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2aehw5
|
mri machines and how they look inside the brain.
|
[
{
"answer": "The machine uses an oscillating magnetic field to excite the hydrogen atoms in the water in your body. These emit a radio frequency which it then maps. So it's basically measuring how much water is in your body. Different types of tissue have different amounts of water which creates the contrast and forms the picture.\n\nThey can also give you contrast dye in your blood to help features show up better.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "MRI stands for Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Basically what it does is it creates a strong magnetic field which will excite hydrogen atoms in the body. When the hydrogen atoms return to their equilibrium state the electron will emit a radio frequency signal which can be detected by the device. \nThe way we're able to create 3D images with this method is because of how different tissues in the body consist of different amounts of hydrogen atoms, for example tissues that hold more water would therefor contain more hydrogen atoms than tissue that don't. So it's by measuring how much different tissue resonates with the magnetic field the MRI is creating that we can bascially \"look inside the brain\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53913590",
"title": "Gantry (medical)",
"section": "Section::::Magnetic resonance imaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "An MRI gantry remains fixed, and contains strong electromagnets and radio receivers that manipulate hydrogen atoms in the human body via proton nuclear magnetic resonance. The machine then receives and processes the signals given off by the hydrogen atoms in order to produce a 3D image of the interior of the patient's body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17690378",
"title": "MRI Robot",
"section": "Section::::MRI compatibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Researchers have attempted to overcome the difficulties of robotic components in MRI in a variety of ways; some have placed controls and other magnetic sensitive units outside the shielded room of the MRI. These controls will be connected to the robot by either hydraulic or pneumatic transmission lines. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1732125",
"title": "Cerebral atrophy",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Measures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "CT and MRI are most commonly used to observe the brain for cerebral atrophy. A CT scan takes cross sectional images of the brain using X-rays, while an MRI uses a magnetic field. With both measures, multiple images can be compared to see if there is a loss in brain volume over time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3557219",
"title": "Neuroimaging",
"section": "Section::::Brain imaging techniques.:Magnetic resonance imaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce high quality two- or three-dimensional images of brain structures without the use of ionizing radiation (X-rays) or radioactive tracers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37689507",
"title": "Neuroimaging intelligence testing",
"section": "Section::::Psychometrics.:n-Back Working Memory (WM) task.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "While inside the MRI machine, subjects are asked to complete a variety of tasks. The brain activity is then captured and recorded by using MRI, allowing specific brain responses to be paired with their respective n-back tasks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2154533",
"title": "Batten disease",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "BULLET::::- Computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are diagnostic imaging tests which allow physicians to better visualize the appearance of the brain. MRI imaging test uses magnetic fields and radio waves to help create images of the brain. CT scan uses x-rays and computers to create a detailed image of the brain's tissues and structures. Both diagnostic imaging test can help reveal brain areas that are decaying, or atrophic, in persons with NCL.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "987320",
"title": "Neurotechnology",
"section": "Section::::Current technologies.:Live Imaging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is used for scanning the brain for topological and landmark structure in the brain, but can also be used for imaging activation in the brain. While detail about how MRI works is reserved for the actual MRI article, the uses of MRI are far reaching in the study of neuroscience. It is a cornerstone technology in studying the mind, especially with the advent of functional MRI (fMRI). Functional MRI measures the oxygen levels in the brain upon activation (higher oxygen content = neural activation) and allows researchers to understand what loci are responsible for activation under a given stimulus. This technology is a large improvement to single cell or loci activation by means of exposing the brain and contact stimulation. Functional MRI allows researchers to draw associative relationships between different loci and regions of the brain and provides a large amount of knowledge in establishing new landmarks and loci in the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
k3azb
|
What would it look like to be living on a planet in or very "close" to a nebula?
|
[
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\ntldw: it wouldn't look like anything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "while it does not simulate auroras, give Space Engine a try. fly into a nebula and find a star system with a planet that has an atmosphere. Land, check out the sky.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A planetary nebula is a nebula that is created by a star during the end of its AGB phase. If you were on a planet in or near a planetary nebula, you'd be dead, because your star is a red giant.\n\nAn emission nebula is typically a star forming region. It is in the process of creating a number of new stars within it. Once these stars are formed, however, they'll start streaming out solar wind and ionizing radiation. At first, the ionizing radiation will make the nebula glow, but eventually the combined solar wind will blow the nebula away. Living on a planet near an emission nebula would be a lot like being a bacteria, because that's all that life on the planet has had time to evolve into.\n\nA reflection nebula is a later stage of the star forming region emission nebula I mentioned above. In this case, the stars are particular numerous, hot, and bright, so that even after they're not really causing the nebula to glow, it's still illuminating the nebula. Chances are, the intense ultraviolet radiation from these stars will sterilize all the planets nearby.\n\nSo there's your answer: You wouldn't be on a planet near a nebula. If, however, you were to build a spaceship and fly to a nebula, it probably wouldn't be that impressive. The nebula would probably be fairly dim and would have a tendency to obscure the objects behind it. In the areas where the nebula is the thickest it would obscure the stars entirely.\n\nAll nebulae have color. The trouble is that your eyes has two types of light sensing cells. There are cones, which detect color and detail, and can't see dim objects. There are three subtypes of cones; one for each color. There are also rods, which work even in very low light levels, but which can't see detail very well and can't see color. Nebulae are so dim that only your rods can see them, and rods can't see color. You need a very large telescope to see color even in the brightest nebulae. Like 24\" or more aperture. Well, ok, I guess 24\" isn't that much when you're talking about research grade equipment, but for an amateur astronomer, that's a lot. Scopes like that cost tens of thousands of dollars.\n\nNote that planetary nebulae do not give rise to planets. The name is a misnomer that dates back to the very, very early days of astronomy. They're shaped not entirely unlike planets, only they're nebulous, so early astronomers thought they were literally nebulous planets.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\ntldw: it wouldn't look like anything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "while it does not simulate auroras, give Space Engine a try. fly into a nebula and find a star system with a planet that has an atmosphere. Land, check out the sky.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A planetary nebula is a nebula that is created by a star during the end of its AGB phase. If you were on a planet in or near a planetary nebula, you'd be dead, because your star is a red giant.\n\nAn emission nebula is typically a star forming region. It is in the process of creating a number of new stars within it. Once these stars are formed, however, they'll start streaming out solar wind and ionizing radiation. At first, the ionizing radiation will make the nebula glow, but eventually the combined solar wind will blow the nebula away. Living on a planet near an emission nebula would be a lot like being a bacteria, because that's all that life on the planet has had time to evolve into.\n\nA reflection nebula is a later stage of the star forming region emission nebula I mentioned above. In this case, the stars are particular numerous, hot, and bright, so that even after they're not really causing the nebula to glow, it's still illuminating the nebula. Chances are, the intense ultraviolet radiation from these stars will sterilize all the planets nearby.\n\nSo there's your answer: You wouldn't be on a planet near a nebula. If, however, you were to build a spaceship and fly to a nebula, it probably wouldn't be that impressive. The nebula would probably be fairly dim and would have a tendency to obscure the objects behind it. In the areas where the nebula is the thickest it would obscure the stars entirely.\n\nAll nebulae have color. The trouble is that your eyes has two types of light sensing cells. There are cones, which detect color and detail, and can't see dim objects. There are three subtypes of cones; one for each color. There are also rods, which work even in very low light levels, but which can't see detail very well and can't see color. Nebulae are so dim that only your rods can see them, and rods can't see color. You need a very large telescope to see color even in the brightest nebulae. Like 24\" or more aperture. Well, ok, I guess 24\" isn't that much when you're talking about research grade equipment, but for an amateur astronomer, that's a lot. Scopes like that cost tens of thousands of dollars.\n\nNote that planetary nebulae do not give rise to planets. The name is a misnomer that dates back to the very, very early days of astronomy. They're shaped not entirely unlike planets, only they're nebulous, so early astronomers thought they were literally nebulous planets.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27919881",
"title": "Little Ghost Nebula",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Round and planet-shaped, the nebula is also relatively faint. Planetary nebulae are not related to planets at all, but instead are created at the end of a sun-like star's life as its outer layers expand into space while the star's core shrinks to become a white dwarf. The transformed white dwarf star, seen near the center, radiates strongly at ultraviolet wavelengths and powers the expanding nebula's glow. The nebula's main ring structure is about a light-year across and the glow from ionized oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen atoms are colored blue, green, and red respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17052696",
"title": "History of Solar System formation and evolution hypotheses",
"section": "Section::::Solar evolution hypotheses.:Planetary nebulae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "Planetary nebulae are generally faint objects, and none are visible to the naked eye. The first planetary nebula discovered was the Dumbbell Nebula in the constellation of Vulpecula, observed by Charles Messier in 1764 and listed as M27 in his catalogue of nebulous objects. To early observers with low-resolution telescopes, M27 and subsequently discovered planetary nebulae somewhat resembled the gas giants, and William Herschel, discoverer of Uranus, eventually coined the term 'planetary nebula' for them, although, as we now know, they are very different from planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21664",
"title": "Nebula",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "Most nebulae are of vast size; some are hundreds of light-years in diameter. A nebula that is barely visible to the human eye from Earth would appear larger, but no brighter, from close by. The Orion Nebula, the brightest nebula in the sky and occupying an area twice the diameter of the full Moon, can be viewed with the naked eye but was missed by early astronomers. Although denser than the space surrounding them, most nebulae are far less dense than any vacuum created on Earth – a nebular cloud the size of the Earth would have a total mass of only a few kilograms. Many nebulae are visible due to fluorescence caused by embedded hot stars, while others are so diffuse they can only be detected with long exposures and special filters. Some nebulae are variably illuminated by T Tauri variable stars. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10795399",
"title": "NGC 3242",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "This planetary nebula is most frequently called the \"Ghost of Jupiter\", or \"Jupiter's Ghost\" due to its similar size to the planet, but it is also sometimes referred to as the \"Eye Nebula\". The nebula measures around two light years long from end to end, and contains a central white dwarf with an apparent magnitude of eleven. The inner layers of the nebula were formed some 1,500 years ago. The two ends of the nebula are marked by FLIERs, lobes of fast moving gas often tinted red in false-color pictures. NGC 3242 can easily be observed with amateur telescopes and appears bluish-green to most observers. Larger telescopes can distinguish the outer halo as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39674",
"title": "Planetary nebula",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Numbers and distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "About 3000 planetary nebulae are now known to exist in our galaxy, out of 200 billion stars. Their very short lifetime compared to total stellar lifetime accounts for their rarity. They are found mostly near the plane of the Milky Way, with the greatest concentration near the galactic center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39674",
"title": "Planetary nebula",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "The term \"planetary nebula\" is arguably a misnomer because they are unrelated to planets or exoplanets. The true origin of the term was likely derived from the planet-like round shape of these nebulae as observed by astronomers through early telescopes, and although the terminology is inaccurate, it is still used by astronomers today. The first usage may have occurred during the 1780s with the English astronomer William Herschel who described these nebulae as resembling planets; however, as early as January 1779, the French astronomer Antoine Darquier de Pellepoix described in his observations of the Ring Nebula, \"very dim but perfectly outlined; it is as large as Jupiter and resembles a fading planet.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21664",
"title": "Nebula",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Nebulae are often star-forming regions, such as in the \"Pillars of Creation\" in the Eagle Nebula. In these regions the formations of gas, dust, and other materials \"clump\" together to form denser regions, which attract further matter, and eventually will become dense enough to form stars. The remaining material is then believed to form planets and other planetary system objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7acv4v
|
tax cuts and jobs act proposal
|
[
{
"answer": "So, one of the things that the Republican party is doing right now to try to look a little more competent and generate buzz is that they're passing the same bill back and forth between the house and senate as a skeleton outline.\n\nIn the process as usual, what happens is that one of the two chambers writes a bill (and there's a bunch of rules about who starts what bills), then they send it to the other house to either be approved, amended, or rejected. If it's amended, it's sent back to the first house. So if the House passes a bill, it goes to the Senate for approval, and if the Senate amends it instead, it goes back to the House, who can amend, pass, or leave it.\n\nWhat they are doing right now is passing 'skeleton' bills. They're taking turns adding a detail and then passing it as a way to highlight the 'high points' in the bill and to convince people to get onboard with it before the other shoe drops on the costs of the bill.\n\nSo far, the high points include:\n\n1. They're going to change the number of income brackets from 7 to 4. This includes a massive tax cut that scales up for the more wealthy, and a tax increase for part time minimum wage earners (the poor). If you work full time, you will experience a tax cut.\n\n2. They are doubling the standard deduction, so for most people it will almost always be cheaper to take the standard deduction than to try to file a long tax return unless you're so rich that you'd hire someone to do this for you anyway.\n\n3. They are eliminating the dependents deduction. If you have 1 or fewer kids, the standard deduction doubling will more than compensate, but if you have three or more kids, unless you're pulling in hundreds of thousand of dollars a year, the tax cuts and jobs act will be a tax increase.\n\n4. They are increasing the child tax credit. The dependents deduction is like ~~8~~ 6-7 times the size of the increase though, so you won't notice it.\n\n5. It reduces but does not eliminate mortgage and property deductions. Any homeowner will notice a squeeze on this side, but landlords who are paying dozens of mortgages on rental properties will probably be bankrupted by it.\n\n6. It repeals the estate tax, so that when the super rich die (the estate tax only ever affected the top 0.2%), their entire vast fortunes are inherited whole by their children, instead of a share going to the government.\n\nBut I urge you to keep in mind that this is just a skeleton. This isn't the bill's final form, and not only are all of these points up in the air, but they are using this to delay announcing the drawbacks and downsides of the bill. \n\nTry to keep from mentally evaluating it until they do, because like with part timers, 3+ child families, or real estate speculators you may yet find that you'll get a tax hike out of this bill, and they haven't yet made clear how they are going to pay for this massively expensive tax cut either.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52916015",
"title": "History of the United States (2008–present)",
"section": "Section::::Politics.:The Trump administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 1804,
"text": "In December 2017, Congress passed and President Trump signed into law the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. The Act amended the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 based on tax reform advocated by congressional Republicans and the Trump administration. Major elements include reducing tax rates for businesses and individuals; a personal tax simplification by increasing the standard deduction and family tax credits, but eliminating personal exemptions and making it less beneficial to itemize deductions; limiting deductions for state and local income taxes (SALT) and property taxes; further limiting the mortgage interest deduction; reducing the alternative minimum tax for individuals and eliminating it for corporations; reducing the number of estates impacted by the estate tax; and repealing the individual mandate of the Affordable Care Act (ACA). The nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reported that, under the Act, individuals and pass-through entities like partnerships and S corporations would receive about $1,125billion in net benefits (i.e. net tax cuts offset by reduced healthcare subsidies) over 10 years, while corporations would receive around $320billion in benefits. The individual and pass-through tax cuts fade over time and become net tax increases starting in 2027 while the corporate tax cuts are permanent. This enabled the Senate to pass the bill with only 51 votes, without the need to defeat a filibuster, under the budget reconciliation process. Tax cuts were reflected in individual worker paychecks as early as February 2018 and with the corporate tax rate being reduced from 35% to 21%, numerous major American corporations announced across-the-board pay raises and bonuses for their workers, expanded benefits and programs, and investments in capital improvements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8760883",
"title": "Edison Electric Institute",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:2017 tax cut.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, the largest tax overhaul in 30 years, was passed by Congress and signed by President Trump at the end of 2017. The legislation had several provisions that benefit the electric industry: maintaining the federal income tax deduction for interest expense for regulated electric companies; maintaining the federal income tax deduction for state and local taxes; and providing for the “continuation of normalization, including addressing excess deferred taxes resulting from a reduction in the tax rate.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34845391",
"title": "Middle Class Tax Relief and Job Creation Act of 2012",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "The Middle Class Tax Relief and Job Creation Act of 2012 (), also known as the \"payroll tax cut\", was an Act of the United States Congress. The bill was passed by the U.S. House of Representatives on February 17, 2012 by a vote of 293‑132, and by the Senate by a vote of 60‑36 on the same day. The bill was signed into law by President Barack Obama on February 22, 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174607",
"title": "Supply-side economics",
"section": "Section::::United States monetary and fiscal experience.:Research since 2000.:Kansas experiment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The law cut taxes by 231 million in its first year, and cuts were projected to total 934 million after six years. They eliminated taxes on \"pass-through\" income (used by sole proprietorships, partnerships, limited liability companies, subchapter S corporations, for the owners of almost 200,000 businesses, and cut individual income tax rates as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16951073",
"title": "Eric Greitens",
"section": "Section::::Governor of Missouri.:Second year.:Tax reform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 1136,
"text": "On January 18, 2018, Greitens announced tax cuts to be proposed in the state legislature. More information on the cuts was released in the following weeks. The plan was to cut individual and corporate taxes by approximately $800 million. The overhaul would reduce the top individual income tax rate by 10% and the corporate income tax rate by nearly a third. The top individual income tax rate would drop from 5.9% to 5.3%. The proposal would also create a non-refundable state tax credit for low-income workers, which Greitens said would essentially eliminate income taxes for 380,000 people. He said the bill would drop taxes 51%, from $920 to $449 annually for a married couple with two children earning $40,000. Greitens also said the plan would drop taxes down 2.9%, from $6,917 to $6,716 annually, for a married couple with two children who earn $150,000. The plan also intended to cut corporate tax rates from 6.25% to 4.25%. It simplified the tax code and eliminated special rules that rewarded companies that hired employees outside of Missouri. As a result, Missouri would have the country's second-lowest corporate tax rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44247642",
"title": "Kansas experiment",
"section": "Section::::History.:Repeal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "A repeal of the tax cut was attempted in February 2017 by a coalition of Democrats and newly-elected centrist Republicans, who passed legislation (Senate bill number 30 or SB 30) to raise income-tax rates and eliminate an exemption for small businesses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2922430",
"title": "Flow-through entity",
"section": "Section::::Chronology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 931,
"text": "On December 2, 2017 the U.S. Senate passed a tax overhaul bill as part of the proposed Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 that reduced taxes on pass-through business income by allowing them to \"deduct 23% of their income\". The Senate added features to the bill to prevent abuse. In a November article, the \"New York Times\" reported that the tax bill would \"[r]educe the pass-through tax rate to 25% regardless of income level. Since 95% of businesses are incorporated as pass-through entities. Examples include \"sole proprietorships, partnerships and S corporations that currently pay taxes at the individual rate of their owners.\" whose owners pay taxes as if it were personal income at a much lower rate. This represents a large tax cut for owners that is capital as opposed to labor. Approximately the largest 2% of pass-through businesses represent 40% of pass-through income and today are taxed at 39.6%, the top individual rate.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1o9qwm
|
Solubility of Sugar
|
[
{
"answer": "Not trying to be presumptuous here, but have you carried out the experiment more than once and reproduced your results?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59529",
"title": "Solubility equilibrium",
"section": "Section::::Definitions.:Temperature effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Solubility is sensitive to changes in temperature. For example, sugar is more soluble in hot water than cool water. It occurs because solubility constants, like other types of equilibrium constants, are functions of temperature. In accordance with Le Chatelier's Principle, when the dissolution process is endothermic (heat is absorbed), solubility increases with rising temperature. This effect is the basis for the process of recrystallization, which can be used to purify a chemical compound. When dissolution is exothermic (heat is released) solubility decreases with rising temperature. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27712",
"title": "Sugar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. The various types of sugar are derived from different sources. Simple sugars are called monosaccharides and include glucose (also known as dextrose), fructose, and galactose. \"Table sugar\" or \"granulated sugar\" refers to sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. In the body, sucrose is hydrolysed into fructose and glucose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27712",
"title": "Sugar",
"section": "Section::::Chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "Scientifically, \"sugar\" loosely refers to a number of carbohydrates, such as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or oligosaccharides. Monosaccharides are also called \"simple sugars,\" the most important being glucose. Most monosaccharides have a formula that conforms to with n between 3 and 7 (deoxyribose being an exception). Glucose has the molecular formula . The names of typical sugars end with -\"ose\", as in \"glucose\" and \"fructose\". Sometimes such words may also refer to any types of carbohydrates soluble in water. The acyclic mono- and disaccharides contain either aldehyde groups or ketone groups. These carbon-oxygen double bonds (C=O) are the reactive centers. All saccharides with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss of a molecule of water () per bond.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "987423",
"title": "Reducing sugar",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:Aldoses and ketoses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1026,
"text": "A sugar is classified as a reducing sugar only if it has an open-chain form with an aldehyde group or a free hemiacetal group. Monosaccharides which contain an aldehyde group are known as aldoses, and those with a ketone group are known as ketoses. The aldehyde can be oxidized via a redox reaction in which another compound is reduced. Thus, a reducing sugar is one that reduces certain chemicals. Sugars with ketone groups in their open chain form are capable of isomerizing via a series of tautomeric shifts to produce an aldehyde group in solution. Therefore, ketone-bearing sugars like fructose are considered reducing sugars but it is the isomer containing an aldehyde group which is reducing since ketones cannot be oxidized without decomposition of the sugar. This type of isomerization is catalyzed by the base present in solutions which test for the presence of aldehydes. Aldoses or aldehyde-bearing sugars are also reducing because during oxidation of aldoses, there are certain oxidizing agents that are reduced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "501376",
"title": "Oligosaccharide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "An oligosaccharide (/ˌɑlɪgoʊˈsækəˌɹaɪd/; from the Greek ὀλίγος \"olígos\", \"a few\", and σάκχαρ \"sácchar\", \"sugar\") is a saccharide polymer containing a small number (typically three to ten) of monosaccharides (simple sugars). Oligosaccharides can have many functions including cell recognition and cell binding. For example, glycolipids have an important role in the immune response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "438861",
"title": "1890 in science",
"section": "Section::::Chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "BULLET::::- Emil Fischer establishes the stereochemistry and isomeric nature of the sugars by epimerization between gluconic and mannonic acids and synthesizes glucose, fructose and mannose from glycerol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5688280",
"title": "Sugar phosphates",
"section": "Section::::Phosphodiesters in DNA and RNA.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "Sugar phosphates are defined as carbohydrates to which a phosphate group is bound by an ester or an either linkage, depending on whether it involves an alcoholic or a hemiacetalic hydroxyl, respectively. Solubility, acid hydrolysis rates, acid strengths, and ability to act as sugar group donors are the knowledge of physical and chemical properties required for the analysis of both types of sugar phosphates. The photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle is closely associated with sugar phosphates, and sugar phosphates are one of the key molecules in metabolism, oxidative pentose phosphate pathways, gluconeogenesis, important intermediates in glycolysis. Sugar phosphates are not only involved in metabolic regulation and signaling but also involved in the synthesis of other phosphate compounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3fp6s0
|
how does the fed determine interest rates?
|
[
{
"answer": "Interest is, in economic terms, the cost of using money. So interest rates have their own supply/demand curves depending on how much money is available and how much money people want to use. The Federal Reserve can change the supply of money, and thus has some control over interest rates. They also are the primary regulatory agency for banks and can do things like change how much a bank is allowed to loan, which also impacts the supply of money. The Federal Reserve controls the supply side of the interest equation.\n\nIn general, the Federal Reserve is tasked with controlling inflation and maximizing employment. These are complicated, often counter-related goals so a balance between them is needed. Cheap money (low interest rates) helps increase employment because there's more capital available and it's easier to start businesses and expand them, that sort of thing. But, cheap money is indeed cheap and so it starts to become devalued and prices rise because there's more money around. So they need to keep interest rates somewhat high to keep a stable currency.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19715896",
"title": "Interbank lending market",
"section": "Section::::Role of interbank lending in the financial system.:Monetary policy transmission.:Interest rate channel of monetary policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "The interest rate channel of monetary policy refers to the effect of monetary policy actions on interest rates that influence the investment and consumption decisions of households and businesses. Along this channel, the transmission of monetary policy to the real economy relies on linkages between central bank instruments, operating targets, and policy goals. For example, when the Federal Reserve conducts open market operations in the federal funds market, the instrument it is manipulating is its holdings of government securities. The Fed's operating target is the overnight federal funds rate and its policy goals are maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates. For the interest rate channel of monetary policy to work, open market operations must affect the overnight federal funds rate which must influence the interest rates on loans extended to households and businesses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42193295",
"title": "Interest rate channel",
"section": "Section::::How the interest rate channel works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "While the central bank controls short term nominal interest rates with the federal funds rate, the overall economy is primarily affected by the long-term real interest rates charged by commercial banks to their customers. The interest rate channel focuses on how changes in the central bank’s policy rate affect various commercial interest rates including forex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22099091",
"title": "Subprime mortgage crisis solutions debate",
"section": "Section::::Liquidity.:Lower interest rates.:Arguments for lower interest rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Lower interest rates stimulate the economy by making borrowing less expensive. The Fed lowered the target for the Federal funds rate from 5.25% to a target range of 0-0.25% since 18 September 2007. Central banks around the world have also lowered interest rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7235622",
"title": "Quantitative easing",
"section": "Section::::History.:After 2007.:US QE1, QE2, and QE3.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1055,
"text": "On 19 June 2013, Ben Bernanke announced a \"tapering\" of some of the Fed's QE policies contingent upon continued positive economic data. Specifically, he said that the Fed could scale back its bond purchases from $85 billion to $65 billion a month during the upcoming September 2013 policy meeting. He also suggested that the bond-buying program could wrap up by mid-2014. While Bernanke did not announce an interest rate hike, he suggested that if inflation followed a 2% target rate and unemployment decreased to 6.5%, the Fed would likely start raising rates. The stock markets dropped by approximately 4.3% over the three trading days following Bernanke's announcement, with the Dow Jones dropping 659 points between 19 and 24 June, closing at 14,660 at the end of the day on 24 June. On 18 September 2013, the Fed decided to hold off on scaling back its bond-buying program, and announced in December 2013 that it would begin to taper its purchases in January 2014. Purchases were halted on 29 October 2014 after accumulating $4.5 trillion in assets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1738260",
"title": "Excess reserves",
"section": "Section::::Interest on excess reserves.:In the United States (2008-).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "Beginning December 18, 2008, the Federal Reserve System directly established interest rates paid on required reserve balances and excess balances instead of specifying them with a formula based on the target federal funds rate. On January 13, Ben Bernanke said, \"In principle, the interest rate the Fed pays on bank reserves should set a floor on the overnight interest rate, as banks should be unwilling to lend reserves at a rate lower than they can receive from the Fed. In practice, the federal funds rate has fallen somewhat below the interest rate on reserves in recent months, reflecting the very high volume of excess reserves, the inexperience of banks with the new regime, and other factors. However, as excess reserves decline, financial conditions normalize, and banks adapt to the new regime, we expect the interest rate paid on reserves to become an effective instrument for controlling the federal funds rate.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10819",
"title": "Federal Reserve",
"section": "Section::::Monetary policy.:Tools.:Federal funds rate and open market operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "The Federal Reserve System implements monetary policy largely by targeting the federal funds rate. This is the interest rate that banks charge each other for overnight loans of federal funds, which are the reserves held by banks at the Fed. This rate is actually determined by the market and is not explicitly mandated by the Fed. The Fed therefore tries to align the effective federal funds rate with the targeted rate by adding or subtracting from the money supply through open market operations. The Federal Reserve System usually adjusts the federal funds rate target by 0.25% or 0.50% at a time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "738185",
"title": "Open market operation",
"section": "Section::::How open market operations are conducted.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "In the United States, as of 2006, the Federal Reserve sets an interest rate target for the federal funds (overnight bank reserves) market. When the actual federal funds rate is higher than the target, the Federal Reserve Bank of New York will usually increase the money supply via a repurchase agreement (or repo), in which the Fed \"lends\" money to commercial banks. When the actual federal funds rate is less than the target, the Fed will usually decrease the money supply via a reverse repo, in which the banks purchase securities from the Fed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
11t6ys
|
Is there a known limit to selective breeding for physical traits (e.g. size)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Selective breeding of miniature animals is not uncommon. There are miniature breeds of horse, donkey, cow, chicken, goat, rabbit, and dog, and considerable dwarfing of carp (and probably others that I am unaware of). Some of the dwarfs of these domestic creatures are pretty incredibly small (the Falabella horse is often only about 24 inches (60cm) tall). Undoubtedly, there are some limitations to the extent of intentional dwarfing capable for a given species, as dwarfing is usually achieved by strong artificial selection through inbreeding, and inbreeding leads to an accumulation of recessive, and often deleterious genes, causing other associated health problems. Dwarfing in nature is not at all uncommon, and the teeny sizes achieved in some species are pretty spectacular:\n\nWorld's smallest frog\n_URL_2_ \n\nWorlds smallest chameleon \n_URL_0_\n\nHowever, this miniaturization is achieved through adaptation and natural selection, which typically happens over much longer time scales than artificial selection for a single trait. You could probably, with a great deal of effort, miniaturize the hippo. But why do that, when a pygmy hippo already exists? \n\n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Breeding for miniaturization works by selecting for gene variants that yield a smaller animal, but the number of such genes is finite. Once all of the \"smallness\" gene variants are together in a single animal, there's nowhere else to go. Without new mutations, there is a genetically-imposed lower (and upper) limit on size, even when other issues (like the animal's health) are not considered.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31066305",
"title": "Robustness (evolution)",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary consequences.:Emergent mutational robustness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "Natural selection can select directly or indirectly for robustness. When mutation rates are high and population sizes are large, populations are predicted to move to more densely connected regions of neutral network as less robust variants have fewer surviving mutant descendants. The conditions under which selection could act to directly increase mutational robustness in this way are restrictive, and therefore such selection is thought to be limited to only a few viruses and microbes having large population sizes and high mutation rates. Such emergent robustness has been observed in experimental evolution of cytochrome P450s and B-lactamase. Conversely, mutational robustness may evolve as a byproduct of natural selection for robustness to environmental perturbations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40160407",
"title": "Essential gene",
"section": "Section::::Quantitative gene essentiality analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Most genes are neither absolutely essential nor absolutely non-essential. Ideally their contribution to cell or organismal growth needs to be measured quantitatively, e.g. by determining how much growth rate is reduced in a mutant compared to \"wild-type\" (which may have been chosen arbitrarily from a population). For instance, a particular gene deletion may reduce growth rate (or fertility rate or other characters) to 90% of the wild-type.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "200646",
"title": "Selective breeding",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Selective breeding is a direct way to determine if a specific trait can evolve in response to selection. A single-generation method of breeding is not as accurate or direct. The process is also more practical and easier to understand than sibling analysis. Selective breeding is better for traits such as physiology and behavior that are hard to measure because it requires fewer individuals to test than single-generation testing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "219268",
"title": "Population genetics",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Evolution of genetic systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "One important aspect of such models is that selection is only strong enough to purge deleterious mutations and hence overpower mutational bias towards degradation if the selection coefficient s is greater than the inverse of the effective population size. This is known as the drift barrier and is related to the nearly neutral theory of molecular evolution. Drift barrier theory predicts that species with large effective population sizes will have highly streamlined, efficient genetic systems, while those with small population sizes will have bloated and complex genomes containing for example introns and transposable elements. However, somewhat paradoxically, species with large population sizes might be so tolerant to the consequences of certain types of errors that they evolve higher error rates, e.g. in transcription and translation, than small populations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65085",
"title": "Triticale",
"section": "Section::::Conventional breeding approaches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "The aim of a triticale breeding programme is mainly focused on the improvement of quantitative traits, such as grain yield, nutritional quality and plant height, as well as traits which are more difficult to improve, such as earlier maturity and improved test weight (a measure of bulk density). These traits are controlled by more than one gene. Problems arise, however, because such polygenic traits involve the integration of several physiological processes in their expression. Thus the lack of single-gene control (or simple inheritance) results in low trait heritability (Zumelzú \"et al.\" 1998).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8942458",
"title": "Hill–Robertson effect",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "In a population of finite size which is subject to natural selection, varying extents of linkage disequilibria will occur. These can be caused by genetic drift or by mutation, and they will tend to slow down the process of evolution by natural selection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9236",
"title": "Evolution",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:Natural selection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "Natural selection within a population for a trait that can vary across a range of values, such as height, can be categorised into three different types. The first is directional selection, which is a shift in the average value of a trait over time—for example, organisms slowly getting taller. Secondly, disruptive selection is selection for extreme trait values and often results in two different values becoming most common, with selection against the average value. This would be when either short or tall organisms had an advantage, but not those of medium height. Finally, in stabilising selection there is selection against extreme trait values on both ends, which causes a decrease in variance around the average value and less diversity. This would, for example, cause organisms to eventually have a similar height.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3gb3bc
|
why have the british liberal democrats fallen in support so much recently?
