron, etc...). It isn't yet working on Android phones, but I believe that it's [very soon going to be](_URL_0_). In my opinion, it's easier to learn and use in many respects than technologies like C# or Java. You mostly have to understand the basics of javascript, HTML5 and throw in some other web technologies, so that if you're already a basic web developer, you'll probably feel at home with it. It also costs less (I have Visual Studio for C# and IntelliJ and C# costs the most because you need both Windows and the Visual Studio licenses and dealing with licenses can be an added pain in the ass if you're constantly setting up virtual environments or having to set up new machines or you need to redo your machine). The development environment (for me) is pretty much all command line and a text editor program (like notepad in Windows at its simplest) and it feels surprisingly simple (even though in reality it's not, because like with most other technologies, I'm sitting on the top layer of many other layers that better programmers than myself have created over the years). \n\nYou can begin learning the basics of node and javascript using tutorials online. You can think about the kind of application that it would interest you to build and then search for similar examples on _URL_1_ and learn from them / use them to build an application. I learned a lot by tinkering with other peoples' example code and extending it. I'm currently in the process of going back to learn the fundamentals (of node.js, javascript and angular.js) so that I have a better grasp of what I'm doing.\n\nYou can buy a used android phone or an inexpensive tablet online and move your code there to see what it looks like for the user (you can also set up \"emulators\" -- software that mimics the smartphone/tablet environment on your desktop. This comes as a part of or an add-on to many software development environments).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32183000",
"title": "App store",
"section": "Section::::History.:Precursors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "In 2003 [[Handango]] introduced the first on-device app store for finding, installing and buying software for smartphones. App download and purchasing are completed directly on the device so sync with a computer is not necessary. Description, rating and screenshot are available for any app.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31182936",
"title": "SoftAP",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "BULLET::::2. The user downloads a product-specific app on a smartphone, and the app then either uses the underlying Android or iOS operating system to connect to the SoftAP hotspot, or directs the user to connect the phone manually.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47106213",
"title": "Buildbox",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "One of the main advantages of the app is the Creator Menu where person can create the skeleton of the game. Then the user can change or edit the character or multiple characters from the character settings , edit or change environmental settings (gravity, friction) create multiple worlds and levels, create a coin system, power ups, checkpoints, change the user interface and buttons with Node Editor Menu, animate objects, create banner and video ads, export for different platforms with one click, store the source code, edit character and object components and do many other things without coding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32183000",
"title": "App store",
"section": "Section::::Basic concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "App stores typically take the form of an online store, where users can browse through these different app categories, view information about each app (such as reviews or ratings), and acquire the app (including app purchase, if necessary - many apps are offered at no cost). The selected app is offered as an automatic download, after which the app installs. Some app stores may also include a system to automatically remove an installed program from devices under certain conditions, with the goal of protecting the user against malicious software.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4173172",
"title": "Mobile app development",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 868,
"text": "Mobile app development is the act or process by which a mobile app is developed for mobile devices, such as personal digital assistants, enterprise digital assistants or mobile phones. These applications can be pre-installed on phones during manufacturing platforms, or delivered as web applications using server-side or client-side processing (e.g., JavaScript) to provide an \"application-like\" experience within a Web browser. Application software developers also must consider a long array of screen sizes, hardware specifications, and configurations because of intense competition in mobile software and changes within each of the platforms. Mobile app development has been steadily growing, in revenues and jobs created. A 2013 analyst report estimates there are 529,000 direct \"app economy\" jobs within the EU 28 members, 60% of which are mobile app developers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31686110",
"title": "Appsbar",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Each app that appsbar submits to an app store is first reviewed by an \"app coach\"—an experienced developer (software) who tests each app during the submission process. This \"app coach\" is listed on the app as the developer. Appsbar lets each builder name their app. Anyone who downloads an app will know who built it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20288",
"title": "Microsoft Office",
"section": "Section::::Extensibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "The app travels with the document, and it is for the developer to decide what the recipient will see when they open it. The recipient will either have the option to download the app from the Office Store for free, start a free trial or be directed to payment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5b4on3
|
what is actually happening when a single taste bud decides to stick way out and get super sensitive?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your taste bud is getting inflamed because it was likely damaged, such as when you bite your tongue, eating something sharp, or something too hot for your mouth. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Welcome to the wonderful world of inflammation.\n\nThe most common scenario where this happens is when you happen to have too hot a cup of coffee or soup, or eat way too many salty snacks without refreshing your mouth with water.\n\nIn scenario 1, the intense heat manages to burn part of your tongue, or atleast heat it sufficiently enough to stop the enzymes and cell processes from working properly, and in scenario 2, your cells are exposed to so much salt, that they shrink too fast and damage themselves due to extensive water loss.\n\nIn either case, your cells are now damaged, and will start to give off warning signals into the local capillaries and blood vessels. Typically, what triggers inflammation is a change in the local environment of the blood vessels. During cellular damage, the cells release a wide variety of chemicals called prostaglandins, that perform a variety of functions. \n\nOne of the things that they can do, is trigger the process of inflammation. They also increase the sensation of pain, sort of like a throwback warning to remind you not to further damage that region, since repairs now have to take place.\n\nThe early stage of inflammation is characterized by vasodilation, wherein the blood vessels to the damaged area dilate and become leaky, creating more space in the tissues surrounding the damaged cells. This is what makes the burnt taste buds look so red and large.\n\nThis allows the local beat cops, the neutrophils and macrophages, to come in and survey the damage. If they find that any intruders and bacteria have come to crash the party, (and there will be a lot of them), they clean them up, and also send information into the blood to call for more back up. They also clean up any dead cells, and if any cells are too damaged to function, they shut them down and trigger orders for new cells to come up in their place. Most of the time, the nearby cells know when to divide and replace damaged ones, so they start growing anyway.\n\nThe tongue is very well supplied for blood, so most of the time, there's no real need for an exaggerated response, that's why pus rarely develops there, because the local cells are able to easily handle any infection that develops. But the repair process takes time. Taste buds themselves take about a week to grow back, so until that time, the gates to enter the body are open, meaning that the burnt area is exposed and raw, which means that the inflammation will continue, as more and more invading bacteria keep trying to enter and force their way in. Once a new set of taste buds have grown, the entry region for the tongue is now closed, and you stop feeling the sensitivity.\n\nEdit : An important thing to note, the bumps that you see are actually not \"taste buds\" but larger structures called papillae which line the entire tongue and come in different shapes and sizes. So when you see inflammation, the visible swelling is actually the inflamed papillae. \n\nTL;DR\n\nProstaglandins are amongst the first few cellular messengers that trigger inflammation, which is necessary for both cellular defense as well as cellular healing. A side effect of prostaglandins is increased pain sensitivity, and the inflammation typically continues until a new set of taste buds grow to replace the damaged ones, as the damaged region is an easy entry point for local bacteria to enter the body.",
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"answer": "Ok now that i've learned what is happening, is there something that can help it heal faster or make it less annoying?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Thanks. Just ate way too many salted pumpkin seeds and now have an explanation as to what's going on and why! Cheers!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know but I can tell you what works for me to get it to stop: Vinegar. \n\nDab a little straight vinegar on your fingertip. Dab that on the inflamed taste bud. Do it three times. \n\nThis solves it for me within an hour or two. \n\nCan't tell you why. My reasoning as a kid was \"I ate too many sweets and that's why my tongue is this way. What's the opposite of sweet? I know, sour! What's the most sour thing? Vinegar!\" \n\nYeah, not exactly thorough scientific reasoning there. I was like 8 years old. The explanation above absolutely cannot be why this works. \n\nBut unlike most deep philosophical conclusions when I was 8 years old, this one actually showed results. The results were great. \n\nSo I continue to do this. But cannot explain it. ",
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},
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"answer": "Is it bad that I rip these off of my tongue? I don't do it every day but it hurts like hell and ripping it out and bleeding for 5 minutes is way less annoying than a week of pain. Maybe I'm just weird though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thank you for asking this question! This happens to me once in a while and I never knew what the hell was happening!",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "563387",
"title": "Receptor potential",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "An example of a receptor potential is in a taste bud, where taste is converted into an electrical signal sent to the brain. When stimulated, the taste bud triggers the release of neurotransmitter through exocytosis of synaptic vesicles from the presynaptic membrane. The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the synaptic cleft to the postsynaptic membrane of the primary sensory neuron, where they elicit an action potential.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301076",
"title": "Taste bud",
"section": "Section::::Types of papillae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "The fourth type of papillae the filiform papillae are the most numerous but do not contain taste buds. They are characterized by increased keratinisation and are involved in the mechanical aspect of providing abrasion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1781797",
"title": "Sweetness",
"section": "Section::::Sweet receptor pathway.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 925,
"text": "To depolarize the cell, and ultimately generate a response, the body uses different cells in the taste bud that each express a receptor for the perception of sweet, sour, salty, bitter or umami. Downstream of the taste receptor, the taste cells for sweet, bitter and umami share the same intracellular signalling pathway. Incoming sweet molecules bind to their receptors, which causes a conformational change in the molecule. This change activates the G-protein, gustducin, which in turn activates phospholipase C to generate inositol trisphosphate (IP), this subsequently opens the IP-receptor and induces calcium release from the endoplasmic reticulum. This increase in intracellular calcium activates the TRPM5 channel and induces cellular depolarization. The ATP release channel CALHM1 gets activated by the depolarization and releases ATP neurotransmitter which activates the afferent neurons innervating the taste bud.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2088968",
"title": "Napoleon Cybulski",
"section": "Section::::Scientific work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Again working with Beck, Cybulski showed that every taste sensation in the tongue was caused by a separate kind of receptor. He gave a description of the difference between afferent and efferent impulses entering and leaving the spinal cord based on recordings from dorsal and ventral roots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "205156",
"title": "Dysgeusia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Taste buds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Distortions in the taste buds may give rise to dysgeusia. In a study conducted by Masahide Yasuda and Hitoshi Tomita from Nihon University of Japan, it has been observed that patients suffering from this taste disorder have fewer microvilli than normal. In addition, the nucleus and cytoplasm of the taste bud cells have been reduced. Based on their findings, dygeusia results from loss of microvilli and the reduction of Type III intracellular vesicles, all of which could potentially interfere with the gustatory pathway. Radiation to head and neck also results in direct destruction of taste buds, apart from effects of altered salivary output.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301076",
"title": "Taste bud",
"section": "Section::::Types of papillae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "The nerve fibrils after losing their medullary sheaths enter the taste bud, and end in fine extremities between the gustatory cells; other nerve fibrils ramify between the supporting cells and terminate in fine extremities; these, however, are believed to be nerves of ordinary sensation and not gustatory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8736698",
"title": "Electronic tongue",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "In the biological mechanism, taste signals are transducted by nerves in the brain into electric signals. E-tongue sensors process is similar: they generate electric signals as potentiometric variations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1d8ld0
|
How did Portugal (as a fascist state under the Estado Novo) manage to stay non-belligerent in World War Two?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because Estado Novo is a very peculiar fascist state. We didn't had 90% of the ostentation of Italy and Germany, and Salazar didn't want to recuperate the Portuguese Empire as the Italians want to bring back the Roman Empire or the German the Reich, Salazar wanted his people poor, traditional and in the countryside.\n\nOur natural enemy has always been Spain, so the 1st thing Salazar did was make the Iberian Pact where both of us decided to have a neutral position in the war. But Franco gave a lot of support to the Axis and ended up not having his position recognized as Portugal had, this was signed by the same time the Italians invited Portugal to join the Axis.\n\nJoining the Axis was entering some european politics that he saw unrelated to Portugal, and his focus was on the colonies.\n\nPortugal was at risk of invasion only two times: Operation Felix, the ideia of invading Gibraltar with the support (or not) of Spain, if the allies interfered ocupying Portugal. This made Salazar plan to move the government to Azores, so he send a lot of trops to the islands.\n\nThe second one was a plan by UK to invade Azores and use the islands since it's strategic location, but the trops there from the Felix operation made them think twice because Portugal would defend the islands.\n\nBut we were alone, not very well armed, and Salazar was a very lucky bastard.",
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"answer": "This paper looks at the state of the Anglo-Portuguese alliance during WWII and gives some good in-depth answers. \n\nSome key points: \n\n* Despite the fact they were both anti-democratic, Salazer and Hitler weren't naturally allies and neither were their political followers.\n\n// the British Embassy in Lisbon considered the head of the\npolitical police \"impartial,\" and out of eight superior officers only\none was considered \"pro-German.\" // \n\n* The regime in Portugal wasn't anti-Semitic and accepted many Jewish refugees \n\n// Many refugees, especially Jewish refugees, have mentioned the\nwarm welcome they received from the Portuguese population in general.2 It appears, the Portuguese government was free from antiSemitism. The Portuguese Jewish community was very small but It\ncounted very influential members, among them a personal friend of\nSalazar, Moses Bensabat Amzalak\" //\n\n* The Anglo-Portuguese alliance, which goes back to 1373 and is the oldest still existing such alliance in the world, was not something to be lightly cast aside. This alliance had survived many, many prior upheavals in European history and was hugely significant for Portuguese foreign policy and trade. \n\n* Portugal had fought on the side of Britain against the Germans in WWI and many still considered the Germans to be the enemy. \n\n* Portuguese non-Belligerency was a key part of British foreign policy as it was feared that Portuguese involvement could trigger Spain to join on the side of the Axis powers. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": " > how did they not ally themselves with the Italians and/or Germans at the beginning?\n\nThe government, while fascist, didn't think it was in their best interests to join, so they stayed out. It's as simple as that.\n\nPortugal was reasonably far away from the rest of the Axis, so they couldn't threaten her with invasion to force her hand (and wouldn't get much out of it if they did, anyway) and it was not in the best interests of the Allies to invade (as that might push the Spanish into bed with the Germans). So when they decided not to join a side that was that.\n\nNo offence, but this question is a little like asking \"how did the Americans stay out of WW1 for so long? They were a democracy like France, so why weren't they forced to join/sucked in in the beginning?\"",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1393850",
"title": "World War II by country",
"section": "Section::::Impact by country.:Portugal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 465,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 465,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "For the duration of World War II, [[Portugal]] was under the control of the dictator [[António de Oliveira Salazar]]. Early in September 1939, Portugal proclaimed neutrality to avoid a military operation in Portuguese territory. This action was welcomed by Great Britain. Germany's invasion of France brought the Nazis to the [[Pyrenees]], which increased the ability of Hitler to bring pressures on Portugal and Spain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "285396",
"title": "Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917",
"section": "Section::::Countries sanctioned under the Trading with the Enemy Act.:Portugal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Portugal was listed in 1941. Portugal was a British ally, however it was officially neutral as a part of an allied strategy to avoid costly and pyrrhic military commitments to defend the Iberian peninsula during WW2. Spain would have likely declared war on the axis side if Portugal entered on the allied side opening a large unnecessary front. While a neutral it traded raw materials used in military production with Germany though it gave much more assistance and trade to the allies than the axis. Portugal was delisted in 1948.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "577704",
"title": "Estado Novo (Portugal)",
"section": "Section::::Regime.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1159,
"text": "Portugal was officially neutral in the Spanish Civil War (1936–39), but quietly furnished help to the nationalists of Francisco Franco. During World War II, 1939-1945, Portugal remained officially neutral, giving its highest priority to avoiding a Nazi invasion of the sort that was so devastating in most other European countries. The regime at first showed some pro-Axis sympathies; Salazar for example expressed approval for the German invasion of the Soviet Union. This support, however, can be mainly attributed to Salazar's staunch anti-communist position rather than actual support for Hitler, or the Nazi regime. From 1943 onward, Portugal favoured the Allies, leasing air bases in the Azores. Portugal reluctantly leased the Azores as a direct result of being threatened with invasion should Portugal not cater to the requests of the Allies. As an official neutral, Portugal traded with both sides. It cut off vital shipments of tungsten and rubber to Germany in 1944, after heavy pressure from the Allies. Lisbon was the base for International Red Cross operations aiding Allied POWs, and was the main air transit point between Britain and the U.S.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11018313",
"title": "Foreign relations of the Axis powers",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Portugal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Portugal protested the occupation of Portuguese Timor by Australian forces in 1942, but did not actively resist. The colony was subsequently occupied by Japan. Timorese and Portuguese civilians assisted Allied commandos in resisting the Japanese. Portuguese Macau was not occupied by Japan unlike its neighbouring Hong Kong, and Portugal ended World War II one of the five (non micro-state) European countries that managed to avoid entering the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2714160",
"title": "Portuguese Army",
"section": "Section::::History.:Inter-wars and World War II period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "On 28 May 1926, an Army led coup d'état ended the politically instable Portuguese First Republic and established the transitory National Dictatorship, an event that led to the establishment of the New State in 1933. From 1936 on, a number of Portuguese volunteers (known as the Viriatos) offered to fight in the Spanish Civil War on the Francoist nationalist side. Many of these volunteers were officers and NCOs of the Portuguese Army, and most served mainly in elite units like the Spanish Foreign Legion and the National Aviation. Although Portugal did not officially participate in World War II, Portuguese troops fought in Timor against the Japanese invaders and had to deter a planned invasion of the Continental and Atlantic islands territories of Portugal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8877547",
"title": "Portugal during World War II",
"section": "Section::::Portugal and the war in Europe.:Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1203,
"text": "At the outbreak of World War II, Portugal was ruled by António de Oliveira Salazar, the man who in 1933 had founded the \"Estado Novo\" (\"New State\"), the corporatist authoritarian government that ruled Portugal until 1974. Salazar's dislike of the Nazi regime in Germany and its imperial ambitions was tempered only by his view of the German Reich as a bastion against the spread of communism. He had favoured the Spanish nationalist cause, fearing a communist invasion of Portugal, yet he was uneasy at the prospect of a Spanish government bolstered by strong ties with the Axis. Salazar's policy of neutrality for Portugal in World War II thus included a strategic component. The country still held overseas territories that, because of their poor economic development, could not adequately defend themselves from military attack. Upon the start of the war in 1939, the Portuguese Government announced on 1 September, that the 600-year-old Anglo-Portuguese Alliance remained intact, but that since the British did not seek Portuguese assistance, Portugal was free to remain neutral in the war and would do so. In an aide-mémoire of 5 September 1939, the British Government confirmed the understanding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44531",
"title": "History of Portugal",
"section": "Section::::Estado Novo (1933–1974).:Salazar dictatorship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Political chaos, several strikes, harsh relations with the Church, and considerable economic problems aggravated by a disastrous military intervention in the First World War led to the military 28 May 1926 coup d'état. This coup installed the \"Second Republic\", which started as the \"Ditadura Nacional\" (National Dictatorship) and became the \"Estado Novo\" (New State) in 1933, led by economist António de Oliveira Salazar. He transformed Portugal into a sort of Fascist regime that evolved into a single-party corporative regime. Portugal, although neutral, informally aided the Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War (1936–39).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
26lpwy
|
How was oil obtained in the middle ages?
|
[
{
"answer": "They got them from oil wells near the surface. Herodotus describes oil pits near Babylon, for instance, where they dug for oil much like you'd dig for water.\n\nMore specifically for the Middle Ages, Marco Polo -for instance- describes oil springs in Baku (Azerbaijan):\n\n > bordering upon Armenia, to the south \nwest, are the districts of Mosul and Maredin, which shall be \ndescribed hereafter, and many others too numerous to parti \ncularize. To the north lies Zorzania, near the confines of which \nthere is a fountain of oil which discharges so great a quantity \nas to furnish loading for many camels. 2 The use made of it \nis not for the purpose of food, but as an unguent for the cure of \ncutaneous distempers in men and cattle, as well as other com \nplaints ; and it is also good for burning. In the neighbouring \ncountry no other is used in their lamps, and people come from \ndistant parts to procure it. \n\n(Travels of Marco Polo, chapter IV)\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Hi! FYI, you'll find some additional information in the FAQ (link on the sidebar) \n\n[Mineral resource extraction]( _URL_0_) - see under *Petroleum*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "198570",
"title": "Oil well",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "According to Kasem Ajram, petroleum was distilled by the Persian alchemist Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes) in the 9th century, producing chemicals such as kerosene in the alembic (\"al-ambiq\"), and which was mainly used for kerosene lamps. Arab and Persian chemists also distilled crude oil in order to produce flammable products for military purposes. Through Islamic Spain, distillation became available in Western Europe by the 12th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30871887",
"title": "Spikenard",
"section": "Section::::Historical use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "The oil was known in ancient times and was part of the Ayurvedic herbal tradition of India. It was obtained as a luxury in ancient Egypt, the Near East. The Egyptians stored the oil in alabaster cases to preserve its fragrance. In Rome, it was the main ingredient of the perfume \"nardinum\" (O.L. \"náladam\"), derived from the Hebrew (, head of nard bunch), which was part of the ketoret used when referring to the consecrated incense described in the Hebrew Bible and Talmud.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195137",
"title": "Oil refinery",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "Crude oil was often distilled by Arabic chemists, with clear descriptions given in Arabic handbooks such as those of Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (854–925). The streets of Baghdad were paved with tar, derived from petroleum that became accessible from natural fields in the region. In the 9th century, oil fields were exploited in the area around modern Baku, Azerbaijan. These fields were described by the Arab geographer Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī in the 10th century, and by Marco Polo in the 13th century, who described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads. Arab and Persian chemists also distilled crude oil in order to produce flammable products for military purposes. Through Islamic Spain, distillation became available in Western Europe by the 12th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "489526",
"title": "History of the Middle East",
"section": "Section::::Modern Middle East.:Final years of the Ottoman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Another turning point came when oil was discovered, first in Persia (1908) and later in Saudi Arabia (1938) as well as the other Persian Gulf states, Libya, and Algeria. The Middle East, it turned out, possessed the world's largest easily accessible reserves of crude oil, the most important commodity in the 20th century. While western oil companies pumped and exported nearly all of it to fuel the rapidly expanding automobile industry among other developments, the kings and emirs of these oil states became immensely rich, allowing them to consolidate their hold on power and giving them a stake in preserving western hegemony over the region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23195",
"title": "Petroleum",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 866,
"text": "Crude oil was often distilled by Arabic chemists, with clear descriptions given in Arabic handbooks such as those of Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi (Rhazes). The streets of Baghdad were paved with tar, derived from petroleum that became accessible from natural fields in the region. In the 9th century, oil fields were exploited in the area around modern Baku, Azerbaijan. These fields were described by the Arab geographer Abu al-Hasan 'Alī al-Mas'ūdī in the 10th century, and by Marco Polo in the 13th century, who described the output of those wells as hundreds of shiploads. Arab and Persian chemists also distilled crude oil in order to produce flammable products for military purposes. Through Islamic Spain, distillation became available in Western Europe by the 12th century. It has also been present in Romania since the 13th century, being recorded as păcură.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18998720",
"title": "BP",
"section": "Section::::History.:1909 to 1954.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "In May 1908 a group of British geologists discovered a large amount of oil at Masjid-i-Suleiman located in the province of Khuzestan. It was the first commercially significant find of oil in the Middle East. William Knox D'Arcy, by contract with Ali-Qoli Khan Bakhtiari, obtained permission to explore for oil for the first time in the Middle East, an event which changed the history of the entire region. The oil discovery led to petrochemical industry development and also the establishment of industries that strongly depended on oil. On 14 April 1909, the Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC) was incorporated as a subsidiary of Burmah Oil Company. Some of the shares were sold to the public. The first chairman and minority shareholder of the company became Lord Strathcona.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6131588",
"title": "Petroleum industry in Azerbaijan",
"section": "Section::::Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "There is evidence of petroleum being used in trade as early as the 3rd and 4th centuries. Information on the production of oil on the Apsheron peninsula can be found in the manuscripts of most Arabic and Persian authors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24ojmp
|
when talking on a cellular phone how does my voice get translated into bits of ones and zeroes?