|
[
{
"answer": "In 2010 the Liberal Democrats joined the government as the junior half of a coalition. This government followed a programme of austerity, with (among other policies) cutting back on welfare and tripling the cost of university places. Because many Lib-Dem voters had supported them because they believed they were an anti-austerity party, those voters rapidlly became disillusioned and took their support elsewhere.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43747946",
"title": "2015 United Kingdom general election",
"section": "Section::::Results.:Outcome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "The Liberal Democrats, who had been in government as coalition partners, suffered the worst defeat they or the previous Liberal Party had suffered since the 1970 general election. Winning just eight seats, the Liberal Democrats lost their position as the UK's third party and found themselves tied in fourth place with the Democratic Unionist Party of Northern Ireland in the House of Commons, with Nick Clegg being one of the few MPs from his party to retain his seat. The Liberal Democrats gained no seats, while losing 49 in the process—of them, 27 to the Conservatives, 12 to Labour, and 10 to the SNP.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1847945",
"title": "2005 United Kingdom general election",
"section": "Section::::Results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "The Liberal Democrats claimed that their continued gradual increase in seats and percentage vote showed they were in a position to make further gains from both parties. They pointed in particular to the fact that they were now in second place in roughly one hundred and ninety constituencies and that having had net losses to Labour in the 1992 general election and having not taken a single seat off Labour in 1997, they had held their gains off Labour from the 2001 general election and had actually made further gains from them. The Liberals also managed to take 3 seats from the Conservatives, notably Tim Collins, through the use of a decapitation strategy, which targeted senior Tories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27321576",
"title": "Results breakdown of the 2005 United Kingdom general election",
"section": "Section::::England.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The Liberal Democrats made modest gains in all regions of England, improving by at least 1% in every region. No particular region showed greatly expanded support for the Liberal Democrats though, continuing the trend of approximately equal showings in all regions of England for them and their \"decapitation strategy\" that targeted Conservative front-benchers failed, removing only Tim Collins in Westmorland and Lonsdale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52800807",
"title": "2005 United Kingdom general election in England",
"section": "Section::::Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The Liberal Democrats made modest gains in all regions of England, improving by at least 1% in every region. The party made a net gain of 7 seats, winning a total of 47, the best result for the Liberal Democrats or Liberals in England since 1923.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "343249",
"title": "1921 Canadian federal election",
"section": "Section::::Majority or minority?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The Liberal Party lost two by-elections to Conservative candidates, but had gained two seats from Progressives who crossed the floor, so its majority was not affected by these losses. From November 25, 1924, to the dissolution of parliament, it held a two-seat majority because of its victory in a by-election in a seat that had been held by the Conservatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18933007",
"title": "Liberal Democrats (UK)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 180,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 180,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "In 2006, Whiteley et al noted that the Liberal Democrats were \"a major force in contemporary British politics\". Although throughout its history, the party had been relegated to third party status, they argued that it had the capability of breaking through to become one of the country's main two parties if proportional representation (or something like it) was introduced, or if either the Conservatives or Labour were severely weakened by splitting in two.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46693051",
"title": "Results breakdown of the 2015 United Kingdom general election",
"section": "Section::::Swing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "The Liberal Democrats had been part of a coalition government with the Conservatives prior to the election with 57 seats in parliament. However, they held just eight seats, their worst election result since the old Liberal Party secured six seats in 1970. Of the five Liberal Democrat cabinet ministers, three lost their seats. They also lost 338 deposits. As a result, Nick Clegg, although he was one of the two surviving ministers, resigned as leader.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6j0nme
|
why do smaller loans have much higher interest rates than larger loans?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you ask for 1 pen, it costs you two dollars. If you ask for 100 000 pens, they will only cost you one dollar each. I prefer selling you 100 000 pens at half price, than selling you 1 at full price and have 99 999 sitting around doing nothing.\n\nIn a similar way, if you ask for a small amount of money, you pay a big interest, and if you ask for a big amount of money, you pay less interest.\n\nThe bank actually wants you to ask them for a LOT of money, so they lower the price the bigger the loan is. Loans is where they get their profits from.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50654093",
"title": "Interest rate ceiling",
"section": "Section::::Interest rate caps and their impact on financial inclusion.:The rationale behind interest rate caps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "The researcher found it intuitive that basic interest rate caps are most likely to bite at the lower end of the market, with interest rates charged by microfinance institutions generally higher than those by banks and this is driven by a higher cost of funds and higher relative overheads. Transaction costs make larger loans relatively more cost effective for the financial institution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "268508",
"title": "Debt consolidation",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "The overall lower interest rate is an advantage that debt consolidation loan offers to consumers. Lenders have fixed costs to process payments and repayment can spread out over a larger period. However, such consolidation loans have costs: fees, interest, and \"points\" where one point equals to one percent of the amount borrowed. In some countries, these loans may provide certain tax advantages. Because they are secured, a lender can attempt to seize property if the borrower goes into default. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "538292",
"title": "Fixed-rate mortgage",
"section": "Section::::Comparisons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Fixed-rate mortgages are usually more expensive than adjustable rate mortgages. The inherent interest rate risk makes long-term fixed rate loans tend to have a higher interest rate than short-term loans. The relationship between interest rates for short and long-term loans is represented by the yield curve, which generally slopes upward (longer terms are more expensive). The opposite circumstance is known as an inverted yield curve and occurs less often.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19371244",
"title": "Subprime crisis background information",
"section": "Section::::Understanding the events of September 2008.:Key risk indicators.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "In addition, an increase in LIBOR means that financial instruments with variable interest terms are increasingly expensive. For example, adjustable rate mortgages, car loans and credit card interest rates are often tied to LIBOR; some estimate as much as $150 trillion in loans and derivatives are tied to LIBOR. Higher interest rates place additional downward pressure on consumption, increasing the risk of recession.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22099091",
"title": "Subprime mortgage crisis solutions debate",
"section": "Section::::Liquidity.:Lower interest rates.:Arguments for lower interest rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Lower interest rates may also help banks \"earn their way out\" of financial difficulties, because banks can borrow at very low interest rates from depositors and lend at higher rates for mortgages or credit cards. In other words, the \"spread\" between bank borrowing costs and revenues from lending increases. For example, a large U.S. bank reported in February 2009 that its average cost to borrow from depositors was 0.91%, with a net interest margin (spread) of 4.83%. Profits help banks build back equity or capital lost during the crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1218945",
"title": "Crowding out (economics)",
"section": "Section::::Crowding out sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "If increased borrowing leads to higher interest rates by creating a greater demand for money and loanable funds and hence a higher \"price\" (\"ceteris paribus\"), the private sector, which is sensitive to interest rates, will likely reduce investment due to a lower rate of return. This is the investment that is crowded out. The weakening of fixed investment and other interest-sensitive expenditure counteracts to varying extents the expansionary effect of government deficits. More importantly, a fall in fixed investment by business can hurt long-term economic growth of the supply side, i.e., the growth of potential output.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18649548",
"title": "Private equity in the 2000s",
"section": "Section::::The third private equity boom and the Golden Age of Private Equity (2003–2007).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Interest rates, which began a major series of decreases in 2002 would reduce the cost of borrowing and increase the ability of private equity firms to finance large acquisitions. Lower interest rates would encourage investors to return to relatively dormant high-yield debt and leveraged loan markets, making debt more readily available to finance buyouts. Additionally, alternative investments also became increasingly important as investors sought yield despite increases in risk. This search for higher yielding investments would fuel larger funds and in turn larger deals, never thought possible, became reality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
14q2mx
|
Can you "strain" hearing and damage it that way?
|
[
{
"answer": "Eyes and ears have a threshold. If you stare at a certain color too long, the cones and rods in your eyes start to tire and the other colors seem to pop out. Same thing when it comes to hearing. You can work it for too long and put too much stress on it. You would think quiet would be a good thing but there is actually a thing such as [too quiet](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll answer this simply: No.\n\nHearing a soft sound is a detection process. In very short, sound triggers hair cells to move, firing an action potential along a nerve, which is then passed through synapses in the brainstem up to the auditory cortex. With only minor control from the brain (going down to the ear), this is a fairly passive process. Yes, you may have to \"listen harder\", by applying more cognitive processing power to discriminate one sound from another, but you cannot \"strain\" the ear (or any of its components) itself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "892612",
"title": "Blast injury",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Primary injuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Extensive damage can also be inflicted upon the auditory system. The tympanic membrane (also known as the eardrum) may be perforated by the intensity of the pressure waves. Furthermore, the hair cells, the sound receptors found within the cochlea, can be permanently damaged and can result in a hearing loss of a mild to profound degree. Additionally, the intensity of the pressure changes from the blast can cause injury to the blood vessels and neural pathways within the auditory system. Therefore, affected individuals can have auditory processing deficits while having normal hearing thresholds. The combination of these effects can lead to hearing loss, tinnitus, headache, vertigo (dizziness), and difficulty processing sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29806995",
"title": "Auditory fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Affected anatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "In general, structural damages to any anatomical part of the human ear can cause hearing-related problems. Usually, minor bending of the stereocilia of the inner ear is associated with temporary hearing loss and is involved in auditory fatigue. Complete loss of the stereocilia causes permanent hearing damage and is more associated with noise-induced hearing loss and other auditory diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6894544",
"title": "Noise-induced hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Sound or stress training.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 966,
"text": "Despite different people having different thresholds for what noises are painful, this pain threshold had no correlation with which noises cause hearing damage. The ear can not get more resistant to noise harmfulness by training it to noise. The cochlea is partially protected by the acoustic reflex, but being frequently exposed to noise does not lower the reflex threshold. It had been observed that noise conditioning (i.e. exposure to loud non-traumatizing noise) several hours prior to the exposure to traumatizing sound level, significantly reduced the damages inflicted to the hair-cells. The same \"protective effect\" was also observed with other stressors such as heat-shock conditioning and stress (by restraint) conditioning. This “protective effect\" only happens if the traumatizing noise is presented within an optimum interval of time after the sound-conditioning session (-24 hours for a 15 min. sound-conditioning; no more protection after 48 hours).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49604",
"title": "Hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Chemicals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "In addition to medications, hearing loss can also result from specific chemicals in the environment: metals, such as lead; solvents, such as toluene (found in crude oil, gasoline and automobile exhaust, for example); and asphyxiants. Combined with noise, these ototoxic chemicals have an additive effect on a person’s hearing loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6894544",
"title": "Noise-induced hearing loss",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Hearing may deteriorate gradually from chronic and repeated noise exposure (such as to loud music or background noise) or suddenly from exposure to impulse noise, which is a short high intensity noise (such as a gunshot or airhorn). In both types, loud sound overstimulates delicate hearing cells, leading to the permanent injury or death of the cells. Once lost this way, hearing cannot be restored in humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1374343",
"title": "Audiometry",
"section": "Section::::Hearing assessment.:Hearing loss classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Hearing loss may be caused by a number of factors including heredity, congenital conditions, age-related (presbycusis) and acquired factors like noise-induced hearing loss, ototoxic chemicals and drugs, infections, and physical trauma.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48825442",
"title": "Acoustic trauma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Acoustic trauma is the sustainment of an injury to the eardrum as a result of a very loud noise. Its scope usually covers loud noises with a short duration, such as an explosion, gunshot or a burst of loud shouting. Quieter sounds that are concentrated in a narrow frequency may also cause damage to specific frequency receptors. The range of severity can vary from pain to hearing loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
k38om
|
what events or people from the bible have been proven scientifically to have actually occurred/existed?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, if you're interested in old testament stuff...\n\nThere were definitely a group of people called the Israelites. They definitely migrated all over the middle east, and definitely ended up in Egypt at some point. The bible says they were slaves in Egypt, I'm not sure if that part's verified. But they definitely left again at some later point.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know if it has been scientifically proven, but several other cultures have stories referring to a great flood that happened at around the same time period as Noah's.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not to be \"that guy\", but I fail to see how this is a ELI5 question. I would suggest posting in r/atheism ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Old testament is an old thing, so my guess is that you can learn about society/culture of that time a bit. \n\nOne of the first mentions of census in history was in [Exodus 30:11-16](_URL_2_)\n\n\n[Here](_URL_1_) is a list of people that were mentioned in the Bible, and other source as well.\n\nIt's late, so I leave you this:\n[Here is a crapton of text I'm not feeling like going through to find specifics](_URL_3_)\nand [here is about approach toward Bible like a work of man, rather then God's](_URL_0_) (which I'm also not feeling like going through to find specifics, but it's a good place to start searching)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, if you're interested in old testament stuff...\n\nThere were definitely a group of people called the Israelites. They definitely migrated all over the middle east, and definitely ended up in Egypt at some point. The bible says they were slaves in Egypt, I'm not sure if that part's verified. But they definitely left again at some later point.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know if it has been scientifically proven, but several other cultures have stories referring to a great flood that happened at around the same time period as Noah's.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not to be \"that guy\", but I fail to see how this is a ELI5 question. I would suggest posting in r/atheism ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Old testament is an old thing, so my guess is that you can learn about society/culture of that time a bit. \n\nOne of the first mentions of census in history was in [Exodus 30:11-16](_URL_2_)\n\n\n[Here](_URL_1_) is a list of people that were mentioned in the Bible, and other source as well.\n\nIt's late, so I leave you this:\n[Here is a crapton of text I'm not feeling like going through to find specifics](_URL_3_)\nand [here is about approach toward Bible like a work of man, rather then God's](_URL_0_) (which I'm also not feeling like going through to find specifics, but it's a good place to start searching)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3310679",
"title": "James Rollins",
"section": "Section::::Action-adventure novels.:SIGMA Force Series.:Book 11: \"The Bone Labyrinth\" (2015).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "Spanning 50,000 years of human history, \"The Bone Labyrinth\" (released December 15, 2015), reveals a mystery locked within our DNA. An amazing discovery is made when an earthquake reveals a subterranean Catholic chapel in the remote mountains of Croatia. An investigative team finds the bones of a Neanderthal woman as well as an elaborate cave painting depicting an immense battle between Neanderthal tribes and monstrous shadowy figures. Before they can question what the painting means and who this enemy is, the team is attacked. At the same time, a bloody assault is carried out on a DARPA funded primate research center outside of Atlanta. SIGMA sends operatives to look into both cases, but does not realize these events may be connected. Plunged into a battle for the future of humanity, Commander Pierce and his SIGMA colleagues uncover the true source of human intelligence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2617604",
"title": "Barbara Thiering",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1027,
"text": "From her specialty studying the Dead Sea Scrolls, their semiotics, and their hermeneutics, she propounded a theory arguing that the miracles, including turning water into wine, the virgin birth, healing a man at a distance, the man who had been thirty-eight years at the pool, and the resurrection, among others, did not actually occur (as miracles), as Christians believe, nor were they legends, as some skeptics hold, but were \"deliberately constructed myths\" concealing (yet, to certain initiates, relating) esoteric historic events. She alleges that they never actually happened (that is, that the events they chronicle were not at all miraculous), as the authors of the Gospels knew. According to her interpretation of the methods of pesher, which she discovers in the scrolls, the authors of the Gospels wrote on two levels. For the \"babes in Christ,\" there were apparent miracles, but the knowledge of exact meanings held by the highly educated members of Gnostic schools gave a real history of what Jesus actually did.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1345074",
"title": "René Girard",
"section": "Section::::Girard's thought.:Fundamental anthropology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Although explorers and anthropologists have not been able to witness events similar to these, which go back to the earliest times, indirect evidence for them abounds, such as the universality of ritual sacrifice and the innumerable myths that have been collected from the most varied peoples. If Girard's theory is true, then we will find in myths the culpability of the victim-god, depictions of the selection of the victim, and his power to beget the order that governs the group. Girard found these elements in numerous myths, beginning with that of Oedipus which he analyzed in this and later books. On this question he opposes Claude Lévi-Strauss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1820214",
"title": "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1139,
"text": "Discoveries in geology, or in physics imperfectly developed, and portions of Scripture imperfectly interpreted, might be expected to place themselves in temporary collision; but who could have anticipated any general speculations on the natural history of creation, which would startle the pious student, or for a moment disturb the serenity of the Christian world? Such an event, however, has occurred, and on the author of the work before us rests its responsibility. Prophetic of infidel times, and indicating the unsoundness of our general education, \"\"The Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation\",\" has started into public favour with a fair chance of poisoning the fountains of science, and sapping the foundations of religion. Popular in its subject, as well as in its expositions, this volume has obtained a wide circulation among the influential classes of society. It has been read and applauded by those who can neither weigh its facts, nor appreciate its argument, nor detect its tendencies; while those who can - the philosopher, the naturalist, and the divine - have concurred in branding it with their severest censure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2946835",
"title": "The Bible Story",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Many great men have tried to explain these things [i.e., the origins of lifeforms and the planet itself]. They have come up with all sorts of strange ideas and suggestions, but most of them are far from the truth. In only one place - the Bible - will you find the true story. If you will open this wonderful Book, you will find that the very first part is called Genesis, meaning \"the book of beginnings.\" Here you will find the answers to your questions about where everything came from.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "364326",
"title": "Historicity of Jesus",
"section": "Section::::Historical Jesus.:Other episodes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Scholarly agreement on this extended list is not universal. Elements whose historical authenticity are disputed include the two accounts of the nativity of Jesus, the miraculous events including turning water into wine, walking on water and the resurrection, and certain details about the crucifixion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28392892",
"title": "The Mysterious Origins of Man",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "The Mysterious Origins of Man is a pseudoarchaeological television special that originally aired on NBC on February 25, 1996. Hosted by Charlton Heston, the program presents the fringe theory that mankind has lived on the Earth for tens of millions of years, and that mainstream scientists have suppressed the fossil evidence for this. Some material included was based on the controversial \"Forbidden Archeology\", a book written by Hindu creationists Michael Cremo and Richard L. Thompson about anomalous archeological finds reported mainly in early scientific journals. It also included interviews with the following people: creationist Carl Baugh on the Paluxy tracks; Richard Milton, author of \"Shattering the Myths of Darwinism\", on Lucy; Neil Steede on Incan ruins; and Graham Hancock, author of \"Fingerprints of the Gods\", on Atlantis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7at7xw
|
what is the reason the leaves fall off the trees in the fall.
|
[
{
"answer": "With the decrease in the availability of both water and sunlight in the winter, photosynthesis yield is pretty low. So during the winter, those big broad leaves are using up a lot of energy without really doing anything useful, so the tree basically cuts them off to conserve energy and then regrows them once spring comes again ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to not doing much useful during the winter, the leaves would be damaged by freezing temperatures and would be lost anyways. \n\nThe tree actually breaks down a lot of the chemicals/cells in the leaf and withdraws those resources into the trunk to be stored. This is a big part of why they change color before falling, and it's why they're dropped in late fall rather than staying on and dying naturally when it gets too cold. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yer not alone in askin', and kind strangers have explained:\n\n1. [ELI5: Why do leaves turn brown and fall off certain types of trees in the autumn (fall)? ](_URL_4_)\n1. [ELI5: what causes deciduous trees to lose their leaves? ](_URL_1_)\n1. [ELI5: Why trees change colors and ultimately shed leaves during winters? ](_URL_3_)\n1. [ELI5 why leaves turn a different colour in Autumn/Fall ](_URL_0_)\n1. [Why do leaves fall off of trees? ](_URL_2_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to what others have written, the leaves are a liability in the winter. The trees are much more likely to lose major limbs or be uprooted altogether if they get hit by a windy storm with their leaves still on the branches. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "66722",
"title": "Deciduous",
"section": "Section::::Botany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Some trees, particularly oaks and beeches, exhibit a behavior known as \"marcescence\" whereby dead leaves are not shed in the fall and remain on the tree until being blown off by the weather. This is caused by incomplete development of the abscission layer. It is mainly seen in the seedling and sapling stage, although mature trees may have marcescence of leaves on the lower branches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66722",
"title": "Deciduous",
"section": "Section::::Botany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Leaf drop in the fall months is based on photoperiod and varies by genera and species. Walnuts tend to drop their leaves early while some trees such as Norway Maple and willows have extremely late leaf drop, often in the middle of November.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37280998",
"title": "Cheonjiwang Bonpuri",
"section": "Section::::Plot.:The Twins apples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Daebyeol's first question was \"Why do the leaves of some trees fall, while the leaves of other trees do not?\" His brother answered that the leaves of trees that were hollow fell while the leaves of trees that were full did not fall. However, Daebyeol gave an example of a hollow tree that did not shed its leaves; the reed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "107665",
"title": "Palmdale, California",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Fall: Moderate temperatures with little or no precipitation. Like spring, this season feels very short. As a result, the deciduous trees leaves will have a short color change and lose their leaves rapidly. Average day time highs are in the upper 70s(F) and low 80s(F) while dropping into the mid 40s(F) to mid 50s(F) overnight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60043425",
"title": "\"Mi Amigo\" memorial",
"section": "Section::::Air crash.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "When viewed from Rustlings Road/Ecclesall Road the crash site can still be seen, marked by a noticeable drop in the height of the trees on the hillside behind the cafe. This was because a dozen trees were uprooted, or needed felling, due to the impact of the crash. Some remaining trees still bear scorch marks at their tops, noticeable when viewed in winter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11008314",
"title": "Evolutionary history of plants",
"section": "Section::::Evolution of plant morphology.:Leaves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "Deciduous trees deal with another disadvantage to having leaves. The popular belief that plants shed their leaves when the days get too short is misguided; evergreens prospered in the Arctic circle during the most recent greenhouse earth. The generally accepted reason for shedding leaves during winter is to cope with the weather – the force of wind and weight of snow are much more comfortably weathered without leaves to increase surface area. Seasonal leaf loss has evolved independently several times and is exhibited in the ginkgoales, some pinophyta and certain angiosperms. Leaf loss may also have arisen as a response to pressure from insects; it may have been less costly to lose leaves entirely during the winter or dry season than to continue investing resources in their repair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "990894",
"title": "Miombo",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Characteristically the trees shed their leaves for a short period in the dry season to reduce water loss, and produce a flush of new leaves just before the onset of the rainy season with rich gold and red colours masking the underlying chlorophyll, reminiscent of temperate autumn colours. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9d7dbf
|
"Eight million horses and countless mules and donkeys died in the First World War. " "The WWII German Army was 80% Horse Drawn" Is this accurate? How did Germany recover it's horse pop. by the 1940? Did they rely on conquered nations stock?
|
[
{
"answer": "FYI, you might get better answers if you provide the source of those quotes. History and historiography are inextricable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When the Nazis seized power in 1933, Germany was one of the least motorized societies in Europe. Hitler idolized the motorcar and devoted a considerable drive to increase production, constructing the *Autobahns*, and propagandizing to the population in order to ingrain motorcar ownership and use as German cultural value. However, due to the contradictory nature of the Nazi \"economic recovery\" and rearmament campaign between 1933-1939, the motorization of Germany, including the army, was nowhere near complete by the eve of WWII:\n\n > As a result of such interventions [in favor of rearmament], the motorway linking Hamburg to Basel was not actually completed until 1962. Moreover, few people had the means to enjoy them before 1939, since Germany was one of the least motorized societies in Europe. In 1935, only 1.6 percent of the population in Germany owned motor vehicles, compared to 4.9 percent in France, 4.5 percent in Britain, and 4.2 percent in Denmark. All these figures were dwarfed by vehicle ownership in the USA, which stood at 20.5 percent, or one in five of the population.\n\n > In his [1933] speech at the Berlin motor show, Hitler announced not only the inauguration of the motorway building program but also the promotion of motor sports and the reduction of the tax burden on car ownership. The result was a 40 percent increase in the number of workers in the motor vehicle industry from March to June 1933 alone. Motorcar production doubled from 1932 to 1933 and again by 1935. Well over a quarter of a million cars were now being produced every year, and prices were much lower than they had been at the end of the 1920s.\n\n...\n\n > Despite the spread of car ownership, however, the motorization of German society had still not got very far by 1939, and to describe it as a powerhouse behind Germany's economic recovery in these years is a considerable exaggeration. By 1938, to be sure, Germany's vehicle production was growing faster than that of any other European country, but there was still only one motor vehicle there per forty-four inhabitants, compared with one for every nineteen in Britain and France. The vast majority of personal travel and the movement of bulk goods was still accounted for by Germany's railway system, Germany's largest employer at the time...\n\nWhen I speak of the contradictory nature of the Nazi \"economic recovery\" and rearmament campaign, I speak of how the Nazis focused almost exclusively on rearmament during the period of 1933-1939. It was prioritized above all else, and the industrial demands of meeting the Nazi production targets rapidly exceeded and soon utterly dwarfed available resources. The Nazis pursued a policy of \"Autarky\", or economic and resource self-sufficiency; but at the same time, the drive to rearmament by 1942, the original goal, to fight a prolonged and potentially two-front war, made Autarky impossible. Such contradictions in both ideological doctrine/rhetoric and in practice were a very common feature of National Socialism.\n\nThe production targets set by the Nazi Party grew larger and larger while simultaneously the target date for total rearmament drew nearer and nearer, such as to 1940. The Nazis had to print enormous amounts of currency to run the deficit spending required to import the resources they needed for the rearmament campaign, and this was still not enough. As Hitler had constantly preached about the need for conquering \"living space\" in the East by invading the Soviet Union, German government finances were pushed to such a disastrous brink that the necessity of launching an aggressive general European War became not only completely inevitable, but always loomed closer and closer, which was the driving force for the Nazis moving the target date for total rearmament closer.\n\nAs a result, by the eve of WWII the drive to motorize the Wehrmacht (much less civilian society) was nowhere near complete. The German military still relied extremely heavily on rail travel and horse-drawn vehicles for their logistics. As a result of this in turn, the German military was ironically woefully unprepared to fight a prolonged war of attrition against its enemies, especially the Soviet Union; it was from this logistical and industrial inadequacy that the doctrine of *blitzkrieg* sprung. The entire grand strategy of Nazi Germany going into its invasions of France and then the Soviet Union utterly relied upon the extremely rapid decapitation and capitulation of those enemies - if the invasions bogged down at all, the German economy would either catastrophically collapsed within a relatively short period of time (in the case of France) or would rapidly become completely outclassed by the enemy's industrial capacity and manpower (in the case of the Soviet Union). While the *blitzkrieg* against France worked beyond all expectations and allowed Nazi Germany to compensate for its catastrophic fiscal policy through plundering the majority of the European continent, the invasion of the Soviet Union stalled short of its goals, and the tide soon turned against Germany by early 1943 if not earlier.\n\n > Whatever propaganda messages about the battle for work might claim, Nazi economic policy was driven by the overwhelming desire on the part of Hitler and the leadership, backed up by the armed forces, to prepare for war. Up to the latter part of 1936, this was conducted in a way that aroused few objections from business; when the Four-Year Plan began to come into effect, however, the drive for rearmament began to outpace the economy's ability to supply it, and business began to chafe under a rapidly tightening net of restrictions and controls...\n\n > What Hitler wanted to ensure, however, was that firms competed to fulfill the overall policy aims laid down by himself. Yet those aims were fundamentally contradictory. On the one hand, autarky was designed to prepare Germany for a lengthy war; on the other hand, rearmament was pursued with a headlong abandon that paid scant regard to the dictates of national self-sufficiency. Measured by its own aims, the Nazi regime had only succeeded partially by the summer of 1939. Its preparations for a large-scale war were inadequate, its armaments program incomplete; drastic shortages of raw materials meant that targets for the construction of tanks, ships, planes, and weapons of war were not remotely being met; and the situation was exacerbated by Hitler's program. The answer was plunder...The enormous stresses and strains built up in the German economy between 1933 and 1939 could, Hitler himself explicitly argued on several occasions, ultimately only be resolved by the conquest of living-space in the east.\n\nSource: *The Third Reich in Power*, by Richard Evans",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The German Army was overwhelmingly an infantry-based force. In 1939, the German Army consisted of 85 infantry divisions and three Mountain divisions (infantry with mountaineering training and gear). [The typical infantry division of first wave](_URL_0_) (the best equipped of the initial four \"waves\" of mobilization) had authorized strengths of 17,734 men, and 4,842 horses. There were only about 1,500 motor vehicles (about a third were just motorcycles) in each division.\n\nCompared to these 88 divisions, the *Panzerwaffe* consisted of 5 and a partial sixth Panzer divisions, 4 \"Light\" mechanized divisions (former cavalry divisions), and 4 motorized infantry divisions- about 13 1/2 divisions total. More divisions of all types would be raised during the war, but the ratios wouldn't vary much, even though the plundering of conquered territory included the confiscation of just about anything with a motor (or hooves, for that matter). In fact, by the final two years of the war (late 43 to May 1945), many units were \"demotorized\" due to wartime losses and petrol shortages.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Others have answered the part about most of the German army being horse-drawn. Regarding the livestock size, Germany did kill many of them during WW1, but economic censuses indicate that pre-WWI levels (adjusted for territory loss) was achieved during the early 1930s.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\n & #x200B;\n\nGo see figure 9 of this paper about German agriculture. During WW1 the Germans slaughtered officially 5 million pigs (this event is labeled Shcweinemord), yet the pre-war level of pigs was achieved in 1933. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21213398",
"title": "Horses in World War I",
"section": "Section::::Casualties and upkeep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 1578,
"text": "Battle losses of horses were approximately 25 percent of all war-related equine deaths between 1914 and 1916. Disease and exhaustion accounted for the remainder. The highest death rates were in East Africa, where in 1916 alone deaths of the original mounts and remounts accounted for 290% of the initial stock numbers, mainly due to infection from the tsetse fly. On average, Britain lost about 15 percent (of the initial military stock) of its animals each year of the war (killed, missing, died or abandoned), with losses at 17 percent in the French theatre. This compared to 80 percent in the Crimean War, 120 percent in the Boer War and 10 percent in peacetime. During some periods of the war, 1,000 horses per day were arriving in Europe as remounts for British troops, to replace horses lost. Some horses, having collapsed from exhaustion, drowned in ankle-deep mud, too tired to lift their heads high enough to breathe. Equine casualties were especially high during battles of attrition, such as the 1916 Battle of Verdun between French and German forces. In one day in March, 7,000 horses were killed by long-range shelling on both sides, including 97 killed by a single shot from a French naval gun. By 1917, Britain had over a million horses and mules in service, but harsh conditions, especially during winter, resulted in heavy losses, particularly amongst the Clydesdale horses, the main breed used to haul the guns. Over the course of the war, Britain lost over 484,000 horses, one horse for every two men. A small number of these, 210, were killed by poison gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6016189",
"title": "Horse slaughter",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "During World War II, the less-motorized Axis troops lost thousands of horses in combat and during the unusually-cold Russian winters. Malnourished soldiers consumed the animals, often shooting weaker horses as needed. In his 1840s book, \"London Labour and the London Poor\", Henry Mayhew wrote that horse meat was priced differently in Paris and London.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7783929",
"title": "Horses in warfare",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "The German and the Soviet armies used horses until the end of the war for transportation of troops and supplies. The German Army, strapped for motorised transport because its factories were needed to produce tanks and aircraft, used around 2.75 million horses – more than it had used in World War I. One German infantry division in Normandy in 1944 had 5,000 horses. The Soviets used 3.5 million horses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21259542",
"title": "Horses in World War II",
"section": "Section::::Belligerent armies.:Germany.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "The German Army entered World War II with 514,000 horses, and over the course of the war employed, in total, 2.75 million horses and mules; the average number of horses in the Army reached 1.1 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6016189",
"title": "Horse slaughter",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Horse meat was a traditional protein source during food shortages, such as the early-20th-century World Wars. Before the advent of motorized warfare, campaigns usually resulted in tens of thousands of equine deaths; troops and civilians ate the carcasses, since troop logistics were often unreliable. Troops of Napoleon's Grande Armée killed almost all of their horses during their retreat from Moscow to feed themselves. In his biography, \"Fifty Years a Veterinary Surgeon\", Fredrick Hobday wrote that when his British Army veterinary field hospital arrived in Cremona from France in 1916 it was the subject of a bidding war (won by Milanese horse-meat canners) for salvageable equine carcasses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10895005",
"title": "Landais pony",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "The plantation of the Landes forest and associated swamp drainage operations in the nineteenth century reduced the natural range of these horses. In 1913 the two populations totalled some 2000. The advent of motorised transport led to a decline in the number of animals, both because their usefulness was reduced and because some were the cause of road accidents; during the Second World War, some fell victim to land-mines laid by German forces to prevent coastal landings. After the War, no more than 150 head remained. The Poney des Pins became extinct in about 1950.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21259542",
"title": "Horses in World War II",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "Horse-drawn transportation was most important for Germany, as it was relatively lacking in natural oil resources. Infantry and horse-drawn artillery formed the bulk of the German Army throughout the war; only one-fifth of the Army belonged to mobile panzer and mechanized divisions. Each German infantry division employed thousands of horses and thousands of men taking care of them. Despite losses of horses to enemy action, exposure and disease, Germany maintained a steady supply of work and saddle horses until 1945. Cavalry in the Army and the Waffen-SS gradually increased in size, peaking at six cavalry divisions in February 1945.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6h5gvx
|
why do so many white, western liberals and progressives defend islam?
|
[
{
"answer": "They tend to support freedom of religion. They tend to support civil rights for minorities. Seems strange to think of them as a minority but in the US and Western countries they are.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm pretty sure you're not asking this in good faith but I'll play along.\n\nWhite western liberals and progressives **do not support Islam**, they're opposed to xenophobia, racism and bigotry that targets Muslims. Freedom of religion is one of the cornerstones of modern western democracies. Any time you try generalizing *nearly a quarter of the world's population*, especially when those generalizations fuel hate, it is going to be opposed by western liberals & progressives. If you look at history, drumming up hate for and fear of a small minority seldom leads to *anything* good happening in society.\n\nSadly, modern conservatives have been sucked into a black and white mindset of \"with or or against us\" and been feed a steady diet of propaganda, that says opposition to Islamophobia means that you uncritically support everything done by all Muslims.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The premise is a bit skewed. \n\nWestern liberals do not typically defend Islam as a set of ideas, since Islam is generally very conservative.\n\nWhat Western liberals defend are *Muslims* - **people** who are overwhelmingly born into the culture of Islam, and in their whole lives do nothing wrong that stems from the religion they inherit.\n\nTypically Western liberals defend Muslims because Western conservatives attack Muslims, usually with no basis other than stereotypes and bigotry, in direct violation of Western liberal values. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they realise that Islam can be interpreted in just as many different ways as Christianity, and while I don't let me define by radical Christians who go rampage in planned parrenthood, I don't define moderat Muslism by the acts of radical Islamists. I know just to many liberal Muslims who hate the actions of Islamist just as much as I do.\n\nI am for fighting against any kind of radical idiology, since it is a cancer that swells inside of society, and here, I don't care if it is radical islam, or radical christianity, or whatever combination Trump is.\n\nGreetings from Germany.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The same way so many white, western liberals and progressives defend Christianity in the face of their crazier components. A terrorist who is Muslim does not mean that Muslims are terrorist any more than Timothy McVeigh meant that white folks are terrorists.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15012",
"title": "Islamism",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Relation to Islam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Hayri Abaza argues that the failure to distinguish between Islam and Islamism leads many in the West to support illiberal Islamic regimes, to the detriment of progressive moderates who seek to separate religion from politics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12060186",
"title": "Hassan Butt",
"section": "Section::::Early views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Advocating the superiority of Islam, Butt has said that \"Islam is a way of life, a way of life superior to communism and capitalism. Christianity is a mere religion and can’t cater for people’s way of life, but Islam can. With the fall of the Soviet Union, people started turning to Islam as a way of life, whereas America wanted to spread capitalism across the world. That's why Islam became the enemy.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "325137",
"title": "Liberalism and progressivism within Islam",
"section": "Section::::Specific issues.:Human rights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Most liberal Muslims believe that Islam promotes the notion of absolute equality of all humanity, and that it is one of its central concepts. Therefore, a breach of human rights has become a source of great concern to most liberal Muslims. Liberal Muslims differ with their culturally conservative counterparts in that they believe that all humanity is represented under the umbrella of human rights. Many Muslim majority countries have signed international human rights treaties, but the impact of these largely remains to be seen in local legal systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49273972",
"title": "Alt-right",
"section": "Section::::Beliefs.:Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "Several press sources have linked the alt-right to Islamophobia, and Wendling stated that alt-rightists view Islam as a fundamental threat to Western society. Hawley expressed the view that \"ironically, people on the Alt-Right are less Islamophobic than many mainstream conservatives\". He observed that many U.S. conservatives criticized Muslim migration to the United States because they regarded Islam as a threat to liberty; the alt-right has made little use of this argument. For them, migration from Islamic-majority countries is undesirable not because the migrants are Muslims, but because most of them are non-white; it is equally opposed to non-white migrants who are Christian or non-religious.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2534560",
"title": "Samir Amin",
"section": "Section::::Views on political Islam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Hence, political Islam aligns itself in general with capitalism and imperialism, without providing the working classes with an effective and non-reactionary method of struggle against their exploitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1937703",
"title": "Zakir Naik",
"section": "Section::::Views.:Islamic Supremacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Naik says that Islam is the \"best\" religion because \"the Quran says it. No other religious text or scripture claims this fact.\" He added that, \"Islam is also labelled as intolerant, and it is indeed, but towards corruption, discrimination, injustice, adultery, alcoholism, and all evils. Islam is the most 'tolerant' religion as far as promoting the human values is concerned.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "325137",
"title": "Liberalism and progressivism within Islam",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Liberalism and progressivism within Islam involve professed Muslims who are a considerable body of liberal thought on the original interpretation of Islamic understanding and practice. Their work is sometimes characterized as \"progressive Islam\" ( \"\"); some regard progressive Islam and liberal Islam as two distinct movements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2sn7bt
|
Why did Irish monks play such an important role in the christianization of Europe?
|
[
{
"answer": "From what I was taught recently, and if I'm wrong I'd love to be corrected:\n\nIn Ireland there developed a tradition focussed on rural areas, and evangelising such areas first. In the traditional 'Roman' areas the norm was to focus on the cities and evangelising outward from there.\n\nSince in the early medieval period there weren't many cities outside of Roman Europe, there wasn't as much evangelising from the traditional, Roman, heartland. Instead it were the Irish who'd go out to the rural areas of 'barbarian' Europe and found monasteries and spread the faith from there.\n\nAgain, this might be wrong, but if so I'd love to be corrected too!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The easy answer is that they believed in mission and did go out and talked about God..\n\nBut that is probably not the answer you are after.\nWestern christianity formed and was culturally relevant to the postlatin world. But north of europe was never part of the roman empire and they did not share all the cultural references.\n\nIn Ireland a monastic movment begun with St:Patrick during the 5th century (note that it´s been 100 years of christian statechurch in the Roman empire, the church there has in many ways stoped in it´s development). The irish movment did become culturaly relevant in a celtic culture, a thing that nearly all succesfull missionary movments have. The movment also had mission as a big part of it´s movment so they did continue to spread christianity.\n\nThe monks did begun to leave Ireland to Scotland/England and continued to found monastaries that did spread christianity. From these places visionaris did come that walked out to europe to revitalise the church in France and to spread christianity in northen europe.\n\nAnd u/NFB42 is totaly correct that one of the culturally relevant things was that they didn´t focus on cities, instead towns formed around the irish christian centers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47618958",
"title": "Insular illumination",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1059,
"text": "The Irish monks took part in the conversion of Scotland and the north of Great Britain], establishing numerous monasteries, such as Iona Abbey, founded by Columba in Scotland in 563 and Lindisfarne, founded by Aidan in Northumbria in 635. The Irish missionaries brought their art to Britain along with their religion. Over the course of the 6th and 7th centuries, especially after the Gregorian mission, the south of Britain came under the direct influence of continental Christianity, mainly Italian. Some Italian and Byzantine manuscripts came to the island as a result, influencing the development of insular illumination as well. In turn, the major centres of production were concentrated first in Northumbria, then in southern England and Kent over the 7th and 8th centuries. The monasteries in these places benefited from more conditions which were more prosperous than those in Ireland as well as from the protection and patronage of the Anglo-Saxon kings. The \"scriptoria\" of Lindisfarne and Iona were the most prolific at the end of the 8th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50409",
"title": "Cistercians",
"section": "Section::::History.:High and Late Middle Ages.:Spread: 1111–52.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "As in Wales, there was no significant tradition of Benedictine monasticism in Ireland on which to draw. In the Irish case, this was a disadvantage and represented an insecure foundation for Cistercian expansion. Irish Cistercian monasticism would eventually become isolated from the disciplinary structures of the order, leading to a decline which set in by the 13th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22982935",
"title": "Christianity in the 6th century",
"section": "Section::::Monasticism.:Ireland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "Irish monastic rules specify a stern life of prayer and discipline in which prayer, poverty, and obedience are the central themes. Yet Irish monks did not fear pagan learning. Irish monks needed to learn Latin, which was the language of the Church. Thus they read Latin texts, both spiritual and secular. By the end of the 7th century, Irish monastic schools were attracting students from England and from Europe. Irish monasticism spread widely, first to Scotland and Northern England, then to Gaul and Italy. Columba and his followers established monasteries at Bangor, on the northeastern coast of Ireland, at Iona, an island north-west of Scotland, and at Lindisfarne, which was founded by Aidan, an Irish monk from Iona, at the request of King Oswald of Northumbria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70529",
"title": "Celtic Christianity",
"section": "Section::::Other British and Irish traditions.:Monasticism.:Ireland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Irish monks also founded monasteries across the continent, exerting influence greater than many more ancient continental centres. The first issuance of a papal privilege granting a monastery freedom from episcopal oversight was that of Pope Honorius I to Bobbio Abbey, one of Columbanus's institutions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "606848",
"title": "Catholic Church",
"section": "Section::::History.:Antiquity and Roman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 152,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 152,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "Western Christianity, particularly through its monasteries, was a major factor in preserving classical civilisation, with its art (see Illuminated manuscript) and literacy. Through his Rule, Benedict of Nursia (c. 480–543), one of the founders of Western monasticism, exerted an enormous influence on European culture through the appropriation of the monastic spiritual heritage of the early Church and, with the spread of the Benedictine tradition, through the preservation and transmission of ancient culture. During this period, monastic Ireland became a centre of learning and early Irish missionaries such as St Columbanus and St Columba spread Christianity and established monasteries across continental Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22982935",
"title": "Christianity in the 6th century",
"section": "Section::::Spread of Christianity.:Irish missionaries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "The Irish monks had developed a concept of \"peregrinatio\". This essentially meant that a monk would leave the monastery and his Christian country to proselytize among the heathens, as self-chosen punishment for his sins. Soon, Irish missionaries such as Columba and Columbanus spread this Christianity, with its distinctively Irish features, to Scotland and the continent. From 590 onwards Irish missionaries were active in Gaul, Scotland, Wales and England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5815689",
"title": "Early Irish literature",
"section": "Section::::Existing manuscript literature.:Early Irish epic or saga.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "This patriotism of the Irish monks and early cultivation of the vernacular are remarkable, since it was the reverse of what took place in the rest of Europe. Elsewhere, the Church used Latin as a principal means of destroying native and pagan tradition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8z71ep
|
how are games like "breath of the wild" ported over to a completely different console (switch) with different hardware, yet are flawlessly identical when playing both?
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't know the precise answer but the best vague one I can give is that the GPU/CPU architecture on the switch is well known since it runs off Tegra X1 and uses the Maxwell architecture which there is lots of information on.\n\nThe previous generation consoles were an absolute nightmare to Port games to due to how closed off and complicated hardware was due extreme paranoia of piracy. I heard that porting games to PS3 was so difficult that many devs just opted not to bother and go for the Xbox instead.\n\nThe Switch uses the same chipset as the shield tablet which runs Android apps pretty well so I imagine it being easy to adjust to.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1163729",
"title": "ROM hacking",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Music hacking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Another instance of the same engine being used between games is on the Nintendo 64, in which most games use the same format; although they use different sound banks, as expected. A utility known as the N64 Midi Tool was created to edit the sequences that the majority of Nintendo 64 games use, though it does not cover the first-party N64 titles that use a slightly different engine, such as \"Super Mario 64\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2622904",
"title": "Virtual Console",
"section": "Section::::Differences from original games.:Controllers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 1060,
"text": "Some reviewers have reported that games play differently due to the different controllers. For example, \"Super Mario World\" is often cited as being more difficult to play due to the GameCube controller's button mapping. The Classic Controller has a button layout more like that of the Super NES controller, and an adapter has been released that enables a player to plug an actual Super NES controller into one of the Wii's GameCube controller ports. Similarly, most N64 Virtual Console games have mapped the Z button to the L, ZL and ZR buttons and the C-buttons to the right analog stick on the Classic Controller, which some reviewers have described as awkward. Furthermore, the mapping of the left analog stick for N64 Virtual Console games does not use the full range of the stick, and instead uses a range of approximately 67%, likely due to the differences in design of the N64 controller's control stick and the GameCube style analog stick. This has been noted to provide a significantly different sensitivity when compared to the original N64 mapping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53822924",
"title": "Super NES Classic Edition",
"section": "Section::::Games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Despite the fact that the hardware shells are different, both western editions of the microconsole feature identical software, and all included games are based on their American localizations running at 60 Hz, similarly to the NES Classic Edition. Consequently, games that originally had different titles in the PAL regions now use their respective American monikers, such as \"Contra III: The Alien Wars\" (originally \"Super Probotector: Alien Rebels\"), \"Star Fox\" (originally \"Starwing\") and \"Kirby Super Star\" (originally \"Kirby's Fun Pak\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9914431",
"title": "Linux gaming",
"section": "Section::::Adoption by video games.:Source ports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 234,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 234,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "Certain game titles were even able to be ported due to availability of shared engine code even though the game's code itself remains proprietary or otherwise unavailable, such as the video game \"\" or the multiplayer component of \"\". Some games have even been ported entirely or partially by reverse engineering and game engine recreation such as \"WarCraft II\" through \"Wargus\" or \"Commander Keen\". Another trick is to attempt hacking the game to work as a mod on another native title, such as with the original \"Unreal\". Additionally, some games can be run through the use of Linux specific runtime environments, such as the case of certain games made with Adventure Game Studio such as the \"Chzo Mythos\" or certain titles made with the RPG Maker tool. Games derived from released code, with both free and proprietary media, that are released for Linux include \"Urban Terror\", \"OpenArena\", \"FreeDoom\", \"World of Padman\", \"Nexuiz/Xonotic\", \"War§ow\" and \"\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21849",
"title": "Nintendo 64",
"section": "Section::::Games.:Emulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 1109,
"text": "Several Nintendo 64 games have been released for the Wii's and Wii U's Virtual Console service and are playable with the Classic Controller, GameCube controller, Wii U Pro Controller, or Wii U GamePad. There are some differences between these versions and the original cartridge versions. For example, the games run in a higher resolution and at a more consistent framerate than their Nintendo 64 counterparts. Some features, such as Rumble Pak functionality, are not available in the Wii versions. Some features are also changed on the Virtual Console releases. For example, the VC version of \"Pokémon Snap\" allows players to send photos through the Wii's message service, while \"Wave Race 64\"'s in-game content was altered due to the expiration of the Kawasaki license. Several games developed by Rare were released on Microsoft's Xbox Live Arcade service, including \"Banjo-Kazooie\", \"Banjo-Tooie\", and \"Perfect Dark\", following Microsoft's acquisition of Rareware in 2002. One exception is \"Donkey Kong 64\", released in April 2015 on the Wii U Virtual Console, as Nintendo retained the rights to the game.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485664",
"title": "List of Nintendo 64 games",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "The Nintendo 64 home video game console has a library of games, which were primarily released in plastic ROM cartridges. Two small indentations on the back of each cartridge allows it to connect or pass through the system's cartridge dustcover flaps. All regions have the same connectors, and region-locked cartridges will fit into the other regions' systems by using a cartridge converter or by simply removing the cartridge's casing. However, the systems are also equipped with lockout chips that will only allow them to play their appropriate games. Both Japanese and North American systems have the same NTSC lockout, while Europe has a PAL lockout. A bypass device such as the N64 Passport or the Datel Action Replay can be used to play import titles, but a few games require an additional boot code before they can be played.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27715264",
"title": "Rayman Origins",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "While every version of the game is nearly identical due to the game engine's high versatility, there are some minor differences across platforms. The Wii version of the game takes advantage of the versatility (though not the motion controls) of the Wii Remote to provide three different control schemes, while the Nintendo 3DS version displays the player's current progress during a particular level on the touchscreen. The PlayStation Vita version has some additional unlockable content, and the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions support online achievements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5nkb1h
|
How did sailor manage navigation, back in the day?
|
[
{
"answer": "Navigation can be done with the stars, and the use of a sextant, which was in use from about 18th century onwards. This method can be very precise, but is reliant on clear skies. Navigation becomes super-precise when a clock that is powered by an internal spring mechanism is invented. This was John Harrison, in the 18th century. He made the marine chronometer. Up until then clocks had a pendulum. The pendulum could be affected by the three-dimensional movement of the ship, which would throw the mechanism off and make it inaccurate. \n\nPrior to this, there was the backstaff, which is a reflecting instrument that could be used to determine the height of the sun or moon and angles and such (I am not sure of the exact method). The technique has a long history, and many variations, like the cross staff and the qudrant, but can be verified from the 17th century onwards. There is also the astrolabe (which also a long history), which is used to measure and calculate the position of celestial bodies. It was adapted to be used at sea from the 17th century onwards. \n\nTher are also different types of chart. Portlan charts are charts made by estimated distances between certain landmarks, rather than detailing the coastal topography. Experience was crucial factor in navigation, and when approaching a port or harbour a ship could expect to hire a local 'pilot', who had expert knowledge of that particular area, to navigate them through those waters. \n\nSpeed was be measured with a chip log. This is a board that is attached to a length of string on a reel, which has knots on it at regular intervals. The board is thrown overboard, the idea that is dragged behind as it resists the water. How much string is payed out in a certain amount of time while tell you how many knots per hour you are travelling. \n\nThere are many methods for navigation, and some are more accurate than others. Celestial navigation can be very accraute, but it would also depend on the quality of the instrument, the weather and the qaulity of your reference material - your star chart of sea chart. for a period, sea charts were very expensive and some were practically state secrets in the effort to keep certsin locations and trade routes from being exploited by rival nations. \n\n \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27717240",
"title": "Sailing (sport)",
"section": "Section::::Common race formats.:Oceanic racing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "There is some controversy about the legality of sailing single-handed over long distances, as the navigation rules require \"that every vessel shall at all times maintain a proper lookout...\"; single-handed sailors can only keep a sporadic lookout, due to the need to sleep, tend to navigation, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6722752",
"title": "Pitometer log",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "This nomenclature dates back to days of sail when sailors tossed a log attached to rope knotted at regular intervals off the stern of a ship. The sailors would count the number of knots that passed through their hands in a given period of time. Today sailors still use the unit of knots to express a ship's speed. The speed of the ship was needed to navigate the ship using dead reckoning, which was standard practice in the days before modern navigation instruments like GPS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67782",
"title": "Sailing ship",
"section": "Section::::Crew.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "The crew of a sailing ship is divided between officers (the captain and his subordinates) and seamen or \"ordinary\" \"hands\". An able seaman was expected to \"hand, reef, and steer\" (handle the lines and other equipment, reef the sails, and steer the vessel). The crew is organized to stand watch—the oversight of the ship for a period—typically four hours each. Richard Henry Dana Jr. and Herman Melville each had personal experience aboard sailing vessels of the 19th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "436990",
"title": "Ropework",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "While the skill of a sailor in the Age of Sail was often judged by how well he knew marlinespike seamanship, the knowledge it embraces involving docking a craft, towing, making repairs underway, and more is still critical for modern seafarers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1389213",
"title": "Quarterdeck",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "The captain or master commanded the ship from the quarterdeck. The quarterdeck was traditionally the place where the captain walked when on deck, usually on the windward side. The navigator also used it when taking his sights when fixing the vessel's position. On most ships, it was customary that only officers could use the quarterdeck, others being allowed there only when assigned for specific duties. By extension, on flush-decked ships the after part of the main deck, where the officers took their station, was also known as the quarterdeck.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40546544",
"title": "Sea in culture",
"section": "Section::::In music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "A sailor's work was hard in the days of sail. When off duty, many sailors played musical instruments or joined in unison to sing folksongs such as the mid-eighteenth century ballad \"The Mermaid\", a song which expressed the sailors' superstition that seeing a mermaid foretold a shipwreck. When on duty, there were many repetitive tasks, such as turning the capstan to raise the anchor and heaving on ropes to raise and lower the sails. To synchronise the crew's efforts, sea shanties were sung, with a lead singer performing the verse and the sailors joining in the chorus. In the Royal Navy in Nelson's time, these work songs were banned, being replaced by the notes of a fife or fiddle, or the recitation of numbers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32910687",
"title": "Royal Navy ranks, rates, and uniforms of the 18th and 19th centuries",
"section": "Section::::Watch organization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "The navigation and steering of the vessel from the quarterdeck was handled by a special watch team of quartermasters. Furthermore, the ship's boatswain and his mates were interspersed among the various watch teams to ensure good order and discipline. The remainder of the ships' company, who did not stand a regular watch, included the ship's carpenter's crew and the gunnery teams (in charge of the maintenance of the ship's guns). Any other person on board who did not stand watch was collective referred to as an \"idler\" but was still subject to muster when the \"all hands on deck\" was called by the boatswain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zgyu8
|
What would happen if you pushed at the baby during birth?
|
[
{
"answer": "No once, labour has started there's no stopping it. The contractions get progressively more and more forceful and not to mention the amniotic sac is burst at this point. So you can't push back and keep it in there for a few more days. Eventually something will give, probably the baby. Please don't perform an experiment to test this. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2955547",
"title": "Child abuse",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Physical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "BULLET::::- Shaken baby syndrome. Shaking a baby is a common form of child abuse that often results in permanent neurological damage (80% of cases) or death (30% of cases). Damage results from intracranial hypertension (increased pressure in the skull) after bleeding in the brain, damage to the spinal cord and neck, and rib or bone fractures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55003162",
"title": "Infant crying",
"section": "Section::::Abuse.:Normal crying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "The physical abuse of infants is related to crying. Crying may be related to the abusive head trauma in infants. This is the most common cause of child abuse death. Fathers are often the ones who shake the infant. Shaking may occur many times. This shaking can cause serious injuries in almost 50% of the time. Some caregivers are unaware that shaking the baby can seriously harm or kill the infant. This type of abuse is being addressed by efforts to educate parents and caregivers with educational flyers and videos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83449",
"title": "Childbirth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "Most babies are born head first; however about 4% are born feet or buttock first, known as breech. Typically the heads enter the pelvis facing to one side, and then rotate to face down. During labour, a woman can generally eat and move around as she likes. However, pushing is not recommended during the first stage or during delivery of the head, and enemas are not recommended. While making a cut to the opening of the vagina, known as an episiotomy, is common, it is generally not needed. In 2012, about 23 million deliveries occurred by a surgical procedure known as Caesarean section. Caesarean sections may be recommended for twins, signs of distress in the baby, or breech position. This method of delivery can take longer to heal from.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5847036",
"title": "Kieft's War",
"section": "Section::::Pavonia Massacre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Infants were torn from their mother's breasts, and hacked to pieces in the presence of their parents, and pieces thrown into the fire and in the water, and other sucklings, being bound to small [cradle]boards, were cut, stuck, and pierced, and miserably massacred in a manner to move a heart of stone. Some were thrown into the river, and when the fathers and mothers endeavored to save them, the soldiers would not let them come on land but made both parents and children drown...\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8030036",
"title": "Primitive reflexes",
"section": "Section::::Moro reflex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "The Moro reflex is present at birth, peaks in the first month of life, and begins to integrate around 2 months of age. It is likely to occur if the infant's head suddenly shifts position, the temperature changes abruptly, or they are startled by a sudden noise. The legs and head extend while the arms jerk up and out with the palms up and thumbs flexed. Shortly afterward the arms are brought together and the hands clench into fists, and the infant cries loudly. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3117837",
"title": "Brachial plexus injury",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "During the delivery of a baby, the shoulder of the baby may graze against the pelvic bone of the mother. During this process, the brachial plexus can receive damage resulting in injury. The incidence of this happening at birth is 1 in 1000. This is very low compared to the other identified brachial plexus injuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83449",
"title": "Childbirth",
"section": "Section::::Vaginal birth.:Second stage: fetal expulsion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "The expulsion stage begins when the cervix is fully dilated, and ends when the baby is born. As pressure on the cervix increases, women may have the sensation of pelvic pressure and an urge to begin pushing. At the beginning of the normal second stage, the head is fully engaged in the pelvis; the widest diameter of the head has passed below the level of the pelvic inlet. The fetal head then continues descent into the pelvis, below the pubic arch and out through the vaginal introitus (opening). This is assisted by the additional maternal efforts of \"bearing down\" or pushing. The appearance of the fetal head at the vaginal orifice is termed the \"crowning\". At this point, the woman will feel an intense burning or stinging sensation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1yfekt
|
what will happen to apartment owners when the buildings get too old and must be demolished. do they own the air where there apt used to be?
|
[
{
"answer": "Overall from what i can find. Either the whole this is ended and the land is sold and the owners get their share of the sale or the owners pay collectively for the demolition and rebuild.\n\nBut there are a number of resolutions that depend who owns the land, whats in the deed/contract, what the laws are, etc.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What will usually happen is that the individual owners will take a vote to all sell their legal rights to the underlying land, move away, and divide the money among themselves. Then the developer who bought the land will build a new building there. In the United States, when apartments are each separately owned, they usually do so as a \"condominium\" which involves a very complicated written agreement that covers this situation. The condominium agreement specifies things like who has to pay to keep up the central garden and make roof repairs. It also will contain a provision that requires everyone to sell the property if some portion of them (such as 80%) vote to do so, and how to split the money. These agreements can last over 100 years or more, even when individual owners buy and sell their individual apartments. Because the government will only allow apartment buildings on certain pieces of land, the land under an apartment building usually stays quite valuable even if the specific building needs to be torn down and replaced. \n\nSource: Former condominium owner.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53631378",
"title": "Saint Rita Apartments",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "By 1990, the apartment building had been converted into subsidized housing. The building closed in 2005, and shortly thereafter a fire damaged the interior. In 2008, it was placed on the demolition list by the city. In 2011 it was sold at auction. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2407525",
"title": "Gellerup",
"section": "Section::::The Gellerup Plan.:Degradation.:Ghetto list.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "As a government response to the urban decay in 2018, it was decided that nine buildings part of a public housing complex with 600 apartments were to be demolished. The inhabitants were forced to move and new homes for ownership and business properties to be built instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7088692",
"title": "Martin Tower",
"section": "Section::::Vacancy and demolition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "On January 13, 2017, almost 10 years since the building was vacated, owners Ronca and Herrick announced removal of asbestos from the building and annex would begin, regardless of whether the Tower was ultimately renovated for adaptive reuse or demolished.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18894068",
"title": "Bispehaven",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "As a government response to the urban decay, it was decided by the Aarhus City Council in 2018 that 3 buildings part of a public housing complex with 318 apartments were to be demolished. The inhabitants are now forced to move with new private properties for ownership and business to be built instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39697159",
"title": "Whitlock Cordage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "In 2003 a federal bankruptcy judge had ordered demolition of the property to allow for its resale. Ultimately, the Housing Trust of America agreed to purchase the property and preserve the structures. The project included adaptive reuse of existing buildings as well as new construction and includes a total of 240 affordable and market rate apartments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39246469",
"title": "Halaco Engineering Co.",
"section": "Section::::Remediation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "The EPA removed two structurally unsafe buildings in 2010 but squatters, drugs and graffiti continued to be problem. By 2014, the remaining brick buildings were at risk of immediate collapse due to fires so the city stepped in an demolished them after the removal of asbestos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1674767",
"title": "Five Ways Tower",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "The building is vacant due to the last tenants evacuating the building due to ill health amongst the workforce. It turned out that the building suffers from Sick Building Syndrome, and being too expensive to refurbish to modern standards a likely option is demolition in line with the regeneration of the surrounding area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2cjied
|
Can physical trauma (e.g. a bullet), kill bacteria/viruses?
|
[
{
"answer": "It can definitely kill bacteria. Some common methods for ~~smashing~~ mechanically disrupting cells are bead-beating and sonication. I guess mechanical disruption of enveloped viruses would work just as well, but would be more difficult for non-enveloped viruses. Unfortunately guns are not standard lab equipment.\n\n\n_URL_0_\n_URL_1_[35-4]0207291633_403.pdf",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "788093",
"title": "Major trauma",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Injuries may be caused by any combination of external forces that act physically against the body. The leading causes of traumatic death are blunt trauma, motor vehicle collisions, and falls, followed by penetrating trauma such as stab wounds or impaled objects. Subsets of blunt trauma are both the number one and two causes of traumatic death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "515534",
"title": "Injury",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Injury, also known as physical trauma, is damage to the body caused by external force. This may be caused by accidents, falls, hits, weapons, and other causes. Major trauma is injury that has the potential to cause prolonged disability or death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20958925",
"title": "Firearm as a blunt weapon",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Forensic medicine recognizes evidence for various types of blunt-force injuries produced by firearms. For example, \"pistol-whipping\" typically leaves semicircular or triangular lacerations of skin produced by the butt of a pistol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11005224",
"title": "Penetrating trauma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Penetrating trauma can be caused by a foreign object or by fragments of a broken bone. Usually occurring in violent crime or armed combat, penetrating injuries are commonly caused by gunshots and stabbings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13746",
"title": "Hydrostatic shock",
"section": "Section::::Inferences from blast pressure wave observations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Duncan MacPherson, a former member of the International Wound Ballistics Association and author of the book, Bullet Penetration, claimed that shock waves cannot result from bullet impacts with tissue. In contrast, Brad Sturtevant, a leading researcher in shock wave physics at Caltech for many decades, found that shock waves can result from handgun bullet impacts in tissue. Other sources indicate that ballistic impacts can create shock waves in tissue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "788093",
"title": "Major trauma",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "Major trauma is any injury that has the potential to cause prolonged disability or death. There are many causes of major trauma, blunt and penetrating, including falls, motor vehicle collisions, stabbing wounds, and gunshot wounds. Depending on the severity of injury, quickness of management and transportation to an appropriate medical facility (called a trauma center) may be necessary to prevent loss of life or limb. The initial assessment is critical, and involves a physical evaluation and also may include the use of imaging tools to determine the types of injuries accurately and to formulate a course of treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39936",
"title": "Necrosis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "BULLET::::- Wounds caused by physical agents, including physical trauma and chemical burns, can be treated with antibiotics and anti-inflammatory drugs to prevent bacterial infection and inflammation. Keeping the wound clean from infection also prevents necrosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5zi85e
|
what is a flux capacitor?
|
[
{
"answer": "The core component of the time machine from the Back To The Future film series. It's just random technobabble, it doesn't actually exit in real life.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4932111",
"title": "Capacitor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electronic component that stores electrical energy in an electric field. The effect of a capacitor is known as capacitance. While some capacitance exists between any two electrical conductors in proximity in a circuit, a capacitor is a component designed to add capacitance to a circuit. The capacitor was originally known as a condenser or condensator. The original name is still widely used in many languages, but not commonly in English.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9550",
"title": "Electricity",
"section": "Section::::Concepts.:Electric circuits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "The capacitor is a development of the Leyden jar and is a device that can store charge, and thereby storing electrical energy in the resulting field. It consists of two conducting plates separated by a thin insulating dielectric layer; in practice, thin metal foils are coiled together, increasing the surface area per unit volume and therefore the capacitance. The unit of capacitance is the farad, named after Michael Faraday, and given the symbol \"F\": one farad is the capacitance that develops a potential difference of one volt when it stores a charge of one coulomb. A capacitor connected to a voltage supply initially causes a current as it accumulates charge; this current will however decay in time as the capacitor fills, eventually falling to zero. A capacitor will therefore not permit a steady state current, but instead blocks it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39218481",
"title": "Water capacitor",
"section": "Section::::Theory of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "A capacitor is a device in which electrical energy is introduced and can be stored for a later time. A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-conductive region is called the dielectric or electrical insulator. Examples of traditional dielectric media are air, paper, and certain semiconductors. A capacitor is a self-contained system, is isolated with no net electric charge. The conductors must hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24130",
"title": "Energy storage",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Electrical methods.:Capacitor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 157,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 157,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "A capacitor (originally known as a 'condenser') is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy electrostatically. Practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric (i.e., insulator). A capacitor can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit, so it can be used like a temporary battery, or like other types of rechargeable energy storage system. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic devices to maintain power supply while batteries change. (This prevents loss of information in volatile memory.) Conventional capacitors provide less than 360 joules per kilogram, while a conventional alkaline battery has a density of 590 kJ/kg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11978558",
"title": "DeLorean time machine",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.:Flux capacitor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "The \"flux capacitor\", which consists of a rectangular-shaped compartment with three flashing Geissler-style tubes arranged in a \"Y\" configuration, is described by Doc as \"what makes time travel possible.\" The device is the core component of the time machine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7635745",
"title": "Nokian Capacitors",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Capacitors are components used in High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) schemes and Flexible Alternative Current Transmission Systems (FACTS). HVDC and FACTS both help reduce CO emissions by respectively minimizing power losses and ensuring the balance and efficiency of high-voltage transmission networks. They also facilitate the connection of renewable energy sources into the power network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4932111",
"title": "Capacitor",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Signal processing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 201,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 201,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "The energy stored in a capacitor can be used to represent information, either in binary form, as in DRAMs, or in analogue form, as in analog sampled filters and CCDs. Capacitors can be used in analog circuits as components of integrators or more complex filters and in negative feedback loop stabilization. Signal processing circuits also use capacitors to integrate a current signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2i9hop
|
If photons can only have energies equal to the difference between electron levels, how does blackbody radiation give off a continuous spectrum?