|
[
{
"answer": "The sounds you vocalize lead to a series of compressions in the air.\n\nThe compressions are picked up by a microphone, where they cause a membrame to move in synch with your voice.\n\nThe movement of the membrame in the microphone is measured and gives rise to an electric signal that varies over time, still in synch with the noises that you make with your mouth. This is known as an \"analog\" signal.\n\nNext comes the conversion from \"analog\" to digital. This is done by measuring (sampling) the analog signal at a regular time interval and recording the value of the measurement as a number, represented by a certain pattern of ones and zeroes.\n\nTypically, the sampling occurs at a rate of many thousands of times per second, and the accuracy at which the measurement is made is measured in numbers of bit used to describe the value.\n\nFor example, in the process of you saying \"no\" to your telephone conversation partner, at one certain millisecond this causes an analogue value of 0.325 to be measured. You can represent the number 0.325 more or less accurately using zeroes and ones. The process that does that conversion is not difficult: instead of using a ten-based numerical system, you use a 2-based numerical system. Here is the relevant Wikipedia: _URL_0_\n\nNow, in the next millisecond, the sampled value has risen to 0.328. Again, you can convert 0.328 to a series of ones and zeroes. It will be a slightly different series of ones and zeroes, seeing as that 0.325 does not equal 0.328.\n\nIn practice, an engeneering improvement is that you do not send both values 0.325 and 0.328 across the line, but you compute their difference (0.003) and send *that* across. In general, the difference can be encoded with a smaller amount of ones and zeroes, which in turn means you use less bandwidth to get the message across.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "45599001",
"title": "One-bit message",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Examples of one-bit messages in the real world include the sound of car horns, police sirens, and “open” signs. Telephone calls which are deliberately terminated before being answered are also an example of one-bit communication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "41756547",
"title": "Phonetotopy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Phonetotopy is the concept that articulatory features as well as perceptual features of speech sounds are ordered in the brain in a similar way as tone (tonotopy), articulation and its somatosensory feedback (somatotopy), or visual location of an object (retinotopy). It is assumed that a phonetotopic ordering of speech sounds as well as of syllables can be found at a \"supramodal\" speech processing level (i.e. at a \"phonetic\" speech processing level) within the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32335474",
"title": "Real-time text",
"section": "Section::::Captioned telephony.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Captioned telephony is the streaming of real-time text captions in parallel with speech on a phone call. This is used by people who are hard of hearing to allow them to have the full benefit of listening as best they can, hearing all the intonation etc. in speech, yet have the captions for those words they cannot hear clearly enough. In the United States, captioned telephony is one of the free relay services that is available to anyone who is hard-of-hearing. Originally developed for use on the analog phone systems (where it requires a special phone) it is now available over IP using standard devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22981",
"title": "Phone (phonetics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "In contrast, a phoneme is a speech sound in a given language that, if swapped with another phoneme, could change one word to another. Phones are absolute and are not specific to any language, but phonemes can be discussed only in reference to specific languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5366050",
"title": "Speech perception",
"section": "Section::::Basics.:Top-down influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 680,
"text": "It may be the case that it is not necessary and maybe even not possible for a listener to recognize phonemes before recognizing higher units, like words for example. After obtaining at least a fundamental piece of information about phonemic structure of the perceived entity from the acoustic signal, listeners can compensate for missing or noise-masked phonemes using their knowledge of the spoken language. Compensatory mechanisms might even operate at the sentence level such as in learned songs, phrases and verses, an effect backed-up by neural coding patterns consistent with the missed continuous speech fragments, despite the lack of all relevant bottom-up sensory input.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26668156",
"title": "Telephone exchange",
"section": "Section::::Technologies.:Digital switches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Digital switches encode the speech going on, in 8,000 time slices per second. At each time slice, a digital PCM representation of the tone is made. The digits are then sent to the receiving end of the line, where the reverse process occurs, to produce the sound for the receiving phone. In other words, when someone uses a telephone, the speaker's voice is \"encoded\" then reconstructed for the person on the other end. The speaker's voice is delayed in the process by a small fraction of one second — it is not \"live\", it is reconstructed — delayed only minutely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2675796",
"title": "Intercept message",
"section": "Section::::Message triggers.:Incorrect number dialed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Most of these messages often include the phrase \"Your call cannot be completed as dialed.\" Sometimes a message would say to first dial a 1 or a 0 (the toll prefix for a trunk call) plus the area code of the called number. A message may also be played when 0 or 1 followed by an area code is prepended unnecessarily on landline phone calls to local destinations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1mai9i
|
Does low birth weight in humans have an effect on the brain later in life?
|
[
{
"answer": "It seems nearly certain that it does. Low birth rate children have higher rates cognitive delays and other neurological issues. The effects seem to be mild for most affected, but they seem to be persistent. \n\nSource: _URL_0_\n\nJSTOR subscription needed, but the abstract says it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11840996",
"title": "Environment and intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Biological influences.:Perinatal factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 1153,
"text": "There is also evidence that birth complications and other factors around the time of birth (perinatal) can have serious implications on intellectual development. For example, a prolonged period of time without access to oxygen during the delivery can lead to brain damage and mental retardation. Also, low birth weights have been linked to lower intelligence scores later in lives of the children. There are two reasons for low birth weight, either premature delivery or the infant's size is just lower than average for its gestational age; both contribute to intellectual deficits later in life. A meta analysis of low birth weight babies found that there is a significant relationship between low birth weight and impaired cognitive abilities; however, the relationship is small, and they concluded that, although it may not be relevant at an individual level, it may instead be relevant at a population level. Other studies have also found that the correlations are relatively small unless the weight is extremely low (less than 1,500 g) – in which case the effects on intellectual development are more severe and often result in mental retardation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9058006",
"title": "Impact of health on intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition.:Intrauterine growth retardation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1215,
"text": "Undernutrition during pregnancy, and other factors, may cause intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR), which is one cause of low birth weight. However, it has been suggested that in IUGR the brain may be selectively spared. Brain growth is usually less affected than whole body weight or length. Several studies from developed nations have found that with the exception of extreme intrauterine growth retardation also affecting brain growth, and hypoxic injury, IUGR seems to have little or no measurable effect on mental performance and behavior in adolescence or adulthood. For example, acute undernutrition for a few months during the Dutch famine of 1944 caused a decrease in mean birthweight in certain areas. This was later associated with a change in performance on IQ tests for 18–19 years old Dutch males draftees from these areas compared to control areas. The subjects were exposed to famine prenatally but not after birth. During the famine, births decreased more among those with lower socioeconomic status (SES), whereas after the famine, there was a compensatory increase in births among those with lower SES. Since SES correlates with IQ, this may have hidden an effect caused by the undernutrition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2368360",
"title": "Obstetrical dilemma",
"section": "Section::::Challenges to the obstetrical dilemma hypothesis.:Maternal heat stress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "There has been a lot of evidence linking body mass to brain mass, leading to the determination of maternal metabolism as a key factor in the growth of the fetus. Maternal constraints could be largely due to thermal stress or energy availability. A larger brain mass in the neonate corresponds to more energy needed to sustain it. It takes much more energy for the mother if the brain fully develops in the womb. If maternal energy is the limiting factor then an infant can only grow as much as the mother can sustain. Also, because fetal size is positively correlated to maternal energy use, thermal stress is an issue because the larger the fetus, the more the mother can suffer heat stress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1973352",
"title": "Low birth weight",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Low birth weight constitutes as sixty to eighty percent of the infant mortality rate in developing countries. Infant mortality due to low birth weight is usually directly causal, stemming from other medical complications such as preterm birth, poor maternal nutritional status, lack of prenatal care, maternal sickness during pregnancy, and an unhygienic home environment. According to an analysis by University of Oregon, reduced brain volume in children is also tied to low birth-weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2368360",
"title": "Obstetrical dilemma",
"section": "Section::::Challenges to the obstetrical dilemma hypothesis.:Early brain growth rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Some studies have shown that higher brain growth rates happen earlier on in ontogeny than previously thought, which challenges the idea that the explanation of the obstetrical dilemma is that humans are born with underdeveloped brains. This is because if brain growth rates were largest in early development, that is when the brain size would increase the most. Premature birth would not allow for a much larger head size if most of the growth had already happened. Also, it has been suggested that maternal pelvic dimensions are sensitive to some ecological factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11304934",
"title": "Causes of schizophrenia",
"section": "Section::::Before birth.:Fetal growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1301,
"text": "Lower than average birth weight has been one of the most consistent findings, indicating slowed fetal growth possibly mediated by genetic effects. In the first and only prospective study of the low birthweight, schizophrenia, and enlargement of brain ventricles suggestive of cerebral atrophy, Leigh Silverton and colleagues found that low birthweight (measured prospectively with regard to psychopathology) was associated with enlarged ventricles on CT-Scans in a sample at risk for schizophrenia over 30 years later. These signs suggestive of cerebral atrophy were associated with schizophrenia symptoms. In a follow up study, Silverton et al. noted an interaction between genetic risk for schizophrenia and low birthweight. The risk of enlarged ventricles on brain scan (associated with schizophrenia symptoms and biologically suggestive of Emil Kraepelin's dementia praecox type of schizophrenia ) was greatly increased if the subjects had both a higher genetic load for schizophrenia and lower birthweight. The investigators suggested that in utero insults may specifically stress those with a schizophrenia diathesis suggesting to the authors a diathesis stress etiological model for a certain type of schizophrenia (that Kraepelin identified) with early abnormalities suggesting brain atrophy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1995486",
"title": "Birth weight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "There have been numerous studies that have attempted, with varying degrees of success, to show links between birth weight and later-life conditions, including diabetes, obesity, tobacco smoking, and intelligence. Low birth weight is associated with neonatal infection and infant mortality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8276zm
|
Is the heat energy that we get from the sun just from Photons?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. Since there is (almost) nothing between the sun and the earth to transfer the heat through conduction or convection, the only way for thermal energy to be transferred is through radiation, which consists of photons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Almost entirely, yes (to a large number of zeroes).\n\nThere is a very, very slight amount of energy transfer via other routes as well, but it's inconsequential in comparison. Some energy from tidal energy. Some energy from neutrinos that happen to interact with Earth. Some energy from the solar wind (which is powered primarily by the Sun's magnetic field).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25010",
"title": "Proton–proton chain reaction",
"section": "Section::::The proton–proton chain reaction.:Energy release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Energy released as gamma rays will interact with electrons and protons and heat the interior of the Sun. Also kinetic energy of fusion products (e.g. of the two protons and the from the p-p I reaction) increases the temperature of plasma in the Sun. This heating supports the Sun and prevents it from collapsing under its own weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23988436",
"title": "Radiative equilibrium",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Prevost's definitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "An important early contribution was made by Pierre Prevost in 1791. Prevost considered that what is nowadays called the photon gas or electromagnetic radiation was a fluid that he called \"free heat\". Prevost proposed that free radiant heat is a very rare fluid, rays of which, like light rays, pass through each other without detectable disturbance of their passage. Prevost's theory of exchanges stated that each body radiates to, and receives radiation from, other bodies. The radiation from each body is emitted regardless of the presence or absence of other bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "477175",
"title": "Radiant energy",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.:Open systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "Radiant energy is one of the mechanisms by which energy can enter or leave an open system. Such a system can be man-made, such as a solar energy collector, or natural, such as the Earth's atmosphere. In geophysics, most atmospheric gases, including the greenhouse gases, allow the Sun's short-wavelength radiant energy to pass through to the Earth's surface, heating the ground and oceans. The absorbed solar energy is partly re-emitted as longer wavelength radiation (chiefly infrared radiation), some of which is absorbed by the atmospheric greenhouse gases. Radiant energy is produced in the sun as a result of nuclear fusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "140858",
"title": "Pair production",
"section": "Section::::Photon to electron and positron.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "The photon's energy is converted to particle mass in accordance with Einstein’s equation,; where is energy, is mass and is the speed of light. The photon must have higher energy than the sum of the rest mass energies of an electron and positron (2 × 0.511 MeV = 1.022 MeV) for the production to occur. The photon must be near a nucleus in order to satisfy conservation of momentum, as an electron–positron pair produced in free space cannot both satisfy conservation of energy and momentum. Because of this, when pair production occurs, the atomic nucleus receives some recoil. The reverse of this process is electron positron annihilation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17097734",
"title": "Driver's vision enhancer",
"section": "Section::::Theory of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The Sun emits energy across the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Solar energy strikes the surface of objects. Some of that energy is absorbed and stored as heat (thermal energy). After sunset, this thermal energy remains and is emitted in the form of IR radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16531764",
"title": "Multi-junction solar cell",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Loss mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "If the photon has less energy than the bandgap, it is not collected at all. This is a major consideration for conventional solar cells, which are not sensitive to most of the infrared spectrum, although that represents almost half of the power coming from the sun. Conversely, photons with more energy than the bandgap, say blue light, initially eject an electron to a state high above the bandgap, but this extra energy is lost through collisions in a process known as \"relaxation\". This lost energy turns into heat in the cell, which has the side-effect of further increasing blackbody losses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22018882",
"title": "SolarFest",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Solar Energy is the sun’s rays (solar radiation) that reach the earth. This energy can be converted into other forms of energy, such as heat and electricity. In the 1830s, the British astronomer John Herschel used a solar thermal collector box (a device that absorbs sunlight to collect heat) to cook food during an expedition to Africa. Today, Solar energy can be converted to thermal (or heat) energy and used to: Heat water – for use in homes, buildings, or swimming pools. Solar energy can also be used to heat spaces such has homes, buildings or arenas as is seen by SolarFest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vrpg7
|
How come our eyes can see both dark/light areas simultaneously while cameras can only be set to a specific exposure?
|
[
{
"answer": "A camera's exposure is the length of time that an image is recorded for. Our eyes/brain combination record and process images constantly. Modern video cameras can do this, and they are programmed to adjust to dark and light areas, too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's actually the same principle, just a difference in magnitude. Your eyes are able to perceive a contrast difference of 10-14 stops in a single \"image\". A digital camera usually falls somewhere around 11 stops, give or take. The difference is that your eye has an iris which can open or close to allow you to quickly switch \"exposure\" when you look from a brighter area to a darker area. This substantially increases the dynamic range you can perceive, up to as wide as 24 stops. Once a camera captures an image, its exposure is set and you can only look at the image as it was captured, so it appears to have a narrower range.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1543423",
"title": "Eye tracking",
"section": "Section::::Technologies and techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Two general types of infrared / near-infrared (also known as active light) eye-tracking techniques are used: bright-pupil and dark-pupil. Their difference is based on the location of the illumination source with respect to the optics. If the illumination is coaxial with the optical path, then the eye acts as a retroreflector as the light reflects off the retina creating a bright pupil effect similar to red eye. If the illumination source is offset from the optical path, then the pupil appears dark because the retroreflection from the retina is directed away from the camera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2114941",
"title": "High-dynamic-range rendering",
"section": "Section::::Limitations and compensations.:Human eye.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The human eye can perceive scenes with a very high dynamic contrast ratio, around 1,000,000:1. Adaptation is achieved in part through adjustments of the iris and slow chemical changes, which take some time (e.g. the delay in being able to see when switching from bright lighting to pitch darkness). At any given time, the eye's static range is smaller, around 10,000:1. However, this is still higher than the static range of most display technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "563320",
"title": "EyeTap",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "In order to capture what the eye is seeing as accurately as possible, an EyeTap uses a beam splitter to send the same scene (with reduced intensity) to both the eye and a camera. The camera then digitizes the reflected image of the scene and sends it to a computer. The computer processes the image and then sends it to a projector. The projector sends the image to the other side of the beam splitter so that this computer-generated image is reflected into the eye to be superimposed on the original scene. Stereo EyeTaps modify light passing through both eyes, but many research prototypes (mainly for reasons of ease of construction) only tap one eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305136",
"title": "Visual system",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Eye.:Photochemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "The functioning of a camera is often compared with the workings of the eye, mostly since both focus light from external objects in the field of view onto a light-sensitive medium. In the case of the camera, this medium is film or an electronic sensor; in the case of the eye, it is an array of visual receptors. With this simple geometrical similarity, based on the laws of optics, the eye functions as a transducer, as does a CCD camera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "531432",
"title": "Autostereogram",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms for viewing.:3D perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The eye operates like a photographic camera. It has an adjustable iris which can open (or close) to allow more (or less) light to enter the eye. As with any camera except pinhole cameras, it needs to focus light rays entering through the iris (aperture in a camera) so that they focus on a single point on the retina in order to produce a sharp image. The eye achieves this goal by adjusting a lens behind the cornea to refract light appropriately.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13751214",
"title": "FreeTrack",
"section": "Section::::Camera.:Angle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "A wider viewing angle allows a larger tracking region when in close proximity to the camera. At further distances a wide angle is not desirable, more of the frame is unused and the effective resolution drops more rapidly. More peripheral light can also be seen, which can interfere with tracking. Viewing angle can be reduced by using digital zoom at the cost of resolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "531432",
"title": "Autostereogram",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms for viewing.:Viewing techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "As with a photographic camera, it is easier to make the eye focus on an object when there is intense ambient light. With intense lighting, the eye can constrict the pupil, yet allow enough light to reach the retina. The more the eye resembles a pinhole camera, the less it depends on focusing through the lens. In other words, the degree of decoupling between focusing and convergence needed to visualize an autostereogram is reduced. This places less strain on the brain. Therefore, it may be easier for first-time autostereogram viewers to \"see\" their first 3D images if they attempt this feat with bright lighting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
o1xsn
|
why the hell do big states allow smaller states to have so much influence over the direction of a political party?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's all about the order of the primary. Candidates get money from their party and press coverage based on how well they are doing (or how crazy they are) if you mange to win the first few states, you get tons of publicity (and civilian donations) as well as extra party backing, especially now that there is less competition and people can support you because you're less likely to fail hilariously.\n\ntl;dr: strong start = strong support.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The big states absolutely dominate American politics. With the exception of the early portion of the campaign for a nomination, candidates focus heavily on winning the major states and their stacks of electoral votes.\n\nAs for the early-primary states, it's driven by media coverage as much as anything else. Since media outlets insist on covering the 'horse race' aspect of the campaign as if it were the most important thing, early primary and caucus results give candidates the appearance of legitimacy or popularity, which in turn drives the donations which fund their campaigns down the line.\n\nAs for the swing states, candidates are of course going to focus most on the states that have the most possibility of doing them the most good. Just as a Republican has little chance of winning Massachussetts, a Democrat has equally little chance of winning Wyoming, so neither is going to waste much time or money on the 'unwinnable' states and focus on places like Ohio and Florida which could go either way and turn the results of the election.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've always thought that places like Iowa and New Hampshire are used in the primary aspects as a mostly symbolic measure. Iowa is meant to represent the MidWest, and so whoever does well in that primary has a good chance of winning those states in a general election. New Hampshire represents the New England area, South Carolina and Florida represent their regions, etc. \n\nI just see it as \"testing the waters\" so that a political party doesn't invest heavily in someone who will not have a snowball's chance of winning.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because that's how we do it. If you're looking for a logical reason there really isn't one. Someone's got to go first and since Iowa and New Hampshire always have, that's what we keep doing.\n\nIowans and New Hampshirites(?) would tell you that they take their \"duty\" of selecting candidates very seriously and that this order makes up for the advantage big states have in terms of shere number of delegates.\n\nThe parties themselves have threatened to punish states that jump in line which is one of the reasons states are hesitant to go against the grain. In 2008, Florida was threatened with losing half their delegates for doing so.\n\nBut as to why they go first, there's no logical reason really other than tradition.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The sad truth: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "429154",
"title": "Bilateralism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Moreover, this will be effective if an influential state wants control over small states from a liberalism perspective, because building a series of bilateral arrangements with small states can increase a state's influence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31605",
"title": "Two-party system",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "There are several reasons why, in some systems, two major parties dominate the political landscape. There has been speculation that a two-party system arose in the United States from early political battling between the federalists and anti-federalists in the first few decades after the ratification of the Constitution, according to several views. In addition, there has been more speculation that the winner-takes-all electoral system as well as particular state and federal laws regarding voting procedures helped to cause a two-party system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30890699",
"title": "Small power",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 831,
"text": "According to a 2017 review study, \"What scholars can agree on is that small states generally prefer multilateralism as both a path to influence and a means to restrain larger states. Studies of influential small states indicate that they are able to develop issue-specific power to make up for what they lack in aggregate structural power. Small states can, therefore, develop power disproportionate relative to their size on the few issues of utmost importance to them. In addition to prioritization, small states have successfully employed the strategies of coalition-building and image-building. Even though small state administrations lack the resources of their larger counterparts, their informality, flexibility, and the autonomy of their diplomats can prove advantageous in negotiations and within institutional settings.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1130657",
"title": "Red states and blue states",
"section": "Section::::Map interpretation.:Critiques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "The Democratic and Republican parties within a particular state may have a platform that departs from that of the national party, sometimes leading that state to favor one party in state and local elections and the other in Presidential elections. This is most evident in the Southern United States, where the state Democratic Party organizations tend to be more conservative than the national party, especially on social issues. Likewise, Republicans have elected a number of statewide officeholders in states that are solidly Democratic at the presidential level, such as New York, Illinois, Hawaii, and Vermont.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10890716",
"title": "Member state of the European Union",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "There is disparity in the size, wealth, and political system of member states, but all have \"de jure\" equal rights. In practice, certain states are considerably more influential than others. While in some areas majority voting takes place where larger states have more votes than smaller ones, smaller states have disproportional representation compared to their population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32021",
"title": "Politics of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "There are a few major differences between the political system of the United States and that of most other developed democracies. These include greater power in the upper house of the legislature, a wider scope of power held by the Supreme Court, the separation of powers between the legislature and the executive and the dominance of only two main parties. Third parties have less political influence in the United States than in other democratically run developed countries; this is because of a combination of stringent historic controls. These controls take shape in the form of state and federal laws, informal media prohibitions and winner-take-all elections and include ballot access issues and exclusive debate rules. There have been five United States presidential elections in which the winner lost the popular vote.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5372935",
"title": "National Popular Vote Interstate Compact",
"section": "Section::::Debate.:State power relative to population.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "There is some debate over whether the Electoral College favors small- or large-population states. Those who argue that the College favors low-population states point out that such states have proportionally more electoral votes relative to their populations. This is because each state's electoral votes are equal to the sum of its seats in both houses of Congress: the proportional allocation of House seats has been distorted by the fixed size of the House since 1929 and the requirement that each state have at least one representative, and Senate seats are not proportional to population at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8am62d
|
Why did it take so long to unify Italy again (1870s) after the collapse of the Roman Empire? how did countries more technologically backward such as England, France and Castile/Spain unify more quickly than what was previously the most advanced empire in history?
|
[
{
"answer": "This question takes in the best part of a millennium and a half of West European history, and I was aiming to find 3-4 earlier answers that might address parts of it. \n\nHowever, it turns out u/AlviseFalier has written an epic answer to a very similar question: [It seems odd that the Italian peninsula could give rise to the Roman Empire and then largely resist political unification until 1870. How have historians explained Italy's extended political fracture after the Western Empire fell?](_URL_0_) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "385155",
"title": "Italians",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Kingdom of Italy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "In the decades following unification, Italy started to create colonies in Africa, and under Benito Mussolini's fascism conquered Ethiopia founding in 1936 the Italian Empire. World War I has also been interpreted to have completed the process of Italian unification, with the annexation of Trieste, Istria, Trentino-Alto Adige and Zara. The Italians grew to 45 millions in 1940 and the land, whose economy had been until that time based upon agriculture, started its industrial development, mainly in northern Italy. But World War II soon destroyed Italy and its colonial power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26367526",
"title": "Italophilia",
"section": "Section::::Modern era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "In 1861 Italy was united for the first time since the fall of the Roman Empire and became a modern industrialized country, where the tradition of creativity, scientific achievement and excellence in manufacturing continued.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1873263",
"title": "Roman Italy",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "As a result, Italy began to decline in favour of the provinces, which resulted in the division of the Empire into two administrative units in 395: the Western Roman Empire, with its capital at Mediolanum (now Milan), and the Eastern Roman Empire, with its capital at Constantinople (now Istanbul). In 402, the capital was moved to Ravenna from Milan, confirming the decline of the city of Rome (which was sacked in 410 for the first time in seven centuries).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59642",
"title": "Italian unification",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Italy was unified by Rome in the third century BC. For 700 years, it was a \"de facto\" territorial extension of the capital of the Roman Republic and Empire, and for a long time experienced a privileged status and was not converted into a province.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59642",
"title": "Italian unification",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "This situation persisted through the Renaissance but began to deteriorate with the rise of modern nation-states in the early modern period. Italy, including the Papal States, then became the site of proxy wars between the major powers, notably the Holy Roman Empire (including Austria), Spain, and France.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "385155",
"title": "Italians",
"section": "Section::::Italian diaspora.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "Italy after its unification did not seek nationalism but instead sought work. However, a unified state did not automatically constitute a sound economy. The global economic expansion, ranging from Britain's Industrial Revolution in the late 18th and through mid 19th century, to the use of slave labor in the Americas did not hit Italy until much later (with the exception of the \"industrial triangle\" between Milan, Genoa and Turin) This lag resulted in a deficit of work available in Italy and the need to look for work elsewhere.The mass industrialization and urbanization globally resulted in higher labor mobility and the need for Italians to stay anchored to the land for economic support declined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "313007",
"title": "Condottieri",
"section": "Section::::Captain generals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "The end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648 and the birth of Westphalian sovereignty diminished Roman Catholic influence in Europe and led to the consolidation of large states, while Italy was fragmented and divided. The condottieri tradition greatly suffered the political and strategic decline of Italy and never recovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3prqqs
|
if/once the cuban embargo is lifted, what will change?