|
[
{
"answer": "Blackbody radiation arises from the motion of atoms and molecules, and the fact that they are ultimately composed of charged objects.\n\nIt does not come from atomic transitions to less-excited states. That is a separate component.\n\nFor the specific processes that result in thermal radiation, see [Bremsstrahlung](_URL_0_) and [dipole oscillation](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The assumption that photons can only have energies equal to electron orbital differences is not correct simply because many *other* processes besides electron transitions can generate photons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I want to note while the other answers in here are good I think they're missing the heart of the question, the motions of the atoms and molecules and groups of those are inherently quantized (think phonons) as well. The difference is that as the number of atoms or molecules increase, the number of different quantum modes that are available becomes incredibly large. So illustrate this, count the number of ways you can connect 3 dots, you can draw 3 lines, for 6 dots this jumps to 15 lines and for more dots, the number of \"relationships\" each dot can have becomes much larger than the number of dots that exist. This begins to look like a continuum quite quickly.\n\nFor small groups of atoms, like a few dozen, their thermal excitations, their \"black body\" is *certainly* quantized and not continuous. Ultimately, the Planck law arises because you treat quantized light statistically among an infinite number of modes. When you restrict the number of modes, you lose the continuum. You can see this directly from deriving the Boltzmann factor which has vanishing terms that go away when you consider \"infinitely large thermal reservoirs.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "191123",
"title": "Planck's law",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Peaks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "This factor shifts the peak of the distribution to higher energies. These peaks are the \"mode\" energy of a photon, when binned using equal-size bins of frequency or wavelength, respectively. Meanwhile, the \"average\" energy of a photon from a blackbody is\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1808258",
"title": "Photosynthetically active radiation",
"section": "Section::::Yield photon flux.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The conversion between energy-based PAR and photon-based PAR depends on the spectrum of the light source (see Photosynthetic efficiency). The following table shows the conversion factors from watts for black-body spectra that are truncated to the range 400–700 nm. It also shows the luminous efficacy for these light sources and the fraction of a real black-body radiator that is emitted as PAR.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11127278",
"title": "Pair-instability supernova",
"section": "Section::::Physics.:Photon emission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Photons (the same particles that we perceive as light) given off by a body in thermal equilibrium, have a black body spectrum with an energy density proportional to the fourth power of the temperature (hence the Stefan-Boltzmann law). The wavelength of maximum emission from a black body is inversely proportional to its temperature. That is, the frequency, and the energy, of the greatest population of photons of black-body radiation is directly proportional to the temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23579",
"title": "Photoelectric effect",
"section": "Section::::Emission mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy which is proportional to the frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, if an electron within some material absorbs the energy of one photon and acquires more energy than the work function (the electron binding energy) of the material, it is ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to escape the material. Since an increase in the intensity of low-frequency light will only increase the number of low-energy photons sent over a given interval of time, this change in intensity will not create any single photon with enough energy to dislodge an electron. Thus, the energy of the emitted electrons does not depend on the intensity of the incoming light, but only on the energy (equivalent frequency) of the individual photons. It is an interaction between the incident photon and the innermost electrons. The movement of an outer electron to occupy the vacancy then result in the emission of a photon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25017774",
"title": "Photoelectrochemical process",
"section": "Section::::Photoionization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "For example, to ionize hydrogen, photons need an energy greater than 13.6 electronvolts (the Rydberg energy), which corresponds to a wavelength of 91.2 nm. For photons with greater energy than this, the energy of the emitted photoelectron is given by:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "491316",
"title": "Unit fraction",
"section": "Section::::Unit fractions in physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "The energy levels of photons that can be absorbed or emitted by a hydrogen atom are, according to the Rydberg formula, proportional to the differences of two unit fractions. An explanation for this phenomenon is provided by the Bohr model, according to which the energy levels of electron orbitals in a hydrogen atom are inversely proportional to square unit fractions, and the energy of a photon is quantized to the difference between two levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37376713",
"title": "Heat transfer physics",
"section": "Section::::Photon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Blackbody radiation among various types of photon emission employs the photon gas model with thermalized energy distribution without interphoton interaction. From the linear dispersion relation (i.e., dispersionless), phase and group speeds are equal (\"u\" = \"d ω\"/\"dκ\" = \"ω\"/\"κ\", \"u\": photon speed) and the Debye (used for dispersionless photon) density of states is \"Ddω\" = ω\"dω\"/\"π\"\"u\". With \"D\" and equilibrium distribution \"f\", photon energy spectral distribution \"dI\" or \"dI\" (\"λ\": wavelength) and total emissive power \"E\" are derived as\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3gwf10
|
why most of the time lead singers in songs produced by dj-producers aren't mentioned in the title of the song, like in some of avicii's songs
|
[
{
"answer": "The industry attaches the name to the project they are promoting for the song. If it is a David Guetta song for his album, they will call it that. But if David Guetta produces the song for someone else, it will be that persons name. \n\nSo many songs are written and completely done and then they just figure out who they will attach to it. They shop different famous people. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2256430",
"title": "Cocoon (Björk song)",
"section": "Section::::Background and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "They met up in January 2001 in London to record the song. He went into a studio with only three tracks for the mix, and was impressed that there were many technicians and programmers that probably had been using a hundred. However, the singer was protecting the idea of the raw version, and said: \"This is how we wanted to be\". They added two changes to the song and then spent the rest of the day recording Björk's vocals. They wanted to have only one take that really worked so that they did not have to edit different takes. They recorded 20 takes, and used the fifth or sixth, and because of that, the producer thought that \"this track is very intimate and personal because of the way the vocals were recorded\". The way the song was recorded was \"kind of rough\" according to Knak; \"It's also very close to the mic; all these things that you wouldn't normally keep. In that sense, it is very kind of, almost naked. In the structure and in the feeling because of the lyrics\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21943375",
"title": "Ave Fénix",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "A production by Romo and Miguel Bosé's producer Loris Ceroni, all the tracks were written primarily by herself. It has new versions of her greatest hits: \"Quiero amanecer con alguien\" (\"I want to wake up with someone\"), \"De mí enamórate\" (\"Fall in love with me\") and \"Yo no te pido la luna\" (\"I don't ask you for the moon\"). This project was mainly inspired by Cher's comeback effort \"Believe\", adopting her smooth vocals with dance beats. It was largely ignored because Romo would go on to do telenovelas instead of promoting it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "88411",
"title": "Holler (Spice Girls song)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Later, in October 1999, Jerkins also said, \"I did three songs with them, and everybody I've been playing them for can't believe it's the Spice Girls. I like to create for the artist on the spot. I knew I had to do the Spice Girls 10 months beforehand, but I didn't write one single lyric or do one track until I got to London. We started working on the songs the day I met them, because I wanted to get a vibe from them. We did the three songs in five days.\" In December 1999, the girls performed a few new tracks during the \"Christmas in Spiceworld\" tour, including \"Holler\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3512389",
"title": "In the Land of Grey and Pink",
"section": "Section::::Background and recording.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1051,
"text": "Recording began in September 1970 at Decca Studios, West Hampstead, London. Guitarist Pye Hastings had written the bulk of material for earlier albums, which led to a backlog of songs composed by the rest of the group; consequently he only offered a single song, \"Love to Love You (And Pigs Might Fly)\". Bassist Richard Sinclair had written \"Golf Girl\", a song about his girlfriend and future wife. Both songs were written in a straightforward pop style, in contrast to some longer pieces on the album. Keyboardist David Sinclair had composed a number of different musical segments that he wanted to link together to a suite of songs. The group helped with the arranging and joining of sections, resulting in a 22-minute piece, \"Nine Feet Underground\". The song was recorded in five separate sections and edited together by Hitchcock and engineer Dave Grinsted. Most of the work is instrumental, aside from two sections with lyrics. David Sinclair played most of the solos on the track, and indeed the entire album, on either fuzztone organ or piano.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45386268",
"title": "Playtime Is Over (mixtape)",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Minaj was involved in writing all of the lyrics on \"Playtime Is Over\". Her songs mostly feature either her or another artist rapping, with the chorus from the original instrumental removed. Most lyrics consist of either complicated wordplay or direct insults that establish Minaj as better than other rappers, and suggest that her music is worth listening to. It was argued that the lyrics of the mixtape are deeper than that of subsequent commercial singles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5272455",
"title": "World Class Listening Problem",
"section": "Section::::Miscellanea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "All of the songs were recorded live in the studio with little or no overdubs or edits. Che remarks that this led producer Al Sutton to say that they were the first band he'd ever worked with who could actually play their songs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9253363",
"title": "Canção do Amor Demais",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "The music was composed by Vinícius de Moraes and Tom Jobim. Despite its historical importance, and although it was noticed by prominent people in the recording industry, the album's commercial impact was limited. It was released on the small Festa label, which had previously primarily made recordings featuring spoken poetry, and only two thousand copies were initially pressed. Cardoso, already recognized as one of Brazil's best-ever singers, was never identified as a bossa singer, although she would be featured on the legendary Black Orpheus soundtrack, another bossa landmark.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3r2cy0
|
why are trains/cars/planes so loud when they go by outside but relatively quiet when you're inside them?
|
[
{
"answer": "No expert but I would Imagine its just your standard sound deadening material like is used in cars.\nStart removing all those materials and you end up in an uncomfortable and loud metal box.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sound insulation between you and the noise generation. It's the same as being inside your house with a car outside, it's much quieter behind your walls and door than it is if you were standing directly next to your car. \n\nAs for physics, the only major contributors are sound wave, which still has to do with obstructions. Basically the waves are a bit more broken up once they pass through all the stuff between you and the noise generator. \n\nAn interesting read is this, which helps explain why cars/planes/trains become louder and then quieter as they pass by: _URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1401151",
"title": "Train whistle",
"section": "Section::::Noise complaints from train whistles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "It is not uncommon for the sound of a train's whistle to propagate for miles; yet vehicle operators still have a difficult time hearing the warning signal due to the vehicle's soundproofing and ambient noise within the cab (such as engine, road, radio, and conversation noises).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2320500",
"title": "Train noise",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "BULLET::::- Train noise can be a type of environmental noise. When a train is moving, there are several distinct sounds such as the locomotive engine noise and the wheels turning on the railroad track. The air displacement of a train or subway car in a tunnel can create different whooshing sounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "236943",
"title": "Environmental noise",
"section": "Section::::Environmental noise emission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Noise from transportation is typically emitted by machinery (e.g. the engine or exhaust) and aerodynamic noise (see aerodynamics and aircraft noise) caused by the compression and friction in the air around the vessel during motion. Environmental noise from the railway specifically is variable depending on the speed and quality of the tracks used for transportation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25406027",
"title": "Environmental impact of transport",
"section": "Section::::Sectors.:Rail.:Railroads' Impacts on the Environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Noise can be a direct impact on the natural environment as a result of railroads. Trains contain many different parts that have the potential to be thundering. Wheels, engines and non-aerodynamic cargo that actually vibrate the tracks can cause resounding sounds. Noise caused from directly neighboring railways has the potential to actually lessen value to property because of the inconveniences that railroads provide because of a close proximity. In order to combat unbearable volumes resulting from railways, US diesel locomotives are required to be quieter than 90 decibels at 25 meters away since 1979. This noise, however, has been shown to be harmless to animals, except for horses who will become skittish, that live near it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2320500",
"title": "Train noise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Train noise is vehicle noise created by trains. Noises may be heard inside the train and outside. Various parts of a train produce noise, and different kinds of train wheels produce different amounts of noise. Noise barriers can attenuate the noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37575",
"title": "Airport",
"section": "Section::::Environmental concerns and sustainability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Aircraft noise is a major cause of noise disturbance to residents living near airports. Sleep can be affected if the airports operate night and early morning flights. Aircraft noise not only occurs from take-off and landings, but also ground operations including maintenance and testing of aircraft. Noise can have other noise health effects. Other noise and environmental concerns are vehicle traffic causing noise and pollution on roads leading the airport.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38405520",
"title": "NSW TrainLink",
"section": "Section::::Quiet carriages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Quiet carriages are designated carriages where noise made by passengers is requested to be kept to a minimum. Passengers are asked to place mobile phones on silent, move carriages in order to have a conversation with another passenger and use headphones when listening to music.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
258ak7
|
What would the outcome of the Crittenden compromise be if it went into effect?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hi OP! I've removed this post since it asks respondents to speculate, which is [against rules of this subreddit](_URL_0_). Do consider x-posting to the creative minds over in /r/HistoricalWhatIf",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1160129",
"title": "Crittenden Compromise",
"section": "Section::::Results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "The Crittenden proposals were also discussed at the Peace Conference of 1861, a meeting of more than 100 of the nation's leading politicians, held February 8-27, 1861, in Washington, D.C. The conference, led by former President John Tyler, was the final formal effort of the states to avert the start of war. There too, the Compromise proposals failed, as the provision guaranteeing slave ownership throughout all Western territories and future acquisitions again proved unpalatable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26284133",
"title": "United Nations Security Council Resolution 774",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Resolution 774 also stated that the current status quo was unacceptable and that if future negotiations should fail, called on the Secretary-General to identify reasons for the failure and to recommend to the Council further causes of action to resolve the dispute. The resolution also confirmed the continuance of the Treaty of Guarantee signed in 1960.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1160129",
"title": "Crittenden Compromise",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The Crittenden Compromise was an unsuccessful proposal introduced by United States Senator John J. Crittenden (Constitutional Unionist of Kentucky) on December 18, 1860. It aimed to resolve the secession crisis of 1860–1861 by addressing the fears and grievances about slavery that led many slave-holding states to contemplate secession from the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1238113",
"title": "Jiu Valley",
"section": "Section::::History.:Velvet restructuring and subsequent unrest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "To many the compromise agreement was seen as a Pyrrhic victory for both sides. While the government avoided a showdown with the miners, the compromise represented “a potentially devastating setback to the government’s flagging efforts to push through market-oriented reforms - including the closure of 140 loss-making coalmines, 49 loss-making state enterprises and a five-year plan to restructure the steel industry with the loss of 70,000 jobs.” As for the miners the future was no more certain than it was before the strike.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33221",
"title": "History of Western Sahara",
"section": "Section::::Armed conflict (1975–1991).:Cease-fire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "The Framework Agreement would have required the parties to agree on the specific terms of a political settlement based on the Autonomy/Sovereignty formula through direct negotiations. Baker presented the Peace Plan as a non-negotiable package that would have obliged each of the parties to accept its terms without further amendment. Both proposals contained elements that would have required popular endorsement of the solution through a referendum of the concerned populations. The UN Security Council declined to formally endorse either of the two proposals, which led eventually to Baker's resignation as Personal Envoy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1778612",
"title": "Mathias Sandorf",
"section": "Section::::Background on the novel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Though the compromise is not explicitly mentioned in the book, it is clear that the aim of Sandorf and his fellow conspirators is to avert this ratification, seize control of Buda (Pest, Buda and Óbuda was unified in 1873) and other major Hungarian cities, and get the Diet to declare instead a complete Hungarian independence - gambling that Austria, enfeebled by its recent defeat in the Austro-Prussian War, would have no choice but to accept this fait accompli. (If successful, such a move would have substantially changed later European history, up to the outbreak of World War I).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8619057",
"title": "Macedonia naming dispute",
"section": "Section::::History.:Compromise solutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "The compromise solution, as set out in the two resolutions, was very carefully worded in an effort to meet the objections and concerns of both sides. The wording of the resolutions rested on four key principles:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7pb9qy
|
When did the right-wing become associated with better management of the economy?
|
[
{
"answer": "This begs the question. I don't believe that's a common perception at all, except within the right wing itself, of course.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56522",
"title": "Right-wing politics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1041,
"text": "Although the right-wing originated with traditional conservatives, monarchists, and reactionaries, the term extreme right-wing has also been applied to movements including fascism, Nazism, and racial supremacy. From the 1830s to the 1880s, there was a shift in the Western world of social class structure and the economy, moving away from nobility and aristocracy towards capitalism. This general economic shift toward capitalism affected centre-right movements such as the British Conservative Party, which responded by becoming supportive of capitalism. In the United States, the Right includes both economic and social conservatives. In Europe, economic conservatives are usually considered liberal and the Right includes nationalists, nativist opposition to immigration, religious conservatives, and historically a significant presence of right-wing movements with anti-capitalist sentiments including conservatives and fascists who opposed what they saw as the selfishness and excessive materialism inherent in contemporary capitalism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56522",
"title": "Right-wing politics",
"section": "Section::::Positions.:Anti-communism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "The 1920s and 1930s saw the fading of traditional right-wing politics. The mantle of conservative anti-communism was taken up by the rising fascist movements on the one hand and by American-inspired liberal conservatives on the other. When communist groups and political parties began appearing around the world, their opponents were usually colonial authorities and the term right-wing came to be applied to colonialism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56522",
"title": "Right-wing politics",
"section": "Section::::Positions.:Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1199,
"text": "In modern times, \"right-wing\" is sometimes used to describe \"laissez-faire\" capitalism. In Europe, capitalists formed alliances with the Right during their conflicts with workers after 1848. In France, the Right's support of capitalism can be traced to the late-nineteenth century. The so-called neoliberal Right, popularised by US President Ronald Reagan and UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, combines support for free markets, privatisation and deregulation with traditional right-wing support for social conformity. Right-wing libertarianism (sometimes known as libertarian conservatism or conservative libertarianism) supports a decentralised economy based on economic freedom and holds property rights, free markets and free trade to be the most important kinds of freedom. Russell Kirk believed that freedom and property rights were interlinked. Anthony Gregory has written that right-wing libertarianism \"can refer to any number of varying and at times mutually exclusive political orientations\". Gregory holds that the issue is neither right or left, but \"whether a person sees the state as a major hazard or just another institution to be reformed and directed toward a political goal\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3190910",
"title": "Old Right (United States)",
"section": "Section::::History and views.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1047,
"text": "The Old Right came into being when the Republican Party (GOP) split in 1910, and was influential within that party into the 1940s. They pushed Theodore Roosevelt and his liberal followers out in 1912. From 1933, many Democrats became associated with the Old Right through their opposition to Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) and his New Deal Coalition, and with the Republicans formed the Conservative Coalition to block its further progress. Conservatives disagreed on foreign policy, and the Old Right favored non-interventionist policies on Europe at the start of World War II. After the war, they opposed President Harry Truman's domestic and foreign policies. The last major battle was led by Ohio Senator Robert A. Taft, who was defeated by Dwight D Eisenhower for the presidential nomination in 1952. The new conservative movement later led by William F. Buckley, Jr., Barry Goldwater and Ronald Reagan adopted the domestic anti-New Deal conservatism of the Old Right, but broke with it by demanding an aggressive anti-communist foreign policy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56522",
"title": "Right-wing politics",
"section": "Section::::Positions.:Economics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "In the nineteenth century, the Right had shifted to support the newly rich in some European countries (particularly England) and instead of favouring the nobility over industrialists, favoured capitalists over the working class. Other right-wing movements, such as Carlism in Spain and nationalist movements in France, Germany and Russia, remained hostile to capitalism and industrialism. However, there are still a few right-wing movements today, notably the French Nouvelle Droite, CasaPound and American paleoconservatives, that are often in opposition to capitalist ethics and the effects they have on society as a whole, which they see as infringing upon or causing the decay of social traditions or hierarchies that they see as essential for social order.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4157940",
"title": "History of the United States Republican Party",
"section": "Section::::Fighting the New Deal coalition: 1932–1980.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "The Old Right emerged in opposition to the New Deal of Franklin D. Roosevelt. Hoff says that \"moderate Republicans and leftover Republican Progressives like Hoover composed the bulk of the Old Right by 1940, with a sprinkling of former members of the Farmer-Labor party, Non-Partisan League, and even a few midwestern prairie Socialists\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5249139",
"title": "Criticism of Franklin D. Roosevelt",
"section": "Section::::Criticism of Roosevelt as a \"fascist\".:Critics on the right.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "The Old Right emerged in opposition to the New Deal of President Roosevelt and Hoff says that \"moderate Republicans and leftover Republican Progressives like Hoover composed the bulk of the Old Right by 1940, with a sprinkling of former members of the Farmer-Labor party, Non-Partisan League, and even a few midwestern prairie Socialists\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dsjlxc
|
In this picture (link below) hanging up in my town's town hall showing an American colonist and some Native people in the mid 1600s, how accurately depicted are their clothing?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is entirely inaccurate. The depiction of the Puritan colonist instructing and evangelizing the compliant, submissive Natives is little more than a fantasy. \n\nBut more on the clothing. New England colonists often commented on how the Natives there wore less clothing, but they only wore less clothing when the climate merited it. You would not likely see a loincloth-clad Native in the freezing New England winter. And neither would you see many Puritan settlers wearing stifling dress in the summer either. And it would have rarely gotten so hot that the Native men would only wear a loincloth.\n\nPuritan settlers also wore more than just gray and black and white. Their attire tended to be more colorful day to day. They would not likely have worn the buckles as they would have been seen as too ostentatious to daily wear. Any Puritan missionary would almost certainly be attired differently from the norm, more likely to wear the deerskin breeches and shirts of their Native audience than their Sunday best. That's mostly because the Natives were rarely willing to venture far away from home just to hear a preacher speak. It was more likely the preacher would head out into Indian country.\n\nPuritan elites may have dressed in a similar manner on special occasions, but not often. The majority of non-elite Puritans would have dressed in a far more relaxed manner to better facilitate their labor. Pilgrim attire is not well suited to cooking, woodcutting, farming, fishing, sailing, or blacksmithing.\n\n**Sources:**\n\n- Sargent Bush, \"America's Origin Myth: Remembering Plymouth Rock\"\n\n- Paul Heike, *The Myths That Made America: An Introduction to American Studies*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39964962",
"title": "Charles W. Clark",
"section": "Section::::Other facts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "He was one of the first settlers at the artist colony in Grossmont on El Granito San Diego, with other famous artists like poet John Vance Cheney, music critic Havrah Hubbard and opera singer Schumann-Heink. Madame Schumann-Heink had a picture of Clark hung in her home. She felt he had contributed an enormous amount to American music. His picture hung next to one of John D. Spreckels, the sugar magnate, one of her favorite people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2064140",
"title": "Edwin Whitefield",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Edwin Whitefield (September 22, 1816 – December 26, 1892) was a landscape artist who is best known for his lithographed views of North American cities and for a number of illustrated books on colonial homes in New England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33278414",
"title": "Etaples art colony",
"section": "Section::::Nationalities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "The painters of two of the colony's nationalities, Americans and Australians, have been the subject of special studies. Among the earliest Americans to visit the town were Walter Gay, who was making a name for himself with Realist subjects at the time, and Robert Reid, whose long career as a painter of young women in outside settings began with portraits of peasants in Étaples before his return to the U.S. in 1889. Another early visitor was Homer Dodge Martin, who was painting on the coast between 1882-6. His work included a topographical view of the harbour (Gallery 3).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5017253",
"title": "Union Square, Baltimore",
"section": "Section::::History.:Malachai Mills.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "At 1504 W. Baltimore Street is the residence of Malachai Mills, a free-born African-American businessman in the early and mid-19th century. Mr. Mills was a prominent cabinetmaker and carpenter, providing furnishings and carpentry for many of the early homes in the neighborhood. Bill Adler of the Union Square neighborhood is at the head of a preservation effort to revitalize this valuable structure as a “historic life museum” and as a preservation, fine arts, or urban studies field site for local universities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15799361",
"title": "Wayman Elbridge Adams",
"section": "Section::::Art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Adams also turned out regional figure studies and street scenes in various media including painting, drawing, and printmaking. One series focuses on the residents of San Francisco's Chinatown, and another on the residents of New Orleans, Louisiana, where he traveled frequently beginning in 1916. A number of the New Orleans works foreground African-American subjects. There are also portraits of notable New Orleans residents, including author Grace King, artist Ellsworth Woodward, and mayor Martin Behrman.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74547",
"title": "Roanoke Colony",
"section": "Section::::Hypotheses about the disappearance.:Integration with local tribes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "The so-called \"Zuniga Map\" (named for Pedro de Zúñiga, the Spanish ambassador to England, who had secured a copy and passed it on to Philip III of Spain), drawn about 1607 by the Jamestown settler Francis Nelson, also gives credence to this claim. The map states \"four men clothed that came from roonock\" were living in an Iroquois site on the Neuse. William Strachey wrote that, at the Indian settlements of Peccarecanick and Ochanahoen, there were reportedly two-story houses with stone walls. The Indians supposedly had learned how to build them from the Roanoke settlers. In both cases, as stated above, it is equally possible that these were survivors of Chief Powhatan's attack on the first Roanoke colonists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2064140",
"title": "Edwin Whitefield",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Whitefield visited a series of North American cities, where he published books reproducing the paintings he made there. His collections were published by subscription. The cities he visited included Brooklyn (1845), Toronto (1851), Quebec City (1852), Montreal (1853-1854), Hamilton, Ontario (1854), Ithica, New York (1855), Jamestown (1882), and Boston (1889).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
18iny8
|
Is there any proof or reasoning behind people associating particular moods with particular alcohols (whiskey makes me fight) Or is it just a placebo effect?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is to do with some factors such as strength of alcohol, how easy it is to absorb, any additional chemicals added and how it is marketed (as certain drinks have a certain psychological effect due to how it is marketed e.g. wine seeming to be more regal and classy than beer)\n\nFor example, alcopops. They are high strength, carbonated and filled with caffeine and taurine so they send people into a high chatty mood.\n\nThere are a lot of factors to take into account such as what the alcohol is mixed with, how much sugar is present, how much it has been filtered, how the different chemicals in the alcohol react with each other to alter a persons mood. There is some truth behind different beverages causing different moods but it is all very speculative and require a lot more research as you need to take into account the persons mental state before consuming alcohol along with a raft of other variables.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's placebo. Chemically, whiskey, vodka, rum, etc., are all pretty much the same: about 40% ethanol, 60% water, and trace impurities and flavorings.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2869",
"title": "Anxiolytic",
"section": "Section::::Medications.:Miscellaneous.:Alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Ethanol is used as an anxiolytic, sometimes by self-medication. fMRI can measure the anxiolytic effects of alcohol in the human brain. The British National Formulary states, \"Alcohol is a poor hypnotic because its diuretic action interferes with sleep during the latter part of the night.\" Alcohol is also known to induce alcohol-related sleep disorders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9660402",
"title": "Blackout (drug-related amnesia)",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "In another study which looked at subjective responses to alcohol as a prime for 21st birthday alcohol consumption, subjective responses to the initial drink were viewed as a prime for more alcohol consumption during 21st birthday celebrations. Current findings show that subjective responses to alcohol have direct effects on both the final BAC achieved and on the experiences of blackouts and hangover that are not explained by level of intoxication. Where a variety of social factors, such as peer pressure and 21st birthday traditions such as 21 shots may influence the amount of alcohol people consume, their subjective experiences with alcohol have clear influences on both consumption and the physiological consequences of drinking. These physiological responses to alcohol may have a biological vulnerability that extends beyond the dose-dependent effects of alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51805386",
"title": "Subjective response to alcohol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 835,
"text": "Subjective response to alcohol (SR) refers to an individual's unique experience of the pharmacological effects of alcohol and is a putative risk factor for the development of alcohol use disorder. Subjective effects include both stimulating experiences typically occurring during the beginning of a drinking episode as breath alcohol content (BAC) rises and sedative effects, which are more prevalent later in a drinking episode as BAC wanes. The combined influence of hedonic and aversive subjective experiences over the course of a drinking session are strong predictors of alcohol consumption and drinking consequences. There is also mounting evidence for consideration of SR as an endophenotype with some studies suggesting that it accounts for a significant proportion of genetic risk for the development of alcohol use disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23476797",
"title": "Social anxiety disorder",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Substance-induced.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "While alcohol initially relieves social phobia, excessive alcohol misuse can worsen social phobia symptoms and can cause panic disorder to develop or worsen during alcohol intoxication and especially during alcohol withdrawal syndrome. This effect is not unique to alcohol but can also occur with long-term use of drugs which have a similar mechanism of action to alcohol such as the benzodiazepines which are sometimes prescribed as tranquillisers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46695897",
"title": "Molecular and epigenetic mechanisms of alcoholism",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "An increased propensity for alcoholism has been associated with stress-related anxiety and dysphoria, a state of general unease or dissatisfaction. The experience of various types of stress, including severe acute stress and chronic stress, can lead to the onset of dysphoria. Ethanol consumption promotes the release of dopamine into the nucleus accumbens (NAc) which is translated as a “reward\". Thus, to cope with negative emotions, individuals often turn to alcohol as a form of temporary self-medication. Unfortunately, repeated ethanol use results in diminishing returns which prompts increased intake and dependence. Research has and continues to investigate the molecular and epigenetic mechanisms underlying the downward spiral of alcoholism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19329865",
"title": "Short-term effects of alcohol consumption",
"section": "Section::::Effects by dosage.:Moderate doses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Short-term effects of alcohol include the risk of injuries, violence, and fetal damage. Alcohol has also been linked with lowered inhibitions, although it is unclear as to what degree this is chemical or psychological as studies with placebos can often duplicate the social effects of alcohol at either low or moderate doses. Some studies have suggested that intoxicated people have much greater control over their behavior than is generally recognized, though they have a reduced ability to evaluate the consequences of their behavior. Behavioral changes associated with drunkenness are, to some degree, contextual.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23926802",
"title": "Drank (soft drink)",
"section": "Section::::Effects on health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "Health experts have warned that the herbal ingredients in Drank and similar beverages induce drowsiness and sedation, which can be dangerous when combined with medications or products that do similar things, such as alcohol or anti-depressants. Gregory Carter, a neurologist on the clinical staff of the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, told the \"Dallas Morning News\" that there is enough melatonin in Drank to induce sleepiness, and that this effect could occur quickly because the melatonin is in dissolved form. Regarding Valerian, Carter found that the content was probably \"not enough to have a strong effect\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
lexgr
|
How big is the Moon's shadow during a solar eclipse?
|
[
{
"answer": "Wikipedia says over 250 km across.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It all depends on how close the moon is to the earth at the time of the eclipse. Sometimes it can be an Annular eclipse and there is no place that the sun is completely blocked out. It looks like the largest that it can be is approximately 250 km",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wikipedia says over 250 km across.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It all depends on how close the moon is to the earth at the time of the eclipse. Sometimes it can be an Annular eclipse and there is no place that the sun is completely blocked out. It looks like the largest that it can be is approximately 250 km",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42587590",
"title": "April 1948 lunar eclipse",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "A partial lunar eclipse took place on April 23, 1948. A tiny bite out of the Moon may have been visible at maximum, though just 2% of the Moon was shadowed in a partial eclipse which lasted for 34 minutes and 18 seconds. A shading across the moon from the Earth's penumbral shadow should have been visible at maximum eclipse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36094559",
"title": "Solar eclipses on the Moon",
"section": "Section::::Center of the Earth's shadow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Unlike the Earth, which receives the smallest portion being inside the center of the Moon's shadow during total solar eclipses, during total eclipses on the Moon, the center of the Earth's shadow covers the whole near side of the Moon and lasts much longer than on Earth, up to 1.8 hours. Some total-partial eclipses have at most half or a part of the Moon being in the center of the Earth's shadow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42587661",
"title": "June 1947 lunar eclipse",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "A partial lunar eclipse took place on June 3, 1947. A tiny bite out of the Moon may have been visible at maximum, though just 2% of the Moon was shadowed in a partial eclipse which lasted for 34 minutes and 42 seconds. A shading across the moon from the Earth's penumbral shadow should have been visible at maximum eclipse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53560245",
"title": "Solar eclipse of November 10, 1844",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "It was 5% obscured in the middle of the peninsula up to 8.4% obscuration of the sun at the area of the greatest eclipse. The center of the moon's shadow was missed by over 2,500 km over the area (69.8 S) south of the Antarctic Circle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25701376",
"title": "List of solar eclipses visible from the Philippines",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "A Total Solar Eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness for a brief moment in time. While an Annular Solar Eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is smaller than the Sun's, blocking most of the Sun's light and causing the Sun to look like an annulus (ring). These central eclipses occurs only in a narrow path across Earth's surface. Partial solar eclipse, on the other hand is visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide in areas where the non-central shadow falls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22194276",
"title": "July 1962 lunar eclipse",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "A penumbral lunar eclipse took place on July 17, 1962. This very subtle penumbral eclipse was essentially invisible to the naked eye; though it lasted 2 hours and 48 minutes, just 39% of the Moon's disc was in partial shadow (with no part of it in complete shadow). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4582286",
"title": "Solar eclipse of June 21, 2001",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "solar eclipse occurs when the Moon's apparent diameter is larger than the Sun's, blocking all direct sunlight, turning day into darkness. Totality occurs in a narrow path across Earth's surface, with the partial solar eclipse visible over a surrounding region thousands of kilometres wide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dfu17u
|
In 1975, Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam was ‘dismissed’ by the Governor-General. How much evidence is there that both the CIA and the Nixon/Ford administrations played a significant role in the dismissal, along with Rupert Murdoch? If so, why?
|
[
{
"answer": "So firstly, some background: Gough Whitlam became Prime Minister of Australia in 1972, and became the first Labor Prime Minister since 1949. Labor, as a result of being out of power for over two decades, had a progressive legislative agenda which they were eager to enact, and which they wanted to do without delay after 23 very, very, very long years of conservative government. \n\nIn order to fund this agenda, the Whitlam government attempted to circumvent the Loans Council (which it considered very conservative and likely to run interference for the conservatives) and borrow around 4 billion dollars via a London-based commodities dealer, Tirath Khemlani, who claimed to have access to vast Middle Eastern funds (and who had apparently arranged government loans for the UK, France, and Italy in the previous year). The mooted deal with Khemlani ended up falling apart once it became the focus of public scrutiny, which neither party really wanted. Deputy Prime Minister/Treasurer Jim Cairns tried pursuing other avenues for fundraising, and it apparently happened that Cairns (whether freely or as a victim of subterfuge) signed a deal with a Melbourne businessman, George Harris, which promised Harris a 2.5% brokerage fee for securing a loan for something up to $500 million. \n\nCairns then, in parliament, denied having signed anything like this. A photocopy of the deal was promptly leaked to the News Limited newspapers (which is where Rupert Murdoch comes in; the future Fox News owner was perhaps unsurprisingly not a supporter of the Whitlam government's progressive agenda at this point). This is also where the CIA come in; Jenny Hocking in *Gough Whitlam: His Life* quotes a CIA daily report prepared for President Gerald Ford as saying that 'some of the evidence had been fabricated', though it's unclear who exactly fabricated the evidence. In any case, Cairns misleading parliament meant that Gough Whitlam sacked him as Deputy Prime Minister and Treasurer, which is the kind of internal scandal a government does not want. \n\nWhitlam as Prime Minister had told parliament that the Labor Cabinet was no longer in touch with Tirath Khemlani. However, the Melbourne Herald (which was *not* a Murdoch publication) dispatched a reporter to London to investigate, and found that indeed the Labor government's Minister for Minerals and Energy, Rex Connor turned out to be continuing to communicate with Khemlani, despite his authority to negotiate on such matters being revoked in May. Though nobody could find evidence of Whitlam knowing anything about this (with journalists and the opposition definitely trying), this meant that Whitlam had mislead parliament, and so in October 1975 he sacked Connor.\n\nThe Liberal/Country Party Coalition, who were in opposition, took this as a justification to block Supply (effectively, the government legislation that allows the release of funds to pay the government's bills) from the 16th of October 1975 in the Senator. Initially, at the 1974 election, Labor had 29 Senators, and the Coalition had 29 Senators, with 2 independents. One of these independents joined the Liberal Party in February 1975. A Labor Senator resigned to enter the judiciary, and was replaced (against previous convention) by an independent. Then, a Labor Senator passed away, and was replaced by a nominally Labor Senator who was nominated by Queensland Premier Joh Bjelke-Peterson, Albert Field, who was vocally anti-Whitlam. When Field joined the Senate in October 1975, he was prepared to vote against Supply, thus enabling the Coalition to have the numbers in the Senate to outright block Supply, and thus cause a crisis which necessarily would have to end in a new election. \n\nWhen political circumstances changed, it was the Governor General, Sir John Kerr, that changed them. In Australia, the Governor-General is, effectively, the representative of the British monarch, who has the power to sign Australian legislation into law (but who, as with the Queen, is usually apolitical in how they discharge their duties). Gough Whitlam had requested that Kerr call a 'half-Senate election' to resolve the issue (i.e., to elect a new Senate, rather than, at most elections, the House of Representatives and the Senate), and his understanding was that Kerr was planning to do this.\n\nHowever, on November 11th, 1975, Kerr dismissed the government, sacking Whitlam and installing the Opposition leader, Malcolm Fraser, as the new Prime Minister in the interim period before an imminent new election. Whitlam was, shall we say, unimpressed by this, as John Kerr had a Labor background, and was someone he had advised the Queen to install as Governor General. Thus Whitlam's famous quote: *well may we say, God save the Queen, because nothing will save the Governor General.*\n\nThese events have, perhaps unsurprisingly, long been the source of controversy politically, and thus conspiracy theories (both legitimate and more far-fetched). Re: the CIA, it's a matter of record that they were upset by some of the Whitlam government's actions. In particular, in March 1973, Lionel Murphy, the Attorney-General (and the Senator who quit parliament in 1975 to join the High Court I mentioned earlier) had 'raided' ASIO (the Australian spy agency), demanding to see the relevant files on right-wing Croatian separatists involved in bombing Yugoslavian interests in Australia (Murphy had heard that ASIO were downplaying these activities). US intelligence agencies, as a result of this 'raid', promptly cut off their flow of information to ASIO (something that Whitlam amended by providing reassurances relatively shortly afterwards). Relations between ASIO and the Whitlam government had been troubled from the start - ASIO had for a long time monitored Labor members they suspected of being communists, including Jim Cairns (mentioned earlier), and the ASIO official history by John Blaxland mentions that ASIO acted as a conduit to transmit American concerns about the Whitlam government to the political and military establishment. The US establishment was also apparently concerned with Jim Cairns becoming Deputy Prime Minister (as he did at the 1974 election), partly for this reason - they saw him as being unacceptably left-wing, and perhaps even a secret communist. The ASIO official history also provides evidence that US embassy officials had warned ASIO at least twice during 1975 that the Labor government was a potential threat to their willingness to share information.\n\nIn late October 1975 - a few weeks into the Supply crisis - Gough Whitlam demanded of ASIO a list of all CIA officers active in Australia in the last 10 years. The Prime Minister then *publicly* accused an official at Pine Gap of being a CIA operative who had been collaborating with the Opposition. This received a lot of attention in the media, as you can imagine, further escalating the political crisis. This led to, essentially, the local CIA chief relaying to ASIO's senior liaison officer in Washington that further publicity would lead to...changes. Whitlam was spooked by what he thought was a rather sinister threat, but sought to appease Washington that he would behave in future. \n\nDespite what are *clearly* quite tense relations here, John Blaxland, in the official ASIO history, claims to have found no evidence that the CIA played any role in Whitlam's removal. This is of course an official ASIO history, and so while John Blaxland is a diligent historian who has unparalleled access to documents, it's not beyond the realm of possibility that it might sometimes tell an official story rather than the truth (e.g., by shredding particular documents before providing access to Blaxland, as a paper in the *Alternative Law Journal* by Michael Head argues). Head also brings up the claims of Christopher Boyce that the CIA referred to Kerr as 'our man'; Boyce was a young American intelligence analyst who was convicted for selling secrets to the Soviets. He is sometimes seen by leftist types like John Pilger as a hero who was framed by the Americans for spilling their secrets. As anyone who's read a John Le Carre novel would be very aware, espionage is not exactly somewhere where information is reliable; it's certainly possible that Boyce's claims are true, but it may well be the case that they're someone's misinformation. For what it's worth, Boyce's claims don't figure into Hocking's portrayal of events at all, and Blaxland sees Boyce as fundamentally untrustworthy. \n\nAs to what caused Kerr's actions, Hocking argues that Kerr had a stronger relationship with Malcolm Fraser than Whitlam realised, that Kerr had very little trust in Whitlam, and that Kerr ultimately sided with a legal opinion (one he'd in fact previously told Whitlam was 'bullshit', giving Whitlam a false sense of security) that the dismissal was the correct legal way to resolve the constitutional crisis. Kerr, the Governor-General, had also previously worked for military intelligence and had many contacts within the intelligence community. Kerr, according to Jenny Hocking, *had* sought advice from ASIO about the CIA threats which happened after Whitlam named a Pine Gap official as being CIA (despite that person not being on the official list he demanded, apparently). It’s not inconceivable that Kerr had come to the conclusion that Whitlam's behaviour ultimately threatened Australian interests.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "65836",
"title": "Republicanism in Australia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Whitlam era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "The Whitlam government ended in 1975 with a constitutional crisis in which Governor-General John Kerr dismissed the ministry and appointed Opposition Leader Malcolm Fraser as prime minister, an act in which the monarch herself was not consulted and, when approached after the event, pointedly refused to intervene, noting that she lacked authority to do so under the Australian constitution. The incident, though, raised questions about the value of maintaining a supposedly \"symbolic\" office that still possessed many key political powers and what an Australian president with the same reserve powers would do in a similar situation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40009589",
"title": "William Harper (Rhodesian politician)",
"section": "Section::::Political career.:Resignation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "According to the memoirs of Ken Flower, then the director of Rhodesia's Central Intelligence Organisation (CIO), Harper's downfall was the result of an extramarital affair with a young secretary in the Rhodesian civil service who the CIO discovered was an agent for MI6. Flower informed Smith of this on 3 July and the Prime Minister demanded Harper's resignation that afternoon; Harper acquiesced the next day. Because this was kept secret (presuming it is true), Harper's sudden departure from the Cabinet was interpreted by many observers at the time as the culmination of the personal and political rivalry between Smith and Harper, or the result of disagreements over the new constitution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1253386",
"title": "Christopher John Boyce",
"section": "Section::::Espionage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "Boyce claims that he began getting misrouted cables from the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) discussing the agency's desire to depose the government of Prime Minister Gough Whitlam in Australia. Boyce claimed the CIA wanted Whitlam removed from office because he wanted to close U.S. military bases in Australia, including the vital Pine Gap secure communications facility, and withdraw Australian troops from Vietnam. For these reasons some claim that U.S. government pressure was a major factor in the dismissal of Whitlam as Prime Minister by the Governor General, Sir John Kerr, who according to Boyce, was referred to as \"our man Kerr\" by CIA officers. Through the cable traffic Boyce saw that the CIA was involving itself in such a manner, not just with Australia but with other democratic, industrialized allies. Boyce considered going to the press, but believed the media's earlier disclosure of CIA involvement in the 1973 Chilean coup d'état had not changed anything for the better.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3189144",
"title": "Nugan Hand Bank",
"section": "Section::::Allegations of CIA involvement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "Revelations by the American defence industry employee, Christopher Boyce, initiated speculation that the CIA and Nugan Hand had also played some part in the dismissal of Australian Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam. For instance, William Blum (1999) states inter alia, that the bank allegedly transferred $2.4 million to the Liberal Party of Australia which contested two forced elections in 1974 and 1975 to oust Whitlam's Labor government. He also states that the Governor General, Sir John Kerr, who was instrumental to the dismissal, was referred to by the CIA as “our man”. The CIA responded to these allegations with an emphatic denial: “The CIA has not engaged in operations against the Australian Government, has no ties with Nugan Hand and does not involve itself in drug trafficking.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37126",
"title": "Australian Secret Intelligence Service",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:ASIS in Chile 1973.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "It is one of the incidents that has been associated with a confrontation between Prime Minister Gough Whitlam and Bill Robertson, the Director-General of ASIS, resulting in Robertson's sacking on 21 October 1975, with effect on 7 November, just 4 days before Whitlam's own dismissal in the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis. Whitlam accused Robertson of disobeying instructions by delaying the closure of the ASIS station in Chile, although Robertson disputes the details in documents lodged with the National Archives in 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25415973",
"title": "Anthony Grey",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Later career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "In 1983, Grey published \"The Prime Minister Was a Spy\", in which he claimed that Harold Holt (Prime Minister of Australia from 1966 to 1967) was a spy for Communist China, and that he had not drowned, but in fact had been \"collected\" by a Chinese submarine and lived out the rest of his life in Beijing. The book was widely ridiculed, and Holt's biographer Tom Frame has described it as \"a complete fabrication\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "230760",
"title": "Pine Gap",
"section": "Section::::Operational history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "During his term in office The Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam (1972-75), threatened to close Pine Gap. According to Victor Marchetti, the CIA officer who had helped set up Pine Gap, the threat to close Pine Gap caused apoplexy in the White House and a kind of \"coup\" was set in motion. On 11 November – the day Whitlam was to inform parliament about the secret CIA presence in Australia – he was summoned by the governor-general of Australia, Sir John Kerr. Invoking archaic vice-regal “reserve powers”, Kerr sacked the democratically elected prime minister.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3a9av7
|
if newton's third law, that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, is true, then why is there acceleration at all in the universe?
|
[
{
"answer": "You're misinterpreting the 3rd law. I hate that translation of it, but it's the one that everybody uses. A much better way to formulate it is \"for every force exerted by one object on another, there is another equal force by the second object on the first\". \n\nIn other words, I push on the wall, the wall pushes back at me, and I feel it as pressure on my hand.\n\nA falling ball is being pulled on by the earth, and the ball is pulling on the earth just the same (of course, the movement of the earth towards the ball is so small as to be unnoticeable). \n\nI push the water back with my paddle, the water pushes me forward, so my boat moves. \n\nIf it weren't for the 3rd law, acceleration would be *impossible*. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1111581",
"title": "Reaction (physics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 642,
"text": "As described by the third of Newton's laws of motion of classical mechanics, all forces occur in pairs such that if one object exerts a force on another object, then the second object exerts an equal and opposite reaction force on the first. The third law is also more generally stated as: \"To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts.\" The attribution of which of the two forces is the action and which is the reaction is arbitrary. Either of the two can be considered the action, while the other is its associated reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22615327",
"title": "Structural engineering theory",
"section": "Section::::Newton's laws of motion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Newton's second law states that \"the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the resultant force acting on the body and is in the same direction.\" Mathematically, F=ma (force = mass x acceleration).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10902",
"title": "Force",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The original form of Newton's second law states that the net force acting upon an object is equal to the rate at which its momentum changes with time. If the mass of the object is constant, this law implies that the acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the net force acting on the object, is in the direction of the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass of the object.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10902",
"title": "Force",
"section": "Section::::Newtonian mechanics.:Third law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Newton's Third Law is a result of applying symmetry to situations where forces can be attributed to the presence of different objects. The third law means that all forces are \"interactions\" between different bodies, and thus that there is no such thing as a unidirectional force or a force that acts on only one body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23371726",
"title": "Lagrangian mechanics",
"section": "Section::::From Newtonian to Lagrangian mechanics.:Newton's laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1290,
"text": "It may seem like an overcomplication to cast Newton's law in this form, but there are advantages. The acceleration components in terms of the Christoffel symbols can be avoided by evaluating derivatives of the kinetic energy instead. If there is no resultant force acting on the particle, F = 0, it does not accelerate, but moves with constant velocity in a straight line. Mathematically, the solutions of the differential equation are \"geodesics\", the curves of extremal length between two points in space (these may end up being minimal so the shortest paths, but that is not necessary). In flat 3d real space the geodesics are simply straight lines. So for a free particle, Newton's second law coincides with the geodesic equation, and states free particles follow geodesics, the extremal trajectories it can move along. If the particle is subject to forces, F ≠ 0, the particle accelerates due to forces acting on it, and deviates away from the geodesics it would follow if free. With appropriate extensions of the quantities given here in flat 3d space to 4d curved spacetime, the above form of Newton's law also carries over to Einstein's general relativity, in which case free particles follow geodesics in curved spacetime that are no longer \"straight lines\" in the ordinary sense.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11694610",
"title": "Two-body problem in general relativity",
"section": "Section::::Historical context.:Classical Kepler problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Nearly a century later, Isaac Newton had formulated his three laws of motion. In particular, Newton's second law states that a force \"F\" applied to a mass \"m\" produces an acceleration \"a\" given by the equation \"F\"=\"ma\". Newton then posed the question: what must the force be that produces the elliptical orbits seen by Kepler? His answer came in his law of universal gravitation, which states that the force between a mass \"M\" and another mass \"m\" is given by the formula\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17944118",
"title": "Physics in the medieval Islamic world",
"section": "Section::::Mechanics.:Reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Ibn Bajjah proposed that for every force there is always a reaction force. While he did not specify that these forces be equal it is still an early version of the third law of motion which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qfbjg
|
Do people with higher alcohol tolerances actually process alcohol more efficiently (i.e., are their BACs comparatively lower), or are they simply more accustomed to handling the effects of alcohol?
|
[
{
"answer": "That depends who you are comparing. Females typically have far less [alcohol dehydrogenase](_URL_1_) activity which is an enzyme responsible for alcohol 'processing' so in this case males do process alcohol more efficiently. If you are talking about people who frequently consume alcohol so they can have more drinks in one sitting than everyone else at the party then the likely cause (ignoring Liver damage or other pathology) is [receptor desensitization](_URL_0_). Any neuron that is frequently stimulated will become less sensitive to the stimulus. Note how this has nothing to do with the actual processing of alcohol, just alcohols apparent effects on the brain. A person with high alcohol tolerance will have the same BAC as someone with low alcohol tolerance who drank the same amount as them but they will only experience much milder effects because of the desensitization.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2990841",
"title": "Alcohol tolerance",
"section": "Section::::Physiology of alcohol tolerance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Direct alcohol tolerance is largely dependent on body size. Large-bodied people will require more alcohol to reach insobriety than lightly built people. Thus men, being larger than women on average, will have a higher alcohol tolerance. The alcohol tolerance is also connected with activity of \"alcohol dehydrogenases\" (a group of enzymes responsible for the breakdown of alcohol) in the liver, and in the bloodstream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2990841",
"title": "Alcohol tolerance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Alcohol tolerance refers to the bodily responses to the functional effects of ethanol in alcoholic beverages. This includes direct tolerance, speed of recovery from insobriety and resistance to the development of alcoholism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2990841",
"title": "Alcohol tolerance",
"section": "Section::::Consumption-induced tolerance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Alcohol tolerance is increased by regular drinking. This reduced sensitivity requires that higher quantities of alcohol be consumed in order to achieve the same effects as before tolerance was established. Alcohol tolerance may lead to (or be a sign of) alcohol dependency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337566",
"title": "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption",
"section": "Section::::Other systems.:Rheumatoid arthritis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The researchers noted that moderate alcohol consumption also reduces the risk of other inflammatory processes such as cardiovascualar disease. Some of the biological mechanisms by which ethanol reduces the risk of destructive arthritis and prevents the loss of bone mineral density (BMD), which is part of the disease process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43173137",
"title": "Alcohol (drug)",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacokinetics.:Metabolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Some individuals have less effective forms of one or both of the metabolizing enzymes of ethanol, and can experience more marked symptoms from ethanol consumption than others. However, those having acquired alcohol tolerance have a greater quantity of these enzymes, and metabolize ethanol more rapidly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4031803",
"title": "Social inhibition",
"section": "Section::::Reduction.:Alcohol consumption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1240,
"text": "Alcohol consumption also has the ability to lower inhibitions in a positive way. Research has been conducted looking at the way an intoxicated person is more inclined to be helpful. Researchers were of the same opinion that alcohol lowers inhibitions and allows for more extreme behaviors, however, they tested to see if this would be true for more socially acceptable situations, such as helping another person. The researchers acknowledged that, generally, an impulse to help another is initiated but then inhibitions will cause the potential helper to consider all factors going into their decision to help or not to help such as, lost time, boredom, fatigue, monetary costs, and possibility of personal harm. The researchers suggest that while one may be inhibited and therefore less likely to offer help when completely sober, after consuming alcohol enough damage will be done to their inhibitory functioning to actually increase helping. While this suggestion differs from socially negative behaviors that are seen after social inhibitions have been lowered, it is consistent with the idea that alcohol consumption can lower inhibitions and, as a result, produce more socially extreme behaviors when compared to a sober counterpart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2797132",
"title": "Alcohol and cardiovascular disease",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Excessive alcohol intake is associated with an elevated risk of alcoholic liver disease (ALD), heart failure, some cancers, and accidental injury, and is a leading cause of preventable death in industrialized countries. However, extensive research has shown that moderate alcohol intake is associated with health benefits, including less cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and hypertension.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
120qxf
|
what is the difference between attraction, connection, and love?
|
[
{
"answer": "It varies since its such a subjective topic but attraction commonly refers to being physically attracted to the other person aka thinking theyre pretty. A connection tends to be getting along with another person and having a lot in common aka liking eachother (though connection implies its coupled with attraction). Love is a great amount of care for someone you have a connection with and generally are attracted to (romantic love). \n\nObviously an emotion is hard to explain and very subjective but thats how I would determine it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Attraction - I'd like to know that person!\n\nConnection - I get along great with that person!\n\nLove - It'd devastate me if that person ceased to be part of my world!\n\nAll of those can be influenced by the words Sexual and Platonic. You love your best friend.. but you probably don't want to fuck them. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27138739",
"title": "Humanity (virtue)",
"section": "Section::::Strengths of humanity.:Love.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Love has many different definitions ranging from a set of purely biological and chemical processes to a religious concept. As a character strength, love is a mutual feeling between two people characterized by attachment, comfort, and generally positive feelings. It can be broken down into 3 categories: love between a child and their parents, love for your friends, and romantic love. Having love as a strength is not about the capacity to love, as such, it is about being involved in a loving relationship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4081186",
"title": "Helen Fisher (anthropologist)",
"section": "Section::::Research.:2004.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Love can start with any of these three feelings, Fisher maintains. Some people have sex with someone new and then fall in love. Some fall in love first, then have sex. Some feel a deep feeling of attachment to another, which then turns into romance and the sex drive. But the sex drive evolved to initiate mating with a range of partners; romantic love evolved to focus one's mating energy on one partner at a time; and attachment evolved to enable us to form a pair bond and rear young together as a team.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39382736",
"title": "Theories of love",
"section": "Section::::Necessity of love.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Love allows people to attribute a sense of purpose for living. From the moment of birth relationships are made: mother and child, father and child, grandparent and child, and the like. As people grow older and enter into schools, jobs, and get involved in their communities the number of relationships, they have grown, as does their ability to maintain these relationships. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "285141",
"title": "Romance (love)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Romance is an emotional feeling of love for, or a strong attraction towards another person, and the courtship behaviors undertaken by an individual to express those overall feelings and resultant emotions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39382736",
"title": "Theories of love",
"section": "Section::::Types of love.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 2844,
"text": "Humans come across different types of love as they reach different levels are maturity in their life, such as the love a mother feels for their child, the love that involves the instant attraction to person, and the love that comes from years of being together. The love humans share for their family and friends can be viewed as \"slow love\". This love is based on finding shared interests and lifestyles that connect people to each other in reality. It's a love that can be carried out because of the common interests that bind them together. It is more of a mental attraction than a physical attraction. Visually, we make interpretations on love based off the way a person looks. \"Harmonism\" and \"echoism\" are the ways a face is constructed that makes one physically attractive: the distance between the forehead and nose, distant between the mouth and chin, how close the eyes are together, the sweep of one's eyebrows.The biochemical level fluctuation of a person can also explain the question “Who We Love”. People who have expressive traits of dopamine system: curious and energetic tend to be drawn to people who have similar personalities. People have relative high level of serotonin system traits: cautious and social conforming are attracted to their same kind as well. However, people who are foremost with expressive traits of sex hormones tend to be enchanted by their opposite kinds. People with a relative high testosterone hormone are analytical and tough minded. They tend to choose people with relative high estrogen hormone who are empathetic and pro-social. Beside the biochemical level explanation, there are also a few other elements affect people’s choices of mates. Another factor influences who people choose to love is timing. Love can happen when one least expects. Furthermore, people are more easily to fall in love when they are emotionally aroused, especially in a hard and lonely time. This is because such a mental state is associated with arousal mechanism in brains and elevated level of stress hormone, both of which increase the level romantic passion hormone: dopamine. Distance is another element influences people’s love choices: people tend to choose to fall in love with those close to them. Childhood experience also influences on mate choices. By the teenage years, people gradually construct a catalog of aptitudes and mannerisms they are looking for in a mate. Subtle differences in their experiences shape romantic tastes. Physical looking matters as well. From an anthropological point of view, a male tend to choose a female with a visual sign of youth and beauty, which indicates her high estrogen level and strong reproductive ability. However, a female with a more pragmatic and realistic goal, tends to choose a male with education, ambition, wealth, respect, status, masculine appearance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17547",
"title": "Love",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Love encompasses a range of strong and positive emotional and mental states, from the most sublime virtue or good habit, the deepest interpersonal affection and to the simplest pleasure. An example of this range of meanings is that the love of a mother differs from the love of a spouse, which differs from the love of food. Most commonly, love refers to a feeling of strong attraction and emotional attachment. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31525486",
"title": "Reward theory of attraction",
"section": "Section::::Effects on attraction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1189,
"text": "This can help explain why no love can feel quite the same as that \"first\". These \"firsts\" can generate sensations so new and unfamiliar that the experience feels almost unreal. Besides emotional engagement, these experiences also have a heavy dose of novelty. Novelty simply driving up dopamine and norepinephrine (brain systems associated with focus and paying attention and rewards). A first romantic relationship is the only time in which an individual is in \"love\" without ever having been hurt from such a relationship. If a person meets someone who reminds them of an ex, whether physically or a similarity in attitudes, gestures, voice, or interests, it may engage the representation in their memory. And since their first love, by result of its novelty and emotional significance, is potentially the most prominent, it may be the representation that is summoned when they meet a potential someone new, which effects the way they see that new relationship. Their old feelings, motivations, and expectations are all transferred into their memory, which can cause them to (if their new found partner reminds them of an ex) begin to repeat behaviors that they engaged in with that ex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3u185i
|
why isn't there a company that makes really good looking cars(lambo category) with mediocre engines?wouldn't they sell a lot?
|
[
{
"answer": "They would not sell much at all. The entire reason that top end sports cars are lusted after is their performance. To have a car that looks like one but does not perform like would be absolutely embarrassing. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are companies making that, or at least enabling you to do it. There are safety reasons the Lambo has to be made of those very expensive materials. Cars with that kind of look can be built as [Kit Cars](_URL_0_ ) without all the crash testing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "what makes a car \"good looking\".\n\nFor example, the crysler 300C was widely seen as a copy of a bentley. Ford has shown significant influence from aston martin.\n\nIts hard to definitively say what makes something attractive, but part of the perception is the brand that is attached to these exotic cars, if the exact thing was put under a toyota badge, it wouldnt have the same reception.\n\nSome part of it is that angular lines are difficult to stamp in a high production press. Mind you, the exotic cars are made from carbon fiber panels, so its not an issue for them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A sporty/performance car with a underpowered engine would still be expensive because of the name brand. Not to mention all the fancy carbon fibre and aero bits are not cheap. Plus replacement parts for these cars would most likely be only OEM. \nBesides not many people would want to pay say $90,000 for a downgrade Lamborghini that has a v6 that has maybe like 250-280hp tops. When they would buy a GTR for 20k more. \n\nIn the end most people don't want to spend big cash for a underpowered car that looks fast. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As you try to make it nicer and nicer, manufacturing costs will increase. The other reason is start up cost: you're looking at hundreds of millions to billions. VW, which owns Lamborghini, could theoretically make a new sports car to look like a Lambo but at 10% of the cost, but it would only serve to dilute the brand's cache.\n\nBottom line: if you want a poor mans sports car, Americans have a lot to offer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I agree this is an interesting phenomenon, or lack of one. Think of all the other products where looks are a factor. For every top brand that look great and perform well, there's a copycat that goes for the look without the performance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's called a Porsche Boxter, and the reason no one buys them is because it's like wearing a shirt that says \"Shit didn't really pan out the way I'd hoped\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "See [these many previous threads](_URL_0_) about why we don't see more cheap but good-looking cars.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I actually see this trend happening already. Nobody is going balls out and making copies of Lamborghinis but companies like Hyundai are taking queues from luxury sedans like those made by Mercedes and making affordable cars look not all that dissimilar to $100,000+ ones. \n\nI mean [this](_URL_0_) is a Hyundai. A couple years ago I would never have believed that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Forget reality for a moment, let's say you could actually manufacture a car that looked like an Aventador for the price of a Dart.\n\nSuper exotic cars like Lamborghinis are designed to be eye catching because they're absurdly expensive. The point of driving them is rarely performance because your average Lamborghini owner probably can't drive for shit at those speeds which is why their usual home is the street and not the track. The point of driving them is to scream to the world \"LOOK AT ME! I'VE GOT A TON OF MONEY!\"\n\nSo let's say you buy the budget Lambo. It still screams out to the world, but now it screams out \"LOOK AT ME! I'M FUCKING BROKE!\" It's the same thing as buying a gigantic shiny watch that says ROLL-ECKS on it in huge letters. It doesn't matter that it looks big and shiny, you're loudly advertising the fact that you can't afford the real thing. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1935970",
"title": "Autocar Company",
"section": "Section::::History.:Subsidiary of White Motor Company.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Autocar's \"Custom Engineering\" process for meeting each customer's needs led to a reputation as \"World's Finest\". White replaced Blue Streak engines with its own Mustang, and production of gasoline-powered trucks ended in 1965.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173027",
"title": "DeLorean Motor Company",
"section": "Section::::Today.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Many aftermarket improvements have been offered over time to address some of the flaws in the original production cars, and to improve performance. A common opinion of the car is that in stock form it is somewhat underpowered, and a variety of solutions have been implemented, from complete engine swaps (either to a larger PRV engine, or to completely different engines such as the Cadillac Northstar engine), turbocharger kits (single or twin-turbo), down to simpler solutions such as improved exhausts and other normal engine tuning work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1801741",
"title": "Mercedes-Benz OM617 engine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "The OM617 engine family is a straight-5 diesel automobile engine from Mercedes-Benz used in the 1970s and 1980s. It is a direct development from the straight-4 OM616. It was sold in vehicles from 1974 to 1991. The OM617 is considered to be one of the most reliable engines ever produced with engines often reaching over without being rebuilt and is one of the key reasons for Mercedes' popularity in North America in the 1980s, as it was powerful and reliable compared to other automotive diesels of the time. It is also a very popular choice for the use of alternative fuels, mainly straight or waste vegetable oil and biodiesel, although the use of these fuels may cause engine damage over time if not processed properly before use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26374108",
"title": "Brabus E V12",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Brabus has made it their trademark to make powerful models outside Mercedes-Benz product range. They have implanted the V12 engine from S-class into three models - E V12, G V12 and ML V12. As is customary for the company, the engine was heavily tuned and was much more powerful than the original.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "610677",
"title": "Automobile engine replacement",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Aftermarket engines are used in many forms of motorsport. Some late model racecar series use \"crate engines\" many of which are made by independent firms. This ensures that drivers all have similarly powered racecars. Legends and Allison Legacy Series cars also use sealed crate motors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "901721",
"title": "Mercury Capri",
"section": "Section::::First generation (1970–1977).:Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "\"R&T\" on the Capri II 2.8 V6: \"Once again we can report that the Capri V6 is an attractive, competent, and enjoyable car at a reasonable price. It goes, stops, and handles, it's well built and it has that sturdy, precise European character that makes it something special for Americans and Canadians. On top of all this it's a more practical car because of its new hatchback body. A quality, European car at a realistic price-what more could one want.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251887",
"title": "Luxury vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Market categories.:Luxury saloon / full-size luxury sedan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Many of these luxury saloons are the flagship for the marque and therefore include the newest automotive technology. Several models are available in long-wheelbase versions, which provide additional rear legroom and often a higher level of standard features.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5k4zc1
|
why does one have no strength when waking up?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your body paralyzes itself while you're asleep so you won't act out your dreams. It's takes some time for your body to regain full strength from it after you wake up. \n\nFun fact, this is the same cause as sleep paralysis, or waking nightmares. You wake up at night, but your body is still locked, so you can't move, and your still tired brain hallucinates nightmares. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you sleep (edit: specifically during [REM sleep](_URL_0_)), your brain paralyses your body to prevent you from hurting yourself. This leads to your muscles basically not moving for the better part of 8 hours. Some people roll and move a little bit, but for the most part, ~~sleep paralysis~~ **REM atoma** keeps you from doing anything. Immediately after you wake up, your brain might not have completely ended your sleep paralysis, so you could be completely unable to move for a few seconds. For a few minutes after you wake up, your muscles haven't moved for a long time, so they're tight, making them hard to move.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2465588",
"title": "Cataplexy",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.:Theories for episodes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "A phenomenon of REM sleep, muscular paralysis, occurs at an inappropriate time. This loss of tonus is caused by massive inhibition of motor neurons in the spinal cord. When this happens during waking, the victim of a cataplectic attack loses control of his or her muscles. As in REM sleep, the person continues to breathe and is able to control eye movements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8430643",
"title": "Sleep-deprived driving",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "When a person does not get an adequate amount of sleep, their ability to function is affected. As listed below, their coordination is impaired, have longer reaction time, impairs judgment, and memory is impaired.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14471554",
"title": "Bed rest",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Prolonged bed rest has long been known to have deleterious physiological effects, such as muscle atrophy and other forms of deconditioning such as arterial constriction. Besides lack of physical exercise it was shown that another important factor is that the hydrostatic pressure (caused by gravity) acts anomalously, resulting in altered distribution of body fluids. In other words, when getting up, this can cause an orthostatic hypertension, potentially inducing a vasovagal response.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31595228",
"title": "Psychological stress",
"section": "Section::::Physiological impacts of stress.:Quality of sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Sleep allows people to rest and re-energize for another day filled with interactions and tasks. If someone is stressed it is extremely important for them to get enough sleep so that they can think clearly. Unfortunately, chemical changes in the body caused by stress can make sleep a difficult thing. Glucocorticoids are released by the body in response to stress which can disrupt sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18499038",
"title": "Falling (sensation)",
"section": "Section::::Hypnic jerk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "This is not completely accurate explanation of this phenomenon, but most experts agree that as muscles begin to slacken right after one falls asleep, the brain senses these relaxation signals and misinterpret as one is falling down. Then the brain will send signals to muscles to keep the balance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43467592",
"title": "Spoon theory",
"section": "Section::::Special considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "According to the spoon theory, spoons (units of energy) may be replaced after rest or a night of sleep. However, people with chronic diseases, such as autoimmune diseases, and various disabilities may have sleep difficulties. This can result in a particularly low supply of energy. Some people with a disability may not be fatigued by the disabilities themselves, but by the constant effort required to pass as non-disabled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240832",
"title": "Restless legs syndrome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Restless legs syndrome (RLS) is generally a long term disorder that causes a strong urge to move one's legs. There is often an unpleasant feeling in the legs that improves somewhat with moving them. This is often described as aching, tingling, or crawling in nature. Occasionally the arms may also be affected. The feelings generally happen when at rest and therefore can make it hard to sleep. Due to the disturbance in sleep, people with RLS may have daytime sleepiness, low energy, irritability, and a depressed mood. Additionally, many have limb twitching during sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7ov5b0
|
How did redlining in the United States create the racial make up of the suburbs?