|
[
{
"answer": "It will be easier people in the US to visit Cuba, acquire Cuban goods and do business in Cuba. Vice-versa for people in Cuba dealing with the US.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cuba will finally be able to buy newer, safer cars. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The biggest change for Cuba will be access to 21st century farm technology. All of our best fertilisers, crop varieties and pesticides are owned by American companies. Cuba is forced to use more dangerous and toxic alternatives when they can find anything at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are two hypotheses about this. Critics of lifting the embargo are afraid that the injection to the Cuban economy will strengthen a repressive regime. Supporters argue that the exposure to American culture will drive calls for expanded freedom in the country.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cuba's economy will have a chance to recover since Cuban sugar and tobacco products will have a chance to be exported ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44935186",
"title": "Cuban thaw",
"section": "Section::::Easing of travel and trade restrictions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "Although the Cuban trade embargo can only be ended by the U.S. Congress, the Obama administration took executive action to ease some restrictions on travel to Cuba by U.S. citizens, as well as restrictions on the import and export of goods between each country. In his 2015 State of the Union Address to Congress, Obama called on lawmakers to lift the embargo against Cuba, a message he reiterated in 2016.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3585412",
"title": "History of Miami",
"section": "Section::::Twentieth century.:1980s and 1990s.:Later immigration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "These agreements with the Cuban government led to what has been called the Wet Foot-Dry Foot Policy, whereby Cubans who made it to shore could stay in the United States – likely becoming eligible to adjust to permanent residence under the Cuban Adjustment Act. However, those who do not make it to dry land ultimately are repatriated unless they can demonstrate a well-founded fear of persecution if returned to Cuba. Because it was stated that Cubans were escaping for political reasons, this policy did not apply to Haitians, who the government claimed were seeking asylum for economic reasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13106186",
"title": "History of Cubana de Aviación",
"section": "Section::::History.:Renovation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 1356,
"text": "A major question for Cubana's future is the continuation of the U.S. embargo on Cuba. The embargo, imposed in February 1962 (a partial one started in October 1960), is the longest-running one in history and has been consistently and continuously condemned (annually) by the United Nations for several decades. Cuba now receives millions of visitors every year and stands to become one of the most important tourist destinations in Latin America, despite the embargo's efforts to isolate it, and to damage Cubana and all other Cuba-based airlines. The embargo and other U.S. actions have done considerable damage to Cubana over the years, involving direct or indirect destruction of aircraft by U.S. aerial bombing raids, acts of sabotage, hijackings, bombings, arson, cancellations of landing rights, obstruction of services, freezing of financial assets, deaths of staff and passengers, and numerous other acts (by the U.S. government or by U.S.-based parties, or both). Most such acts have violated international laws and international commercial aviation agreements, as well as national sovereignty rights, and some can easily be classified as undeclared acts of war or of terrorism. Cubana clearly stands to seek much compensation from the U.S. when the embargo ends. The amounts to be sought, compounded over time, are likely to be quite substantial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1105954",
"title": "United States embargo against Cuba",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 999,
"text": ", the Cuban embargo is enforced mainly through six statutes: the Trading with the Enemy Act of 1917, the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, the Cuban Assets Control Regulations of 1963, the Cuban Democracy Act of 1992, the Helms–Burton Act of 1996, and the Trade Sanctions Reform and Export Enhancement Act of 2000. The stated purpose of the Cuban Democracy Act of 1992 is to maintain sanctions on Cuba as long as the Cuban government refuses to move toward \"democratization and greater respect for human rights\". The Helms-Burton Act further restricted United States citizens from doing business in or with Cuba, and mandated restrictions on giving public or private assistance to any successor government in Havana unless and until certain claims against the Cuban government were met. In 1999 President Bill Clinton expanded the trade embargo by also disallowing foreign subsidiaries of U.S. companies to trade with Cuba. In 2000 Clinton authorized the sale of \"humanitarian\" U.S. products to Cuba.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21479068",
"title": "Freedom to Travel to Cuba Act",
"section": "Section::::Support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "In July 2010, \"Newsweek magazine\" reported that a poll conducted by Andy Gomez, associate provost at the University of Miami, found that 64 percent of Cuban-Americans in Miami now support a unilateral lifting of the travel ban. However, until human rights violations on the island and democratic principles are reinstated, that community's support for the continuation of the embargo has not been significantly fading. In lieu of some change in perceptions, former Democratic Senator Gary Hart criticized the continuing embargo, remarking \"second generation Cuban-Americans are finally beginning to change their community's attitudes and make it clear they no longer are interested in holding the mighty U.S.'s foreign policy toward a tiny nearby country hostage to their parents' anger.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "411276",
"title": "Mario Díaz-Balart",
"section": "Section::::Political positions.:Foreign policy.:Cuba.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "In 2007, Díaz-Balart advocated maintaining the Cuban embargo, saying \"Some people do not understand the embargo of Cuba. Its purpose is to keep American hard currency out of the hands of a Communist thug by restricting most trade and travel.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35120398",
"title": "Havana on the Hudson",
"section": "Section::::Immigration.:Freedom Flights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "Following the Cuban Missile Crisis, then president John F. Kennedy imposed travel restrictions on February 8, 1963, and the Cuban Assets Control Regulations were issued on July 8, 1963, under the Trading with the Enemy Act in response to Cubans hosting Soviet nuclear weapons. Under these restrictions, Cuban assets in the United States were frozen and the existing restrictions were consolidated in an embargo, known as \"el bloqueo\", Spanish for blockade. Those who wished to leave Cuba were considered refugees, and were offered alien resident status in a US sponsored resettlement program transported on what became known as Freedom Flights (1965–1974). As they were unable to take any assets or personal belongings this often was only possible for those with friends, family, or sponsors in the United States and the path to citizenship. (Children born in the USA automatically became US citizens).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
50p67s
|
Are there (presently) multicellular organisms with very few (2-50) cells?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is a spectrum of morphologies and sizes of simple life-forms. Some organisms such as slime molds and choanoflagellates can alternate between states in which they are single cells and states in which they have multiple cells. The multicellular phases of these organisms could include states with only very few cells (50 or less) but can also have many more cells. The protist Volvox is a colonial algae that could have few cells (but can also have several thousand cells). In the animal kingdom, the smallest full-grown organisms tend to have about 1000 cells, but if you count embryos then you would have living organisms of 50 or fewer cells. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I agree with /u/Scientist34again's answer, but I wanted to emphasis one part of it:\n > Some organisms such as slime molds and choanoflagellates can alternate between states in which they are single cells and states in which they have multiple cells. The multicellular phases of these organisms could include states with only very few cells (50 or less) but can also have many more cells.\n\nThis, I think, actually helps address one of your concerns:\n > If this kind of \"small\" organisms is not common today, where they more common in the past? This seems plausible to me because all life (as far as we know) evolved from single cell organisms. So there must have been a transition period where (through evolution) species grew to have thousands of cells like modern animals.\n\nNot necessarily. If you think about it more like a \"colony\" of unicellular organisms (let's limit it to ones of the same species, for simplicity) living together, then you wouldn't necessarily evolve step by step from two cells to 8 cells to 20 cells, etc. You'd have 100s of individuals living together, gradually accumulating pathways that help them specialize when they are living together (because not all the individuals need to do the same job). There is a finite amount of energy an individual is going to have, so as they invest in their specialization, they might lose some general skills that would have allowed them to live freely. \n\nEventually, you'd find that basically these cells have accumulated so many specializations that they can't live a full life cycle alone anymore, and you might then call that 'colony' a 'multicellular organism'.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13141637",
"title": "Multinucleate",
"section": "Section::::Physiological examples.:Coenocytes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Furthermore, multinucleate cells are produced from specialized cell cycles in which nuclear division occurs without cytokinesis, thus leading to large coenocytes or plasmodia. In filamentous fungi, multinucleate cells may extend over hundreds of meters so that different regions of a single cell experience dramatically different microenvironments. Other examples include, the plasmodia of plasmodial slime molds (myxogastrids) and the schizont of the \"Plasmodium\" parasite which causes malaria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167660",
"title": "Cell type",
"section": "Section::::Multicellular organisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "All higher multicellular organisms contain cells specialised for different functions. Most distinct cell types arise from a single totipotent cell that differentiates into hundreds of different cell types during the course of development. Differentiation of cells is driven by different environmental cues (such as cell–cell interaction) and intrinsic differences (such as those caused by the uneven distribution of molecules during division). Multicellular organisms are composed of cells that fall into two fundamental types: germ cells and somatic cells. During development, somatic cells will become more specialized and form the three primary germ layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. After formation of the three germ layers, cells will continue to specialize until they reach a terminally differentiated state that is much more resistant to changes in cell type than its progenitors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6339",
"title": "Cell biology",
"section": "Section::::Cell structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 754,
"text": "There are two fundamental classifications of cells: prokaryotes and eukaryotes. The major difference between the two is the presence or absence of organelles. Other factors such as size, the way in which they reproduce, and the number of cells distinguish them from one another. Eukaryotic cells include animal, plant, fungi, and protozoa cells which all have a nucleus enclosed by a membrane, with various shapes and sizes. Prokaryotic cells, lacking an enclosed nucleus, include bacteria and archaea. Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells, making prokaryotic cells the smallest form of life. Cytologists typically focus on eukaryotic cells whereas prokaryotic cells are the focus of microbiologists, but this is not always the case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6994700",
"title": "Picoplankton",
"section": "Section::::Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Furthermore, some species can also be mixotrophic. The smallest of cells (200 nm) are on the order of nanometers, not picometers. The SI prefix pico- is used quite loosely here, as nanoplankton and microplankton are only 10 and 100 times larger, respectively, although it is somewhat more accurate when considering the volume rather than the length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12305127",
"title": "Evolutionary history of life",
"section": "Section::::Sexual reproduction and multicellular organisms.:Multicellularity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "The simplest definitions of \"multicellular,\" for example \"having multiple cells,\" could include colonial cyanobacteria like \"Nostoc\". Even a technical definition such as \"having the same genome but different types of cell\" would still include some genera of the green algae Volvox, which have cells that specialize in reproduction. Multicellularity evolved independently in organisms as diverse as sponges and other animals, fungi, plants, brown algae, cyanobacteria, slime molds and myxobacteria. For the sake of brevity, this article focuses on the organisms that show the greatest specialization of cells and variety of cell types, although this approach to the evolution of biological complexity could be regarded as \"rather anthropocentric.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13133474",
"title": "Tetraspora",
"section": "Section::::Morphology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1161,
"text": "The size of cells has been found to vary based on the type of \"Tetraspora\" species and the type of climatic zone the species is found in. On average the diameter of species in the genus \"Tetraspora\" ranges from 6-13 μm, with the species in the tropics usually being the smallest (6-9 μm), followed by the temperate zone species (6-14 μm), and the polar species (7.5-13 μm). The difference in cell size therefore also impacts sizes of the colonies, but sizes of colonies also vary with whether the cells are residing in stagnant or flowing water. In stagnant water, colonies may range from 5–10 cm in length, while in flowing water, colonies may reach lengths up to 50 cm. In addition to impacting colony size, the type of water (stagnant or free flowing) also impacts the morphology of the colonies. Most macroscopic colonies of \"Tetraspora\" are cylindrical in nature, but in stagnant water colonies may appear as short sacs and clubs with thalli that resemble balloons. Flowing water colonies on the other hand, tend to form narrow cylindrical structures with the thalli also being more or less cylindrical and sometimes can be lightly rounded at the sheaths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23084",
"title": "Paleontology",
"section": "Section::::History of life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Multicellular life is composed only of eukaryotic cells, and the earliest evidence for it is the Francevillian Group Fossils from , although specialisation of cells for different functions first appears between (a possible fungus) and (a probable red alga). Sexual reproduction may be a prerequisite for specialisation of cells, as an asexual multicellular organism might be at risk of being taken over by rogue cells that retain the ability to reproduce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
tc3oq
|
wide area networks
|
[
{
"answer": "A wide area network is similar to a local area network, but uses multiple routers/hubs and occasionally a VPN system to enable network access by dozens or even hundreds of people over a large and disparate landscape.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6609336",
"title": "Broadview Networks",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Broadview Networks is a network-based electronically integrated communications provider serving small and medium-sized businesses in the Northeastern and Mid-Atlantic United States. The Company offers local, long-distance and international voice services; data services that encompass VPN and MPLS enabled offerings; hosted and premises-based VOIP systems; traditional telephone systems; and Internet access services using digital subscriber line (DSL) and related technologies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38140",
"title": "Wide area network",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunications network that extends over a large geographical area for the primary purpose of computer networking. Wide area networks are often established with leased telecommunication circuits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4122592",
"title": "Computer network",
"section": "Section::::Geographic scale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33172",
"title": "Wireless network",
"section": "Section::::Types of wireless networks.:Global area network.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28744472",
"title": "Near-me area network",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "The Internet consists of different types of communication networks. Common types include local area networks (LAN), metropolitan area networks (MAN), and wide area networks (WAN). Local area networks have the coverage of a small geographic area, such as a school, residence, building, or company. Metropolitan area networks cover a larger area, such as a city or state. Wide area networks provide communication in a broad geographic area covering national and international locations. Personal area networks (PANs) are wireless LANs with a very short range (up to a few meters), enabling computer devices (such as PDAs and printers) to communicate with other nearby devices and computers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33172",
"title": "Wireless network",
"section": "Section::::Types of wireless networks.:Wireless WAN.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 769,
"text": "Wireless wide area networks are wireless networks that typically cover large areas, such as between neighbouring towns and cities, or city and suburb. These networks can be used to connect branch offices of business or as a public Internet access system. The wireless connections between access points are usually point to point microwave links using parabolic dishes on the 2.4 GHz and 5.8Ghz band, rather than omnidirectional antennas used with smaller networks. A typical system contains base station gateways, access points and wireless bridging relays. Other configurations are mesh systems where each access point acts as a relay also. When combined with renewable energy systems such as photovoltaic solar panels or wind systems they can be stand alone systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28663841",
"title": "Broadvox Communications",
"section": "Section::::Network.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "It is a Tier 1 network that has coverage in the continental United States, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and Canada. In addition to a large network, Broadvox provides U.S. based customer service—including 24/7 Tier I and II carrier support. Broadvox was the first carrier to have a customized online user portal for provisioning and requesting phone numbers as well as reviewing account info.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jrfqu
|
radar guns that the police use.
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nShort version of that: The gun shoots a radar signal at the car, the signal bounces off the car but is changed slightly by the car depending on its speed, the radar gun detects how the signal was changed and calculates the car's speed. The way the signal is changed is caused the Doppler Effect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27217976",
"title": "Road speed limit enforcement in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Police operated equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Police officers can use LIDAR speed guns or sometimes the older and less accurate radar speed guns to gather evidence for prosecution. These may be operated from temporary static sites or from within police vehicles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426738",
"title": "Radar gun",
"section": "Section::::How it works.:Design considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Radar guns that operate using the X band (8 to 12 GHz) frequency range are becoming less common because they produce a strong and easily detectable beam. Also, most automatic doors utilize radio waves in the X band range and can possibly affect the readings of police radar. As a result, K band (18 to 27 GHz) and K band (27 to 40 GHz) are most commonly used by police agencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "426738",
"title": "Radar gun",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "A radar speed gun (also radar gun and speed gun) is a device used to measure the speed of moving objects. It is used in law-enforcement to measure the speed of moving vehicles and is often used in professional spectator sport, for things such as the measurement of bowling speeds in cricket, speed of pitched baseballs, athletes and tennis serves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1280053",
"title": "History of radar",
"section": "Section::::Post-war radar.:Other radars and applications.:Radar gun.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 246,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 246,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "The most widespread radar device today is undoubtedly the radar gun. This is a small, usually hand-held, Doppler radar that is used to detect the speed of objects, especially trucks and automobiles in regulating traffic, as well as pitched baseballs, runners, or other moving objects in sports. This device can also be used to measure the surface speed of water and continuously manufactured materials. A radar gun does not return information regarding the object's position; it uses the Doppler effect to measure the speed of a target. First developed in 1954, most radar guns operate with very low power in the X or Ku Bands. Some use infrared radiation or laser light; these are usually called LIDAR. A related technology for velocity measurements in flowing liquids or gasses is called laser Doppler velocimetry; this technology dates from the mid-1960s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1358159",
"title": "Radar warning receiver",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Radar warning receiver (RWR) systems detect the radio emissions of radar systems. Their primary purpose is to issue a warning when a radar signal that might be a threat (such as a police speed detection radar or a fighter jet's fire control radar) is detected. The warning can then be used, manually or automatically, to evade the detected threat. RWR systems can be installed in all kind of airborne, sea-based, and ground-based assets (such as aircraft, ships, automobiles, military bases). This article is focused mainly on airborne military RWR systems; for commercial police RWR systems, see radar detector.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1325302",
"title": "Radar detector",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1531,
"text": "A radar detector is an electronic device used by motorists to detect if their speed is being monitored by police or law enforcement using a radar gun. Most radar detectors are used so the driver can reduce the car's speed before being ticketed for speeding. In general sense, only emitting technologies, like doppler RADAR, or LIDAR can be detected. Visual speed estimating techniques, like ANPR or VASCAR can not be detected in daytime, but technically vulnerable to detection at night, when IR spotlight is used. There are no reports that piezo sensors can be detected. LIDAR devices require an optical-band sensor, although many modern detectors include LIDAR sensors. Most of today's radar detectors detect signals across a variety of wavelength bands: usually X, K, and K. In Europe the K band is common as well. The past success of radar detectors was based on the fact that radio-wave beam can not be narrow-enough, so the detector usually senses stray and scattered radiation, giving the driver time to slow down. Based on a focused laser-beam, LIDAR technology does not suffer this shortcoming; however it requires precise aiming. Modern police radars incorporate formidable computing power, producing a minimum number of ultra-short pulses, reusing wide beams for multi-target measurement, which renders most detectors useless. But, mobile Internet allows GPS navigation devices to map police radar locations in real-time. These devices are also often called \"radar detectors\", while not necessary carrying an RF sensor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4769028",
"title": "MSTAR",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Man-portable Surveillance and Target Acquisition Radar (MSTAR) is a lightweight all-weather battlefield Doppler radar operating in the J band. It is usually used by artillery observers to acquire and engage targets in bad visibility or at night. It is capable of detecting, recognizing and tracking helicopters, slow moving fixed-wing aircraft, tracked and wheeled vehicles and troops, as well as observing and adjusting the fall of shot. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1e2qyd
|
How did music originate?
|
[
{
"answer": "You might have better luck asking an anthropologist than a historian.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As hangarninetysix points out, this is probably a better question for anthropologists than for historians. And, while we do have some anthropologists here, you'll also find some in our sibling subreddit /r/AskAnthropology.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1502471",
"title": "Prehistoric music",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 983,
"text": "Music can be theoretically traced to prior to the Paleolithic age. The anthropological and archaeological designation suggests that music first arose (among humans) when stone tools first began to be used by hominids. The noises produced by work such as pounding seed and roots into meal are a likely source of rhythm created by early humans. The first rhythm instruments or percussion instruments most likely involved the clapping of hands, stones hit together, or other things that are useful to create rhythm. Examples of paleolithic objects which are considered unambiguously musical are bone flutes or pipes; paleolithic finds which are currently open to interpretation include pierced phalanges (usually interpreted as \"phalangeal whistles\"), bullroarers, and rasps. These musical instruments date back as far as the paleolithic, although there is some ambiguity over archaeological finds which can be variously interpreted as either musical or non-musical instruments/tools. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22860",
"title": "Paleolithic",
"section": "Section::::Human way of life.:Music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "The origins of music during the Paleolithic are unknown. The earliest forms of music probably did not use musical instruments other than the human voice or natural objects such as rocks. This early music would not have left an archaeological footprint. Music may have developed from rhythmic sounds produced by daily chores, for example, cracking open nuts with stones. Maintaining a rhythm while working may have helped people to become more efficient at daily activities. An alternative theory originally proposed by Charles Darwin explains that music may have begun as a hominin mating strategy. Bird and other animal species produce music such as calls to attract mates. This hypothesis is generally less accepted than the previous hypothesis, but nonetheless provides a possible alternative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "87323",
"title": "History of music",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Music is found in every known culture, past and present, varying widely between times and places. Since all people of the world, including the most isolated tribal groups, have a form of music, it may be concluded that music is likely to have been present in the ancestral population prior to the dispersal of humans around the world. Consequently, the first music may have been invented in Africa and then evolved to become a fundamental constituent of human life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "87323",
"title": "History of music",
"section": "Section::::Eras of music.:Early music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Early music is music of the European classical tradition from after the fall of the Roman Empire, in 476 AD, until the end of the Baroque era in the middle of the 18th century. Music within this enormous span of time was extremely diverse, encompassing multiple cultural traditions within a wide geographic area; many of the cultural groups out of which medieval Europe developed already had musical traditions, about which little is known. What unified these cultures in the Middle Ages was the Roman Catholic Church, and its music served as the focal point for musical development for the first thousand years of this period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "87323",
"title": "History of music",
"section": "Section::::Eras of music.:Prehistoric music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 960,
"text": "Prehistoric music thus technically includes all of the world's music that has existed before the advent of any currently extant historical sources concerning that music, for example, traditional Native American music of preliterate tribes and Australian Aboriginal music. However, it is more common to refer to the \"prehistoric\" music of non-European continents – especially that which still survives – as folk, indigenous or traditional music. The origin of music is unknown as it occurred prior to recorded history. Some suggest that the origin of music likely stems from naturally occurring sounds and rhythms. Human music may echo these phenomena using patterns, repetition and tonality. Even today, some cultures have certain instances of their music intending to imitate natural sounds. In some instances, this feature is related to shamanistic beliefs or practice. It may also serve entertainment (game) or practical (luring animals in hunt) functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "87323",
"title": "History of music",
"section": "Section::::Eras of music.:Prehistoric music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Prehistoric music, once more commonly called primitive music, is the name given to all music produced in preliterate cultures (prehistory), beginning somewhere in very late geological history. Prehistoric music is followed by ancient music in most of Europe (1500 BC) and later music in subsequent European-influenced areas, but still exists in isolated areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1502471",
"title": "Prehistoric music",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Another possible origin of music is motherese, the vocal-gestural communication between mothers and infants. This form of communication involves melodic, rhythmic and movement patterns as well as the communication of intention and meaning, and in this sense is similar to music.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2kcm1r
|
how does a company gets money when you buy its share, if when you buy a share the money goes to the seller of the share (which is not necessarily the company)?