|
[
{
"answer": "Play around here. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nThis is my city, and I’ve researched the topic of redlining after this map came out. I’ve also talked to the author of that project. Redlining happened in the late 30’s. \n\nSo Louisville is an old city and a river city. Most of the early economy was based on the river and most jobs and houses were close to the river. We also had segregated neighborhoods that were spread out in a few different areas, but mostly they were the south part of the west side of town and on the eastern edge. The center was downtown and south of that was a very rich Victorian neighborhood. \n\nSo all this changed in 1937, the year of the Great Flood. This flood ravaged the Ohio river valley and may be the highest water the Ohio river has ever seen, even in prehistoric times. This flood caused complete losses of houses and businesses. \n\nSo redlining was started as a way to protect banks from making bad loans and losing money and causing another financial crisis. This happened at a time where the US was coming out of the Great Depression and this was a very real threat. So they made maps based on race, income, etc... but in Louisville they also made decisions based on potential for flooding. \n\nThe Great Flood created a mass migration out of the city into the suburbs, that also happened to be the high ground. People that couldn’t afford to leave, stayed in the flood prone area west of downtown. Because of redlining property values also dropped, meaning some couldn’t sell their houses. Businesses closed or moved out leaving many people jobless. \n\nThrough the war there was great growth in our city. Factory jobs were plentiful and whole industries sprung up over night almost. Because of the flood, no factories were built near the river. They were built outside the city, thus furthering the migration. Subdivisions were going up on farm land and other vacant land. And were outside the city proper and therefore didn’t get city services. So they formed their own cities. We have 81 in the county, some were whites only, but others were just exclusive to keep blacks out. \n\nSo effectively half of the town lost high earners, lost jobs, and lost property value the other half moved away and formed their own cities and neighborhoods shutting out the rest. \n\nSo what’s interesting in Louisville is that redlining caused a lot of problems for black people, but it mostly affected the entire west side of the city, regardless of race. Because of the flooding, white only neighborhoods were also redlined causing them the same fate. Currently the neighborhood I work in is demographically still 78% white, but suffered the same fate as the black neighborhoods south of it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17320308",
"title": "Housing segregation in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History of housing discrimination.:Legislation..:The National Housing Act of 1934.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 992,
"text": "In 1934 the practice of redlining neighborhoods came into existence through the National Housing Act of 1934. This practice, also known as mortgage discrimination, began when the federal government and the newly formed Federal Housing Administration allowed the Home Owners' Loan Corporation to create \"residential security maps\", outlining the level of security for real-estate investments in 239 cities around the United States. On these maps, high-risk areas were outlined in red. Many minority neighborhoods were redlined in these maps, meaning that banks would deny all mortgage capital to people living within them. This contributed to the decay of many of these neighborhoods because the lack of loans for buying or making repairs on the homes made it difficult for these neighborhoods to attract and keep families. Many urban historians point to redlining as one of the main factors for urban disinvestment and the decline of central cities in the middle decades of the 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8310995",
"title": "Shrinking cities",
"section": "Section::::Theories.:Suburbanization.:White flight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "Mid-20th-century political policies greatly contributed to urban disinvestment and decline. Both the product and intent of these policies were highly racial oriented. Although discrimination and racial segregation already existed prior to the passage of the National Housing Act in 1934, the structural process of discrimination was federally established with the Federal Housing Administration (FHA). The result of the establishment of the FHA was redlining. Redlining refers to the demarcation of certain districts of poor, minority urban populations where government and private investment were discouraged. The decline of minority inner city neighborhoods was worsened under the FHA and its policies. Redlined districts could not improve or maintain a thriving population under conditions of withheld mortgage capital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60562",
"title": "Redlining",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "Although informal discrimination and segregation had existed in the United States, the specific practice called \"redlining\" began with the National Housing Act of 1934, which established the Federal Housing Administration (FHA). Racial segregation and discrimination against minorities and minority communities pre-existed this policy. The implementation of this federal policy aggravated the decay of minority inner-city neighborhoods caused by the withholding of mortgage capital, and made it even more difficult for neighborhoods to attract and retain families able to purchase homes. The assumptions in redlining resulted in a large increase in residential racial segregation and urban decay in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5441736",
"title": "Racial segregation in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary segregation.:Residential segregation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Redlining has helped preserve segregated living patterns for blacks and whites in the United States because discrimination motivated by prejudice is often contingent on the racial composition of neighborhoods where the loan is sought and the race of the applicant. Lending institutions have been shown to treat black mortgage applicants differently when buying homes in white neighborhoods than when buying homes in black neighborhoods in 1998.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60562",
"title": "Redlining",
"section": "Section::::Current issues.:Financial services.:Mortgages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "Redlining has helped preserve segregated living patterns for blacks and whites in the United States, as discrimination is often contingent on the racial composition of neighborhoods and the race of the applicant. Lending institutions such as Wells Fargo have been shown to treat black mortgage applicants differently when they are buying homes in white neighborhoods than when buying homes in black neighborhoods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "319973",
"title": "1967 Detroit riot",
"section": "Section::::Social condition.:Housing and neighborhoods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Redlining in the mid 20th century played an important role in segregating Detroit and escalating racial tensions in the city. The Home Owners' Loan Corporation was in charge of assigning ratings of \"A\" through \"D\" to all of the neighborhoods in major U.S. cities based on the conditions of the buildings, the infrastructure and most importantly, the racial composition of the area. Residents of a neighborhood with a \"C\" or \"D\" rating struggled to get loans, and almost all neighborhoods with any African American population were rated \"D\", effectively segregating the city by race.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42223515",
"title": "Gerrymandering in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Racial.:Negative.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 1112,
"text": "Between the Reconstruction Era and mid-20th century, white Southern Democrats effectively controlled redistricting throughout the Southern United States. In areas where some African-American and other minorities succeeded in registering, some states created districts that were gerrymandered to reduce the voting impact of minorities. Minorities were effectively deprived of their franchise into the 1960s. With the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and its subsequent amendments, redistricting to carve maps to intentionally diminish the power of voters who were in a racial or linguistic minority, was prohibited. The Voting Rights Act was amended by Congress in the 1980s, Congress to \"make states redraw maps if they have a discriminatory effect.\" In July, 2017, San Juan County, Utah was ordered to redraw its county commission and school board election districts again after \"U.S. District Judge Robert Shelby ruled that they were unconstitutional.\" It was argued that the voice of Native Americans, who were in the majority, had been suppressed \"when they are packed into gerrymandered districts.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2cqxcs
|
what prevents a gas station employee from lying about how much i won on a lottery ticket like powerball and then stealing the winnings?
|
[
{
"answer": "Gas Stations don't pay out anything over a few hundred dollars.\n\nIf you win any significant amount then you have to go to the State Gambling Bureau and claim the money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is actually a pretty big deal. Lotteries catch store owners doing this all the time. It is illegal, and if caught, the employee will go to jail. Some lotteries actually run stings to see if retailers do the right thing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not sure where you are. The scanner things here tell you how much & when they run it through the machine it prints a separate ticket saying how much the payout is. They should show you that.\n\nThat having been said, there was a case of exactly thins happening but the clerk got caught & is doing time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39364723",
"title": "Lucky 7 (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Premise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "A group of seven gas station employees in Queens, New York City, play the lottery every week and dream about what they would do with the winnings. When they do finally hit the jackpot, the coworkers learn that money may solve some problems, but it creates new ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "228592",
"title": "Lottery",
"section": "Section::::Scams and frauds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 694,
"text": "There have also been several cases of cashiers at lottery retailers who have attempted to scam customers out of their winnings. Some locations require the patron to hand the lottery ticket to the cashier to determine how much they have won, or if they have won at all, the cashier then scans the ticket to determine one or both. In cases where there is no visible or audible cue to the patron of the outcome of the scan some cashiers have taken the opportunity to claim that the ticket is a loser or that it is worth far less than it is and offer to \"throw it away\" or surreptitiously substitute it for another ticket. The cashier then pockets the ticket and eventually claims it as their own.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "530094",
"title": "Powerball",
"section": "Section::::Playing the game.:Secondary prizes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "Unlike the jackpot pool, other prizes are the responsibility and liability of each participating lottery. All revenue for Powerball ticket sales not used for jackpots is retained by each member; none of this revenue is shared with other lotteries. Members are liable only for the payment of secondary prizes sold there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54551368",
"title": "Lottery betting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "By betting on the outcome of a lottery draw, rather than purchasing an official ticket, players are able to take part in international and state lottery draws that are usually out of their jurisdiction. For example, a resident of the United Kingdom could place a bet on the outcome of an American lottery drawing, such as Mega Millions or Powerball, even though they would not be eligible to buy official tickets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36265081",
"title": "Tipping Point (game show)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:Final round.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "If the contestant fails to recover the jackpot counter after using up all six categories, they may either trade the accumulated money for three more counters, or end the game at this point and keep all winnings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "530094",
"title": "Powerball",
"section": "Section::::Playing the game.:Jackpot accumulation and payment options.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "When the Powerball jackpot is won, the next jackpot is guaranteed to be $40 million (annuity). If a jackpot is not won, the minimum rollover is $10 million. The cash in the jackpot pool is guaranteed to be the current value of the annuity. If revenue from ticket sales falls below expectations, game members must contribute additional funds to the jackpot pool to cover the shortage; the most likely scenario where this can occur is if the jackpot is won in consecutive drawings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10985398",
"title": "Louisiana Lottery Corporation",
"section": "Section::::Drawings.:How to Claim a Prize.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Lottery tickets are bearer instruments, which means that the Lottery must pay the holder of a winning ticket presented for payment. Signing the back of the ticket is the single most important thing one can do to help protect themselves from theft and demonstrate ownership of the ticket. Any alteration to a winning ticket worth more than $600 is cause for an immediate security investigation. Once a winning ticket has been paid, however, it is much more difficult to determine whether another individual was the rightful owner. By law, the Lottery can pay a winning ticket only once.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fpa29
|
why do i have to go to the pharmacy 12 times a year to buy birth control pills, instead of being able to purchase my entire year-long prescription at once?
|
[
{
"answer": "I have the same problem with my psychotropics meds for the treatment of depression/anxiety.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So the pharmacy can charge you a dispensing fee and for there to be some control over the amount of meds being dispensed. A huge majority of prescriptions that get filled never get used. \n\nNot sure where you live but I am able to get 3 months at a time. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some speculate that it's a cost measure (which i think is crazy) but there's no law against it AFAIK. Family Planning has no problem issuing a 12mo script.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why would the insurance company want to pay for 12 months of medications upfront when they can pay it overtime?\n\nWhy would they want to pay for a years worth of medication you might just stop taking after a month?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Come to the UK. Here your Doctor will prescribe at least 6 months at a time (if you are fit and healthy) and it won't cost you a dime. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Australia, as long as you have good blood pressure, no prior issues with the pill and your Pap tests are up to date, most doctors will prescribe 6 or 12 months. It's also much cheaper to purchase in bulk from the chemist. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Usually the issue isn't the pharmacy, it's the insurance. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's because your insurance covers one month at a time. That way they can save money in case you quit birth control/die/whatever. Ask your pharmacist to give you more at once, but you'll have to foot the bill.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pharmtech here! \n\nIf you live in the United States, a 12-month prescription is completely doable, though you may have to pay a bit more. \n\nAll non-controlled prescriptions expire after 365 days. Most birth controls are written in for either a 4-week (1 pack) or 12-week (3 pack) regimen, as that's the standard for insurance coverage in the US (this can vary if you skip placebos, which many people do).\n\nIf you're billing to insurance, call the customer service number on the back of your card and see what their formulary has to say about birth control - what's the maximum days supply you can get, and what is the copay difference between 30 and 90 days? Is it possible to get an override for 12 months at once? If your insurance will only cover 3 months at a time, and your biggest concern is the mild inconvenience of a trip to the pharmacy, consider mail order. It's decently easy to set up, and your pills will come to you rather than you having to go to them. \n\nIf you're not billing to insurance (or your insurance doesn't cover 12 months), getting a full year at once is quite doable, but an investment. Most retail pharmacies don't go lower than $9/pack on bc, so you're looking at $108 for a year - and that's *IF* your prescription (there are dozens of different formulations of birth control pills) happens to be one of the less expensive ones. If you decide to go that route, and your doctor is writing you an annual prescription for 1 pack with 11 refills anyway, just ask them nicely to write for 12 packs with 0 refills. If they have some reason for wanting you to pick up less frequently, they'll discuss that with you. When you get to the pharmacy to pick up your 12 months supply, double check *before you leave* that the expiration dates will last you through those 12 months; some formulations come pretty short-dated. \n\nIf you have any other questions, I can do my best to help. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's mostly insurance that won't allow a certain amount of days to be filled. In the US at least, most insurances allow for either a 1 or 3 month supply filled at one time. I have seen, however, patients getting overrides with their insurance for a 6 months supply. So technically, if your doctor writes for a year supply of refills, you can fill all 12 months at once, but not necessarily on your insurance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a Brit, this is confusing. 3 or 6 monthly prescriptions for birth control are common practice and also free here.\n\nCan I ask why you have to pay a dispensing fee? I've never heard of that before and I worked in a pharmacy here for 10 years! Crazy different from one country to another.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. You CAN get it all at once, but your insurance typically won't pay for more than 1-3 months without a special exception. If you choose, you can pay for the medication without your insurance and pick it all up at once. \n\n2. It's usually not a fantastic idea to get a years worth of any medication because you could lose it, it could expire, or you might be taken off of it and then you've paid for something you don't have/need. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another possibility... (US here)\nIf I fill it at the clinic pharmacy or use the clinic's free mail-out service, my insurance pays for 3 months' worth (3 packs). If I fill it at Wal-Mart or Target or another drugstore pharmacy, I they only pay for one month (one pack); I can have 3, but I would have to pay out-of-pocket. My co-pay for picking it up at the clinic or using their mail-out is also considerably cheaper. I can look up the prices and days' supply available on the insurance company's online formulary, but I imagine it may also be available by calling customer service. Maybe this is something you can try?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It seems to be the insurance companies. I make barely over minimum wage, and because I work for a Catholic hospital my insurance will not cover any birth control (viagra is totally covered, go figure). I qualify for the Family Planning Benefit Program so all my services are covered free of cost at planned parenthood and the county health department. They don't go thru a pharmacy so as long as all of my tests have been done and are normal, I get a year supply. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've often wondered this as well. Well not for birth control, but for other long term medications. It's probably a combination of factors that result in a common practice.\n\n1. For safety. To make you come in to see in the doctor to make sure there are no ill effects or the dosage is right. If it is your first time on birth control and they hand you a 12 month prescription, you might not come back for an entire year. If it is a 3 month prescription, you'll have to come back in 3 months and they can assess you.\n\n2. Insurance companies might think it more optimal to have smaller doses. People lose their medication, stop taking it, change doses... All of this makes for increased cost if you have a large amount of drugs at once. For example, just this past year, I have misplaced my thyroid meds and had to get a new prescription. Thankfully it is a relatively cheap medication, but I imagine for expensive drugs, this is a real issue.\n\n3. Doctors and pharmacists like money. It is a business like any other I suppose. If you have to come in for a new prescription or get a refill at the pharmacy more often, that is more recurring money for them.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always assumed it was because of the possibility that you might not need the pills for that long, you might overdose, or you might sell them. It's silly in the case of birth control, but I imagine it's the same reason they (legislators) require a prescription in the first place. They like to control what you put in your body. Even seemingly non-scheduled substances, like Prozac or promethazine, are still considered \"Rx only.\"\n\nMy allergy doctor offered me an Rx for 400 Zyrtec, though. Sam's Club is a hell of a store.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31345445",
"title": "Inverse benefit law",
"section": "Section::::Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "This is the reason why organizations like \"Worst Pill, Best Pill\" recommend not to use/prescribe new medications before being in the market for at least ten years (except in the case of important new drugs that treat previously unsolved problems).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5980612",
"title": "Comparison of birth control methods",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness calculation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "For instance, someone using oral forms of hormonal birth control might be given incorrect information by a health care provider as to the frequency of intake, or for some reason not take the pill one or several days, or not go to the pharmacy on time to renew the prescription, or the pharmacy might be unwilling to provide enough pills to cover an extended absence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30766508",
"title": "Ethinylestradiol/drospirenone/levomefolic acid",
"section": "Section::::Dosage and administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Take one tablet by mouth at the same time every day. The failure rate may increase when pills are missed or taken incorrectly. Single missed pills should be taken as soon as remembered. It is important to know that when experiencing stomach upset in the form of diarrhea or vomiting (within 3–4 hours of taking), backup contraception methods should be utilized to account for possible absorption failure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38203",
"title": "Menstruation",
"section": "Section::::Ovulation suppression.:Birth control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Progestogen-only contraceptive pills (sometimes called the 'mini pill') are taken continuously without a 7-day span of using placebo pills, and therefore menstrual periods are less likely to occur than with the combined pill with placebo pills. However, disturbance of the menstrual cycle is common with the mini-pill; 1/3-1/2 of women taking it will experience prolonged periods, and up to 70% experience break-through bleeding (metrorrhagia). Irregular and prolonged bleeding is the most common reason that women discontinue using the mini pill.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22623",
"title": "Combined oral contraceptive pill",
"section": "Section::::Medical use.:Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "For instance, someone using oral forms of hormonal birth control might be given incorrect information by a health care provider as to the frequency of intake, forget to take the pill one day, or simply not go to the pharmacy on time to renew the prescription.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50326694",
"title": "Contraceptive rights in New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::History of contraception in New Zealand.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Teenage girls were unlikely to be taking the pill, and did not seek doctors' prescriptions for it. This was because they knew doctors would be unlikely to provide them with it as it was against the policy of the New Zealand Medical Association to do so, and because it was expensive for young women likely to be earning a low wage, or even none at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18939",
"title": "Emergency contraception",
"section": "Section::::History.:United States.:Plan B.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "BULLET::::- On June 10, 2013, the Obama administration ceased trying to block over-the-counter availability of the pill. With this reversal it means that any person will be able to purchase the Plan B One-Step without a prescription.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8aoa0z
|
if scotland exits from the union, what animal would replace the unicorn on the british coa?
|
[
{
"answer": "Another lion, or perhaps the welsh dragon?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I studied heraldry briefly. It would most likely be a lion, based on the fact that Wales is a principality of England. Which would mean that the dominant nations animal would appear",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2288860",
"title": "Edinburgh Zoo",
"section": "Section::::Research and conservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "In May 2008, a joint application submitted by the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland (RZSS) and the Scottish Wildlife Trust (SWT) was approved by the Scottish Government allowing for a trial reintroduction of the European beaver to the Knapdale Forest in Mid-Argyll. If the trial is successful then the European beaver will be the first mammal to be reintroduced to the United Kingdom. Beavers have been extinct in Scotland since the 16th century, when they were hunted for their pelt, meat and medicinal properties (use of castoreum).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9008254",
"title": "Fauna of Scotland",
"section": "Section::::Mammals.:Extinctions and reintroductions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1217,
"text": "A joint project of the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland, the Scottish Wildlife Trust and Forestry Commission Scotland have successfully re-introduced the European beaver to the wild in Scotland using Norwegian stock. The species was found in the Highlands until the 15th century, and although the then Scottish Government initially rejected the idea, a trial commenced in May 2009 in Knapdale. Separately, on Tayside, deliberate releases or escapes have led to up to 250 animals colonising the area. Although it was initially planned to remove these unofficially reintroduced beavers, in March 2012 the Scottish Government reversed the decision to remove beavers from the Tay, pending the outcome of studies into the suitability of re-introduction. Following receipt of the results of the studies, in November 2016 the Scottish Government announced that beavers could remain permanently, and would be given protected status as a native species within Scotland. Beavers will be allowed to extend their range naturally from Knapdale and along the River Tay, however to aid this process and improve the health and resilience of the population a further 28 beavers will be released in Knapdale between 2017 and 2020.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9008254",
"title": "Fauna of Scotland",
"section": "Section::::Avifauna.:Raptors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "After an absence of nearly 40 years the osprey successfully re-colonised Scotland in the early 1950s. In 1899 they had bred at the ruined Loch an Eilean castle near Aviemore and at Loch Arkaig until 1908. In 1952 they claimed a new site at Loch Garten. There are now 150 breeding pairs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1164552",
"title": "Unionism in Scotland",
"section": "Section::::History of the Union.:Independence referendum (2014).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Before the latter election, the Scottish Government (formed by the SNP) had proposed a second Scottish independence referendum, due to the United Kingdom's decision to leave the European Union (EU) as following the results of a referendum held in 2016 (which the majority of voters in Scotland voted against). The SNP won 35 seats in the 2017 UK general election, a loss of 21 from the 2015 election, with their vote dropping from 50.0% in 2015 to 36.9%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "149150",
"title": "Loch Garten",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1022,
"text": "Careless behaviour towards the osprey in Britain throughout the 19th century meant that it became extinct as a breeding bird by the early 20th. However, in 1954 two Scandinavian breeding birds came to Garten completely of their own accord and set up a nest in the forest by the loch. Slowly the species recolonised Scotland (for more information see ospreys in Britain), and the RSPB and other organisations helped them along the way (not an easy task due to the illegal activities of egg collectors and other irresponsible people). The reserve was purchased by the charity and since then the nest has always been closely monitored. Recently a viewing hide was built relatively near (but not too near) to the nest so that visitors may come and see these birds of prey easily. The hide has telescopes and other optical devices inside, as well as television screens showing close-up views of the fledglings and their parents. Live video and still pictures of the nest can be viewed on the RSPB Loch Garten Reserve web-site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1922938",
"title": "Caledonian Forest",
"section": "Section::::Conservation.:Reintroductions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "In recent years, there has been a growing interest to reintroduce animals which are currently extinct in Great Britain, back into Caledonian pine forests. Corporations have been set up to persuade the government to allow this. The long-running campaign to reintroduce the Eurasian beaver to Knapdale in Argyll has been successful, and there is some support for the reintroduction of the Gray wolf and Eurasian lynx.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "890203",
"title": "List of extinct animals of the British Isles",
"section": "Section::::Reintroduction and re-establishment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 127,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 127,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "European beavers have been reintroduced to parts of Scotland, and there are plans to bring them back to other parts of Britain. A five-year trial reintroduction at Knapdale in Argyll started in 2009 and concluded in 2014. A few hundred beavers live wild in the Tay river basin, as a result of escapes from a wildlife park. A similar reintroduction trial is being undertaken on the river otter in Devon, England. Also, around the country, beavers have been introduced into fenced reserves for many reasons including flood prevention. In 2016, beavers were recognised as a British native species, and will be protected under law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2k9m2q
|
why do asians/africans/southern europeans have a higher rate of lactose intolerance, while nordic europeans rarely have it at all?
|
[
{
"answer": "Genetic mutation thousands of years ago. Travel was more difficult, so Europeans bred with Europeans, Africans with Africans, etc.\n\nSomewhere along the line, a European had a genetic mutation that made it so they could handle milk. As the mutation proved beneficial, evolution continued to hand it down as they reproduced.\n\nI am not sure if the mutation is dominant, but if it is, as people of different ethnicities get together and spawn offspring, the mutation may become more prevalent throughout the different ethnicities. But it will not be cultural until Europeans (descent) breed with Africans, or European (descent) breeds with Asians, on and on.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Europeans began drinking milk much earlier than the rest of the world, but they would have also been lactose intolerant for the first 4,000-5,000 years of milk consumption. However, since they started drinking milk ~7,000 years ago, that is long enough for selection of a beneficial mutation that allows them to digest the milk. This is why in most european countries, ~90% of the population is not lactose intolerant. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56873",
"title": "Lactose intolerance",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "Some populations, from an evolutionary perspective, have a better genetic makeup for tolerating lactose than others. In northern European countries, lack of Vitamin D from the sun is balanced by consuming more milk and therefore more calcium. These countries' people have adapted a tolerance to lactose. Conversely, regions of the south, such as Africa, rarely experienced Vitamin D deficiency and therefore tolerance from milk consumption did not develop the same way as in northern European countries. Lactose intolerance is common among people of Jewish descent, as well as from West Africa, the Arab countries, Greece, and Italy. Different populations will present certain gene constructs depending on the evolutionary and cultural pre-settings of the geographical region.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36738647",
"title": "Epidemiology of metabolic syndrome",
"section": "Section::::South and Central America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "The Latin American populations exhibit a high prevalence of abdominal obesity and metabolic syndrome, similar or even higher than developed countries. It is attributed to changes in their lifestyle, migration from rural to urban areas and a higher susceptibility to accumulate abdominal fat and develop more insulin resistance compared to other ethnically different populations. Some genetic factors and metabolic adaptations during fetal life can be claimed as etiological factors of this condition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "93827",
"title": "Human nutrition",
"section": "Section::::Global nutrition challenges.:Adult overweight and obesity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "Malnutrition in industrialized nations is primarily due to excess calories and non-nutritious carbohydrates, which has contributed to the obesity epidemic affecting both developed and some developing nations. In 2008, 35% of adults above the age of 20 years were overweight (BMI 25 kg/m), a prevalence that has doubled worldwide between 1980 and 2008. Also 10% of men and 14% of women were obese, with a BMI greater than 30. Rates of overweight and obesity vary across the globe, with the highest prevalence in the Americas, followed by European nations, where over 50% of the population is overweight or obese.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56873",
"title": "Lactose intolerance",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Overall, about 65% of people experience some form of lactose intolerance as they age past infancy, but there are significant differences between populations and regions, with rates as low as 5% among northern Europeans and as high as over 90% of adults in some communities of Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12642673",
"title": "NutritionDay",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "In 1977 poor nutritional status and malnutrition was already detected in surgical patients. Still, disease related malnutrition is a much underrated public health issue and has also become an enormous economical concern. It is estimated that over 50 million Europeans are at risk. A study performed in the UK in 2005 estimated the cost of malnutrition to the UK to be € 10.6 b per year, double the projected € 5.1 b cost of obesity. Two population groups are at particularly high risk: hospitalized patients and residents of nursing homes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "382395",
"title": "Lifestyle disease",
"section": "Section::::Causes of the disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "In many Western countries, people began to consume more meat, dairy products, vegetable oils, tobacco, sugary foods, Coca-Cola, and alcoholic beverages during the latter half of the 20th century. People also developed sedentary lifestyles and greater rates of obesity. In 2014 11.2 million Australians were overweight or obese Rates of colorectal cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, endometrial cancer and lung cancer started increasing after this dietary change. People in developing countries, whose diets still depend largely on low-sugar starchy foods with little meat or fat have lower rates of these cancers. Causes are not just from smoking and alcohol abuse. Adults can develop lifestyle diseases through behavioural factors that impact on them. These can be unemployment, unsafe life, poor social environment, working conditions, stress and home life can change a person’s lifestyle to increase their risk of developing one of these diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35042000",
"title": "Epidemiology of malnutrition",
"section": "Section::::South Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "According to the Global Hunger Index, South Asia (also known as the Indian Subcontinent) has the highest child malnutrition rate of world's regions. India, a largely vegetarian country and second largest country in the world by population, contributes most number in malnutrition in the region.The 2006 report mentioned that \"the low status of women in South Asian countries and their lack of nutritional knowledge are important determinants of high prevalence of underweight children in the region\" and was concerned that South Asia has \"inadequate feeding and caring practices for young children\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ccflu
|
if earth and mars switched places, would life still sustain on earth?