|
[
{
"answer": "They care about the price of the shares because the shareholders **own the company**. If the share prices do poorly, the shareholders can fire the CEO & hire a new one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The bottom line is that stock represents ownership. Naturally companies are concerned about what their owners think. Even if 51% of the stock is still owned by the company, the companies directors are going to be very concerned about a devaluation of the stock.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19372783",
"title": "Stock",
"section": "Section::::Application.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "By selling shares they can sell part or all of the company to many part-owners. The purchase of one share entitles the owner of that share to literally share in the ownership of the company, a fraction of the decision-making power, and potentially a fraction of the profits, which the company may issue as dividends. The owner may also inherit debt and even litigation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19372783",
"title": "Stock",
"section": "Section::::Trading.:Buying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "There are other ways of buying stock besides through a broker. One way is directly from the company itself. If at least one share is owned, most companies will allow the purchase of shares directly from the company through their investor relations departments. However, the initial share of stock in the company will have to be obtained through a regular stock broker. Another way to buy stock in companies is through Direct Public Offerings which are usually sold by the company itself. A direct public offering is an initial public offering in which the stock is purchased directly from the company, usually without the aid of brokers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7958081",
"title": "Badla (stock trading)",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.:Example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "Suppose A wants to buy shares of a company but does not have enough money now. If A values the shares more than their current price, A can do a badla transaction. Suppose there is a badla financier B who has enough money to purchase the shares, so on A's request, B purchases the shares and gives the money to his broker. The broker gives the money to exchange and the shares are transferred to B. But the exchange keeps the shares with itself on behalf of B. Now, say one month later, when A has enough money, he gives this money to B and takes the shares. The money that A gives to B is slightly higher than the total value of the shares. This difference between the two values is the interest as badla finance is treated as a loan from B to A. The rate of interest is decided by the exchange and it changes from time to time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32956655",
"title": "Bought out deal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "A bought out deal is a method of offering securities to the public through a sponsor or underwriter (a bank, financial institution, or an individual). The securities are listed in one or more stock exchanges within a time frame mutually agreed upon by the company and the sponsor. This option saves the issuing company the costs and time involved in a public issue. The cost of holding the shares can be reimbursed by the company, or the sponsor can offer the shares to the public at a premium to earn profits. Terms are agreed upon by the company and the sponsor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19372783",
"title": "Stock",
"section": "Section::::Trading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "In general, the shares of a company may be transferred from shareholders to other parties by sale or other mechanisms, unless prohibited. Most jurisdictions have established laws and regulations governing such transfers, particularly if the issuer is a publicly traded entity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56119",
"title": "Takeover",
"section": "Section::::Financing.:All-cash deals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "If a takeover of a company consists of simply an offer of an amount of money per share, (as opposed to all or part of the payment being in shares or loan notes) then this is an all-cash deal. This does not define how the purchasing company sources the cash- that can be from existing cash resources; loans; or a separate issue of shares.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197321",
"title": "Stock swap",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "The acquiring company essentially uses its own stock as cash to purchase the business. Each shareholder of the acquired company will receive a pre-determined number of shares from the acquiring company. Before the swap occurs each party must accurately value their company so that a fair swap ratio can be calculated. Valuation of a company is quite complicated. Not only does fair market value have to be determined, but the investment and intrinsic value needs to be determined as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fe2gjy
|
why it's harder for micro-organisms to become resistant to alcohol based disinfectants than drugs
|
[
{
"answer": "To keep it simple, alcohol kills the microorganisms by physical means : it mostly causes their membranes to fragilize, causing death.\n\nDrugs kill them acting on cellular mechanisms (for example, some antibiotics make it impossible for the bacterias to synthetize their membrane). However, these cellular mechanisms can evolve through mutation and natural selection, causing them to evolve so that the drug that used to have an effect on them now is useless, as the mechanism is now very different or has even completely disappeared altogether.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To keep it simple, antibiotics are like using tools to disassemble a thing. You need the right screwdrivers, wrenches, etc. If some screws change, you can't take it apart anymore. Alcohol is like smashing the thing with a hammer. Not a whole lot that small changes can do when you're just smashing it to bits anyway.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "478185",
"title": "Disinfectant",
"section": "Section::::Home disinfectants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "The use of some antimicrobials such as triclosan, is controversial because it may lead to antimicrobial resistance. The use of chlorine bleach and alcohol disinfectants does not cause antimicrobial resistance as it denatures the protein of the microbe upon contact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11074490",
"title": "Enterococcus faecium",
"section": "Section::::Tolerance to Alcohol-Based Disinfectants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1117,
"text": "A study published in 2018 showed multi drug-resistant \"E. faecium\" exhibiting tolerance to alcohol-based solutions. The authors speculated about this being an explanation to an increase of \"E. faecium\" infections, indicating that alternate methods are required to slow the spread of \"E. faecium\" in a hospital setting. The study found that isolates of the bacterium from after 2010 were 10 times more tolerant of the alcohol-based disinfectants than older isolates. However, the isopropanol solutions tested in this study used isopropanol concentrations lower than those used in most hand desinfectants and the authors also stated that hand disinfectants using 70 % isopropanol were effective in full strength even against tolerant strains . However, a mouse gut colonization model of \"E. faecium\" transmission showed that alcohol-tolerant \"E. faecium\" resisted standard 70% isopropanol surface disinfection, resulting in greater mouse gut colonization compared to alcohol-sensitive \"E. faecium.\" This research has led some to question whether it may be possible for microbes to become entirely tolerant of alcohol. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57310852",
"title": "Pdr1p",
"section": "Section::::Importance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Drugs or toxic chemicals are useful in killing pathogenic bacteria or tumor cells, and studying how they mechanistically develop tolerance to a wide range of drugs can improve anti-bacterial and cancer therapeutics. Pdr5p has a similar mechanism of actions and functions to humanmultidrug resistance protein, whose overexpression is shown to provide chemical tolerance to cancer cells. Studying Pdr5p and how it is regulated by Pdr1p in yeast can give insights into how multi drug resistance occurs in mammals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2767",
"title": "ACE inhibitor",
"section": "Section::::Medical use.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "ACE inhibitors may also be used to help decrease excessive water consumption in people with schizophrenia resulting in psychogenic polydipsia. A double-blind, placebo-controlled trial showed that when used for this purpose, enalapril led to decreased consumption (determined by urine output and osmality) in 60% of people; the same effect has been demonstrated in other ACE inhibitors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10048",
"title": "Ethanol",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Medical.:Antiseptic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "Ethanol is used in medical wipes and most commonly in antibacterial hand sanitizer gels as an antiseptic for its bactericidal and anti-fungal effects. Ethanol kills organisms by denaturing their proteins and dissolving their lipids and is effective against most bacteria and fungi, and many viruses. However, ethanol is ineffective against bacterial spores. 70% ethanol is the most effective concentration, particularly because of osmotic pressure. Absolute ethanol may inactivate microbes without destroying them because the alcohol is unable to fully permeate the microbe's membrane. Ethanol can also be used as a disinfectant and antiseptic because it causes cell dehydration by disrupting the osmotic balance across cell membrane, so water leaves the cell leading to cell death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1805",
"title": "Antibiotic",
"section": "Section::::Interactions.:Alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics, with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side effects. Therefore, potential risks of side effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "352184",
"title": "Tincture",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "A downside of using alcohol as a solvent is that ethanol has a tendency to denature some organic compounds, reducing or destroying their effectiveness. This tendency can also have undesirable effects when extracting botanical constituents, such as polysaccharides. Certain other constituents, common among them proteins, can become irreversibly denatured, or \"pickled\" by the alcohol. Alcohol can also have damaging effects on some aromatic compounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eyx1g7
|
how do antibodies actually work? does your body store antibodies for literally every disease it contracts during your lifetime, or is it more like a recipe?
|
[
{
"answer": "So I answered a similar question a while ago. I'll paste and tailor it to your question.\n\nYou want to defend yourself from the unknown. You don't know what's going to attack you, you just want to make sure anything that isn't you, that is inside you, gets destroyed. How do you go about doing that?\n\nWell put simply, the body takes a very intriguing approach to this difficult problem. It has some genes that code for proteins. It takes these genes and shuffles them around so they now create different proteins. Then you take these proteins and put them on the surface of some immune cells. These proteins now function as sensors. You wire these sensors in these immune cells such that when they're activated, the cell goes haywire, sending signals to the rest of the immune army and fighting one on one with what activated the sensor. These proteins have different sequences, and so they fold differently as the constituent parts of it interact with each other in a different way. If a protein is shaped a specific way and has a particular sequence, it can have affinity to certain other compounds or proteins. So that's how they \"sense.\" \n\nOf course, with this random approach, some of these sensors are bound to get activated when they come in contact with your own proteins and cells and so on. So the body first takes these cells through some \"schooling.\" It puts these immature cells in a specific place and exposes them to the different proteins and lipids and stuff that you have in your own body. If they react, that's bad, so they get killed. After this schooling, only cells that are unreactive to your body get to graduate and become mature cells that are allowed to patrol your body.\n\nWhen a foreign object or pathogen are in your body, some of these sensors may get activated due to chance. So the cells in which they are Release a bunch of signals. These signals bring in other cells that cause an inflammatory response. Which essentially activates a bunch more cells, dilates your blood vessels so more blood can come to \"fight\", makes your vessels more leaky so these soldiers can pass through and get to the tissue to fight, and so on. Part of this response is also that whatever cell got activated now gets all the attention, it starts to turn into a plasma cell and a memory cell. The plasma cell produces a lot of these antibodies that are known to work, so they help the immune system find more of that pathogen if it replicated. The memory cell just go and hides in your lymph for later, in case the pathogen infects you again. \n\nI extremely oversimplified the matter. It is far far more complex. Because there are also things called PAMPs, these are Pathogen Associated Molecular Patterns, basically things found in many pathogens. And our body evolved to have sensors for those. So those are sort of like a recipe. But pathogens also evolve like we do and they change to avoid these sensors. And there are sooo many types of immune cells with different functions, like some even bind to proteins on your own cells, and your own cells costantly sample their insides and break them into pieces and put those pieces on those proteins on the outside. And if an immune cell senses self on these proteins, you're good, and the cell is allowed to live. If it has foreign pieces on it, it gets killed. Like when a virus hijacks your cell. Some viruses even evolved to reduce these proteins on your cells so the sentinel cells going around don't detect them. Well we evolved too and if the immune cell detects that the protein is too low, they kill the cell too. Just to give you an idea about just how complex the immune system is.\n\nEdit: Woah the comment I copied also got gold, awesome! Thank you for the shiny stuff anonymous benefactor",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Kurzgesagt has done quite a few videos about the human body and how it deals with diseases. These are a couple of minutes each. I think [this one](_URL_1_) explains your question best.\n\nThe entire that list of videos that are somewhat relevant to your question can be found [here](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28760159",
"title": "Microantibody",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "Antibodies are produced naturally by the body and play a key role in fighting infections caused by bacteria and viruses. They can also be used to treat infections by use of injections with blood plasma that contain large amounts of them. The use of whole, natural antibodies as medicines presents many problems: they can only be produced by live cells and this process is difficult to control on an industrial scale, they are large molecules and following administration by injection, they do not diffuse easily from the blood to the tissues and other sites of infections where they are needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2016069",
"title": "Autoantibody",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1018,
"text": "Antibodies are produced by B cells in two ways: (i) randomly, and (ii) in response to a foreign protein or substance within the body. Initially, one B cell produces one specific kind of antibody. In either case, the B cell is allowed to proliferate or is killed off through a process called clonal deletion. Normally, the immune system is able to recognize and ignore the body's own healthy proteins, cells, and tissues, and to not overreact to non-threatening substances in the environment, such as foods. Sometimes, the immune system ceases to recognize one or more of the body's normal constituents as \"self,\" leading to production of pathological autoantibodies. These autoantibodies attack the body's own healthy cells, tissues, and/or organs, causing inflammation and damage. Autoantibodies may also play a nonpathological role; for instance they may help the body to destroy cancers and to eliminate waste products. The role of autoantibodies in normal immune function is also a subject of scientific research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23634",
"title": "Protein",
"section": "Section::::Cellular functions.:Cell signaling and ligand binding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Antibodies are protein components of an adaptive immune system whose main function is to bind antigens, or foreign substances in the body, and target them for destruction. Antibodies can be secreted into the extracellular environment or anchored in the membranes of specialized B cells known as plasma cells. Whereas enzymes are limited in their binding affinity for their substrates by the necessity of conducting their reaction, antibodies have no such constraints. An antibody's binding affinity to its target is extraordinarily high.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42233582",
"title": "Antigen-antibody interaction",
"section": "Section::::Auto immune disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Normally antibodies can detect and differentiate molecules from outside of the body and those produced inside the body as a result of cellular activities. Self molecules as ignored by the immune system. However, in certain conditions, the antibodies recognise self molecules as antigens and triggers unexpected immune responses. This results in different autoimmune diseases depending on the type of antigens and antibodies involved. Such conditions are always harmful and sometimes deadly. The exact nature of antibody-antigen interaction in autoimmune disease is not yet understood..\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9335254",
"title": "Polyclonal B cell response",
"section": "Section::::B cell response.:Recognition of pathogens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1627,
"text": "Pathogens synthesize proteins that can serve as \"\"recognizable\"\" antigens; they may express the molecules on their surface or release them into the surroundings (body fluids). What makes these substances recognizable is that they bind very specifically and somewhat strongly to certain host proteins called \"antibodies\". The same antibodies can be anchored to the surface of cells of the immune system, in which case they serve as receptors, or they can be secreted in the blood, known as soluble antibodies. On a molecular scale, the proteins are relatively large, so they cannot be recognized as a whole; instead, their segments, called epitopes, can be recognized. An epitope comes in contact with a very small region (of 15–22 amino acids) of the antibody molecule; this region is known as the paratope. In the immune system, membrane-bound antibodies are the B cell receptor (BCR). Also, while the T cell receptor is not biochemically classified as an antibody, it serves a similar function in that it specifically binds to epitopes complexed with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. The binding between a paratope and its corresponding antigen is very specific, owing to its structure, and is guided by various noncovalent bonds, not unlike the pairing of other types of ligands (any atom, ion or molecule that binds with any receptor with at least some degree of \"specificity\" and \"strength\"). The specificity of binding does not arise out of a rigid lock and key type of interaction, but rather requires both the paratope and the epitope to undergo slight conformational changes in each other's presence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22860615",
"title": "Plantibody",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Antibodies (also known as an immunoglobulins) are complex proteins produced by vertebrates that recognize antigens (or molecular patterns) on pathogens and some dangerous compounds in order to alert the Adaptive immune system that there are pathogens within the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2362",
"title": "Antibody",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "At the prenatal and neonatal stages of life, the presence of antibodies is provided by passive immunization from the mother. Early endogenous antibody production varies for different kinds of antibodies, and usually appear within the first years of life. Since antibodies exist freely in the bloodstream, they are said to be part of the humoral immune system. Circulating antibodies are produced by clonal B cells that specifically respond to only one antigen (an example is a virus capsid protein fragment). Antibodies contribute to immunity in three ways: They prevent pathogens from entering or damaging cells by binding to them; they stimulate removal of pathogens by macrophages and other cells by coating the pathogen; and they trigger destruction of pathogens by stimulating other immune responses such as the complement pathway. Antibodies will also trigger vasoactive amine degranulation to contribute to immunity against certain types of antigens (helminths, allergens).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16xplc
|
what is the difference between mitosis and meiosis
|
[
{
"answer": "Mitosis creates two cells which are fully functional cells with all of the organisms chromosomes. Imagine mitosis as cutting a sandwich in half, and winding up with two full sized sandwiches - it's pretty awesome.\n\nHowever, meiosis creates cells with only half of the number of chromosomes: 23 for humans. Overall, meiosis is only for the creation of sex cells - cells which have no function other than to pass on half of an organisms genes. With the sandwich metaphor, imagine cutting a sandwich in half, and getting two halves of a sandwich.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mitosis - Basically occurs in really simple cells, like bacteria or animal/human tissues. This is asexual, so the cell is like \"heeeey we gotta make more of us. Here, copy all my stuff and lets clone me!\" Then that cell goes through mitosis, replicating their DNA, and create two cells just like them! Those are the daughter cells. Mitosis occurs in *all* organisms. These create all the cells in a body *except* sex cells.\n\nMeiosis - is kinda different. First, it happens in more complex organisms, including us, and is sexual. In this, the DNA's kinda split and get divided twice, into four total new cells! These literally only create sex cells, so lady eggs or manly sperm.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1590640",
"title": "Nuclear DNA",
"section": "Section::::Cell division.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Like mitosis, meiosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division. Meiosis gives rise to four unique daughter cells, each of which has half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Because meiosis creates cells that are destined to become gametes (or reproductive cells), this reduction in chromosome number is critical — without it, the union of two gametes during fertilization would result in offspring with twice the normal number of chromosomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20369",
"title": "Mitosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "In cell biology, mitosis () is a part of the cell cycle when replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the number of chromosomes is maintained. In general, mitosis (division of the nucleus) is preceded by the S stage of interphase (during which the DNA is replicated) and is often accompanied or followed by cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two new cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M) phase of an animal cell cycle—the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells genetically identical to each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18976",
"title": "Meiosis",
"section": "Section::::Phases.:Meiosis II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Meiosis II is the second meiotic division, and usually involves equational segregation, or separation of sister chromatids. Mechanically, the process is similar to mitosis, though its genetic results are fundamentally different. The end result is production of four haploid cells (n chromosomes, 23 in humans) from the two haploid cells (with n chromosomes, each consisting of two sister chromatids) produced in meiosis I. The four main steps of meiosis II are: prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29586267",
"title": "Origin and function of meiosis",
"section": "Section::::Origin of meiosis.:From mitosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Mitosis is the normal process in eukaryotes for cell division; duplicating chromosomes and segregating one of the two copies into each of the two daughter cells, in contrast with meiosis. The mitosis theory states that meiosis evolved from mitosis. According to this theory, early eukaryotes evolved mitosis first, became established, and only then did meiosis and sexual reproduction arise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1590640",
"title": "Nuclear DNA",
"section": "Section::::Cell division.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Like mitosis, meiosis also has distinct stages called prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. A key difference, however, is that during meiosis, each of these phases occurs twice — once during the first round of division, called meiosis I, and again during the second round of division, called meiosis II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "312354",
"title": "Homologous chromosome",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:In meiosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "Meiosis is a round of two cell divisions that results in four haploid daughter cells that each contain half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. It reduces the chromosome number in a germ cell by half by first separating the homologous chromosomes in meiosis I and then the sister chromatids in meiosis II. The process of meiosis I is generally longer than meiosis II because it takes more time for the chromatin to replicate and for the homologous chromosomes to be properly oriented and segregated by the processes of pairing and synapsis in meiosis I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20369",
"title": "Mitosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "The process of mitosis is divided into stages corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These stages are prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During mitosis, the chromosomes, which have already duplicated, condense and attach to spindle fibers that pull one copy of each chromosome to opposite sides of the cell. The result is two genetically identical daughter nuclei. The rest of the cell may then continue to divide by cytokinesis to produce two daughter cells. Producing three or more daughter cells instead of the normal two is a mitotic error called tripolar mitosis or multipolar mitosis (direct cell triplication / multiplication). Other errors during mitosis can induce apoptosis (programmed cell death) or cause mutations. Certain types of cancer can arise from such mutations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16bw9v
|
What kind of measures were taken to combat disease during military conflicts, especially for soldiers in campaigns?
|
[
{
"answer": "Until relatively recently the causes of the diseases were not known. They couldn't effectively fight diseases because they didn't have the necessarily scientific knowledge. The Greeks and Romans held to the [Four Humors Theory](_URL_0_) and it remained the leading knowledge of medicine up to the 1800s. \n\nBy the time of the American Civil War (what I have been studying recently) this idea was out of favor, but the germ theory had not been developed. It was thought that sickness like malaria was caused by bad air, but that didn't stop the commanders from camping their men in swamps if that was the military necessity. Sanitation and cleanness were not thought necessarily, expect by a few commanders who figured it out just by trial and error.\n\nThe Civil War did result in a large advance in medicine. The wounds and cases were recorded and published after the war, giving doctors a huge resource to study. An ambulance system was developed, as was triage, field hospitals and more. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20757649",
"title": "U.S. Army Public Health Center",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "Throughout the history of warfare, armies have depended on clean water, wholesome food, sanitation, disease and injury prevention, hazard-free environments and other sound public health practices to keep Soldiers in fighting form. The Army Public Health Center has broadened the scope of the public health mission to meet today’s Army’s needs: to enhance Army readiness by identifying and assessing current and emerging health threats; developing and communicating public health solutions; and assuring the quality and effectiveness of the Army’s Public Health Enterprise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12553954",
"title": "Military medicine",
"section": "Section::::Historical significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "The significance of military medicine for combat strength goes far beyond treatment of battlefield injuries; in every major war fought until the late 19th century disease claimed more soldier casualties than did enemy action. During the American Civil War (1860–65), for example, about twice as many soldiers died of disease as were killed or mortally wounded in combat. The Franco-Prussian War (1870–71) is considered to have been the first conflict in which combat injury exceeded disease, at least in the German coalition army which lost 3.47% of its average headcount to combat and only 1.82% to disease. In new world countries, such as Australia, New Zealand, the United States and Canada, military physicians and surgeons contributed significantly to the development of civilian health care.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "381359",
"title": "Battlefield medicine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Battlefield medicine, also called field surgery and later combat casualty care, is the treatment of wounded combatants and non-combatants in or near an area of combat. Civilian medicine has been greatly advanced by procedures that were first developed to treat the wounds inflicted during combat. With the advent of advanced procedures and medical technology, even polytrauma can be survivable in modern wars. Battlefield medicine is a category of military medicine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21595970",
"title": "John Ordronaux (doctor)",
"section": "Section::::American Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1538,
"text": "During the American Civil War Ordronaux served as an army surgeon stationed in New York. He also acted as a military medical advisor and between 1861 and 1863 he published two textbooks on the health of armies, and an instruction manual of medical criteria for examining recruits. In the introduction to the latter, which was written for the United States Sanitary Commission, he said, The preservation of health in armies, is everywhere a subject of recognized importance. So much, in fact, depends upon it, that precautionary measures in this behalf can never be exaggerated. All that can be done, should be done to protect troops against preventable disease. It seems to have been formerly believed, that the presence of a surgeon in each regiment was all sufficient for this purpose ; and that officers and men could go their way free from any responsibility or apprehension on that score. But experience has proved that the preservation of health, in either one man, or many, is not purely objective with surgeons. Too much, in this particular, is expected from them, and too little is done by officers to cooperate with them. Armies, like patients, must act in concert with their medical advisers, and make the matter of health subjective as well as objective. Officers and men need an insight into the general principles of hygiene, in order to be able to assist, themselves, in furthering prophylactic measures. To supply them with the requisite amount of information, the accompanying popular manual has therefore been prepared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12556252",
"title": "Textbook of Military Medicine",
"section": "Section::::The titles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Military Preventive Medicine: Mobilization and Deployment, Vol 1\" (2003) - Explores the various natural and manmade challenges faced by today's soldier upon mobilization and deployment. Offers comprehensive research on a range of topics related to preventive medicine, including a historic perspective on the principles of military preventive medicine, national mobilization and training, preparation for deployment, and occupational and environmental issues during sustainment: 704 p.; ill.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "482938",
"title": "Medieval medicine of Western Europe",
"section": "Section::::Battlefield medicine.:Camp and movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 1545,
"text": "In order for an army to be in good fighting condition, it must maintain the health of its soldiers. One way of doing this is knowing the proper location to set up camp. Military camps were not to be set up in any sort of marshy region. Marsh lands tend to have standing water, which can draw in mosquitos. Mosquitos, in turn, can carry deadly disease, such as malaria. As the camp and troops were needed to be moved, the troops would be wearing heavy soled shoes in order to prevent wear on soldiers’ feet. Waterborne illness has also remained an issue throughout the centuries. When soldiers would look for water they would be searching for some sort of natural spring or other forms of flowing water. When water sources were found, any type of rotting wood, or plant material, would be removed before the water was used for drinking. If these features could not be removed, then water would be drawn from a different part of the source. By doing this the soldiers were more likely to be drinking from a safe source of water. Thus, water borne bacteria had less chance of making soldiers ill. One process used to check for dirty water was to moisten a fine white linen cloth with the water and leave it out to dry. If the cloth had any type of stain, it would be considered to be diseased. If the cloth was clean, the water was healthy and drinkable. Freshwater also assists with sewage disposal, as well as wound care. Thus, a source of fresh water was a preemptive measure taken to defeat disease and keep men healthy once they were wounded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12556252",
"title": "Textbook of Military Medicine",
"section": "Section::::The titles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Military Preventive Medicine: Mobilization and Deployment, Vol 2\" (2005) - Offers comprehensive research on a range of topics related to preventive medicine, including the exploration of epidemiology in the field, various infectious diseases, preventive medicine efforts following disasters and the effects of post-deployment on soldiers: 735 p.; ill.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
788jme
|
Were the witch hunting trials by throwing people into water real? How were the deaths of innocents justified?