|
[
{
"answer": "Assuming they were the same size and had the same atmosphere as they currently are, then the biggest differences would be temperature, due to the distance from the sun, and the stability of orbits. Other thing like the length of the year doesn't really affect sustaining life.\n\nEarth is ~150M km from the sun, while Mars is ~225M km, or ~50% further away, so it would get only 45% as much light. There are other sources of heat (e.g. radioactive decay in the Earth's core) but sunlight is by far the greatest factor (~2,000 times more than anything else). So, a 45% reduction in sunlight means a 45% reduction in temperature. The average temperature of Earth is 15 deg C (288 deg Kelvin), that math would say it would become 187 deg K (-72 deg C). The average temperature of Mars is -66 deg C (207 deg Kelvin), so this is pretty close. Earth has more water, which means snow that reflects even more light so the Earth would probably be even colder. \n\nThere would be other affects such as the stability of the orbits of the planets, and Scientific American discussed [this](_URL_0_) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Life would sustain. It would, however, be fundamentally different.\n\nThe quickest thing to notice would be the impact of much colder weather. This would kill off quite a few plants and animals adapted to warmer weather that would have no where to migrate. Meanwhile, cold-adapted plants, animals, and insects would migrate toward the equator and lower altitudes in an effort to remain in a temperature range they can tolerate.\n\nAfter lots and lots of death, you'd see the survivors struggling to deal with unfamiliar terrain, weather patterns, and the longer year. Many plants, animals, and insects use sunlight to trigger patterns of behavior that allow them to survive and reproduce. The different intensity of sunlight and longer seasons would probably send kill off plenty of your initial survivors.\n\nNatural selection would be especially obvious as previously unimportant traits are suddenly essential for survival - and vice versa. As a result, the plants, animals, and insects you're used to seeing might begin to take on very different characteristics.\n\nIt should be pointed out that on a percentage basis, you'd probably see bacterial and viral (if you count it) life doing best.\n\nFinally, humans would probably find a way to survive, but not without losing lots and lots of folks along the way to starvation, unexpected weather events, and stark terror at the realization that the universe is not only uncaring, but whimsical in its interpretation of object permanence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42531205",
"title": "Martian lava tube",
"section": "Section::::Possibilities for life on Mars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "The magnetic and climatic histories of Mars and Earth are extremely different, and would have greatly dictated the evolution of both biospheres. Around four billion years ago, the Martian dynamo shut down following a proposed period when a long-lasting Noachian ocean existed, and when life may have existed at the surface. A sudden and intense increase of solar particles eliminated the atmospheric and hydrological protection, causing the atmosphere to thin and water to retreat from the surface. At this point, life may have sought refuge in subterranean environments such as lava tubes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39833813",
"title": "Icebreaker Life",
"section": "Section::::Science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "A null result would establish that Earth-like life is likely not present in the ground ice, arguably the most habitable environment currently known on Mars, implying that Earth-like life is absent on Mars generally. This would lower the risk for biohazards during human exploration or sample return. However, this would not rule out life that does not have Earth-like biomarkers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31028310",
"title": "Interplanetary contamination",
"section": "Section::::Back contamination issues.:Alternatives to sample-returns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "Their reasoning is that life on Mars is likely to be hard to find. Any present day life is likely to be sparse and occur in only a few niche habitats. Past life is likely to be degraded by cosmic radiation over geological time periods if exposed in the top few meters of the Mars surface. Also, only certain special deposits of salts or clays on Mars would have the capability to preserve organics for billions of years. So, they argue, there is a high risk that a Mars sample-return at our current stage of understanding would return samples that are no more conclusive about the origins of life on Mars or present day life than the Martian meteorite samples we already have.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3507155",
"title": "Astrobiology Field Laboratory",
"section": "Section::::Science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "It is fundamental to the AFL concept to understand that organisms and their environment constitute a system, within which any one part can affect the other. If life exists or has existed on Mars, scientific measurements to be considered would focus on understanding those systems that support or supported it. If life never existed while conditions were suitable for life formation, understanding why a Martian genesis never occurred would be a future priority. The AFL team stated that it is reasonable to expect that missions like AFL will play a significant role in this process, but unreasonable to expect that they will bring it to a conclusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33736601",
"title": "Archean life in the Barberton Greenstone Belt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Studying the earliest forms of life on Earth can provide valuable information to help understand how life can evolve on other planets. It has long been hypothesized that life may have existed on Mars due to the similarity of environmental and tectonic conditions during the Archean time. By knowing the environments in which early life evolved on Earth, and the rock types that preserve them, scientists can have a better understanding of where to look for life on Mars. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "463835",
"title": "Life on Mars",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The possibility of life on Mars is a subject of significant interest to astrobiology due to its proximity and similarities to Earth. To date, no proof has been found of past or present life on Mars. Cumulative evidence shows that during the ancient Noachian time period, the surface environment of Mars had liquid water and may have been habitable for microorganisms. The existence of habitable conditions does not necessarily indicate the presence of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37971051",
"title": "Chikyū Kaihō Gun ZAS",
"section": "Section::::Story.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Sometime in the 21st century, humanity leaves Earth for Mars due to a legacy of environmental pollution on their home planet. Nobody inhabited the Earth until a group of super-intelligent robots from another galaxy suddenly took over. They have changed the once-proud planet into something that they can inhabit on. An impromptu liberation army was set up to save the planet from the robots; who somehow got rid of the pollution on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7ewkr4
|
are there any classic signs/symptoms that indicate someone is about to have a heart attack?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the boy scouts we learned that a heart attack is characterized by: Nausea, Excess Sweating, Chest pain, Weakness/faintness, and Shortness of breath.\n\nHeart attack or not if you or someone around you had these symptoms I'd be pretty concerned",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[According to the American Heart Association](_URL_0_)\n\n > Although some heart attacks are sudden and intense, most start slowly, with mild pain or discomfort. Pay attention to your body — and call 911 if you feel:\n\n > Chest discomfort. Most heart attacks involve discomfort in the center of the chest that lasts more than a few minutes, or that goes away and comes back. It can feel like uncomfortable pressure, squeezing, fullness or pain.\n \n > Discomfort in other areas of the upper body. Symptoms can include pain or discomfort in one or both arms, the back, neck, jaw or stomach.\n \n > Shortness of breath with or without chest discomfort.\n \n > Other signs may include breaking out in a cold sweat, nausea or lightheadedness.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24946732",
"title": "Spontaneous coronary artery dissection",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "The symptoms are often very similar to those of myocardial infarction (heart attack), with the most common being persistent chest pain. Other symptoms can include rapid heartbeat, shortness of breath, sweating, extreme tiredness, nausea, and dizziness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "545918",
"title": "Chest pain",
"section": "Section::::Diagnostic approach.:Risk scores.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "If acute coronary syndrome (\"heart attack\") is suspected, many people are admitted briefly for observation, sequential ECGs, and measurement of cardiac enzymes in the blood over time. On occasion, further tests on follow up may determine the cause.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277088",
"title": "Pheochromocytoma",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Not all patients experience all of the signs and symptoms listed. The most common presentation is headache, excessive sweating, and increased heart rate, with the attack subsiding in less than one hour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5421",
"title": "Cardiology",
"section": "Section::::Heart disorders.:Coronary artery disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "Coronary artery disease, also known as \"ischemic heart disease\", is a group of diseases that includes: stable angina, unstable angina, myocardial infarction, and sudden cardiac death. It is within the group of cardiovascular diseases of which it is the most common type. A common symptom is chest pain or discomfort which may travel into the shoulder, arm, back, neck, or jaw. Occasionally it may feel like heartburn. Usually symptoms occur with exercise or emotional stress, last less than a few minutes, and get better with rest. Shortness of breath may also occur and sometimes no symptoms are present. The first sign is occasionally a heart attack. Other complications include heart failure or an irregular heartbeat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20556798",
"title": "Myocardial infarction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "Myocardial infarction (MI), also known as a heart attack, occurs when blood flow decreases or stops to a part of the heart, causing damage to the heart muscle. The most common symptom is chest pain or discomfort which may travel into the shoulder, arm, back, neck or jaw. Often it occurs in the center or left side of the chest and lasts for more than a few minutes. The discomfort may occasionally feel like heartburn. Other symptoms may include shortness of breath, nausea, feeling faint, a cold sweat or feeling tired. About 30% of people have atypical symptoms. Women more often present without chest pain and instead have neck pain, arm pain or feel tired. Among those over 75 years old, about 5% have had an MI with little or no history of symptoms. An MI may cause heart failure, an irregular heartbeat, cardiogenic shock or cardiac arrest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4787648",
"title": "Levosalbutamol",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Symptoms of overdose in particular include: collapse into a seizure; chest pain (possible precursor of a heart attack); fast, pounding heartbeat, which may cause raised blood pressure (hypertension); irregular heartbeat (cardiac arrhythmia), which may cause paradoxical lowered blood pressure (hypotension); nervousness and tremor; headache; dizziness and nausea/vomiting; weakness or exhaustion (medical fatigue); dry mouth; and insomnia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "733784",
"title": "Cardiac stress test",
"section": "Section::::Diagnostic value.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "According to American Heart Association data, about 65% of men and 47% of women present with a heart attack or sudden cardiac arrest as their first symptom of cardiovascular disease. Stress tests, carried out shortly before these events, are not relevant to the prediction of infarction in the majority of individuals tested. Over the past two decades, better methods have been developed to identify atherosclerotic disease before it becomes symptomatic. These detection methods include \"anatomical\" and \"physiological\" methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
57nick
|
Can gyroscopes at the end of an axle or some other "no thrust" alternative be used to control the rate of precession of a big spinning wheel in space?
|
[
{
"answer": "Contrary to what /u/SpaceIsKindOfCool said, there is a no-thrust solution to your problem. Sun-synchronous orbits use Earth's prolate shape to generate the necessary precession. [Wikipedia](_URL_0_) actually has all the math you need to figure it out. It turns out that the inclination required for a Sun-synchronous orbit at 700 km altitude is ~98.16º so that seems in line with your desires. No thrust needed, Earth's bulge will provide all your precession for you!\n\nThe biggest problem is really just the polar orbit in general, though. That's expensive. For a relatively small satellite that will never be serviced or otherwise visited, it's one thing, but frequently shuttling to a polar orbit will get very expensive very quickly.\n\nIt might be worth considering a more equatorial orbit; it would be easy to have the spaceship spin once per orbit around its own axis so that it is always in a fixed orientation with respect to the sun; that way it would receive direct sunlight at the same angle except while obscured by the Earth. The solar panels could still be mounted in a fixed orientation and always be at the optimal angle while illuminated (for slightly more than half of its orbital period), and the radiators would likewise always be pointed away from the sun. Really the only downside is that you only get sunlight for slightly more than 50% of the time. However, the added fixed cost of extra solar panels to compensate would probably offset the launch costs that you'd rack up for construction alone, let alone subsequent shuttling costs. Especially since you'd probably be subsidizing or outright paying for the launch facility itself, too (since it doesn't exist and there are no plans or even really much of a need for one).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24050869",
"title": "Inertial navigation system",
"section": "Section::::Basic schemes.:Gimballed gyrostabilized platforms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Two gyroscopes are used to cancel gyroscopic precession, the tendency of a gyroscope to twist at right angles to an input torque. By mounting a pair of gyroscopes (of the same rotational inertia and spinning at the same speed in opposite directions) at right angles the precessions are cancelled and the platform will resist twisting. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44125",
"title": "Gyroscope",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:DTG.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "A dynamically tuned gyroscope (DTG) is a rotor suspended by a universal joint with flexure pivots. The flexure spring stiffness is independent of spin rate. However, the dynamic inertia (from the gyroscopic reaction effect) from the gimbal provides negative spring stiffness proportional to the square of the spin speed (Howe and Savet, 1964; Lawrence, 1998). Therefore, at a particular speed, called the tuning speed, the two moments cancel each other, freeing the rotor from torque, a necessary condition for an ideal gyroscope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45832",
"title": "Gyrocompass",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 999,
"text": "A gyroscope, not to be confused with gyrocompass, is a spinning wheel mounted on a set of gimbals so that its axis is free to orient itself in any way. When it is spun up to speed with its axis pointing in some direction, due to the law of conservation of angular momentum, such a wheel will normally maintain its original orientation to a fixed point in outer space (not to a fixed point on Earth). Since our planet rotates, it appears to a stationary observer on Earth that a gyroscope's axis is completing a full rotation once every 24 hours. Such a rotating gyroscope is used for navigation in some cases, for example on aircraft, where it is known as heading indicator or directional gyro, but cannot ordinarily be used for long-term marine navigation. The crucial additional ingredient needed to turn a gyroscope into a gyrocompass, so it would automatically position to true north, is some mechanism that results in an application of torque whenever the compass's axis is not pointing north.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "440789",
"title": "Gyrator",
"section": "Section::::Name.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "The analogy with the gyroscope is due to the relationship between the torque and angular velocity of the gyroscope on the two axes of rotation. A torque on one axis will produce a proportional change in angular velocity on the other axis and vice versa. A mechanical-electrical analogy of the gyroscope making torque and angular velocity the analogs of voltage and current results in the electrical gyrator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4756732",
"title": "Reactionless drive",
"section": "Section::::Closed systems.:Gyroscopic Inertial Thruster (GIT).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1088,
"text": "The Gyroscopic Inertial Thruster is a proposed reactionless drive based on the mechanical principles of a rotating mechanism. The concept involves various methods of leverage applied against the supports of a large gyroscope. The supposed operating principle of a GIT is a mass traveling around a circular trajectory at a variable speed. The high-speed part of the trajectory allegedly generates greater centrifugal force than the low, so that there is a greater thrust in one direction than the other. Scottish inventor Sandy Kidd, a former RAF radar technician, investigated the possibility (without success) in the 1980s. He posited that a gyroscope set at various angles could provide a lifting force, defying gravity. In the 1990s, several people sent suggestions to the Space Exploration Outreach Program (SEOP) at NASA recommending that NASA study a gyroscopic inertial drive, especially the developments attributed to the American inventor Robert Cook and the Canadian inventor Roy Thornson. In the 1990s and 2000s, enthusiasts attempted the building and testing of GIT machines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89484",
"title": "Reaction wheel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "A reaction wheel (RW) is a type of flywheel used primarily by spacecraft for three axis attitude control, which doesn't require rockets or external applicators of torque. They provide a high pointing accuracy, and are particularly useful when the spacecraft must be rotated by very small amounts, such as keeping a telescope pointed at a star.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1636296",
"title": "Sagnac effect",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "A gimbal mounted mechanical gyroscope remains pointing in the same direction after spinning up, and thus can be used as a rotational reference for an inertial navigation system. With the development of so-called laser gyroscopes and fiber optic gyroscopes based on the Sagnac effect, the bulky mechanical gyroscope is replaced by one having no moving parts in many modern inertial navigation systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17d66p
|
was Aristotle held in high regard by roman/Greek philosophers in AD250?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. The Peripatetic School, founded by Aristotle, was still around in 250. It was in decline by that point, and its members focused more on preserving Aristotle's own work than expanding on it, but the vital thread of Aristotlean philosophy was picked up by the Neoplatonists (who, despite their name, were a quasi-mystical synthesis of Plato and Aristotle, and held the latter in high regard), and by Christian philosophers (Origen, for example) who drew on Aristotlean (and Platonic, and Neoplatonic) concepts to shape their understanding of the divine. \n\n(We're dealing here with mostly Hellenistic schools and philosophers, by the way; Rome itself was never a center of philosophy like Athens or Alexandria. They left that sort of thing to the Greeks. But that's another topic entirely.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "309909",
"title": "Aristotelianism",
"section": "Section::::History.:Western Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Although some knowledge of Aristotle seems to have lingered on in the ecclesiastical centres of western Europe after the fall of the Roman empire, by the ninth century nearly all that was known of Aristotle consisted of Boethius's commentaries on the \"Organon\", and a few abridgments made by Latin authors of the declining empire, Isidore of Seville and Martianus Capella. From that time until the end of the eleventh century, little progress is apparent in Aristotelian knowledge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "529396",
"title": "Peripatetic school",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "The study of Aristotle's works continued by scholars who were called Peripatetics through Late Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the Renaissance. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the works of the Peripatetic school were lost to the Latin West, but in the East they were rediscovered and incorporated into early Islamic philosophy, which would play a fundamental role in the revival of Aristotelian philosophy in Europe through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "308",
"title": "Aristotle",
"section": "Section::::Influence.:On medieval Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 1023,
"text": "With the loss of the study of ancient Greek in the early medieval Latin West, Aristotle was practically unknown there from c. AD 600 to c. 1100 except through the Latin translation of the \"Organon\" made by Boethius. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, interest in Aristotle revived and Latin Christians had translations made, both from Arabic translations, such as those by Gerard of Cremona, and from the original Greek, such as those by James of Venice and William of Moerbeke. After the Scholastic Thomas Aquinas wrote his \"Summa Theologica\", working from Moerbeke's translations and calling Aristotle \"The Philosopher\", the demand for Aristotle's writings grew, and the Greek manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in Europe that continued into the Renaissance. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. Scholars such as Boethius, Peter Abelard, and John Buridan worked on Aristotelian logic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "529396",
"title": "Peripatetic school",
"section": "Section::::Influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "The last philosophers in classical antiquity to comment on Aristotle were Simplicius and Boethius in the 6th century AD. After this, although his works were mostly lost to the west, they were maintained in the east where they were incorporated into early Islamic philosophy. Some of the greatest Peripatetic philosophers in the Islamic philosophical tradition were Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Averroes (Ibn Rushd). By the 12th century, Aristotle's works began being translated into Latin during the Latin translations of the 12th century, and gradually arose Scholastic philosophy under such names as Thomas Aquinas, which took its tone and complexion from the writings of Aristotle, the commentaries of Averroes, and \"The Book of Healing\" of Avicenna.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32923",
"title": "Western canon",
"section": "Section::::Canon of philosophers.:Ancient Greeks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "Aristotle's views on physical science had a profound influence on medieval scholarship. Their influence extended from Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages into the Renaissance, and his views were not replaced systematically until the Enlightenment and theories such as classical mechanics. In metaphysics, Aristotelianism profoundly influenced Judeo-Islamic philosophical and theological thought during the Middle Ages and continues to influence Christian theology, especially the Neoplatonism of the Early Church and the scholastic tradition of the Roman Catholic Church. Aristotle was well known among medieval Muslim intellectuals and revered as \"The First Teacher\" (). His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of virtue ethics. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "171171",
"title": "Ancient Greek philosophy",
"section": "Section::::Classical Greek philosophy.:Aristotle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Aristotle's fame was not great during the Hellenistic period, when Stoic logic was in vogue, but later peripatetic commentators popularized his work, which eventually contributed heavily to Islamic, Jewish, and medieval Christian philosophy. His influence was such that Avicenna referred to him simply as \"the Master\"; Maimonides, Alfarabi, Averroes, and Aquinas as \"the Philosopher.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "150135",
"title": "Spontaneous generation",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Aristotle, in Latin translation, from the original Greek or from Arabic, was reintroduced to Western Europe. During the 13th century, Aristotle reached his greatest acceptance. With the availability of Latin translations Saint Albertus Magnus and his student, Saint Thomas Aquinas, raised Aristotelianism to its greatest prominence. Albert wrote a paraphrase of Aristotle, \"De causis et processu universitatis\", in which he removed some and incorporated other commentaries by Arabic scholars. The influential writings of Aquinas, on both the physical and metaphysical, are predominantly Aristotelian, but show numerous other influences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4hybq5
|
Why were there no eunuchs in the Japanese court?
|
[
{
"answer": "[This was asked once before!](_URL_0_) My answer was not very satisfactory though, but it's the only thing I've ever read that approached the question. I'd caution you not to make too much of the concubines and sexual access though. Sterility is a red herring! Eunuchs are more than castration! So don't automatically assume sexual control = eunuchs and eunuchs = sexual control, because as you can see, it doesn't work as a cultural universal! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "68555",
"title": "Eunuch",
"section": "Section::::By region and epoch.:China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Eunuchs have existed in China since about 4,000 years ago, were imperial servants by 3,000 years ago, and were common as civil servants by the time of the Qin dynasty. From those ancient times until the Sui Dynasty, castration was both a traditional punishment (one of the Five Punishments) and a means of gaining employment in the Imperial service. Certain eunuchs gained immense power that occasionally superseded that of even the Grand Secretaries such as the Ming dynasty official Zheng He. Self-castration was a common practice, although it was not always performed completely, which led to its being made illegal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68555",
"title": "Eunuch",
"section": "Section::::By region and epoch.:Korea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The eunuchs of Korea, called \"Naesi\" (내시, 內侍), were officials to the king and other royalty in traditional Korean society. The first recorded appearance of a Korean eunuch was in Goryeosa (\"History of Goryeo\"), a compilation about the Goryeo period. In 1392, with the founding of the Joseon Dynasty, the \"Naesi\" system was revised, and the department was renamed the \"Department of \"Naesi\"\" (내시부, 內侍府).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69414",
"title": "Castration",
"section": "Section::::History.:Korea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The eunuchs of Korea, called \"Naesi\" (내시, 內侍), were officials to the king and other royalty in traditional Korean society. The first recorded appearance of a Korean eunuch was in Goryeosa (\"History of Goryeo\"), a compilation about the Goryeo period. In 1392, with the founding of the Joseon Dynasty, the \"Naesi\" system was revised, and the department was renamed the \"Department of \"Naesi\"\" (내시부, 內侍府).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68555",
"title": "Eunuch",
"section": "Section::::By region and epoch.:China.:Qing dynasty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "The eunuchs at the Forbidden City during the later Qing period were infamous for their corruption, stealing as much as they could. The position of eunuch at the Forbidden City offered such opportunities for theft and corruption and China was such a poor country that countless men willingly become eunuchs in order to live a better life. However, eunuchs as the Emperor's slaves had no rights and could be abused at the emperor's whim. The emperor Puyi recalled in his memoirs that growing up in the Forbidden City that: \"By the age of 11, flogging eunuchs was part of my daily routine. My cruelty and love of power were already too firmly set for persuasion to have any effect on me...Whenever I was in a bad temper the eunuchs would be in for trouble.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68555",
"title": "Eunuch",
"section": "Section::::By region and epoch.:China.:Liao dynasty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1067,
"text": "The Khitans adopted the practice of using eunuchs from the Chinese and the eunuchs were non-Khitan prisoners of war. When they founded the Liao dynasty they developed a harem system with concubines and wives and adopted eunuchs as part of it. The Khitans captured Chinese eunuchs at the Jin court when they invaded the Later Jin. Another source was during their war with the Song dynasty, the Khitan would raid China, capture Han Chinese boys as prisoners of war and emasculate them to become eunuchs. The emasculation of captured Chinese boys guaranteed a continuous supply of eunuchs to serve in the Liao Dynasty harem. The Empress Dowager Chengtian played a large role in the raids to capture and emasculate the boys. She personally led her own army defeated the Song in 986, fighting the retreating Chinese army. She then ordered the castration of around 100 Chinese boys she had captured, supplementing the Khitan's supply of eunuchs to serve at her court, among them was Wang Ji'en. The boys were all under ten years old and were selected for their good looks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68555",
"title": "Eunuch",
"section": "Section::::By region and epoch.:China.:Ming dynasty.:The reputation of eunuchs in China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 1512,
"text": "However, the reputation of eunuchs was controversial in Ming China. Chinese bureaucrats-scholars always depicted eunuchs negatively, as greedy, evil, cunning, and duplicitous. Chinese people seemed to have a stereotypical view toward the eunuchs. The bad reputation may be explained by the fact that the eunuchs, in order to get employment in the royal palace or official houses, needed to be castrated. Castration gave the eunuchs the licence to work in the palace or official houses in Ming China because the officials and emperor in Ming China usually kept many concubines. However, In Chinese society, castration broke with conventional moral rules. A son who could not have male heir to carry on the family name breaks Confician doctrine. The eunuchs, despite their awareness of losing ability to have children but still get castrated in order to get better lives. Another guilty knowledge of eunuchs in palace is to exceed their power to do the areas the don't belong to. Some of the jobs eunuchs do is the dirty work. For examples, they may become the spies of emperors or the officials; another action of the Yongle emperor that had a significant effect is to give the eunuchs the authority to have charge in the implementation of political tasks. As eunuchs' presence and power grew, they gradually took over the duties of the women palace musicians and become the dominant musicians in the Ming palace. When they came to power, eunuchs would even interfere the politics such succession to the throne. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "68555",
"title": "Eunuch",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Eunuchs supposedly did not generally have loyalties to the military, the aristocracy, or to a family of their own (having neither offspring nor in-laws, at the very least), and were thus seen as more trustworthy and less interested in establishing a private 'dynasty'. Because their condition usually lowered their social status, they could also be easily replaced or killed without repercussion. In cultures that had both harems and eunuchs, eunuchs were sometimes used as harem servants (compare the female odalisque) or seraglio guards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4g780a
|
why do we measure speed by the hour instead of minutes?
|
[
{
"answer": "60 miles per hour (sorry, using the units I'm most comfortable with on the road) is 1 mile per minute. I go 80 on the highways around here, and it's comfortable.\n\nIf we're measuring by minute, though, the next unit up is 2 miles per minute, or 120 miles per hour. This is not comfortable. 80 mph is 1.33333 miles per minute, and nobody likes fractions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think if you wanted to use this approach you'd actually need minutes per km to avoid doing lots of maths.\n\nYour suggestion is only easier because of the numbers you made up. If I drive at 60km/h and my friend lives 60km away it's easier to use km/h!\n\nIt would be a trivial exercise to add markers in this metric to a speedometer or print a little table which shows you how long it takes to go 1km.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "well we could also use the basic measurement of speed in physics: m/s (meters per second). But I think we use km/h because of convenience and because switching to another unit would be quite difficult.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Calculations in physics tend to use metres per second (m/s) anyway, converting where needed. This is because the metre and the second are fundamental SI units. A quick conversion: 1 m/s = 3.6 km/h, so 20 m/s = 72 km/h = ~45 mph",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because using fractions or decimals is not very quick at communicating speed of travel. Neither is minutes. Most people travel for longer than an hour. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > the speedometer shows me that I'm driving 1 kilometer per minute rather than 120 Km/h (random numbers, didn't do the math)\n\nTrue ELI5: When you grow up, you go to school and will learn how to do easy math.\n\nThe point is that this is the unit which is most useful in real life.\n\nAnd if time was metric, we could do conversions a lot more easily.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > my friends that I'll arrive to his house\n\nIf he's your friend, you should know how long it takes to get there following the standard speed limits. (Or your driving habits, whichever comes first)\n\nBesides, you can't judge based on your speed at the moment, because you have to slow down and speed up. Even stop for traffic lights.\n\nIf he's your friend, he's not going to be upset over a difference of a few minutes; unless he needs to hide a body. In which case, he should tell you so you've got time to get a shovel and tarp. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here are a few of the speeds near my house, and the counterpart in miles per minute\n\n10 MPH = .1666\n\n25 MPH = .41666\n\n40 MPH = .6666\n\n55 MPH = .91666\n\n60 MPH = 1\n\n\nMuch easier to read and understand the first column. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25676",
"title": "Radar",
"section": "Section::::Radar signal processing.:Speed measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Speed is the change in distance to an object with respect to time. Thus the existing system for measuring distance, combined with a memory capacity to see where the target last was, is enough to measure speed. At one time the memory consisted of a user making grease pencil marks on the radar screen and then calculating the speed using a slide rule. Modern radar systems perform the equivalent operation faster and more accurately using computers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1913727",
"title": "Theocracy (video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "The time scale can be used to determine how fast time passes. It can be paused to make time stand still, and at slowest rate, a year passes in approximately 10 or so minutes, and at fastest rate, a year passes in approximately 20 seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2831127",
"title": "Traffic flow",
"section": "Section::::Traffic stream properties.:Speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Time mean speed\" is measured at a reference point on the roadway over a period of time. In practice, it is measured by the use of loop detectors. Loop detectors, when spread over a reference area, can identify each vehicle and can track its speed. However, average speed measurements obtained from this method are not accurate because instantaneous speeds averaged over several vehicles do not account for the difference in travel time for the vehicles that are traveling at different speeds over the same distance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28748",
"title": "Speed",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Average speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Average speed does not describe the speed variations that may have taken place during shorter time intervals (as it is the entire distance covered divided by the total time of travel), and so average speed is often quite different from a value of instantaneous speed. If the average speed and the time of travel are known, the distance travelled can be calculated by rearranging the definition to\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28748",
"title": "Speed",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Average speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Different from instantaneous speed, \"average speed\" is defined as the total distance covered divided by the time interval. For example, if a distance of 80 kilometres is driven in 1 hour, the average speed is 80 kilometres per hour. Likewise, if 320 kilometres are travelled in 4 hours, the average speed is also 80 kilometres per hour. When a distance in kilometres (km) is divided by a time in hours (h), the result is in kilometres per hour (km/h). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2831127",
"title": "Traffic flow",
"section": "Section::::Traffic stream properties.:Speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Speed is the distance covered per unit time. One cannot track the speed of every vehicle; so, in practice, average speed is measured by sampling vehicles in a given area over a period of time. Two definitions of average speed are identified: \"time mean speed\" and \"space mean speed\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44514645",
"title": "ASHRAE 55",
"section": "Section::::Evaluation of comfort in existing buildings.:Measurement methods.:Physical measurements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "The standard suggests that the time of measurements should last two or more hours long, and it should also be a representative time of the year for this specific building. Measuring time step should be no more than five minutes for air temperature, mean radiant temperature, and humidity, and no more than three minutes for the air speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
uee1w
|
Can anyone help me identify this substance I found in my yard?
|
[
{
"answer": "Maybe it IS beeswax or ~~rather some other wax-like stuff~~ paraffin, which is probably the most common in outdoor candles (in Sweden at least). It could have been caused by something similar to [this](_URL_0_) (don't know the English word for these type of candles). It looks like the burned area has been there some time because of the plants growing in it. Could it have happened during winter when the area was covered with snow?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If it looks and smells like bee's wax it might be make by ground dwelling bees. We have them here in S. Texas. They are about the size of the end of your thumb to the first joint and, although they are slow to get aroused, when they do you might want to be someplace else. They make a kind of honey which is often in the form of 2 black balls and not the usual flat honey shape.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "116790",
"title": "Hygroscopy",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Hygroscopic substances include cellulose fibers (such as cotton and paper), sugar, caramel, honey, glycerol, ethanol, wood, methanol, sulfuric acid, many fertilizer chemicals, many salts (like calcium chloride, bases like sodium hydroxide etc.), and a wide variety of other substances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7878740",
"title": "Alamosite",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Alamosite (PbSiO) is a colorless silicate mineral named after the place where it was discovered, Álamos, Sonora, Mexico. It is a rare secondary mineral occurring in the oxidized zones of lead-rich deposits. For example, the infobox picture shows its association with black leadhillite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2178822",
"title": "Laurite",
"section": "Section::::Discovery and occurrence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "It was discovered in 1866 in Borneo, Malaysia and named for Laurie, the wife of Charles A. Joy, an American chemist. It occurs in ultramafic magmatic cumulate deposits and sedimentary placer deposits derived from them. It occurs associated with cooperite, braggite, sperrylite, other minerals of the platinum group elements and chromite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55455911",
"title": "Sharkey Landfill",
"section": "Section::::Health and environmental hazards.:Hazard 3: chloroform.:Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Chloroform was one other chemical found in abundance on the site, with about 40,000 pounds found throughout the landfill. Chloroform is a type of cleaning solution, one of many that can be used for things such as; cleaning electronics, tools, engines, and automotive parts; dissolving oil, paint, and grease; to mix/thin paint, glue, pigments, epoxy resins, and pesticides; and to create other similar solvents or chemicals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4229231",
"title": "Braidfauld",
"section": "Section::::History.:Dalbeth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Beyond the woods is the site of the Dalbeth Estate. The estate was primarily a country retreat, but the owners worked the freestone and coal underneath. It is even said some local gold was found while, in the shallows of the Clyde large mussel-like bi-valves often provided serviceable pearls. Here Thomas Hopkirk established the prize collection of rare plants which became the basis of the Glasgow Botanic Gardens in the West-end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2119676",
"title": "Gardener (comics)",
"section": "Section::::Fictional character biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "The Gardener was later revealed to possess Adam Warlock's Soul Gem. He journeyed to K'ai to create a paradise valley. There, he battled the Hulk, and briefly lost the gem, but he soon had it in his possession again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10214969",
"title": "Vendyl Jones",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Move to Israel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "In the 1992 excavation, the VJRI team announced the discovery of a hidden silo in the bedrock that contained a reddish snuff-looking material that appeared to be organic in nature. It was analyzed by Zohar Aman of Bar-Ilan University who noted that \"According to Jones, the site where the red material was found corresponds exactly to the description of the ‘‘Cave of the Column” referred to in the Copper Scroll.\" Amar criticises Jones for being selective with his data, omitting material that challenges his claims. He concludes that the substance found by Jones \"is a cleaning material known in the ancient Hebrew as \"borit\" [Lye] which was produced in this region by the inhabitants of Qumran and was one of their industries.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3yaisl
|
what is the point of those "fowarding you to your download in 5.." pages
|
[
{
"answer": "They basically either make you look at ads, or are there to convince you into paying for a premium service. \n\nThere's a *slight* chance that they're actually load-balancing and just want you to have something to look at so you don't think it's frozen and hit reload constantly, too. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Almost universally advertising. They're often used when the file is hosted off site but the poster wants to monetise the link. \nHowever if you have an adblocker, you probably wouldn't ever realise it's an advert",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* displaying ads\n* they allow a download site with limited bandwidth to queue up requests\n* they allow a download site to set up a premium service for immediate downloads",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30992851",
"title": "RetroShare",
"section": "Section::::Caveats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Is important to remember that while RetroShare’s encryption makes it virtually impossible for an ISP or another external observer to know what one is downloading or uploading, this limitation does not apply to members of the user's RetroShare circle of trust; adding the wrong people to it is a potential risk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29611137",
"title": "Criteo",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Criteo enables online businesses to follow up visitors who have left their website without making a purchase using personalized banners which aim to drive potential customers back to the business website.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47857504",
"title": "Delphish",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Delphish enables the user to check any suspicious e-mails for their author and country of origin. It detects any hidden links, informs the user of the origin and the operator of the linked web sites, and analyzes the entire e-mail.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53956355",
"title": "Trojan.Win32.DNSChanger",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Steering unknowing users to bad sites\": These sites can be phishing pages that spoof well-known sites in order to trick users into handing out sensitive information. A user who wants to visit the iTunes site, for instance, is instead unknowingly redirected to a rogue site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27454991",
"title": "Information seeking behavior",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 756,
"text": "Horizontal information seeking is the method sometimes referred to as \"skimming\". An information seeker who skims views a couple of pages, then subsequently follows other links without necessarily returning to the initial sites. Navigators, as might be expected, spend their time finding their way around. Wilson found that users of e-book or e-journal sites were most likely spend, on average, a mere four to eight minutes viewing said sites. Squirreling behavior relates to users who download lots of documents but might not necessarily end up reading them. Checking information seekers assess the host in order to ascertain trustworthiness. The bracket of users named diverse information seekers are users whose behavior differs from the above sectors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24755801",
"title": "Barnes & Noble Nook 1st Edition",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "The Nook provides a \"LendMe\" feature allowing users to share some books with other people, depending on licensing by the book's publisher. The buyer is permitted to share a book once with one other user for up to two weeks. Users will be able to share purchased books with others who are using Barnes & Noble's reader application software for Android, BlackBerry, iPad, iPhone, iPod Touch, Mac OS X, and Windows and others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "753027",
"title": "NetCaptor",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "BULLET::::- QuickSearch: Allows you to perform search engine queries directly from the address bar. For example, to search for \"testing\" on Google, you would simply type \"g testing\" into any tab's address bar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
35k0fz
|
When an object moves, how quickly does the change in direction of its gravitational field spread?