|
[
{
"answer": "Trial by water was one option available under trials by ordeal in Medieval Europe. Trials by ordeal, like trials by combat, come from ancient Germanic law customs. I'll mostly write here about its use in the High Middle Ages in Britain.\n\nTrials by ordeal generally came in two forms: trial by fire, or trial by water. In the case of trial by fire, the accused held a red-hot iron for a prescribed length of time, after which the healing wound would be examined to determine guilt. Similarly, in trial by water, the accused would be thrown into a body of water: sinking meant innocence, and floating meant guilt. The concept behind trials by ordeal were that God would intervene to display the guilt or innocence of the accused party. Invoking the sacred would often include a priest exorcising or blessing the iron or water to be used in such trials.\n\nTrial by fire was considered the more prestigious of the ordeals: it was used for women, and more accused males of higher social status. Trial by water was more often used on serfs (but likewise seems to have been the vastly more common type of ordeal, on the scale of something like 83% to 17% trials by fire in England in the 12th century. Trials by ordeal were not used specifically in witchcraft cases, which in the High Middle Ages were practically nonexistent anyway (witchcraft hysteria is more a product of the Late Medieval and Early Modern Period). As Robert Bartlett describes it:\n\n > Unlike trial by battle, the unilateral ordeals of iron and water were employed in England only in criminal cases ... Henry II made widespread use of them in the drive against crime initiated by his Assize of Clarendon in 1166. According to this enactment, juries of twelve men of every hundred and four men of every township were to supply the names of anyone who, within the last twelve years, had been accused or was suspected of robbery, murder, or theft, or of harbouring robbers, murderers, or thieves. The sheriffs were to seize those accused or suspected and bring them before the royal justice. Unless they had been caught with stolen goods and were of bad repute, they could undergo trial by cold water. If they failed, they lost a foot (and, after 1176, their right hand too). If they passed the ordeal but had a bad reputation, they had to go into life-long exile from the kingdom.\n\nInterestingly, the records from this period in England indicate that something like two thirds of those subjected to trial by water passed, ie they were judged to have sank, and therefore were not guilty. Bartlett, however, notes that what passes as \"sinking\" or \"floating\" can be very arbitrary concepts: \"To place the case before God was also to put it into the hands of a small body of men with opinions and feelings of their own.\"\n\nI cannot really speak to how common the practice was for witchcraft trials, as those tended to be more common in later time periods (and mostly in other parts of Europe, such as the Low Countries, that used civil law and inquisitorial prosecution). Nor can I speak to when the idea became a common modernist myth that witch trials involved trial by water (usually with the Catch-22 idea that an innocent person would sink and drown, while a guilty person would float and then be executed). But it seems to be mostly that. While trials by ordeal are very foreign to modern people, and invoke the supernatural to a degree that would make us comfortable, there were rules behind their use, and most of those who submitted to such trials appear to have been acquitted.\n\nMostly from Robert Bartlett, *England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings, 1075-1225*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "795980",
"title": "Dunking",
"section": "Section::::As trial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Ordeal by water was associated with the witch hunts of the 16th and 17th centuries: an accused who sank was considered innocent, while floating indicated witchcraft. Some argued that witches floated because they had renounced baptism when entering the Devil's service. King James VI of Scotland (later also James I of England) claimed in his Daemonologie that water was so pure an element that it repelled the guilty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40183571",
"title": "Grace Sherwood",
"section": "Section::::Witchcraft and Virginia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "The trial by ducking (immersing the accused, bound, in water, to see if she would float) appears to have been used only once in Virginia, to try Sherwood. It was believed that, as water was considered pure, it would reject witches, causing them to float, whereas the innocent would sink.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1119090",
"title": "No-win situation",
"section": "Section::::In history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "In past Europe, those accused of being witches were sometimes bound and then thrown or dunked in water to test their innocence. A witch would float (by calling upon the Devil to save her from drowning), and then be executed; but a woman not a witch would drown (proving her innocence but causing her death).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "264510",
"title": "Trial by ordeal",
"section": "Section::::Types of ordeals.:By water.:Witch-hunts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1758,
"text": "Ordeal by water was later associated with the witch-hunts of the 16th and 17th centuries, although in this scenario the outcome was an accused who sank was considered innocent, while floating indicated witchcraft. Demonologists developed inventive new theories about how it worked. The ordeal would normally be conducted with a rope holding the subject connected to assistants sitting in a boat or the like, so that the person being tested could be pulled in if he/she did not float; the notion that the ordeal was flatly devised as a situation without any possibility of live acquittal, even if the outcome was 'innocent', is a modern exaggeration. Some argued that witches floated because they had renounced baptism when entering the Devil's service. Jacob Rickius claimed that they were supernaturally light and recommended weighing them as an alternative to dunking them; this procedure and its status as an alternative to dunking were parodied in the 1975 British film \"Monty Python and the Holy Grail\". King James VI of Scotland (later also James I of England) claimed in his \"Daemonologie\" that water was so pure an element that it repelled the guilty. A witch trial including this ordeal took place in Szeged, Hungary as late as 1728. The ordeal of water is also contemplated by the Vishnu Smrti, which is one of the texts of the Dharmaśāstra. It should be noted however that while the test itself was identical, this was different from other forms of trial by ordeal in that it did not typically rely on divine intervention to determine guilt or innocence; it was just assumed it was a physical property of witches that they floated, and thus this was an easy way to determine guilt. God did not have to intervene to make the accused sink or float.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53373557",
"title": "Hendrika Hofhuis",
"section": "Section::::Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "The ordeal by water was by tradition able to clear a person suspected of sorcery by a demonstration that she could not float on water. The authorities approved her demand and referred to the fact that the accused had initiated to be tried by ordeal for witchcraft on her own accord. She invited the whole village to witness the ordeal. During the ordeal, she sunk below the water, and thereby cleared herself from all suspicions. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33959",
"title": "Witchcraft",
"section": "Section::::By region.:Russia.:Witchcraft trials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 184,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 184,
"end_character": 1001,
"text": "The sentence for an individual who was found guilty of witchcraft or sorcery during this time, as well as in previous centuries, typically included either burning at the stake or being tested with the \"ordeal of cold water\" or \"judicium aquae frigidae\". The cold-water test was primarily a Western European phenomenon, but it was also used as a method of truth in Russia both prior to, and post, seventeenth-century witchcraft trials in Muscovy. Accused persons who submerged were considered innocent, and ecclesiastical authorities would proclaim them \"brought back,\" but those who floated were considered guilty of practicing witchcraft, and they were either burned at the stake or executed in an unholy fashion. The thirteenth-century bishop of Vladimir, Serapion Vladimirskii, preached sermons throughout the Muscovite countryside, and in one particular sermon revealed that burning was the usual punishment for witchcraft, but more often the cold water test was used as a precursor to execution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1083289",
"title": "Langley, Kent",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The village church is dedicated to St Mary. Behind this church is a lake, which is possible place for the medieval judicial practice of trial by cold water. When a jury couldn't decide on a person's innocence, it was left to God to decide. If the accused floated they were guilty because the water rejected them. If they sank, the water accepted them and thus were innocent. As is often thought it is not if they drowned, but the result was drowning im some cases. It had to be close to the church because the water would be holy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24kl21
|
what is the united nations' role in the russia/ukraine situation?
|
[
{
"answer": "It can't have one because Russia is on the Security Council. Motions were made to take the matter up, and Russia blocked them, as is its privilege.\n\nThis is the \"bug\" in the UN system. The permanent members of the Council (US, UK, France, Russia, China) don't have to live within the UN framework if they don't want to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42085878",
"title": "Russian military intervention in Ukraine (2014–present)",
"section": "Section::::Reactions to the Russian invasion in Crimea.:International diplomatic and economic responses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 208,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 208,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "Several members of the international community have expressed grave concerns over the Russian intervention in Ukraine and criticized Russia for its actions in post-revolutionary Ukraine, including the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Germany, Italy, Poland, Canada, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, South Korea, Georgia, Moldova, Turkey, Australia and the European Union as a whole, which condemned Russia, accusing it of breaking international law and violating Ukrainian sovereignty. Many of these countries implemented economic sanctions against Russia or Russian individuals or companies, to which Russia responded in kind. Amnesty International has expressed its belief that Russia is fuelling the conflict.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17446303",
"title": "Russia–Ukraine relations",
"section": "Section::::Treaties and agreements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "BULLET::::- Following the annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation and the subsequent War in Donbas in 2014, Ukraine, the US, Canada, the UK, along with other countries, stated that Russian involvement is a breach of its obligations to Ukraine under the Budapest Memorandum, a Memorandum signed by Bill Clinton, Boris Yeltsin, John Major, and Leonid Kuchma, and in violation of Ukrainian sovereignty and territorial integrity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17446303",
"title": "Russia–Ukraine relations",
"section": "Section::::Popular opinion.:In Ukraine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "The current crisis between Ukraine and Russia can be identified as a systemic crisis of the basic models which can be Ukrainian statehood after the Soviet Union and the post-unipolar world. There are numerous causes of this crisis, which clearly has political, economic, social, and cultural dimensions to it and clearly three main conflict parties. As it was mentioned above, the country has been divided more or less evenly between Ukrainians who would want to see Ukraine as part of Europe and those who would want to see it as intrinsically linked to Russia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2346975",
"title": "Ban Ki-moon",
"section": "Section::::Career.:United Nations career.:Second term as Secretary-General.:Key issues.:Ukraine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "On 26 June 2016, during a speech in Saint Petersburg, Russia, Ban said Russia \"has a critical role to play\" in addressing global issues \"from ending the conflicts in Ukraine and Syria, to safeguarding human rights and controlling the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.\" His comments were condemned by Ukraine's UN envoy Volodymyr Yelchenko, saying that he doesn't understand how the UN chief \"can say such things which sort of praise the role of Russia in settling the conflict in Ukraine when the Russian Federation is the main player in aggressing Ukraine and in keeping this conflict boiling.\" He also noted that Russia is being accused of human rights abuses in Crimea and is \"building up the nuclear potential\" on the peninsula.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42555897",
"title": "Political status of Crimea",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Crimean crisis and subsequent developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Only Russia and a few other nations have recognized all these events. The lack of recognition from Ukraine and the international community is based primarily on the fact that the referendum included an option to join Russia while the region was considered to be under military occupation by Russia itself. The European Union, United States, Canada and several other nations condemned the decision to hold a referendum. In addition, the Mejlis of the Crimean Tatar People—the unofficial political association of the Crimean Tatars—called for a boycott of the referendum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4393191",
"title": "Transnistrian border customs issues",
"section": "Section::::The conflict.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Out of the major mediators of the regional conflict, the United States, the European Union and the OSCE approved of the Ukrainian move, while Russia sees it as a form of political pressure, and its Ministry of Internal Affairs issued a statement that said in part: \"The Russian Federation as the guarantor country of settlement whose interests are directly affected calls for reviewing the customs regime imposed for Pridnestrovie and for starting immediate consultations among all the parties concerned in order to work out mutually acceptable ways to solve problems.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42228673",
"title": "Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation",
"section": "Section::::History.:Legal issues surrounding Crimean annexation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Both Russia and Ukraine are signatories to the Charter of the United Nations. The ratification of said charter has several ramifications in terms of international law, particularly those that cover the subjects of declarations of independence, sovereignty, self-determination, acts of aggression, and humanitarian emergencies. Vladimir Putin said that Russian troops in the Crimean peninsula were aimed \"to ensure proper conditions for the people of Crimea to be able to freely express their will\", whilst Ukraine and other nations argue that such intervention is a violation of Ukraine's sovereignty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
307zv8
|
Were Native Americans ever taken back to Europe, as slaves or to be assimilated into European society?
|
[
{
"answer": "The famous Native American Squanto was an example of this. He was captured as a young man in 1605 by the British, enslaved, and taken to England where he was taught English so he could be used as an interpreter. 9 years later he returned to New England as part of one of John Smith's expeditions. He tried to return to his people, but was then kidnapped again, got taken to Spain where he was almost sold into slavery again, got out of that situation, then went to England, went to Newfoundland on an expedition, came back to England, and then finally was allowed to return to his true home (this is almost 15 years after being abducted originally). He gets back to New England with another Jon Smith expedition... and then finds out his entire village was obliterated by a Small Pox outbreak a year earlier...\n\n2 years later he gets into contact with the Pilgrims who have just gotten through their first winter in the Americas. They were a little worse for wear to put it mildly. He showed them native farming techniques including how to cultivate maize, helped them learn the land, and acted as an interpreter and diplomat of sorts for them with native tribes in the region. He died a year later, but in that year he saved the Pilgrims expedition from failing like so many similar ventures in the New World did. He had crossed the Atlantic six times.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The traditional narrative of the Americas after contact grossly neglects the influence of abduction and slavery on Native American populations. Both small scale abductions, and large scale slaving raids, were used by European populations to turn a profit, reduce resistance to territorial encroachment, and as a tool of war.\n\nBefore first contact with officially sanctioned *entradas* to Florida in the early 1500s, unofficial traders and fisherman plied the Atlantic and Gulf Coast. These unofficial voyagers routinely augmented their stores with unwary captives, either for sale as slaves in the Caribbean or Europe, or to serve as translators for later voyages. During the first official *entrada* to Florida in 1513, the Spanish encountered Native American populations along the coast that already understood a few words of Spanish, and fled from the new arrivals, leading Juan Ponce de León to assume slaving raids preceded his arrival. When Verrazzano explored the Atlantic Coast in 1524 he encountered coastal populations who refused to trade directly with Europeans, preferring instead to exchange goods boat to boat across a line, possibly in an attempt to keep their distance and prevent abduction. As another user mentioned, Tisquantum/Squanto was likely subject to several of these small-scale abductions along the coast.\n\nAbductees were routinely sold in either the Caribbean or Europe, or trained as translators for future conquests. Accepted Spanish policy for new *entradas* included an initial journey to abduct a few young men, train them as translators, and return a few years to conquest and establish missions. This method was used to great success in Peru, when Pizarro captured two young boys from the coast in 1528. One of the young men, Martinillo, served as a translator during the famous showdown in Cajamarca in 1532 that resulted in the capture of Atahuallpa. In another example, Don Luis, a young man abducted by Spanish missionaries in 1561 from the Virginia tidewater region, returned in 1571 with a party of Jesuit fathers hoping to establish a mission near the James River. He escaped, organized the martyrdom of the Jesuits, and later advised Wahunsenacawh/Powhatan to expand the Powhatan Paramount Chiefdom to oppose Spanish encroachment. Wahunsenacawh/Powhatan’s daughter, Matoaka/Pocahontas, would later travel to England in 1616 where she was presented to the King James and Queen Anne as the daughter of “the most powerful prince of the Powhatan Empire of Virginia.”\n\nLarge scale slaving, and slaving raids, became a tool of war for English once they began to establish permanent settlements in the New World. The peace established between Plymouth and the Wampanoag lasted a generation. Massasoit’s son, Metacomet/Phillip, succeeded his father as sachem and due to a variety of factors organized the hostilities now known as King Phillip’s War. When the dust settled more than 3,000 Native Americans were killed and hundreds of survivors who were not professing Christians were sold into slavery in Bermuda.\n\nThe Carolinas used slaving raids as a tool of war against Spanish Florida, as well as a means of raising capital. Traders employed Native American allies, like the Savannah, to raid their neighbors for sale, and groups like the Kussoe who refused to raid were ruthlessly attacked. When the Westo, previously English allies who raided extensively for slaves, outlived their usefulness they were likewise enslaved. As English influence grew the choice of slave raid or be slaved extended raiding parties west across the Appalachians, and onto the Spanish mission doorsteps. Slavery became a tool of war, and the English attempts to rout the Spanish from Florida included enslaving their allied mission populations. Slaving raids nearly depopulated the Florida peninsula as refugees fled south in hopes of finding safe haven on ships bound for Spanish-controlled Cuba ([a good slave raiding map](_URL_0_)). Gallay, in *Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South, 1670-1717*, writes the drive to control Indian labor extended to every nook and cranny of the South, from Arkansas to the Carolinas and south to the Florida Keys in the period 1670-1715. More Indians were exported through Charles Town than Africans were imported during this period.\n\nIn both acts of small-scale abduction, as well as organized large-scale slaving raids, slaving often served as the first shock of contact between coastal Native American populations and European arrivals. The repercussions of slaving raids spread far in advance of European settlers, shattering previous lifeways, and sparking the rise of powerful confederacies like the Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Cherokee to combat slaving raids. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39108393",
"title": "History of Native Americans in the United States",
"section": "Section::::18th century.:After the formation of the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "European nations sent Native Americans (sometimes against their will) to the Old World as objects of curiosity. They often entertained royalty and were sometimes prey to commercial purposes. Christianization of Native Americans was a charted purpose for some European colonies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5804650",
"title": "History of Australia (1851–1900)",
"section": "Section::::Exploration of the interior.:Impact on indigenous population.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Once Europeans had gained control of Aboriginal territory, the local Aborigines who had not been affected by disease or conflict were generally pushed into reserves or missions. Others settled on the fringes of white settlement or worked as station hands for white farmers. Some either intermarried or bore children with Europeans. European diet, disease and alcohol adversely affected many Aboriginal people. A relative few remained living traditional lives un-affected by Europeans at the close of the 19th century - mainly in the far North and in the Centralian deserts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31256924",
"title": "Australian outback literature of the 20th century",
"section": "Section::::1961–2010s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Even in the 1960s, there remained some Aboriginal tribespeople who had little or no contact with Europeans. Writers include Hugh Atkinson, Keith Cole, Richard A. Gould, Xavier Herbert and Winifred Hilliard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7493150",
"title": "Freedom of religion in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Situation of minority groups.:Native Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 107,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 107,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Aside from the general issues in the relations between Europeans and Native Americans since the initial European colonization of the Americas, there has been a historic suppression of Native American religions as well as some current charges of religious discrimination against Native Americans by the U.S. government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50715286",
"title": "History of unfree labor in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Traditions of Native American slavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "When the Europeans made contact with the Native Americans, they began to participate in the slave trade. Native Americans, in their initial encounters with the Europeans, attempted to use their captives from enemy tribes as a “method of playing one tribe against another” in an unsuccessful game of divide and conquer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "784889",
"title": "Indian reservation",
"section": "Section::::History.:Colonial and early US history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "From the beginning of the European colonization of the Americas, Europeans often removed native peoples from lands they wished to occupy. The means varied, including treaties made under considerable duress, forceful ejection, and violence, and in a few cases voluntary moves based on mutual agreement. The removal caused many problems such as tribes losing means of livelihood by being subjected to a defined area, farmers having inadmissible land for agriculture, and hostility between tribes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23415844",
"title": "Slavery among Native Americans in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Traditions of Native American slavery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "When the Europeans made contact with the Native Americans, they began to participate in the slave trade. Native Americans, in their initial encounters with the Europeans, attempted to use their captives from enemy tribes as a \"method of playing one tribe against another\" in an unsuccessful game of divide and conquer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2og7xa
|
Panel AMA – East Asia in the Early 20th Century
|
[
{
"answer": "Have any of the Austronesian languages left a substrate in the Sinitic languages of Taiwan? If so, what does this substrate tell us about culture, history and influence in the island?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do western, professional historians specialized in modern Chinese history actually consult works by Chinese historians based in China, and if they do, to what extent?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " How does Japanese feels about the independance of their ex-colony after the war?\n\nIf it is possible, I want to ask about Konfrontasi. [This video](_URL_0_) said that Indonesia reason to start the low intensity war is more about pumping nationalism rather than gaining new territory. What is your thought about that and konfrontasi in general.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What are some good books on the Japanese student protest movements during the early 20th century which eventually lead to the formation of the All-Japan Federation of Students' Self-Governing Associations and widespread violent conflict between students and police in the latter 20th century?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Would you consider Ho Chi Minh more of a nationalist or a dedicated Communist? Or did he evolve his philosophy over time?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How much did General Joe Stillwell's dislike of Chiang Kai-Shek influence the outcome of the Civil War? He seemed to really hate Chiang (calling him nicknames like \"Peanut\"), but would a theater commander with a more positive opinion have helped the KMT win, or were their institutional problems likely too much to prevent the CCP's victory?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What was life like for a foreigner in Shanghai's International District from 1937-1941? Were they directly impacted by the war at all? Were there Chinese or Japanese actions taken against them? Were they encouraged to return to their home countries?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Russo-Japanese war is sometimes cited as an example of the brutal effect of modern industry and weaponry upon warfare. How violent was the Russo-Japanese war?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "- How was Henry Puyi's day-to-day life when he ruled the Manchukuo under Japanese in Tianjin? What kind of duties did he do? What kind of freedom was allowed him? \n\n- A lot of Chinese migrated from Meixian to my country in 1930s, my grandfather included. My mom always said it was because a lot of people wanted to avoid 当兵 (dunno what the English term is), is it true or is there any other cause? \n\nSorry if my question is too far away from the permitted topics but I'm curious nonetheless. Thanks in advance! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How did the late Qing and early republican government and military overcome the various dialect/language differences? If I was an aspiring foot soldier from Fujian or Guangdong would I have to take courses in Mandarin before joining the military? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have several questions (mostly on China in the '20s and '30s), so this might take a bit: \n\n1. How widespread (outside of student and intellectual circles) were the ideas of the New Culture and May Fourth movements? \n\n2. What allowed the Chinese Communist Party to grow so quickly in the '20s? Was it a result of the United Front with the KMT, or was it something else? \n\n3. How important was the Chinese market for the foreign powers? It looks like the Chinese economy essentially collapsed during the warlord period, but it somehow remained a big consumer of imported goods. Was this just because of sheer population size, or what?\n\n4. What allowed the KMT to be so successful in the Northern Expedition? \n\n5. How on Earth were the Imperial Japanese Navy and Army able to gain so much autonomy and power over the Japanese government? Half the time, it looks like the military were the ones running the show. \n\n6. How effective was the KMT's rule up until the Sino-Japanese war? On the one hand, it does look like there were genuine efforts to industrialize and modernize the army, but it seems that quite a few of the Warlords stuck around and stayed in power, and Chiang's rule seems dictatorial. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What led to the cooling of German-Japanese relations in the beginning of the 20th century, culminating in the Japanese entry into the Entente? Our two countries had had largely friendly relations up to that time, the Japanese even adapting our civil law (BGB), if I understand it correctly. Did Wilhelm II's chauvinistic rhetoric (\"Gelbe Gefahr\", the Yellow Peril) have much impact (another thing that interests me, how was that received in Japan and China at the time?), or was it mainly power politics?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To what extent after Sino-Japanese war was the Qing reform movement doomed to failure? In a number of the narratives of I have read, the defeat created the impetus to finally overthrow the Qing. Were all attempts at reform, after 1895 merely delaying the inevitable? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Did the idea of a rural \"village\" as an intermediary between the family farm unit and the market exchange hub of town/city still exist in early 20th century China? Or was there now only the hub and the family farm? Or was the rural economic structure dynamic something completely different?\n\nIf possible, can you compare with the situation now, or if too recent, at least post-cultural revolution?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Did the discontinuation of the imperial exams in China (and elsewhere, for that matter) have a noticeable effect on the quality of Literary Chinese writing thereafter? I know it was in general abandoned and replaced with vernacular writing, but in cases when people educated in post-exam East Asia *did* write in Literary Chinese, is there a noticeable difference in quality or style?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why did pan-East Asian nationalism decline? It appears to have been more common at the turn of the century (i.e. the 1900s) than today. Even An Jung-geun, the Korean who assassinated the former Prime Minister of Japan in 1909, was an advocate for a pan-East Asian monetary union and combined armed forces.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is special about the May 4th movement exactly? As I understand it, it's a backlash against western betrayal at Versailles, but I don't quite understand why it has such cultural gravitas. Surely, after all the various defeats suffered since the first Opium War, educated folks understood that something was very seriously wrong with the country, right? What is so special about the 1919 movement? What differences did it have with reformist / revolutionary thoughts and movements that came before? Why did it take Versailles to instigate such a radical departure (if it indeed is one) ?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What's the history behind the development of zaibatsu? Did they form as organically in the private sector then became coopted as vehicles of policy or did government policy explicitly facilitate their formation in the first place? What is the intellectual history behind the idea? Why did people think it was good to have an economy dominated by large conglomerates, and, to the extent possible, what do we know about their actual effects on the economy?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why does it seem like Taiwanese don't feel the same animosity towards Japanese as say the Chinese or Koreans? My family (Taiwanese) seem to have always said things like \"even though the Japanese were strict and harsh, they were fair.\"\n\nAlso, how integrated was Taiwan into Japan at that time, economically and politically. Would the average Taiwanese person think of themselves as Japanese/would the average Japanese think of a Taiwanese person as a true Japanese?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. In *China: a new History* Fairbanks quotes a defector from the CCP as saying that Mao's strategy in WWII was to focus 70% of his efforts on building power bases, 20% on fighting the Nationalists, and 10% on fighting the Japanese. Does this claim hold up?\n\n2. Why did the CCP move the capital back to Beijing? It was and still is a terrible location.\n\n3. What were major differences between the actions and operational proceedings of the Eight Nations during the Boxer Rebellion? I have heard, for example, the American leaders tended to be less rapacious.\n\n4. Do you think Cixo really murdered the Guangxu Emperor? If so, why do you think she did so?\n\n5. There are significant elements that believe that the CCP reforms implemented after 1949 were responsible for the enormous economic progress of the 1950s. Others believe that it was merely a continuation of trends seen during the Nanjing Decade before they were interrupted by war. Do you believe that the KMT government was making the sort of real progress seen in the 1950s?\n\n6. How did ethnic tensions play into the convulsions of the early twentieth century? For example, did ethnic minority groups tend to favor one or the other side in the civil wars?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can I just ask each of the panelists to give a book list that would be a good \"101\" into thier respective areas of studies? \nAlso let me state my profound admaration and gratitude for all you posters of knowledge. I have learned more in the past year of lurking on this subreddit than I ever did in public school. You guys rock!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9486865",
"title": "University of Hawaii Press",
"section": "Section::::Book Editorial Program.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "East Asia is an especially important regional focus. During 2000-2005, the Press published 184 academic monographs on the region, 82 on China, 81 on Japan, and 21 on Korea. The three principal subject areas were language and literature (with 23 on China, 25 on Japan, and 7 on Korea); religion and philosophy (with 21 on China, 13 on Japan, and 2 on Korea); and history and fine arts (with 20 on China, 20 on Japan, and 7 on Korea) (Chen & Wang 2008:38).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1618940",
"title": "Ministry of Greater East Asia",
"section": "Section::::History and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "The Ministry of Greater East Asia was established on 1 November 1942 under the administration of Prime Minister Hideki Tōjō, by absorbing the earlier and merging it with the East Asia Department and South Pacific Department of the Foreign Ministry and the , which looked after affairs in Japanese-occupied China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15048495",
"title": "The Far East (periodical)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "The Far East was a newsmagazine published by J. R. Black in Yokohama, Japan between 1870 and 1878. The periodical was illustrated with original, pasted-in photographs, at a time when photomechanical reproduction was still in its infancy. During its run, \"The Far East\" published approximately 750 photographs, mostly of Japan and China, by at least 20 different photographers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43376241",
"title": "Journal of American-East Asian Relations",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Journal of American-East Asian Relations (JAEAR), according to its website, is a \"peer-reviewed quarterly journal of interdisciplinary historical, cross-cultural, and social science scholarship from all parts of the world,\" which began publication in 1992. The scope includes diplomatic, economic, security, and cultural relations, as well as Asian-American history. Geographical coverage includes the United States, Canada, other countries in the Americas, and East Asia, typically China, Japan, and Korea, but also the Pacific area, Australasia, Southeast Asia, and the Russian Far East.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21389898",
"title": "East Asia Forum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "The East Asia Forum (EAF) is a policy forum directed by Emeritus Professor Peter Drysdale of the Crawford School of Public Policy, Australian National University (ANU). The EAF was launched in 2006 by Australia’s former Treasurer, the Hon. Peter Costello\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3398337",
"title": "East Asian cultural sphere",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The East Asian cultural sphere shares a Confucian ethical philosophy, Buddhism, Taoism, and it historically has shared a 8,000 year old ancient Han Chinese writing system. The core regions of the East Asian cultural sphere are China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam (CJKV, these are highlighted in dark blue in the image).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45599898",
"title": "Asan Institute for Policy Studies",
"section": "Section::::The Asan Forum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "The Asan Forum is a bimonthly journal for in-depth interpretation of rapid changes across the Asia-Pacific region. It aims to capture the latest trends within Asia on transformative issues expressed through voices from the region and international assessments. While current events and how they are interpreted are at the forefront, insight into the historical and cultural backgrounds relevant to distinct national responses is also stressed. The objective is to stimulate well-informed observations from diverse perspectives that highlight what political elites and the media in Asia are currently discussing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
72mchy
|
Why can Windows run .exe files, but Mac can't even get a program to convert it to a readable file?
|
[
{
"answer": "Executable files don't really have anything human readable in them except for whatever text there might be stored in them as strings. When you start programming, one of the first things you have your program do is print \"hello world\" to the console. In your program it would have that string stored somewhere but everything else would be more or less unreadable. You can disassemble a binary into assembly but it's difficult to decompile that back into C or C++.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The .exe contains x86 machine code, which the CPU in your computer interprets. To get an intuition for why it's not readable by humans, please look at the [cards in this video](_URL_0_): the holes on the cards translate into movements of the machine, and those *movements* result in the actual fabric patterns.\n\nNow, most Windows computers and most Mac computers both use the same x86 CPUs and thus you'd expect the CPU to execute the .exe file just fine, right?\n\nThe first problem we run into is that the .exe file doesn't contain *just* x86 machine code, but it also has a very particular format and structure which Windows understands, but Mac OS doesn't. Imagine if you hired a new loom operator but they didn't speak English so you couldn't tell them how to load up the cards and pump the loom.\n\nThe second problem we run into is that while there's lots of code in the .exe doing the things specific to your software (whether it's a game or Excel or whatever) the code also *refers* to and *relies on* specific things provided by the operating system.\n\nFor example, whenever the software needs to tell the time by the machine's hardware clock, or whenever the software needs to put something on the screen, it needs to talk with the OS to accomplish that task. The OS makes sure that if you run two programs at the same time, they get fair access to the hardware resources. The OS also lets the software simply ask \"what's the time?\" instead of having to know that your computer has a FD510-534-b2 clock by Taiwan Electronic Clockwork Corp that provides its timing information in multiples of 2.3 picoseconds.\n\nUnfortunately, all OSes have different ways of asking \"what's the time\" and the way that Windows understands the question is baked into that .exe file you have. If it tried to ask Mac OS \"what's the time\", it would be like asking in a language that Mac OS doesn't understand.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Coming from a different direction...\n\nThey can! Mostly, anyways.\n\nThere are a slew of ways that you can run an exe on a Mac, ranging from something as abstracted as a Virtual Machine, to running it under WINE, and multiple ways in between.\n\n\nVirtual Machines:\n\nEmulate a physical machine in software. A virtual machine is capable of running just about any program for the guest operating system, but it runs it slower. In some cases, uselessly slower. Many games straight up don't function properly in a virtual machine because it takes 5 seconds or more to render a single frame. Modern virtual machine software is working on improving this, and have made great strides in the past 5 years.\n\n\nWINE:\n\nWine is a program used to do a bunch of translation between the Windows format for executables, and the *NIX format for executables, as well as all the api, system, and framework calls involved. It works pretty well for a bunch of things, but it's very much a crapshoot as to what works and what doesn't. PlayOnMac is a popular wrapper on top of Wine that makes it relatively easy for a non-developer/non-sysadmin to run a bunch of Windows software.\n\nMono:\n\nWhile in decline at the moment, Mono is a framework with an abstraction layer built in, so that an executable file is runnable on multiple types of systems. The application must be specifically written to work under mono, and mono must be installed on your system. While there are a number of cross-platform systems for building applications on top of, Mono is notable here for producing .exe files that run on Linux and Mac as well as Windows.\n\n7z:\n\n7z is an archive manager program that allows you to extract the contents of an archive into individual files. Notably, it allows you to extract blobs from .exe files. Most of that information is useless to you, as it consists of machine code, but in certain cases, it can be useful to extract resources from an executable. I've used it to pull .ico files out of a .exe before.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The real problem isn’t the code.\n\nThere is no technical reason a Mac can’t read and understand an exe file. It is simply a file format like any other. They both have the same type of CPU and can understand the instructions.\n\n\nThe problem is that the executable relies on large amounts of code provided by the operating system. When you launch a .exe, the first thing the operating system does is looks at the dependencies and loads those too. Since the operating system is completely different, unless we can provide alternative libraries (this is what WINE does) that implement the same functionality, we are pretty much stuck at this point.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You may be interested in previous iterations of this same question\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_\n\nBasically, a program built for Windows is one that uses a lot of functionality built into Windows. A Mac has a bunch of other functionality (often similar in terms of high level features but with different details). Mac programs depend on Mac functionality and visa versa. You would effectively need a whole copy of Windows sitting alongside OS-X to be able to run the Windows applications. There is a project called WINE that does exactly this - it implements all of the functionality of the Windows operating system on top of another platform, so that you can run Windows programs on other systems.\n\nTo turn it around... Generally, the Mac isn't built to be a Windows clone, so why would it have the ability to run programs that are specifically intended to run on something else? It's not so much that there is some specific reason that stops them from being compatible. It's that they are two distinct platforms worked on by different teams, so there is no specific reason that they would be able to run each other's software unless somebody put in a lot of work to make it so.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1504233",
"title": "Comparison of file archivers",
"section": "Section::::Archivers.:Operating system support.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "The operating systems the archivers can run on without emulation or compatibility layer. Linux Ubuntu's own GUI \"Archive manager,\" for example, can open and create many archive formats (including Rar archives) even to the extent of splitting into parts and encryption and ability to be read by the \"native program\". This is presumably a \"compatibility layer.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20732",
"title": "Multiple document interface",
"section": "Section::::Macintosh.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Mac OS and its GUI are document-centric instead of window-centric or application-centric. Every document window is an object with which the user can work. The menu bar changes to reflect whatever application the front window belongs to. Application windows can be hidden and manipulated as a group, and the user may switch between applications (i.e., groups of windows) or between individual windows, automatically hiding palettes, and most programs will stay running even with no open windows. Indeed, prior to Mac OS X, it was purposely impossible to interleave windows from multiple applications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "331137",
"title": "Live CD",
"section": "Section::::Creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "A read-only file system, such as on a CD-ROM has the drawback of being unable to save any current working data. For this reason, a read-only file system is often merged with a temporary writable file system in the form of a RAM disk. Often the default Linux directories \"codice_1\" (containing users' personal files and configuration files) and \"codice_2\" (containing variable data) are kept in ramdisk, because the system updates them frequently. Puppy Linux and some other live CDs allow a configuration and added files to be written and used in later sessions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3524206",
"title": "DriveSpace",
"section": "Section::::Later versions.:DriveSpace in Windows ME.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "It is possible to restore full function of DriveSpace 3 (unofficially) in Windows ME, copying the executable file from a Windows 98 installation and using it to replace the executable included with Windows ME. After that, one could compress new drives as they could do on Windows 98.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "454545",
"title": "DVD-RAM",
"section": "Section::::Compatibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "Windows XP Home and Professional can only write directly to FAT32 formatted DVD-RAM discs. For UDF formatted discs, which are considered faster, a third-party UDF file system driver capable of writing or software such as InCD or DLA are required. Windows Vista and later can natively access and write to both FAT32 and UDF formatted DVD-RAM discs using mastered burning method or packet writing. Even though it is possible to use any file system one likes, very few perform well on DVD-RAM. This is because some file systems frequently overwrite data on the disc and the table of contents is contained at the start of the disc. It should also be noted that Windows Vista (and later) implement the CPRM data protection and thus discs formatted under Windows XP (or earlier) have compatibility issues with Vista onwards (and vice versa).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30725",
"title": "Thin client",
"section": "Section::::Variants.:Web client.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Chromebooks are also able to store user documents locally – though, with the exception of media files (which have a dedicated player application to play them), all such files can only be opened and processed with web applications, since traditional desktop applications cannot be installed in Chrome OS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1010280",
"title": "File system",
"section": "Section::::File systems and operating systems.:Unix and Unix-like operating systems.:macOS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "Newer versions of macOS are capable of reading and writing to the legacy FAT file systems (16 and 32) common on Windows. They are also capable of \"reading\" the newer NTFS file systems for Windows. In order to \"write\" to NTFS file systems on macOS versions prior to Mac OS X Snow Leopard third party software is necessary. Mac OS X 10.6 (Snow Leopard) and later allow writing to NTFS file systems, but only after a non-trivial system setting change (third party software exists that automates this).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
71u1m5
|
how do we know where the borders that distinguish each ocean are, (i.e between pacific and atlantic) and how were they distinguished?
|
[
{
"answer": "At the boundaries between the oceans, no, there's no sudden change.\n\nThe technical borders of each ocean are dictated by the International Hydrographic Organization. For example, the boundary between the Atlantic and Indian oceans is defined by the 20E meridian from Africa to Antarctica.\n\nOn a large scale, each ocean has its own properties that make them unique and worth referring to separately. They have their own currents, their own species, etc. Despite that, on a very fine scale, there's no exact point where one becomes the other. The border for the Atlantic/Indian above could just as well be 19E or 21E. 20E is a nice round number and just so happens (coincidentally) to be very close to the southernmost point of Africa, and we had to make the distinction *somewhere*, so that was a good spot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "698",
"title": "Atlantic Ocean",
"section": "Section::::Extent and data.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea and Barents Sea. To the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe: the Strait of Gibraltar (where it connects with the Mediterranean Sea—one of its marginal seas—and, in turn, the Black Sea, both of which also touch upon Asia) and Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6234666",
"title": "List of giant squid specimens and sightings",
"section": "Section::::Abbreviations.:Oceanic sectors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Oceanic sectors used in the main table follow Sweeney & Roper (2001): the Atlantic Ocean is divided into sectors at the equator and 30°W, the Pacific Ocean is divided at the equator and 180°, and the Indian Ocean is defined as the range 20°E to 115°E (the Arctic and Southern Oceans are not distinguished). An additional category has been created to accommodate the handful of specimens recorded from the Mediterranean Sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "698",
"title": "Atlantic Ocean",
"section": "Section::::Extent and data.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "The Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs and seas. These include the Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Caribbean Sea, Davis Strait, Denmark Strait, part of the Drake Passage, Gulf of Mexico, Labrador Sea, Mediterranean Sea, North Sea, Norwegian Sea, almost all of the Scotia Sea, and other tributary water bodies. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures compared to for the Pacific.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29055353",
"title": "Borders of the oceans",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "The major oceanic divisions are defined in part by the continents, various archipelagos, and other criteria. The principal divisions (in descending order of area) are the: Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Southern (Antarctic) Ocean, and Arctic Ocean. Smaller regions of the oceans are called seas, gulfs, bays, straits, and other names.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "698",
"title": "Atlantic Ocean",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "The Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Europe and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. As one component of the interconnected global ocean, it is connected in the north to the Arctic Ocean, to the Pacific Ocean in the southwest, the Indian Ocean in the southeast, and the Southern Ocean in the south (other definitions describe the Atlantic as extending southward to Antarctica). The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North(ern) Atlantic Ocean and the South(ern) Atlantic Ocean at about 8°N.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32759787",
"title": "Exploration of the Pacific",
"section": "Section::::European exploration.:Iberian pioneers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "The Pacific recognized: Europeans knew that there was a vast ocean to the west, and the Chinese knew that there was one to the east. Learned Europeans thought that the world was round and that the two oceans were one. In 1492 Columbus sailed west to what he thought was Asia. When Pedro Álvares Cabral, en route to Asia via the Atlantic and the Indian oceans, reached Brazil, in 1500, the true extent of the Americas began to become known. The Martin Waldseemüller map of 1507 was the first to show the Americas separating two distinct oceans. This guess was confirmed in 1513 when Balboa crossed Panama and found salt water. The Magellan expedition of 1519-22 proved that there was one continuous ocean from the Americas to Asia. The Diogo Ribeiro map of 1529 was the first to show the Pacific at about its proper size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20611262",
"title": "World Ocean",
"section": "Section::::Organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Atlantic Ocean, the second largest, extends from the Southern Ocean between the Americas, and Africa and Europe, to the Arctic Ocean. The Atlantic Ocean meets the Indian Ocean south of Africa at Cape Agulhas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1yosis
|
who are neo-nazis, what do they believe in?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's hard to really put a finger on that one. There are people with different mindsets who consider themselves or are considered Neo-Nazis. \n\nOne possible definition is people who agree with what the Nazis did in the 30s and 40s, like considering Germans (or US-Americans,..) a superior race, thinking jews are a harm to society and wanting them gone and so on. This one probably is the easiest definition (basically just meaning Nazis living today). Not like I knew any of them, but these usually seem to be rather unintelligent people disappointed by life who seek belonging. \n\nAnother approach is people who don't necessarily agree with Hitler & Co but still think there are better or worse races and that they shouldn't mix. \nFor example, an acquaintance of mine completely disagrees with Hitler's approach to the \"problem\"; he thinks jews shouldn't live with German people, but he doesn't agree with just killing them. He actually thinks Hitler was bad because he was emotion-driven and destroyed the in his view good idea of all 'German people' (=/= people from Germany but people from the 'German race') living in one, powerful state. He considers himself a Neo Nazi but not in connection with 'Old Nazis' but because he sees himself as a nationalist and socialist. He isn't one of those stereotype Neonazi skinhead guys, he's actually a very intelligent guy that dresses formally and so on. \n\nAnother possible definition is just very racist, far-right people. In my humble opinion, the line between far-right and Neo-Nazi is blurred but does exist, so I wouldn't automatically consider every racist a Neo-Nazi.\n\n**tl;dr: there are many possible definitions, depending on who you ask. Might be Hitler-fans, might be national socialists or just very racist people.**\n\nRegardless of the definition , I don't agree with any of them!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the introduction of [this article on Wikipedia](_URL_0_) describes neo-Nazism quite well.\n\n > Neo-Nazism consists of post-World War II social or political movements seeking to revive Nazism. The term neo-Nazism can also refer to the ideology of these movements (...).\n\n\nA better understanding of Nazism (National Socialism) is important too, so you could [read up on that](_URL_1_) as well.\n\n > Nazism, or National Socialism in full (German: *Nationalsozialismus*), is the ideology and practice associated with the 20th-century German Nazi Party and state as well as other related far-right groups. [It is] usually characterised as a form of fascism that incorporates scientific racism and antisemitism (...). \nGerman Nazism subscribed to theories of racial hierarchy and social Darwinism, asserted the superiority of an Aryan master race, and criticised both capitalism and communism for being associated with Jewish materialism (...).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just read ~100 pages on the Third Reich tonight. Nazism was subtlety intertwined with the national sense of Germanic culture during the 30s and 40s. The Nazi's nurtured a sense of national pride for Germans, who were embarrassed by WWI and the failed democratic govt of the 20s. The Nazi's speech and actions fostered the feeling that Germans were special and different and should have pride in this fact. The Nazi's slowly but surely twisted their hatred of 'asocials' Jews and 'undesirables' into the feel good state of Germans. Children were indoctrinated by Hitler Youth with the plan that Aryan ideals would carry into the future. Some of these Hitler Youth grew up and didn't abandon the Nazi ideals like every other German after being humiliated in WWII. These people, accompanied by now former Nazi party officials continued to their quest to cleanse the Aryan race. Being a nazi in post WWII was illegal and 'Cleansing' involves murder and other illegal activities so Neo-Nazis often landed in prisons where the culture spread. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Neo-Nazism basically just means \"New Nazism\". Neo is from Greek and means something akin to new or fresh.\n\n\nWhat can generally be said about is, that it's an overarching movement to ressurect or keep the original national socialist movement alive in present days. Due to the growth of skinhead culture in the 70's and 80's they have taken on a more militant/hardcore image in recent years, with less emphasis on international jewdom, and a larger emphasis on imigration in general, and an idea about taking the fight to the streets rather than through parliamentarian struggle. Usually they use WWII third reich iconography, and due to anti-nazi laws in europe they use terms like 88 - h being the 8th letter in the alphabet this means \"Heil Hitler\" or 18 for A and H or Adolf Hitler. It would be conceptual overstrecht to see neo-nazism as being a fully white supremacist movement, as lots of ethnic groups all over the world have adopted nazism, white supremacism is more likely to be a sub-movement of neo-nazism, or racism in general. Neo-Nazism have racist ideas, but is a more thourough idea about how a state should be build, and as such it's a political ideology that contains within itself racism. Racism on the other hand merely states that the different ethnic groups of humans are different races, and in the more \"negative\" version of it, that these races to be preserved through racial purity, it doesn't concern itself with economics or other parts of statebuilding.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31014247",
"title": "List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as hate groups",
"section": "Section::::Groups by type.:Neo-Nazi.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Neo-Nazism consists of post-World War II social or political movements seeking to revive Nazism or related ideologies. Common aspects of modern-day Neo-Nazism include hatred or fear of minorities such as blacks, Hispanics, lesbian, gay, and transgender people, non-white immigrants, and sometimes even Christians but their main hatred is focused on the Jews (their \"cardinal enemy\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54361",
"title": "Neo-Nazism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "Neo-Nazism consists of post-World War II militant social or political movements seeking to revive and implement the ideology of Nazism. Neo-Nazis seek to employ their ideology to promote hatred and attack minorities, or in some cases to create a fascist political state. It is a global phenomenon, with organized representation in many countries and international networks. It borrows elements from Nazi doctrine, including ultranationalism, racism, xenophobia, ableism, homophobia, anti-Romanyism, antisemitism, anti-communism and initiating the Fourth Reich. Holocaust denial is a common feature, as is the incorporation of Nazi symbols and admiration of Adolf Hitler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31353311",
"title": "Neo-Nazism in Canada",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Neo-Nazism () is the post World War II ideology that promotes white supremacy and specifically antisemitism. In Canada, Neo-Nazism has existed as a branch of the far-right and has been a source of considerable controversy during the last 50 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "221220",
"title": "Far-right politics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "The term is often used to describe Nazism, neo-Nazism, fascism, neo-fascism and other ideologies or organizations that feature ultranationalist, chauvinist, xenophobic, racist, anti-communist, or reactionary views. These can lead to oppression, violence, forced assimilation, ethnic cleansing, and even genocide against groups of people based on their supposed inferiority, or their perceived threat to the native ethnic group, nation, state, national religion, dominant culture or ultraconservative traditional social institutions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54361",
"title": "Neo-Nazism",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "The term \"neo-Nazism\" can also refer to the ideology of these movements, which may borrow elements from Nazi doctrine, including ultranationalism, anti-communism, racism, ableism, xenophobia, homophobia, anti-Romanyism, antisemitism, up to initiating the Fourth Reich. Holocaust denial is a common feature, as is the incorporation of Nazi symbols and admiration of Adolf Hitler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48755",
"title": "Neo-fascism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Neo-fascism is a post–World War II ideology that includes significant elements of fascism. Neo-fascism usually includes ultranationalism, racial supremacy, populism, authoritarianism, nativism, xenophobia and opposition to immigration, as well as opposition to liberal democracy, parliamentarianism, Marxism, communism and socialism. Allegations that a group is neo-fascist may be hotly contested, especially if the term is used as a political epithet. Some post–World War II regimes have been described as neo-fascist due to their authoritarian nature, and sometimes due to their fascination with and sympathy towards fascist ideology and rituals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31045316",
"title": "Nazism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Nazism is a form of fascism and showed that ideology's disdain for liberal democracy and the parliamentary system, but also incorporated fervent antisemitism, anti-communism, scientific racism, and eugenics into its creed. Its extreme nationalism came from Pan-Germanism and the Völkisch movement prominent in the German nationalism of the time, and it was strongly influenced by the \"Freikorps\" paramilitary groups that emerged after Germany's defeat in World War I, from which came the party's \"cult of violence\" which was \"at the heart of the movement.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jzevz
|
Why is the interior of the great pyramid in Egypt not covered in paintings and ancient Egyptian writings or reliefs like all the other supposedly older pyramids found in Egypt?
|
[
{
"answer": "Just like today's tombstones are not burried with the deceased, in ancient egyptian times paintings and relief decorations were usually reserved for places where others (mainly relatives and priests) could see them, in the accompanying chapels and temples.\n\nKhufu's pyramid complex is in very bad condition but those of chephren and menkaure leave no doubt that the pyramids and their temples were meant to serve a death cult.\n\nIf you want me to go into anything specific just ask.\n\nP.S.: I am not aware of any extensive decorations in any older pyramid so if you could point me to them it would be appreciated.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "336297",
"title": "Abu Simbel temples",
"section": "Section::::Great Temple.:Interior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1141,
"text": "The inner part of the temple has the same triangular layout that most ancient Egyptian temples follow, with rooms decreasing in size from the entrance to the sanctuary. The temple is complex in structure and quite unusual because of its many side chambers. The hypostyle hall (sometimes also called a pronaos) is long and wide and is supported by eight huge Osirid pillars depicting the deified Ramesses linked to the god Osiris, the god of the Underworld, to indicate the everlasting nature of the pharaoh. The colossal statues along the left-hand wall bear the white crown of Upper Egypt, while those on the opposite side are wearing the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt (pschent). The bas-reliefs on the walls of the pronaos depict battle scenes in the military campaigns that Ramesses waged. Much of the sculpture is given to the Battle of Kadesh, on the Orontes river in present-day Syria, in which the Egyptian king fought against the Hittites. The most famous relief shows the king on his chariot shooting arrows against his fleeing enemies, who are being taken prisoner. Other scenes show Egyptian victories in Libya and Nubia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6802892",
"title": "Pyramid of Userkaf",
"section": "Section::::Main pyramid.:Substructures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "The pyramid does not have internal chambers, the chambers being located underground. These were constructed in a deep open ditch dug before the pyramid construction started and only later covered by the pyramid. The entrance to the underground chambers is located north of the pyramid from a pavement in the court in front of the pyramid face. This is different from the 4th dynasty pyramids for which the entrance to the internal chambers is located on the pyramid side itself. The entrance was hewn into the bedrock and floored and roofed with large slabs of white limestone, most of which have been removed in modern times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1586815",
"title": "Huni",
"section": "Section::::Monuments possibly connected to Huni.:Lepsius pyramid – I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "Today, this theory is no longer accepted. In 1989, Egyptologist Nabil Swelim examined the pyramid more precisely and found that it was made of small mud bricks, with a quarter of its inner core hewn out of a natural bedrock. The rock core itself contained several rock-cut tombs dating back to the 5th and 6th dynasty. Swelim and others Egyptologists, such as Toby Wilkinson, point out that it would be surprising for a royal pyramid to have been completely destroyed less than 300 years after its construction, only to be re-used for simple rock-cut tombs. Additionally, he points to the unusual geographic position of the pyramid: Old Kingdom pyramids were commonly built on high grounds, while the pyramid Lepsius I lies on a flat plain. Thus, the dating of this monument to the late 3rd dynasty no longer seems tenable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3036884",
"title": "Valley of the Kings",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "While the iconic pyramid complexes of the Giza plateau have come to symbolize ancient Egypt, the majority of tombs were cut into rock. Most pyramids and mastabas contain sections which are cut into ground level, and there are full rock-cut tombs in Egypt that date back to the Old Kingdom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3205447",
"title": "Pyramid of Unas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "The Pyramid of Unas (in ancient Egyptian Nefer asut Unas meaning Beautiful are the places of Unas) is a smooth-sided pyramid built in the 24th century BC for the Egyptian pharaoh Unas, the ninth and final king of the Fifth Dynasty. It is the smallest Old Kingdom pyramid, but significant due to the discovery of Pyramid Texts, spells for the king's afterlife incised into the walls of its subterranean chambers. Inscribed for the first time in Unas's pyramid, the tradition of funerary texts carried on in the pyramids of subsequent rulers, through to the end of the Old Kingdom, and into the Middle Kingdom through the Coffin Texts that form the basis of the Book of the Dead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43722095",
"title": "Southern South Saqqara pyramid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "The Southern South Saqqara Pyramid (also Unfinished Pyramid at South Saqqara; Lepsius XLVI; SAK S 6) is an ancient Egyptian royal tomb which was built during the 13th Dynasty in South Saqqara, and is renowned for having the most elaborate hypogeum since the late 12th Dynasty pyramids. The building remained unfinished and is still unknown which pharaoh was really intended to be buried here since no appropriate inscription has been found.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49634400",
"title": "Joseph's Granaries",
"section": "Section::::Renaissance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1880,
"text": "By the 16th century most visitors who left accounts argue against the notion that the pyramids were originally granaries constructed by the patriarch Joseph, if they mention it at all. Many of the visitors inspected the ruins rather closely, often entering the great Pyramid, rather than simply viewing them from a distance. The French traveler Greffin Affagart (Seigneur de Courteilles) visited the Pyramids in 1533 and noted that \"some call [them] the granaries of Pharaoh, but this is wrong because they are not hollow on the inside, rather they are sepulchers of some kings of Egypt.\" The French explorer and naturalist Pierre Belon of Mans, a careful observer, records in 1546 that the great Pyramid \"was the sepulcher of the King of Egypt.\" Another French explorer André Thevet, who visited three years later writes: \"The Jews have told me many times that they find in their Chronicles that these Pyramids were the support of the granaries of Pharaoh: that is not likely ... they are sepulchers of kings as appears from Herodotus ... since I saw in one pyramid a great stone of marble carved in the manner of a sepulcher.\" Finally, in the 17th century, John Greaves, Professor of Astronomy at Oxford, published the first truly scientific work on the Pyramids, \"Pyramidographia\" (1646). He cites many of the ancient authors mentioned above, and dismisses the erroneous etymologies yielding notions of \"receptacles and granaries,\" and calls attention to the obvious fact \"that this figure is most improper for such a purpose, a Pyramid being the least capacious of any regular mathematical body, the straitness and fewness of the rooms within (the rest of the building being one solid and intire fabric of stone) do utterly over-throw this conjecture.\" No longer could the notion be held credibly, though for over a millennium it had reigned supreme among European travelers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
144zwk
|
what constitutes a radio station being hd quality, and how do they make it hd?
|
[
{
"answer": "'HD radio' is a branded implementation of the In-Band/On-Channel (IBOC) method of 'hybrid' broadcasting, wherein compact digital 'saddlebags' are placed at either end of the station's reserved 'mask' (the space it's allowed to use on the 'dial').\n\nIn many cases, there is only one HD channel, 'HD1'. Even if there are others, 'HD1' always refers to the digital version of the same station's analogue programme. (No one has been willing to give up their analogue signal and go digital-only, because HD has not caught on, so giving up their analogue signal would be financial ruin, since most listeners would not pick them up at all anymore.)\n\n'HD2' and higher HD numbers refer to other available channels, usually with different programming, from the same broadcaster. A common use of HD2 in many cities, for example, is secondary-language programming. (This is similar to SAP -- Secondary Audio Programme -- on cable TV, if you know about that.)\n\nAt this time, all 'HD' channels are subsidiary to an existing analogue (\"standard\") radio channel. Analogue stations do have sub-channels, and some of them are available to the public, with special equipment. CRIS, for example, is a nationally distributed reading service for the blind that is transmited on these subchannels. But most listeners are not aware of analogue subchannels, and it would be difficult to make them available as conventional alternative broadcast channels in the manner of the main signal. FM signals need a lot of space on the dial to work right, and there really isn't room to squeeze more than one into the 'mask' that the FCC assigns each station right now. (Nor are there any plans to make the masks wider, and for reasons I can't lay out here I can say confidently that there never will be; in the simplest terms, it really can't be done.)\n\nDigital signals are more compact than analogue FM signals, so they can sound good even though they don't take up a lot of bandwidth. But more than one analogue signal in that same mask would have to sacrifice bandwidth in order to fit, and the result would be poorer sound. This is okay for CRIS, as it's only voices speaking, but music would not sound good on narrower FM channels, so it would be a poor choice for a commercial broadcaster to make.\n",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3408355",
"title": "WAWZ",
"section": "Section::::HD radio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "WAWZ broadcasts in HD Radio with both its HD1, HD2, and HD3 channels providing Artist Experience data including song titles, artists, and albums on compatible radios. Over the years, 99.1 FM has hosted a variety of formats on its HD sub-channels. The current HD sub-channel formats are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "20137646",
"title": "WYDS",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Uniquely, the station has used all three available HD Radio subchannels to air different programming: HD2 as urban adult contemporary, HD3 as classic country, and HD4 as sports talk. The station owners apportioned translators to ensure that to the greatest extent possible, the population targeted and station coverage matched. HD radio supporters argue that this allows the owners to maximize revenue, by allowing all demographics to be targeted, not just those who would be listening to the original signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1016696",
"title": "HD Radio",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:FM.:Artist Experience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "HD Radio supports a service called Artist Experience in which the transmission of album art, logos and other artwork can be displayed on the radio. Album art and logos are displayed at the station's discretion and require extra equipment. An HD Radio manufacturer should pass the iBiquity certification, which includes displaying the artwork properly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1016696",
"title": "HD Radio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "While HD Radio does allow for an all-digital mode, this system currently is used by some AM and FM radio stations to simulcast both digital and analog audio within the same channel (a hybridized digital-analog signal) as well as to add new FM channels and text information. Although HD Radio broadcasting's content is currently free-to-air, listeners must purchase new receivers in order to receive the digital portion of the signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55974",
"title": "Federal Communications Commission",
"section": "Section::::Wireless policy.:Criticism for use of proprietary standards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "For digital radio, the FCC chose proprietary HD Radio, which crowds the existing FM broadcast band and even AM broadcast band with in-band adjacent-channel sidebands, which create noise in other stations. This is in contrast to worldwide DAB, which uses unused TV channels in the VHF band III range. This too has patent fees, while DAB does not. While there has been some effort by iBiquity to lower them, the fees for HD Radio are still an enormous expense when converting each station, and this fee structure presents a potentially high cost barrier to entry for community radio and other non-commercial educational stations when entering the HD Radio market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "272097",
"title": "In-band on-channel",
"section": "Section::::IBOC around the world.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "As of June 2008, more than 1,700 HD Radio stations were broadcasting 2,432 HD Radio channels. HD Radio technology is the only digital technology approved by the FCC for digital AM and FM broadcasting in the US. Over 60 different HD Radio receivers are on sale in over 12,000 stores nationwide, including Apple, Best Buy, Target, and Wal-Mart. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "272097",
"title": "In-band on-channel",
"section": "Section::::Challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "In-band on-channel digital radios using iBiquity's standard are being marketed under the brand \"HD Radio\" to highlight the purported quality of reception. As of June 2008, over 60 different receiver models have been made, and stations have received blanket (no longer individual and experimental) authorization from the U.S. FCC to transmit in a multiplexed multichannel mode on FM. Originally, the use of HD Radio transmission on AM was limited to daytime only, and not allowed at night due to potential problems with skywave radio propagation. The FCC lifted this restriction in early 2007. DRM, however, is being used across Europe on shortwave, which is entirely AM skywave, without issue. With the proper receiver, many of those stations can be heard in North America as well, sans the analog signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
2mjymt
|
Are there any examples of successful opposition to Jim Crow in the segregated South before Brown v. Board?
|
[
{
"answer": "Good question. We often think that African American protest and the Civil Rights Movement began with Brown v. Board of Education in 1954. This is usually the beginning marker because it was the first successful legal battle for de-segregation. However, do we define successful opposition to Jim Crow as only legal battles? \n\nThe current scholarship is leaning more and more to the answer \"no\". Opposition can take many forms, individual, silent protest, labor agitation, organizing community councils, boycotts, etc. This type of African American protest has existed as long as there have been African Americans (this is not my specialty, but slave narratives are a good example of the small and large ways blacks protested oppression). In terms of the 20th century, African American protest began to organize more and solidify into a coherent argument during the labor agitation of the 1930s, and there you can see many instances of successful challenges of Jim Crow.\n\nInterlude: Jim Crow didn't exist only in the South. My current research is on Depression-era blacks in the Midwest, and often the conditions and social treatment of African Americans outside of the South was comparable. For more, see Thomas Sugrue's [*Sweet Land of Liberty:: The Forgotten Struggle of Civil Rights in the North*](_URL_2_) and Kimberley Phillips' [*AlabamaNorth African American Migrants, Community, and Working-Class Activism in Cleveland*](_URL_0_).\n\nOk, back to the South. So how do we define \"successful opposition\"? Robin D. G. Kelley argues that opposition to racism is not always obvious. In [\"'We Are Not What We Seem:' Re-thinking Black Working Clark Opposition in Jim Crow South](_URL_3_)\", Kelley talks about how workers would sing hymn and spirituals while they worked in dismal factories. While employers thought this was a simple show of religion, in fact it held deeper meaning for the black workers. It was a recall to the days of slavery when slaves used hidden meanings in spirituals to give hope (as well as clues) for escape. Kelley also talks about silent protest, like slow-downs, where workers would intentionally work slower to delay production. Outside of work, African Americans in the South would also participate on small, unorganized levels of protest. Kelley tells of the story of a particularly racist bus driver would drew his gun several times on black women riders, and how he would intentionally miss blacks' stops. The riders responded by ringing the bell for stops and not get off. Is this a successful protest?\n\nOne last example of protest was the [\"Don't Buy Where You Can't Work\"](_URL_1_) movement, which had several iterations across the country, both northern and southern cities. There were many businesses, large and small, that would not employ blacks. African Americans in cities like Chicago would organize and decide to boycott businesses that would practice this, until the businesses would hire black employees. This also promoted black businesses in the community. Is this a successful protest?\n\nI know answering a question with more questions is such a typical historian move, but I do think it's important to challenge what we mean by protest. I definitely recommend you read Kelley's article (and really anything by Kelley- he's superb). But in short, I would argue yes- there were many ways African Americans successfully protested Jim Crow, in the South and North, prior to Brown v. Board. They might not be forms of protest we are familiar with, but it was brave all the same.",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19481110",
"title": "Jim Crow laws",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "These Jim Crow laws revived principles of the 1865 and 1866 Black Codes, which had previously restricted the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans. Segregation of public (state-sponsored) schools was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1954 in \"Brown v. Board of Education\". In some states it took many years to implement this decision. Generally, the remaining Jim Crow laws were overruled by the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, but years of action and court challenges have been needed to unravel the many means of institutional discrimination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2116563",
"title": "Nashville sit-ins",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "In 1896, the United States Supreme Court decision \"Plessy v. Ferguson\" upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the doctrine of \"separate but equal\". This decision led to the proliferation of Jim Crow laws throughout the United States. These laws mandated or explicitly allowed segregation in virtually all spheres of public life and allowed racial discrimination to flourish across the country, especially in the southern United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71908",
"title": "Earl Warren",
"section": "Section::::U.S. Supreme Court.:1950s.:\"Brown v. Board of Education\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "Soon after joining the Court, Warren presided over the case of \"Brown v. Board of Education\", which arose from the NAACP's legal challenge against Jim Crow laws in the Southern United States. Southern states had implemented Jim Crow laws in aftermath of the Reconstruction Era to disenfranchise African Americans and segregate public schools and other institutions. In the 1896 case of \"Plessy v. Ferguson\", the Court had held that the Fourteenth Amendment did not prohibit segregation in public institutions so long as the institutions were \"separate but equal.\" In the decades after \"Plessy\", the NAACP had won several incremental victories, but 17 states required the segregation of public schools by 1954. In 1951, the Vinson Court had begun hearing the NAACP's legal challenge to segregated school systems, but it had not rendered a decision by the time Warren took office.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71908",
"title": "Earl Warren",
"section": "Section::::U.S. Supreme Court.:1950s.:Other decisions and events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 1220,
"text": "Meanwhile, many Southern politicians expressed outrage at the Court's decisions and promised to resist any federal attempt to force desegregation, a strategy known as massive resistance. Although \"Brown\" did not mandate immediate school desegregation or bar other \"separate but equal\" institutions, most observers recognized that the decision marked the beginning of the end for the Jim Crow system. Throughout his years as Chief, Warren succeeded in keeping decisions concerning segregation unanimous. Brown applied to schools, but soon the Court enlarged the concept to other state actions, striking down racial classification in many areas. Warren did compromise by agreeing to Frankfurter's demand that the Court go slowly in implementing desegregation; Warren used Frankfurter's suggestion that a 1955 decision (\"Brown II\") include the phrase \"all deliberate speed\". In 1956, after the Montgomery bus boycott, the Supreme Court affirmed a lower court's decision that had held that segregated buses were unconstitutional. Two years later, he assigned Brennan to write the Court's opinion \"Cooper v. Aaron\"; Brennan held that state officials were legally bound to enforce the Court's desegregation ruling in \"Brown\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40845811",
"title": "School segregation in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Historical segregation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1036,
"text": "The constitutionality of Jim Crow laws was upheld in the Supreme Court's decision in \"Plessy v. Ferguson\" (1896), which ruled that separate facilities for blacks and whites were permissible provided that the facilities were of equal quality. The fact that separate facilities for blacks and other minorities were chronically underfunded and of lesser quality was not successfully challenged in court for decades. This decision was subsequently overturned in 1954, when the Supreme Court ruling in \"Brown v. Board of Education\" ended \"de jure\" segregation in the United States. In the decade following \"Brown,\" the South resisted enforcement of the Court's decision. States and school districts did little to reduce segregation, and schools remained almost completely segregated until 1968, after Congressional passage of civil rights legislation. Desegregation efforts reached their peak in the late 1960s and early 1970s, a period in which the South transitioned from complete segregation to being the nation's most integrated region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29930118",
"title": "Housing discrimination in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1265,
"text": "After the end of the Civil War and the abolition of slavery, Jim Crow laws were introduced. These laws led to the discrimination of racial and ethnic minorities, especially African Americans. Fifteen state courts obeyed ordinances that enforced the denial of housing to African American and other minority groups in white-zoned areas. In the 1917 Supreme Court case \"Buchanan v. Warley\", the court ruled that a Louisville, Kentucky ordinance prohibiting blacks from owning or occupying buildings in a majority-white neighborhood, and vice versa, was unconstitutional. Following this decision, however, nineteen states legally supported \"covenants,\" or agreements, between property owners to not rent or sell any homes to racial or ethnic minorities. Although the covenants, too, were made illegal in 1948, they were still allowed to be present in private deeds. It was not until the Fair Housing Act, enacted as Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968, that the federal government made its first concrete steps to deem all types of housing discrimination unconstitutional. The act explicitly prohibits housing discrimination practices common at the time, including filtering information about a home's availability, racial steering, blockbusting, and redlining.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1080344",
"title": "History of the Southern United States",
"section": "Section::::Origins of the New South (1877–1913).:Race: from Jim Crow to the Civil Rights Movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "After the Redeemers took control in the mid-1870s, Jim Crow laws were created to legally enforce racial segregation in public facilities and services. The phrase \"separate but equal\", upheld in the 1896 Supreme Court case \"Plessy v. Ferguson\", came to represent the notion that whites and blacks should have access to physically separate but ostensibly equal facilities. It would not be until 1954 that \"Plessy\" was overturned in \"Brown v. Board of Education\", and only in the late 1960s was segregation fully repealed by legislation passed following the Civil Rights Movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2o7fzf
|
When/how did we begin to view the Earth as a planet in a solar system of multiple planets? In other words, at what point in time would you be able to ask "What planet are we on?" and people would begin to understand what you're talking about? [X-post to no stupid questions]
|
[
{
"answer": "hi! other responses are welcome (especially to represent various other cultures), but you can get started here\n\n* [When did humans become aware that they were on planet Earth, in a solar system, and part of the Universe?](_URL_0_)\n\nIt might also be worth x-posting to /r/AskScience (astronomy)",
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "22915",
"title": "Planet",
"section": "Section::::History.:European Renaissance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "With the advent of the Scientific Revolution, use of the term \"planet\" changed from something that moved across the sky (in relation to the star field); to a body that orbited Earth (or that was believed to do so at the time); and by the 18th century to something that directly orbited the Sun when the heliocentric model of Copernicus, Galileo and Kepler gained sway.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "899973",
"title": "Definition of planet",
"section": "Section::::History.:Planets in antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 888,
"text": "While knowledge of the planets predates history and is common to most civilizations, the word \"planet\" dates back to ancient Greece. Most Greeks believed the Earth to be stationary and at the center of the universe in accordance with the geocentric model and that the objects in the sky, and indeed the sky itself, revolved around it (an exception was Aristarchus of Samos, who put forward an early version of heliocentrism). Greek astronomers employed the term \"asteres planetai\" (ἀστέρες πλανῆται), \"wandering stars\", to describe those starlike lights in the heavens that moved over the course of the year, in contrast to the \"asteres aplaneis\" (ἀστέρες ἀπλανεῖς), the \"fixed stars\", which stayed motionless relative to one another. The five bodies currently called \"planets\" that were known to the Greeks were those visible to the naked eye: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9228",
"title": "Earth",
"section": "Section::::Cultural and historical viewpoint.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 1055,
"text": "Scientific investigation has resulted in several culturally transformative shifts in people's view of the planet. Initial belief in a flat Earth was gradually displaced in the Greek colonies of southern Italy during the late 6th century BC by the idea of spherical Earth, which was attributed to both the philosophers Pythagoras and Parmenides. By the end of the 5th century BC, the sphericity of Earth was universally accepted among Greek intellectuals. Earth was generally believed to be the center of the universe until the 16th century, when scientists first conclusively demonstrated that it was a moving object, comparable to the other planets in the Solar System. Due to the efforts of influential Christian scholars and clerics such as James Ussher, who sought to determine the age of Earth through analysis of genealogies in Scripture, Westerners before the 19th century generally believed Earth to be a few thousand years old at most. It was only during the 19th century that geologists realized Earth's age was at least many millions of years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "22915",
"title": "Planet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1019,
"text": "The term \"planet\" is ancient, with ties to history, astrology, science, mythology, and religion. Five planets in the Solar System are visible to the naked eye. These were regarded by many early cultures as divine, or as emissaries of deities. As scientific knowledge advanced, human perception of the planets changed, incorporating a number of disparate objects. In 2006, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) officially adopted a resolution defining planets within the Solar System. This definition is controversial because it excludes many objects of planetary mass based on where or what they orbit. Although eight of the planetary bodies discovered before 1950 remain \"planets\" under the current definition, some celestial bodies, such as Ceres, Pallas, Juno and Vesta (each an object in the solar asteroid belt), and Pluto (the first trans-Neptunian object discovered), that were once considered \"planets\" by the scientific community, are no longer viewed as planets under the current definition of \"planet\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52747774",
"title": "Paradises Lost",
"section": "Section::::Setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1176,
"text": "The planet Earth is referred to as facing the social and environmental problems expected in contemporary society. The generation that boarded the ship intended their descendants to understand and value a terrestrial existence, but over time the words and images associated with being on a planet begin to lose meaning to those on the ship, who become adapted to a shipboard existence, and struggle to understand the motivations of the zeroth generation. Aboard the \"Discovery\", the major religions of Earth are depicted as having gradually lost meaning, but have been replaced by the religious cult of Bliss, with members known as angels. The adherents of the cult believe that their purpose in life is to overcome their connections to a terrestrial existence. They do not see their belief as a religion, and believe that the world outside the ship is an illusion. Only the voyage itself, and not the origin or destination, matters. In contrast to much of Le Guin's science fiction, which explores interactions between humans and extraterrestrial beings, the characters in \"Paradises Lost\" deal with being literally \"extra-terrestrial\", or disconnected from terrestrial life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "899973",
"title": "Definition of planet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "By the end of the 19th century the word \"planet\", though it had yet to be defined, had become a working term applied only to a small set of objects in the Solar System. After 1992, however, astronomers began to discover many additional objects beyond the orbit of Neptune, as well as hundreds of objects orbiting other stars. These discoveries not only increased the number of potential planets, but also expanded their variety and peculiarity. Some were nearly large enough to be stars, while others were smaller than Earth's moon. These discoveries challenged long-perceived notions of what a \"planet\" could be.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22915",
"title": "Planet",
"section": "Section::::History.:European Renaissance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Thus, Earth became included in the list of planets, whereas the Sun and Moon were excluded. At first, when the first satellites of Jupiter and Saturn were discovered in the 17th century, the terms \"planet\" and \"satellite\" were used interchangeably – although the latter would gradually become more prevalent in the following century. Until the mid-19th century, the number of \"planets\" rose rapidly because any newly discovered object directly orbiting the Sun was listed as a planet by the scientific community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3z1ksj
|
how can bill cosby's wife be compelled to testify against him?
|
[
{
"answer": "The legal protection your're thinking of is called \"spousal priviledge\". Here's the full wiki if you want to learn all about it. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe most relevant line to your question seems to be \"The privileges may also be suspended where both spouses are joint participants in a crime\". So if she knew about all of this, or in any way helped him, couple be guilty of a crime herself. \n\nIf memory serves, I also believe that spousal privilege only applies if the spouse is the ONLY person to be privy to the information. If the defendant freely shared it with others, then the spouse may be compelled to share their knowledge of it as well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The problem is that, while she is his wife, she's *also* his business manager. The plaintiffs say they're only asking her to testify in her role as his business manager.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "His wife was his business manager. Therefore, she is being deposed as a former (?) business manager. She is not being deposed as a wife, and she's not being asked questions about spousal conversations that the law is meant to protect. Therefore, there is no conflict with compelling the business manager's testimony.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was actually just looking this up because I was curious too. Massachusetts code 504 (a) (3) specifically excludes spousal privilege from civil proceedings, which the defamation case is.\n_URL_0_\n\nAt least that is why I think the judge denied the appeal to keep Cosby from testifying.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16062678",
"title": "Camille Cosby",
"section": "Section::::Bill Cosby sexual assault cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "On May 3, 2018, after her husband's conviction for sexual assault, Cosby released a three-page statement defending her husband in which she compared her husband's conviction to the racially charged killing of Emmett Till, a fourteen-year-old boy who was lynched after a white woman said she was offended by him in her family's grocery store. Cosby also called for a criminal investigation into the Pennsylvania prosecutor behind the conviction, and argued that her husband had a \"binding agreement\" with Bruce Castor that he wouldn't be charged in the case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16062678",
"title": "Camille Cosby",
"section": "Section::::Bill Cosby sexual assault cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "On December 9, 2015, Cosby was subpoenaed by Attorney Joseph Cammarata to give a deposition in a civil defamation lawsuit filed against her husband by seven women. Cosby’s motion to quash the subpoena was later dismissed by the U.S. Magistrate Judge, and she was ordered to testify under oath. In the deposition of February 2016, Cosby invoked spousal privilege when asked whether Bill had been faithful to her.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9860062",
"title": "Bruce Castor",
"section": "Section::::Montgomery County District Attorney.:Notable cases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1193,
"text": "BULLET::::- Bill Cosby - Castor declined to prosecute Cosby for sexual assault in 2005 after he found \"insufficient, credible and admissible evidence exists upon which any charge against Mr. Cosby could be sustained beyond a reasonable doubt.\" In November, 2014 and through the November 2015 election, Castor's decision was heavily criticized, especially when other women came forward to accuse Cosby. Castor, however, correctly assessed that none of these women known to him at the time would have been allowed to testify, making them legally irrelevant to the question of whether Castor should have arrested Cosby. A judge in 2017 confirmed the correctness of Castor's legal analysis. On December 30, 2015, with the statute of limitations about to expire, Cosby was charged with felony sexual assault. At a preliminary hearing on February 2, 2016, Castor testified that he made a promise to never prosecute Cosby for the incident, but Judge Steven T. O'Neill (whom Castor had defeated to become district attorney in 1999 in a bitterly fought intra-party contest) ruled that the promise was not legally binding on the current district attorney, and ordered that the criminal case to proceed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44590252",
"title": "Bill Cosby sexual assault cases",
"section": "Section::::Criminal proceedings and trial #2.:Appeals Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "According to Bob Law, the chairman of the National Black Leadership Alliance, Cosby was convicted with no physical evidence supporting the charges, no collaborating witnesses, no medical records, no police reports, only the accusations from events that occurred 30 years in the past. In a letter to NNPA Newswire, Law said “. . . that is in opposition to the legal principle that the accuser cannot bring the action and also be the witness without any collaborating evidence,”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44590252",
"title": "Bill Cosby sexual assault cases",
"section": "Section::::Civil lawsuits against Cosby.:Andrea Constand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "Constand filed a civil claim in March 2005, with thirteen women as potential witnesses if the case went to court. Cosby settled out of court for an undisclosed amount in November 2006. In a July 2005 \"Philadelphia Daily News\" interview, Beth Ferrier, one of the anonymous \"Jane Doe\" witnesses in the Constand case, alleged that in 1984 Cosby drugged her coffee and she awoke with her clothes partially removed. After learning that charges were not pursued in the case, Green, the only publicly named woman in the prior case, came forward with allegations in February 2005 that Cosby had drugged and assaulted her in the 1970s. Cosby's lawyer said that he did not know her and the events did not happen. It was revealed in 2018, in motions filed in Cosby's second criminal trial, that Cosby had settled with Constand for $3.5 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48030875",
"title": "Andrea Constand v. William H. Cosby, Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Cosby accusations and lawsuits.:2015 criminal charge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "Cosby appeared in court during the afternoon of December 30, 2015, to face the three second degree felony counts of aggravated indecent assault without entering a plea, arranged for bail, and was formally charged that afternoon. Testimony from the Constand's civil suit had been reviewed by that time and the file was said to contain new information. Cosby had testified that the sexual contact was consensual. However, according to an article in \"People\", Constand's lawyer, Dolores Troiani, referred to Cosby \"as a narcissist who didn't realize Constand (who was in a relationship with a woman at the time of the alleged assault) is gay\" in a 2015 filing during a defamation lawsuit by Cosby vs. Constand. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48030875",
"title": "Andrea Constand v. William H. Cosby, Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Cosby accusations and lawsuits.:2017 mistrial declaration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "On June 17, 2017, a US judge declared a mistrial in the Bill Cosby sex assault case after the jury remained deadlocked for days. The seven men and five women were unable to reach a unanimous decision after some 53 hours of deliberations in Norristown, Pennsylvania. District Attorney Kevin Steele The district attorney who brought the charges told reporters that the prosecution was seeking a retrial. \"We will evaluate and review our case. We will take a hard look at everything involved and then we will retry it. As I said in court, our plan is to move this case forward as soon as possible.\" Cosby, who faces at least four separate civil lawsuits, refused to testify at the trial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
118iwx
|
what kind of things would people have worn during beheadings in 17th Century France?
|
[
{
"answer": "Do you mean 18th century? Beheading by guillotine saw widespread use from 1790ish onward, not the 1600s. \n\nAssuming that you do, revolutionary fashion tended to involve plain, close-fitting shirts for men, somewhat influenced by the english landed gentry. Frenchmen would also wear a plain frock or riding coat, short waistcoat or high leather boots, again due to English fashion, which became very popular in France.\n\nSimplicity came to be seen as progressive in the early 1790s, but the *bonnet rouge* (red bonnet) also became popular, as did the colours of red, white and blue. The tricolour cockade was worn often, and clothes often had those 'revolutionary' colours.\n\n[Here](_URL_0_) is an example of French soldiers, dressed in the revolutionary tricolour. [Here](_URL_1_) are male *sans-culottes*, dressed in revolutionary colours, but less colourful clothes (as I mentioned above) were also common. [Here](_URL_4_) is the female version.\n\n[Here](_URL_2_) is a painting of the execution of the king, and [here](_URL_3_) is one of some other poor sod.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11558737",
"title": "Dress",
"section": "Section::::History.:16th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Starting in the 1550s, middle- and upper-class women in Europe wore dresses which included a smock, stays, kirtle, gown, forepart, sleeves, ruff and a partlet. Undergarments were not worn underneath. In England, Queen Elizabeth dictated what kinds of dresses women were allowed to wear. French women were inspired by Spanish-style bodices and also wore ruffs. French dresses were known as \"marlottes\". In Italy, dresses were known as \"ropa\" and \"semarra.\" Dresses in the 16th century also displayed surface decoration such as embroidery, with blackwork being especially popular.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19167764",
"title": "Undergarment",
"section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages and Renaissance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "Over the upper part of their bodies, both medieval men and women usually wore a close-fitting shirt-like garment called a chemise in France, or a smock or shift in England. The forerunner of the modern-day shirt, the chemise was tucked into a man's braies, under his outer clothing. Women wore a chemise underneath their gowns or robes, sometimes with petticoats over the chemise. Elaborately quilted petticoats might be displayed by a cut-away dress, in which case they served a skirt rather than an undergarment. During the 16th century, the farthingale was popular. This was a petticoat stiffened with reed or willow rods so that it stood out from a woman's body like a cone extending from the waist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33498164",
"title": "Guimpe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "The guimpe (from the French \"guimpe)\" or \"chemisette\" was a garment which developed in medieval Western Europe. It was a silk or linen kerchief, sometimes sheer, sometimes starched, which covered the neck and shoulders of the wearer, sometimes the entire chest as well. It was worn as part of the garb of a woman of means, both to show social standing—due to the added upkeep it required, and to demonstrate the woman's sense of modesty. For nuns it would be worn in combination with a coif and wimple.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9984560",
"title": "1300–1400 in European fashion",
"section": "Section::::Men's clothing.:Tunic and cotehardie.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "However, in the second half of the century, courtiers are often shown, if they have the figure for it, wearing nothing over their closely tailored cotehardie. A French chronicle records: \"Around that year (1350), men, in particular, noblemen and their squires, took to wearing tunics so short and tight that they revealed what modesty bids us hide. This was a most astonishing thing for the people\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13630909",
"title": "Lisbetha Olsdotter",
"section": "Section::::The trial.:Execution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "From the late 16th century to the early 19th century, there were several known cases in Swedish military history of women dressing and presenting as men, especially in the early 18th century. The most famous case was the one of Ulrika Eleonora Stålhammar in 1728. An unnamed woman, who served in the Great Northern War, was whipped as a punishment, but continued to wear male clothing until the 1740s, when she was known on the streets of Stockholm as \"The Rider\"; Maria Johansdotter, who was put on trial in Stockholm in 1706 for having dressed as a man and served as a parish clerk, was given a sentence of eight days in jail and then set free. Most of the cases did not lead to execution, as in the case of Lisbetha Olsdotter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60912311",
"title": "Escoffion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 2727,
"text": "An escoffion (French: /ɛsˈkɔfiˌjã/) was a piece of female medieval headwear which was popular during the Late Middle Ages (1250 AD to 1500 AD). It originated and was popular in European countries such as England, France and Gerrmany, and other Balkan states. The headpiece was made out of a thick, circular roll of material like wool, felt or silk. The material was shaped, by sewing or starching, into a double-horned configuration, with each horn sometimes being up to a yard long. Over the headdress, gauze or silk was sometimes draped for weight distribution or aesthetic purposes. The escoffion style was a sub-branch of a popular style of headwear called hennin. The style of the escoffion developed over time, eventually given its own name because of its popularity and distinct features which differed from the original conical hennin. The escoffion was a type of \"reticulated headdress\", meaning that it was bound together by a network of golden thread or wire. The headdress itself was made out of various types of materials, predominantly wool, using looms. The more intricate details were sewn on my skilled craftswomen or men. The hair of the wearer was tucked away under the headdress in a number of ways; the hair could either be braided and tucked underneath the escoffion or pinned into place on each side the head in configurations sometimes known as \"side-pillars\". Alternatively, the headdress was worn over a wimple or caul, simple pieces of cloth which kept the wearer's hair out of sight and provided a base for the larger headdress to attach on to. The covering of hair, sometimes called a \"bongrace\", was a common custom amongst women of the Middle Ages, and continued to be a prominent feature in headwear for many centuries. The escoffion was usually worn by women of high status, such as those who lived in the court, or those who were a part of the Royal Family. Who exactly could wear headwear such as the escoffion, or other luxury clothing items, was dictated by sumptuary laws which controlled the over-expenditure on luxury items and also maintained a type of social hierarchy based on birth, influence or economic income. While the escoffion was deemed a luxury item for a time, it was later deemed as ungraceful or clunky, as well as being condemned by moralist or religious groups for supposedly depicting satanic imagery. Additionally, the headwear came out of fashion into the 16th century simply because of its size; some wearers were often unable to do certain activities because their mobility was hindered by the weight upon their head. Thus, many women adopted a more simplistic style of headwear leading into the 16th century, which was both practical and conservatively feminine. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7959918",
"title": "Cotte",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "The cotte (or cote) was a medieval outer garment, a long sleeved shift, or tunic, usually girded, and worn by men and women. In medieval texts, it was used to translate \"tunica\" or \"chiton\". Synonyms included tunic or gown. It was worn over a shirt (\"chemise\"), and a sleeveless surcote could be worn over it. By the sixteenth century it had become a woman's undergarment, later (seventeenth century) it split into an upper 'corps' and a lower 'cotte', or skirt, amongst the poorer classes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
esxa1n
|
Why aren't analog computers more widely used?
|
[
{
"answer": "We don't use analogue computers because the cost and complexity to build such machines is extremely high, and their reliability is low for their cost.\n\nThe main problem with analogue computers is that in order to represent all of the possible values, you need multiple voltages across the circuits, and be able to accurately discern between them. For a binary computer, this is typically quite easy to handle: you have +5V and 0V. Detecting between the two is very easy, and errors in determining the voltage is extremely low -- circuits don't typically confuse +5V with 0V and vice-versa.\n\nAn analogue computer however has to have multiple voltages it must be able to discern. In fact, the voltages are _continuous_^0, which can make representing a specific value challenging. We do have the technology to make it work, but outside specific applications the precision needed to give accurate results is extremely high and very, very costly.\n\nDigital circuits on the other hand are very simple (in relative terms), and very, very cheap to manufacture. It is estimated that humanity has built over [13 sextillion MOS transistors](_URL_0_), making it the most manufactured item in the history of the world. Not only can we build them cheaply and at huge scales -- we can also make them extremely fast -- fast enough and cheap enough that computers based on them can be as fast (and in many cases, faster) than what we can achieve via an analogue computer.\n\nSo the short version is that it's cheaper and easier to optimize simpler circuits than it is complex circuits. That said, for some types of continuous calculations an analogue computer might make sense even with the extra expense and complexity involved -- however, for the vast majority of computation for which we want good integer math, digital computers will continue to reign supreme.\n\n-----\n^0 -- voltages are also continuous in a digital computer, but we use a clock to decide when the signal should be measured, such that we're only effectively taking measurements when the signal is either high or low.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1665281",
"title": "Analogue electronics",
"section": "Section::::Analogue vs digital electronics.:Design difficulty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "Analogue circuits are typically harder to design, requiring more skill than comparable digital systems. This is one of the main reasons that digital systems have become more common than analogue devices. An analogue circuit is usually designed by hand, and the process is much less automated than for digital systems. Since the early 2000s, there were some platforms that were developed which enabled Analog design to be defined using software - which allows faster prototyping. However, if a digital electronic device is to interact with the real world, it will always need an analogue interface. For example, every digital radio receiver has an analogue preamplifier as the first stage in the receive chain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2428",
"title": "Analog computer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Analog computers were widely used in scientific and industrial applications where digital computers of the time lacked sufficient performance. Analog computers can have a very wide range of complexity. Slide rules and nomograms are the simplest, while naval gunfire control computers and large hybrid digital/analog computers were among the most complicated. Systems for process control and protective relays used analog computation to perform control and protective functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2428",
"title": "Analog computer",
"section": "Section::::Decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 790,
"text": "In the 1950s to 1970s, digital computers based on first vacuum tubes, transistors, integrated circuits and then micro-processors became more economical and precise. This led digital computers to largely replace analog computers. Even so, some research in analog computation is still being done. A few universities still use analog computers to teach control system theory. The American company Comdyna manufactured small analog computers. At Indiana University Bloomington, Jonathan Mills has developed the Extended Analog Computer based on sampling voltages in a foam sheet. At the Harvard Robotics Laboratory, analog computation is a research topic. Lyric Semiconductor's error correction circuits use analog probabilistic signals. Slide rules are still popular among aircraft personnel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38433617",
"title": "Network analyzer (AC power)",
"section": "Section::::Decline and obsolescence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "One factor contributing to the obsolescence of analog models was the increasing complexity of interconnected power systems. Even a large analyzer could only represent a few machines, and perhaps a few score lines and busses. Digital computers routinely handled systems with thousands of busses and transmission lines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2428",
"title": "Analog computer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "The advent of digital computing made simple analog computers obsolete as early as the 1950s and 1960s, although analog computers remained in use in some specific applications, like the flight computer in aircraft, and for teaching control systems in universities. More complex applications, such as synthetic aperture radar, remained the domain of analog computing well into the 1980s, since digital computers were insufficient for the task.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2428",
"title": "Analog computer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "An analog computer or analogue computer is a type of computer that uses the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved. In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities symbolically, as their numerical values change. As an analog computer does not use discrete values, but rather continuous values, processes cannot be reliably repeated with exact equivalence, as they can with Turing machines. Unlike machines used for digital signal processing, analog computers do not suffer from the discrete error caused by quantization noise. Instead, results from analog computers are subject to continuous error caused by electronic noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18943937",
"title": "Emulator",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:CPU simulator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Interpreters are very popular as computer simulators, as they are much simpler to implement than more time-efficient alternative solutions, and their speed is more than adequate for emulating computers of more than roughly a decade ago on modern machines. However, the speed penalty inherent in interpretation can be a problem when emulating computers whose processor speed is on the same order of magnitude as the host machine. Until not many years ago, emulation in such situations was considered completely impractical by many.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2v03co
|
why does it get harder and harder to make friends and form meaningful relationships the older you get?
|
[
{
"answer": "Just one mans opinion here but.. I believe it has to do with shared experiences. When you are young the world is new and there is much to learn about it, you have friends and those friends get to experience all those things for the first time with you, strengthening your relationships. As you get older you know the game already, you have solidly formed opinions and a definitive perspective on life. You may go and do things with people but they aren't as ingrained in your view on life as those people that were with you when you were gaining that view. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it's the fact that the older we grow, the better we \"read through the bullshit\". In other words, we choose our friends more carefully. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "everything said here is correct. Let me add one more thing: time. The older you are, you start caring about how you are spending the extra time you have. You spend more time with parents, family, SO, etc, so making friends become difficult for you and everyone else. When you were younger, you see the same people everyday at school so building relationships was so seamless and easy -- absolutely zero effort needed. Now as adults, it takes planning, being considerate, and putting in a lot of effort from both sides... and that's where things fall apart, in addition to everything written here.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It also has to do with bumping into people unexpectedly yet predictably. You see the same people in classes, at the malt shop, down the hallway. The more often you encounter a person, the more likely you are to befriend them. Did you ever just ask someone in school to hang out simply because you'd seen them often enough to know they like the Clash too? Having something external like that, the Clash or hot rods, to bond over also made it easier when you were young.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it's because people are terrible. (Sorry.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As you get older, you become less and less of a fuck up yourself. When you are looking for friends...you begin to hold them to the same standards that you hold yourself to. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It doesn't.\n\nOr it did not for me anyways. Find hobbies that involve other people. I went a fair amount of my early adulthood grappling with the same issue as you. Then I..\n\n-Started working on hotrods (Thus mechanic buddies, racing pals, etc)\n-Took up a fitness routine (Gym bros)\n-Made drinking buddies (Frequent the same bar)\n-Joined a book club \n\nI have more high-quality friends now than any other time in my life. This certainly takes a fair amount of time. But if you throw yourself into those situations that demand repeated exposure - Your going to meet a lot of people you dont like. Your also going to meet a fair number that you do.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Baggage.\n\nThe older I get, the more I hate people.\n\nThe older I get, the more I have to explain *why* I hate people.\n\nAin't nobody got time for that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lack of sustained quarters amongst large groups of people.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "44 here.\n\nI don't have alot of time for BS. Friends bring baggage and BS. I don't have much free time at this age. If you've already got a spouse/job/kids or some combination of that, there is not much time left. \n\nI value my free time much more and I realize how little of it I have. \n\nI don't hate people. I just have no time for them. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "lots of really odd answers in this thread that're way too analytical. you aren't making new friends because you aren't constantly surrounded by people anymore. how do you expect to make new friends if you aren't getting out there?\n\ni'm almost 26 with more friends today than i've ever had in my life. how? i go out like three or four times a week; i'm always meeting new people and forming new relationships.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Older people get more definite in their preferences and opinions. Life experiences have revealed the really DARK realities of human nature. Once you learn these things, it's impossible to \"unlearn\" them just because you want to develop some new relationship. You figure out just exactly what the other person is under the surface and he or she may figure out exactly what you are. Very few people are comfortable with being clearly understood. There are a lot of illusions most would like to hide from you or even from their own consciousness. At a certain age it becomes exhausting to walk on eggshells.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48640145",
"title": "Greek letter society effect on youth identity",
"section": "Section::::Greek Life and Relationship Building.:Relationships in Identity Creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1408,
"text": "Relationship building is a component to identity creation in young adults. Attending college is the next step for many privileged high school students when transitioning into adulthood. Prior to college, young people who attend rely more heavily upon their parents or parental figures for guidance through difficult transitions or stressful life situations. As young people begin to take on more responsibilities that are linked with adult life, they transition from relying on their parents to relying on their peers. These relationships include friendships and romantic relationships. These relationships, and their quality, become a factor in how young adults create their identity, and use them to transition into adulthood. The greater support accumulated from peer relationships allowed for flourishing academics, greater mental health, and more confidence in self characteristics. The quality of peer relationships has been seen as a sign of how well the student is adjusting to college and their next steps into life. Greek letter organizations give students an option to create or seek out these relationships at an early, and vulnerable step in their new journey. But, these relationships created at such an infantile stage in their development can also cause student to adopt values and perceptions that may not have surfaced without the influence of their fraternity brothers or sorority sisters\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17157119",
"title": "Friendship",
"section": "Section::::Developmental psychology.:Older adults.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Older adults continue to report high levels of personal satisfaction in their friendships as they age, and even as the overall number of friends tends to decline. This satisfaction is associated with an increased ability to accomplish activities of daily living, as well as a reduced decline in cognitive abilities, decreased instances of hospitalization, and better outcomes related to rehabilitation. The overall number of reported friends in later life may be mediated by increased lucidity, better speech and vision, and marital status.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55609917",
"title": "Honjok",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Social Causes.:Ennui in human relations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The number of young people who give up their relationships due to increasing competition, difficulty in finding jobs, and living difficulties is increasing. These young people are reluctant to try to maintain unnecessary human relationships and do not feel the need for new ones. They try to avoid meetings which involve many people. They also do not think they need to maintain human relationships because of stress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12947872",
"title": "Adult development",
"section": "Section::::Relationships.:Friends.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "Friendships, similar to family relationships, are often the support system for many individuals and a fundamental aspect of life from young adulthood to old age. Social friendships are important to emotional fulfillment, behavioral adjustment, and cognitive function. Research has shown that emotional closeness in relationships greatly increases with age even though the number of social relationships and the development of new relationships begin to decline. In young adulthood, friendships are grounded in similar aged peers with similar goals, though these relations might be more transitory. In older adulthood, friendships have been found to be much deeper and longer lasting. While small in number, the quality of relationships is generally thought to be much stronger for older adults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17157119",
"title": "Friendship",
"section": "Section::::Developmental psychology.:Older adults.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "As family responsibilities and vocational pressures lessen, friendships become more important. Among the elderly, friendships can provide links to the larger community, serve as a protective factor against depression and loneliness, and compensate for potential losses in social support previously given by family members. Especially for people who cannot go out as often, interactions with friends allow for continued societal interaction. Additionally, older adults in declining health who remain in contact with friends show improved psychological well-being.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26515753",
"title": "Soft Fruit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "As you grow older, it's so difficult to stay in relationship with your adult brothers and sisters. When you get into your thirties and forties, paths are dividing. \"Soft Fruit\" is about that sibling struggle. You think you don't care when you have a fight and fall out. Someone is always on the outer. It's about that struggle to get back on the inner, on the inside.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17157119",
"title": "Friendship",
"section": "Section::::Developmental psychology.:Adolescence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "In adolescence, friendships become \"more giving, sharing, frank, supportive, and spontaneous.\" Adolescents tend to seek out peers who can provide such qualities in a reciprocal relationship, and to avoid peers whose problematic behavior suggest they may not be able to satisfy these needs. Relationships begin to maintain a focus on shared values, loyalty, and common interests, rather than physical concerns like proximity and access to play things that more characterize childhood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9i7xe3
|
what makes me... me? memories? consciousness? my body? and why?
|
[
{
"answer": "No one really knows the answer to this. I've alwyas considered someone's thoughts and their body make up who they are, but then again thoughts and your body can be manipulated and changed.\n\nIve always found it amazing that we are made up of different cells, like they're completely different living things to eachother, but all seem to 'sgare' a consciousness.\n\nIn short it's probably best not to overthink it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5583202",
"title": "Preconscious",
"section": "Section::::Freud's 'Topographical' System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "\"If consciousness is then the sum total of everything of which we are aware, pre-consciousness is the reservoir of everything we can remember, all that is accessible to voluntary recall: the storehouse of memory. This leaves the unconscious area of mental life to contain all the more primitive drives and impulses influencing our actions without our necessarily ever becoming fully aware of them, together with every important constellation of ideas or memories with a strong emotional charge, which have at one time been present in consciousness but have since been repressed so that they are no longer available to it, even through introspection or attempts at memory\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42037",
"title": "Unconscious mind",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Thus the unconscious mind can be seen as the source of dreams and automatic thoughts (those that appear without any apparent cause), the repository of forgotten memories (that may still be accessible to consciousness at some later time), and the locus of implicit knowledge (the things that we have learned so well that we do them without thinking).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2029298",
"title": "Benjamin Libet",
"section": "Section::::Implications of Libet's experiments.:Reactions by dualist philosophers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "In short, the [neuronal] causes and correlates of conscious experience should not be confused with their \"ontology\" [...] the \"only\" evidence about what conscious experiences are like comes from first-person sources, which consistently suggest consciousness to be something other than or additional to neuronal activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22189413",
"title": "Up from Dragons",
"section": "Section::::Chapters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "BULLET::::11. Where Memories are Made: The human sense of identity arises from the need of the brain to experience a past linked to the present. Here, the mindmaker is the hippocampus. It underlies memory and the sense of continuity of self, other and place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4483284",
"title": "Body memory",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "These memories are often associated with phantom pain in a part or parts of the body – the body appearing to remember the past trauma. The idea of body memory is a belief frequently associated with the idea of repressed memories, in which memories of incest or sexual abuse can be retained and recovered through physical sensations. It may also be associated with phantom limb sensation but this is less common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10992052",
"title": "Methods of neuro-linguistic programming",
"section": "Section::::Representational systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1165,
"text": "The notion that experience is processed by the sensory systems or representational systems, was incorporated into NLP from psychology and gestalt therapy shortly after its creation. This teaches that people perceive the world through the senses and store the information from the senses in the mind. Memories are closely linked to sensory experience. When people are processing information they see images and hear sounds and voices and process this with internally created feelings. Some representations are within conscious awareness but information is largely processed at the unconscious level. When involved in any task, such as making conversation, describing a problem in therapy, reading a book, kicking a ball or riding a horse, their representational systems, consisting of images, sounds, feelings (and possibly smell and taste) are being activated at the same time. Moreover, the way representational systems are organised and the links between them impact on behavioral performance. Many NLP techniques rely on interrupting maladaptive patterns and replacing them with more positive and creative thought patterns which will in turn impact on behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1496804",
"title": "Hidden personality",
"section": "Section::::Carl Jung.:Personal Unconscious.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "The Personal Unconscious, as conceived by Jung, encompasses the totality of what Freud recognized as \"the unconscious\" and corresponds to what most of us intuitively associate with the term \"unconscious mind.\" It contains those elements of our own unique life experience which have been forgotten, ignored, repressed, suppressed or otherwise blocked from consciousness. Some of these elements can be easily recalled into consciousness at will, while others may be more difficult to access or retrieve. In simpler terms, the Personal Unconscious are the thoughts, ideas, emotions, and other mental phenomena acquired and repressed during one's lifetime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1gzqh2
|
when do you stop worrying about heat from air friction, and start worrying about air compression.
|
[
{
"answer": "Engines that use supersonic air compression ([scramjets](_URL_0_)) for propulsion start working around mach 5.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3399064",
"title": "Total air temperature",
"section": "Section::::Ram rise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Kinetic heating\". As the airspeed increases, more and more molecules of air per second hit the aircraft. This causes a temperature rise in the Direct Reading thermometer probe of the aircraft due to friction. Because the airflow is thought to be compressible and isentropic, which, by definition, is adiabatic and reversible, the equations used in this article do not take account of \"friction heating\". This is why the calculation of static air temperature requires the use of the recovery factor, formula_8. Kinetic heating for modern passenger jets is almost negligible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "460321",
"title": "Diving cylinder",
"section": "Section::::Filling.:Temperature change during filling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 244,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 244,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Compression of ambient air causes a temperature rise of the gas, proportional to the pressure increase. Ambient air is typically compressed in stages, and the gas temperature rises during each stage. Intercoolers and water cooling heat exchangers can remove this heat between stages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37754",
"title": "Mountain",
"section": "Section::::Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an adiabatic process, which has a characteristic pressure-temperature dependence. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic lapse rate, which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometre (or 5.4 °F per 1000 feet) of altitude.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "496730",
"title": "Alpine climate",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an adiabatic process, which has a characteristic pressure-temperature curve. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic lapse rate, which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometer (or 5.4 °F per 1000 feet) of altitude.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59211",
"title": "Altitude",
"section": "Section::::In atmospheric studies.:Temperature profile.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an adiabatic process, which has a characteristic pressure-temperature curve. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic lapse rate, which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometer (or 5.4 °F per 1000 feet) of altitude.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "224312",
"title": "Lapse rate",
"section": "Section::::Convection and adiabatic expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as the other air at the same elevation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34545370",
"title": "Airflow",
"section": "Section::::Airflow in buildings.:Relationship of air movement to thermal comfort and overall Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "Airflow is a factor of concern when designing to meet occupant thermal comfort standards (such as ASHRAE 55). Varying rates of air movement may positively or negatively impact individuals’ perception of warmth or coolness, and hence their comfort. Air velocity interacts with air temperature, relative humidity, radiant temperature of surrounding surfaces and occupants, and occupant skin conductivity, resulting in particular thermal sensations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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