|
[
{
"answer": "Two things could happen. \n\nIn your scenario, if the object were magically teleported away, the other object would only observe the change in gravitational effect after the signal reaches it. That means that if it's 10 light years away, object B would only notice the object A moving away 10 years later. \n\nIn reality, a much more exciting thing happens. If you have two objects that are gravitationally interacting such as the Earth and the sun, the above doesn't happen. The sun is 8 light minutes away from Earth. Following the first explanation, you would expect the Earth to be orbiting around the spot where the sun was 8 minutes ago. In reality, the Earth is orbiting where the sun is *right now*. \n\nYou may ask how this is possible since I told you changes in a gravitational field travel at the speed of light. The reason is that the momentum of the system is encoded within the gravitational field, giving the overall effect of seemingly instantaneous propagation of gravity. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "574544",
"title": "Circular motion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Since the object's velocity vector is constantly changing direction, the moving object is undergoing acceleration by a centripetal force in the direction of the center of rotation. Without this acceleration, the object would move in a straight line, according to Newton's laws of motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60162",
"title": "Tidal locking",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1025,
"text": "The gravitational force from object A upon B will vary with distance, being greatest at the nearest surface to A and least at the most distant. This creates a gravitational gradient across object B that will distort its equilibrium shape slightly. The body of object B will become elongated along the axis oriented toward A, and conversely, slightly reduced in dimension in directions orthogonal to this axis. The elongated distortions are known as tidal bulges. (For the solid Earth, these bulges can reach displacements of up to around .) When B is not yet tidally locked, the bulges travel over its surface due to orbital motions, with one of the two \"high\" tidal bulges traveling close to the point where body A is overhead. For large astronomical bodies that are nearly spherical due to self-gravitation, the tidal distortion produces a slightly prolate spheroid, i.e. an axially symmetric ellipsoid that is elongated along its major axis. Smaller bodies also experience distortion, but this distortion is less regular.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "997205",
"title": "Circular orbit",
"section": "Section::::Circular acceleration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Transverse acceleration (perpendicular to velocity) causes change in direction. If it is constant in magnitude and changing in direction with the velocity, we get a circular motion. For this centripetal acceleration we have\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1711075",
"title": "Particle acceleration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Transverse acceleration (perpendicular to velocity) causes change in direction. If it is constant in magnitude and changing in direction with the velocity, we get a circular motion. For this centripetal acceleration we have\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "712760",
"title": "Trichoplax",
"section": "Section::::Locomotion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "The actual \"direction\" in which \"Trichoplax\" moves each time is random: if we measure how fast an individual animal moves away from an arbitrary starting point, we find a linear relationship between elapsed time and mean square distance between starting point and present location. Such a relationship is also characteristic of random Brownian motion of molecules, which thus can serve as a model for locomotion in the Placozoa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10902",
"title": "Force",
"section": "Section::::Rotations and torque.:Centripetal force.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "where formula_21 is the mass of the object, formula_28 is the velocity of the object and formula_43 is the distance to the center of the circular path and formula_44 is the unit vector pointing in the radial direction outwards from the center. This means that the unbalanced centripetal force felt by any object is always directed toward the center of the curving path. Such forces act perpendicular to the velocity vector associated with the motion of an object, and therefore do not change the speed of the object (magnitude of the velocity), but only the direction of the velocity vector. The unbalanced force that accelerates an object can be resolved into a component that is perpendicular to the path, and one that is tangential to the path. This yields both the tangential force, which accelerates the object by either slowing it down or speeding it up, and the radial (centripetal) force, which changes its direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2338320",
"title": "Geodesic deviation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "In general relativity, geodesic deviation describes the tendency of objects to approach or recede from one another while moving under the influence of a spatially varying gravitational field. Put another way, if two objects are set in motion along two initially parallel trajectories, the presence of a tidal gravitational force will cause the trajectories to bend towards or away from each other, producing a relative acceleration between the objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
pee7r
|
Our ears are so sensitive, that we can ear someone murmur from a few meters in a quiet room. How come the wind doesn't render us deaf ?
|
[
{
"answer": "You have 2 muscles which attach to the conductive bones in your ear. The stapedius muscle attaches to the stapes (stirrup) and the tensor tympani attaches to the malleus (hammer). \n\nContraction of these muscles prevent the bones from vibrating as much and thus makes sounds less loud. You have two reflexes that contract these muscles during loud noise and while you are talking. This is partly why listening to a recording of your own voice sounds weird.\n\nThese two muscles are also innervated by different cranial nerves and problems with these nerves will result in experiencing excessively loud noises or apparent changes in one's voice.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "768413",
"title": "Ear",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Hearing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "The human ear can generally hear sounds with frequencies between 20 Hz and 20 kHz (the audio range). Sounds outside this range are considered infrasound (below 20 Hz) or ultrasound (above 20 kHz) Although hearing requires an intact and functioning auditory portion of the central nervous system as well as a working ear, human deafness (extreme insensitivity to sound) most commonly occurs because of abnormalities of the inner ear, rather than in the nerves or tracts of the central auditory system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52957",
"title": "Bell's palsy",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Although the facial nerve innervates the stapedius muscle of the middle ear (via the tympanic branch), sound sensitivity, causing normal sounds to be perceived as very loud, and dysacusis are possible but hardly ever clinically evident.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1247165",
"title": "Weber test",
"section": "Section::::Detection of air conductive hearing loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 963,
"text": "A patient with a unilateral conductive hearing loss would hear the tuning fork loudest in the affected ear. This is because the ear with the conductive hearing loss is only receiving input from the bone conduction and no air conduction, and the sound is perceived as louder in that ear. This finding is because the conduction problem of the middle ear (incus, malleus, stapes, and eustachian tube) masks the ambient noise of the room, while the well-functioning inner ear (cochlea with its basilar membrane) picks the sound up via the bones of the skull, causing it to be perceived as a louder sound in the affected ear. Another theory, however, is based on the occlusion effect described by Tonndorf et al. in 1966. Lower frequency sounds (as made by the 256 Hz fork) that are transferred through the bone to the ear canal escape from the canal. If an occlusion is present, the sound cannot escape and appears louder on the ear with the conductive hearing loss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33340026",
"title": "Deaf hearing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "When patients are completely deaf in both ears they begin to rely more strongly on their other senses. Because hearing relies on external sound waves, a deaf patient will feel the vibrations, rather than relying on what would normally be perceived as sound. As a patient relies on \"feeling\" sounds rather than hearing them, they subconsciously hear with their sense of touch, therefore reacting to auditory stimuli without actually hearing sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6846175",
"title": "Listener fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Relevant mechanisms.:Temporary threshold shifts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "When exposed to noise, the human ear's sensitivity to sound is decreased, corresponding to an increase in the threshold of hearing. This shift is usually temporary but may become permanent. A natural physiological reaction to these threshold shifts is vasoconstriction, which will reduce the amount of blood reaching the hair cells of the organ of Corti in the cochlea. With the resultant oxygen tension and diminished blood supply reaching the outer hair cells, their response to sound levels is lessened when exposed to loud sounds, rendering them less effective and putting more stress on the inner hair cells. This can lead to fatigue and temporary hearing loss if the outer hair cells do not get the opportunity to recover through periods of silence. If these cells do not get this chance to recover, they are vulnerable to death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21282020",
"title": "Hearing",
"section": "Section::::Hearing loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "BULLET::::- Mild hearing loss - People with mild hearing loss have difficulties keeping up with conversations, especially in noisy surroundings. The most quiet sounds that people with mild hearing loss can hear with their better ear are between 25 and 40 dB HL.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14910292",
"title": "Seashell resonance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The human ear picks up sounds made by the human body as well, including the sounds of blood flowing and muscles acting. These sounds are normally discarded by the brain; however, they become more obvious when louder external sounds are filtered out. This occlusion effect occurs with seashells, cups, or hands held over one's ears, and also with circumaural headphones, whose cups form a seal around the ear, raising the acoustic impedance to external sounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
34w9r3
|
if the fdic ensures 250k, how do billionaires organize so much money?
|
[
{
"answer": "They spread it out over many banks. They also have a ton of assets that simply aren't FDIC insured. The FDIC isn't designed to protect the money of billionaires. The purpose of the program is to prevent bank runs in times of desperation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "invest in stocks, other companies, etc. definitely not in a savings or checkings account, \"investment portfolio\" is the keyword here, even low-mid yield investments are better than bank interest from what i hear",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42312755",
"title": "Arnold Ventures LLC",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "The foundation has funded a wide range of interventions, many controversial, including Oregon's open primary ballot, Planned Parenthood, the Guttmacher Institute, the Network of Abortion Funds, the Center of Reproductive Rights, education reform, efforts to end public pensions, a data-first approach to criminal justice, and improving reproducibility and transparency in science through the funding of open science and metascience. The organization has also been described as \"another example of billionaire donors becoming ever more sophisticated about using private wealth to influence public policy—wielding exponentially more power in American life than ordinary citizens of more modest means.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14904044",
"title": "Yahoo! Finance",
"section": "Section::::Development history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "In the introduction to a 2009 interview with \"Forbes.com\", former general manager Nathan Richardson was said to have built \"annual revenue from $10 million to $110 million and expanded the site's content partners from 10 to 200. In 2005 \"Institutional Investor\" ranked [Richardson] the most influential person in online finance.\" In the interview, Richardson described the process of building the financial-information modules and creating a \"moat\" around the content (to keep visitors sticking to the site).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29656",
"title": "Steve Ballmer",
"section": "Section::::Wealth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "Ballmer was the second person after Roberto Goizueta to become a billionaire in U.S. dollars based on stock options received as an employee of a corporation in which he was neither a founder nor a relative of a founder. , his personal wealth is estimated at US$37.1 billion. While CEO of Microsoft in 2009, Ballmer earned a total compensation of $1,276,627, which included a base salary of $665,833, a cash bonus of $600,000, no stock or options, and other compensation of $10,794.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48505834",
"title": "Crowdfunding",
"section": "Section::::Benefits and risks.:Risks and barriers for the creator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "Some of the most popular fundraising drives are for commercial companies which use the process to reach customers and at the same time market their products and services. This favors companies like microbreweries and specialist restaurants – in effect creating a \"club\" of people who are customers as well as investors. In the USA in 2015, new rules from the SEC to regulate equity crowdfunding will mean that larger businesses with more than 500 investors and more than $25 million in assets will have to file reports like a public company. The \"Wall Street Journal\" commented: \"It is all the pain of an IPO without the benefits of the IPO.\" These two trends may mean crowdfunding is most suited to small consumer-facing companies rather than tech start-ups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5579577",
"title": "The Chronicle of Philanthropy",
"section": "Section::::Research projects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "\"The Chronicle of Philanthropy\" is involved in research projects such as The Philanthropy 400, which annually ranks the nation's largest nonprofit groups based on the amount of money they raise, and The Philanthropy 50, which ranks the individuals who give the most money to nonprofit groups each year. According to a 2012 study by the \"Chronicle\", the rich (those making over $100,000 a year) give a smaller share, averaging 4.2%, to charity than those poorer (between $50,000 - $75,000 a year), who give an average of 7.6%. In 2007, they evaluated the credibility of celebrity in charitable giving and found that often celebrity involvement isn't as effective as the broader press attention it is given. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "896521",
"title": "Verio",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "In order to validate the strategy and raise capital, Brett Sharenow and Lynn Morris from Morris Associates were hired to create the first detailed engineering-driven financial model consisting of ISPs, core network infrastructure, and server farms, allowing Verio to raise substantial funds ($1.1B) from principal founders, several top tier VC's, NTT and institutional investors with which to purchase target acquisitions and build out centralized back office, support, national sales and infrastructure. The company rapidly succeeded and was known as the world's largest cloud hosting company for many years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23268315",
"title": "United Against Nuclear Iran",
"section": "Section::::Funding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "The top donors to UANI are a pair of trusts associated with the billionaire Thomas Kaplan and a family foundation operated by Republican mega-donor Sheldon and Miriam Adelson. Together, the funding associated with Kaplan and Adelson accounted for more than three-quarters of the group’s total revenue of $1.7 million for the 2013 tax year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1rr7jz
|
"There may only be one electron in the whole Universe"?
|
[
{
"answer": "It was casually suggested by John Wheeler in 1940. You shouldn't think of it as a serious idea. \n\nThe idea is that there's one single electron moving back and forth in time. The positron is when the electron is moving backwards in time. In fact, a positron does look like an electron in the opposite direction of time. However, it also makes the prediction that there's an equal number of electrons and positrons, which appears to be incorrect. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9476",
"title": "Electron",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1036,
"text": "The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol or , whose electric charge is negative one elementary charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or substructure. The electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. Quantum mechanical properties of the electron include an intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of a half-integer value, expressed in units of the reduced Planck constant, \"ħ\". Being fermions, no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state, in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle. Like all elementary particles, electrons exhibit properties of both particles and waves: they can collide with other particles and can be diffracted like light. The wave properties of electrons are easier to observe with experiments than those of other particles like neutrons and protons because electrons have a lower mass and hence a longer de Broglie wavelength for a given energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4295487",
"title": "One-electron universe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "The one-electron universe postulate, proposed by John Wheeler in a telephone call to Richard Feynman in the spring of 1940, is the hypothesis that all electrons and positrons are actually manifestations of a single entity moving backwards and forwards in time. According to Feynman:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143878",
"title": "Ramsey–Lewis method",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "A scientific theory which attempts to describe \"electrons\" is inherently abstract, as no one has ever observed an electron directly. Thus, the origin and content of the concept of \"electron\" is questionable. What does the word exactly signify? Ramsey and Lewis proposed that the meaning of the term \"electron\" is implicitly generated by the scientific theory that describes it, via all its assertions about electrons. Electrons are those things about which all the statements of the theory are true.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67211",
"title": "Electron configuration",
"section": "Section::::Shells and subshells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The numbers of electrons that can occupy each shell and each subshell arise from the equations of quantum mechanics, in particular the Pauli exclusion principle, which states that no two electrons in the same atom can have the same values of the four quantum numbers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902",
"title": "Atom",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Subatomic particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "The electron is by far the least massive of these particles at , with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques. It was the lightest particle with a positive rest mass measured, until the discovery of neutrino mass. Under ordinary conditions, electrons are bound to the positively charged nucleus by the attraction created from opposite electric charges. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than its atomic number, then it becomes respectively negatively or positively charged as a whole; a charged atom is called an ion. Electrons have been known since the late 19th century, mostly thanks to J.J. Thomson; see history of subatomic physics for details.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902",
"title": "Atom",
"section": "Section::::Origin and current state.:Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Electrons are thought to exist in the Universe since early stages of the Big Bang. Atomic nuclei forms in nucleosynthesis reactions. In about three minutes Big Bang nucleosynthesis produced most of the helium, lithium, and deuterium in the Universe, and perhaps some of the beryllium and boron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7604357",
"title": "Methylidyne radical",
"section": "Section::::Bonding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "As an odd-electron species, CH is a radical. The ground state is a doublet (\"X\"Π). The first two excited states are a quartet (with three unpaired electrons) (\"a\"Σ) and a doublet (\"A\"Δ). The quartet lies at 71 kJ/mol above the ground state. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21kqxm
|
what is the little metal piece that coaches press against a boxers cuts?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's suppose to reduce swelling. It's cold and absorbs body heat quickly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is to stop the bruising, vaseline was used to stop the bleeding and protect the cuts but now they use a chalk like stick which looks like its metal.\n\n\n-_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some use blades to release the blood pressure which reduces the swelling.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fighter/cornerman here:\n\nThat is a knot-knocker.\n\nAs was said elsewhere, it is used to reduce swelling. It is kept cold, and the combination of cold and pressure can help reduce, or least stall, swelling. Swelling is dangerous because it can reduce vision, and when you cannot see, then you cannot defend well.\n\nA typical cornerman bucket has two sides--a dry side, and a side filled with ice. \n\nThe bucket is prepped an hour or so before the fight, and the knot-knocker is placed in the ice to get really cold (we keep the water bottle on the cold side too).\n\nThe dry side will have vaseline, q-tips, coagulants (when allowed--some state athletic commissions do not permit the use of coagulants), and random other stuff (maybe scissors, extra athletic tape, etc).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23251810",
"title": "Musti-yuddha",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Aspiring boxers undergo years of apprenticeship, toughening their fists against stone and other hard surfaces, until they are able to break coconuts and rocks with their bare hands. Any part of the body may be targeted, except the groin, but the prime targets are the head and chest. Techniques incorporate punches, kicks, elbows, knees and grabs. Boxers wear no form of protection and fight bare-fisted. Matches may be one-on-one, one against a group, or group against group. Victory can be attained by knockout, ringout or submission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4243",
"title": "Boxing",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "Boxers practice their skills on several types of punching bags. A small, tear-drop-shaped \"speed bag\" is used to hone reflexes and repetitive punching skills, while a large cylindrical \"heavy bag\" filled with sand, a synthetic substitute, or water is used to practice power punching and body blows. The double-end bag is usually connected by elastic on the top and bottom and moves randomly upon getting struck and helps the fighter work on accuracy and reflexes. In addition to these distinctive pieces of equipment, boxers also use sport-nonspecific training equipment to build strength, speed, agility, and stamina. Common training equipment includes free weights, rowing machines, jump rope, and medicine balls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10326790",
"title": "WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2008",
"section": "Section::::Fighting Style System.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Wrestlers with the powerhouse fighting style can break out of a pin attempt with just one button press, unless they had sustained a large amount of arm damage. They could also do a powerful Irish Whip (later named a 'Hammer Throw'), which could cause damage if the opponent hit the corner turnbuckles. A player (regardless of weight) could be sent reeling over the top rope with the force of this move. Their special ability was called 'Rampage', a temporary adrenaline rush in which their grapple moves could not be reversed or blocked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32393099",
"title": "Brawl Busters",
"section": "Section::::Character Classes.:Boxer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Boxers are the fastest busters but also have the lowest HP rating. They use boxing gloves to throw powerful punches or charge at opponents fist-first as their secondary attack. The special attack is a wind-up punch which launches flaming gloves damaging opponents in front of a boxer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4379183",
"title": "Cutman",
"section": "Section::::Treatments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "Before the fight, cutmen will usually put petroleum jelly on the most likely areas of impact, especially the fighter's face, making the skin more elastic and slippery, and hence less likely to tear. It is not considered good practice to use large amounts of petroleum jelly, since during the fight it is likely to end up on the gloves of the opponent, and later in the eyes of the fighter if the opponent lands a punch close to their eyes. Cutmen might also tape fighters' hands, which helps protect the bones and tendons. Wraps are used during training but are illegal during competition, though people still commonly use the term \"wrap\" in error to describe the taping method of using gauze and tape. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4884643",
"title": "Hand wrap",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Hand and wrist wraps are used to compress (and keep compressed when hitting) the bones and tissues in the hand. The claim is that such compression allows boxers to hit with greater force than if they did not use them. Boxers claim they feel less pain when hitting so their opponent may feel more pain. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9786394",
"title": "Dambe",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "The primary weapon is the strong-side fist. The strong-side fist, known as the spear, is wrapped in a piece of cloth covered by tightly knotted cord. Some boxers dip their spear in sticky resin mixed with bits of broken glass. This, however, became an illegal practice. The lead hand, called the shield, is held with the open palm facing toward the opponent. The lead hand can be used to grab or hold as required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
egn6ox
|
what makes md5 such a bad hashing algorithm?
|
[
{
"answer": "A couple of things:\n\n1) It's very fast. \"How is that a disadvantage?\" you may ask. Don't we want computers to be fast? Well, not in this case. For one, you don't need the speed. If your login takes 500 ms instead of 0.5 ms because of a slow hash function, you don't really mind. On the other hand, being able to calculate a billion MD5 hashes per second instead of ten thousand increases the speed of brute force attacks significantly, making your hashes less secure. \n\nThis is bad in it's own right, but it doesn't even matter with MD5, because\n\n2) It's susceptible to so called \"collision attacks\". A collision attack operates on a simple principle: since a hash function produces a fixed length output from variable length input, there will be multiple inputs with the same hash. If I can craft my own input with the expected hash, I can pass of forged things as valid.\n\nBy their nature, all hash functions have collisions, but for *good* hash functions finding these collisions should be no easier than just guessing. For MD5, it is *significantly* easier, making it broken by today's metrics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One of the primary ways to measure the strength of a supposedly cryptographically secure hashing algorithm is *collision resistance.* If hash has a 128-bit output (like MD5 does), it should take on average 2^(128-1) guesses before you find two values that hash to the same result. Since it was first introduced in 1991, vulnerabilities have been found that reduced the number of guesses required, and at the same time computer hardware improved so more guesses could be made per second. Last I heard they are are down to around 2^(20) \\~= 1 billion guesses, which takes a few seconds on a modern GPU.\n\nWhile some algorithms are clearly better designed than others, a lot of it comes down to novelty. People have been banging on MD5 for nearly 30 years, so it is no surprise the vulnerabilities were eventually found. All hashing algorithms are going to have some kind of vulnerability, it all comes down to an arms race between algorithm authors and cryptoanalysts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Several of the other comments already say it's possible to generate a hash collision. There are some specifics about this that I think are important: it is possible to create two messages with the same hash. It is not possible to create a message with a specific hash. So you create two documents with the same hash, but it's not possible to create a document that matches the hash of another, given, document. You need to control and change both documents to create a collision. In other words, MD5 is still [preimage resistant](_URL_0_), but not [collision resistant](_URL_1_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18826",
"title": "MD5",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "The MD5 message-digest algorithm is a widely used hash function producing a 128-bit hash value. Although MD5 was initially designed to be used as a cryptographic hash function, it has been found to suffer from extensive vulnerabilities. It can still be used as a checksum to verify data integrity, but only against unintentional corruption. It remains suitable for other non-cryptographic purposes, for example for determining the partition for a particular key in a partitioned database.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "439526",
"title": "Cryptographic hash function",
"section": "Section::::Cryptographic hash algorithms.:MD5.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "MD5 was designed by Ronald Rivest in 1991 to replace an earlier hash function MD4, and was specified in 1992 as RFC 1321. Collisions against MD5 can be calculated within seconds which makes the algorithm unsuitable for most use cases where a cryptographic hash is required. MD5 produces a digest of 128 bits (16 bytes).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "479663",
"title": "Md5sum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "md5sum is a computer program that calculates and verifies 128-bit MD5 hashes, as described in RFC 1321. The MD5 hash functions as a compact digital fingerprint of a file. As with all such hashing algorithms, there is theoretically an unlimited number of files that will have any given MD5 hash. However, it is very unlikely that any two non-identical files in the real world will have the same MD5 hash, unless they have been specifically created to have the same hash.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38472580",
"title": "Crypt (C)",
"section": "Section::::Key derivation functions supported by crypt.:SHA2-based scheme.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "The commonly used MD5 based scheme has become easier to attack as computer power has increased. Although the Blowfish-based system has the option of adding rounds and thus remain a challenging password algorithm, it does not use a NIST-approved algorithm. In light of these facts, Ulrich Drepper of Red Hat led an effort to create a scheme based on the SHA-2 (SHA-256 and SHA-512) hash functions. The printable form of these hashes starts with codice_31 (for SHA-256) or codice_32 (for SHA-512) depending on which SHA variant is used. Its design is similar to the MD5-based crypt, with a few notable differences:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1044819",
"title": "MD2 (hash function)",
"section": "Section::::Security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "In 2004, MD2 was shown to be vulnerable to a preimage attack with time complexity equivalent to 2 applications of the compression function (Muller, 2004). The author concludes, \"\"MD2 can no longer be considered a secure one-way hash function\"\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1381205",
"title": "Digest access authentication",
"section": "Section::::Impact of MD5 security on digest authentication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The MD5 calculations used in HTTP digest authentication is intended to be \"one way\", meaning that it should be difficult to determine the original input when only the output is known. If the password itself is too simple, however, then it may be possible to test all possible inputs and find a matching output (a brute-force attack) – perhaps aided by a dictionary or suitable look-up list, which for MD5 is readily available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18826",
"title": "MD5",
"section": "Section::::Security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "The security of the MD5 hash function is severely compromised. A collision attack exists that can find collisions within seconds on a computer with a 2.6 GHz Pentium 4 processor (complexity of 2). Further, there is also a chosen-prefix collision attack that can produce a collision for two inputs with specified prefixes within hours, using off-the-shelf computing hardware (complexity 2).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
47cqwa
|
Could a planetary system be close enough to a nebula so as to have "nebula-lit night sky?"
|
[
{
"answer": "The most dramatic nebula images you generally see are those of [molecular clouds](_URL_0_). These are star forming regions, which will form stars and planets. However, much of the gas is dissipated within 10s of millions of years by the radiation and winds from big bright short-lived stars, which is barely enough time to maybe have some planets form.\n\nBut, in principle, there's no reason why a planet couldn't coincidentally happen to be near a molecular cloud, or even another nebula like a [planetary nebula](_URL_1_).\n\nHowever, the view will not be all that impressive. Nebulae are very thin and dim, and are only really visible because we use telescopes with very large collecting areas and very long exposure times. To a human eye, a nebula is just a faint grey-white cloud. It might look cool from a very dark area on Earth with excellent visibility, but from a town it would just look like the stars are a little bit dimmer than they would be otherwise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's a simple rule of thumb.\n\nConsider an extended object, like a gas cloud. It takes up some amount of *surface area* in your sky. Now move twice as far away from it. The same patch of nebula now seems 1/4 as bright, but also has 1/4 the surface area in the sky it had before. Therefore, the *surface brightness in the sky* of extended objects is actually constant with distance. The reason they appear dimmer with more distance is simply because they take up less area in the sky (i.e. appear smaller).\n\nSo find a nebula in the sky, with your *unaided eyes*. Imagine that the whole sky has the same brightness as that small patch which is the nebula. Voila, that's your answer. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In theory, yes.\n\nIn practice, I wouldn't want to live there.\n\nWe can see some nebula with our naked eyes--Orion's ~~Belt~~ sword, the Pleides, and a few others in the \"equator\" of the sky come to mind. They appear as stars or as dusty smudges and don't provide an awful lot of light in human terms, but you can see them without assistance.\n\nTo be near enough one for it to make a glow in the sense of useful light on a human scale we would almost certainly be close enough that other stars in or near the nebula would provide so much light as to all but wash out the light from the nebula. It would probably end up looking something like driving at night in a snow storm, except on a planetary scale--the planet is driving at night in a snow storm :). No usable light on the ground (you couldn't navigate by the light I don't think) but the sky might have a sort of twilight glow everywhere the nebula is.\n\nChances are the star of the system would clear the system of dust through it's solar winds before the planet was habitable; so if you were on the planet while the dust cloud was still wrapping it? You'd almost certainly find the surface uninhabitable surrounded by deadly collision-bound objects and deadly dust clouds. [Edit: nebula are the birth places of stars and planets, lots of things coming into being that you wouldn't want to collide with and who's radiation might fry you).\n\nEdit: because I oopsied",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not satisfied with the other answers here. According to [Barbara Ryden](_URL_0_), author of *Interstellar and Galactic Medium*:\n\n > \"Within a parsec or so of the center, the density of stars is 10 million stars per cubic parsec. To put this number in perspective, the density of stars in the Sun's neighborhood is only 0.2 stars per cubic parsec. Near the center of our galaxy, the average distance between neighboring stars is only 1000 A.U. If the star Sirius were only 1000 A.U. from the Sun, it would be twelve times brighter than the full moon. If we lived close to the galactic center, the night sky would be full of stars with extremely high apparent brightness. We would be able to read by starlight at night.\" \n\nThere is plenty of dust near the galactic center, and with a star density 50 million times greater than our own (with a night sky containing a million stars as bright as Sirius) I'd imagine nebulae would light up pretty well! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some nebulae are extremely bright-- consider the object [30 Doradus](_URL_1_), a very large star-forming nebula also called the Tarantula Nebula. It's 160,000 light years away in the Large Magellanic Cloud. [A press release from NOAO](_URL_0_) claims that if it were as close to Earth as the Orion Nebula (1,344 LY away) it would cover an area of the sky 60 times that of the moon and it would be bright enough to cast shadows discernible to the human eye.\n\nHowever, the apparent intensity of a light source remains the same regardless of the angular size of the object--for example, if you take a two pictures of a bare light bulb at different distances, the exposure is the same, requiring the same combination of ISO, shutter speed and aperture, regardless of if you're taking the picture from across the room or right next to the light bulb. So even though the nebula might be bright enough to illuminate the surface of the Earth at night from that relatively close distance, no part of the nebula would actually appear brighter in and of itself than it does as we see it from Earth now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the guy really meant a globular cluster.. ? here ya go.. \n\n_URL_2_\n_URL_3_\n\n\nAnd here some dude did the math claiming a blue super giant at the average distance of stars inside a dense globular cluster would look as bright as the sun.. ouch..\n_URL_1_\n\nalso try Space Engine.. _URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10870901",
"title": "NGC 6818",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "When stars like the Sun are near end of life, they send their outer layers into space to create glowing clouds of gas, a planetary nebulae. This ejection of mass is uneven, and planetary nebulae can have complex shapes. NGC 6818 shows knotty filament-like structures and distinct layers of material, with a bright and enclosed central bubble surrounded by a larger, more diffuse cloud.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21664",
"title": "Nebula",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Still other nebulae form as planetary nebulae. This is the final stage of a low-mass star's life, like Earth's Sun. Stars with a mass up to 8–10 solar masses evolve into red giants and slowly lose their outer layers during pulsations in their atmospheres. When a star has lost enough material, its temperature increases and the ultraviolet radiation it emits can ionize the surrounding nebula that it has thrown off. Our Sun will produce a planetary nebula and its core will remain behind in the form of a white dwarf.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2178570",
"title": "Cosmic dust",
"section": "Section::::Some \"dusty\" clouds in the universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "The Solar System has its own interplanetary dust cloud, as do extrasolar systems. There are different types of nebulae with different physical causes and processes: diffuse nebula, infrared (IR) reflection nebula, supernova remnant, molecular cloud, HII regions, photodissociation regions, and dark nebula.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17052696",
"title": "History of Solar System formation and evolution hypotheses",
"section": "Section::::Solar evolution hypotheses.:Planetary nebulae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "The central stars of planetary nebulae are very hot. Their luminosity, though, is very low, implying that they must be very small. Only once a star has exhausted all its nuclear fuel can it collapse to such a small size, and so planetary nebulae came to be understood as a final stage of stellar evolution. Spectroscopic observations show that all planetary nebulae are expanding, and so the idea arose that planetary nebulae were caused by a star's outer layers being thrown into space at the end of its life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39674",
"title": "Planetary nebula",
"section": "Section::::Membership in clusters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Theoretical models predict that planetary nebulae can form from main-sequence stars of between one and eight solar masses, which puts the progenitor star's age at greater than 40 million years. Although there are a few hundred known open clusters within that age range, a variety of reasons limit the chances of finding a planetary nebula within. For one reason, the planetary nebula phase for more massive stars is on the order of thousands of years, which is a blink of the eye in cosmic terms. Also, partly because of their small total mass, open clusters have relatively poor gravitational cohesion and tend to disperse after a relatively short time, typically from 100 to 600 million years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21664",
"title": "Nebula",
"section": "Section::::Types of nebulae.:Planetary nebulae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "Planetary nebulae are the remnants of the final stages of stellar evolution for lower-mass stars. Evolved asymptotic giant branch stars expel their outer layers outwards due to strong stellar winds, thus forming gaseous shells, while leaving behind the star's core in the form of a white dwarf. The hot white dwarf illuminates the expelled gases producing emission nebulae with spectra similar to those of emission nebulae found in star formation regions. Technically they are H II regions, because most hydrogen are ionized, but are denser and more compact than nebulae found in star formation regions. Planetary nebulae were given their name by the first astronomical observers who were initially unable to distinguish them from planets, and who tended to confuse them with planets, which were of more interest to them. Our Sun is expected to spawn a planetary nebula about 12 billion years after its formation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8517390",
"title": "Nebulae in fiction",
"section": "Section::::Real nebulae in fiction.:Orion Nebula.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Diffuse emission nebula, or H II region, cataloged as M42, and situated south of Orion's Belt in the constellation of Orion. It is one of the brightest nebulae, and is visible to the naked eye in the night sky. Located about 1300 light-years away, it is the closest region of massive star formation to the Earth. The Orion Nebula is one of the most scrutinized and photographed objects in the night sky, and is among the most intensely studied celestial features.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
lw7l5
|
Curious question about female ovulation
|
[
{
"answer": "EDIT: Mostly outside my area of expertise, don't trust my tag too much.\n\nThe only reason a biology teacher should feel awkward being asked this question is if they don't know the answer and aren't willing to help you find someone or a source that does.\n\nSo the menstrual cycle is generated by a complex interaction between the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, uterus, and ovaries. The ineraction involves many positive and negative feedbacks and involves hormonal changes through the whole body. [Wikipedia covers these interactions well.](_URL_1_) So the answer to the first question is no, there are not two cycles running independently in the body, both ovaries play a role. \n\nIt is completely random which ovary drops an egg. [Source](_URL_0_) Interestingly (TIL) that if both ovaries release at once and both eggs are fertilized, you get fraternal twins. (I presume the release of egg from one ovary usually inhibits the other but I don't know for sure)\n\nAll women have different cycle lengths, the so called- 30 day cycle is not all that common. Certain dietary and behavioral changes can alter a woman's cycle. Some women have very few cycles. It used to be believed that women living together would 'cycle together' it turns out this is likely just a statistical error.\n\nLosing an ovary does not change your cycle as each ovary will kick out an egg until inhibited by the other, no inhibition from the other side just means one side is always the ovulating side. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "EDIT: Mostly outside my area of expertise, don't trust my tag too much.\n\nThe only reason a biology teacher should feel awkward being asked this question is if they don't know the answer and aren't willing to help you find someone or a source that does.\n\nSo the menstrual cycle is generated by a complex interaction between the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, uterus, and ovaries. The ineraction involves many positive and negative feedbacks and involves hormonal changes through the whole body. [Wikipedia covers these interactions well.](_URL_1_) So the answer to the first question is no, there are not two cycles running independently in the body, both ovaries play a role. \n\nIt is completely random which ovary drops an egg. [Source](_URL_0_) Interestingly (TIL) that if both ovaries release at once and both eggs are fertilized, you get fraternal twins. (I presume the release of egg from one ovary usually inhibits the other but I don't know for sure)\n\nAll women have different cycle lengths, the so called- 30 day cycle is not all that common. Certain dietary and behavioral changes can alter a woman's cycle. Some women have very few cycles. It used to be believed that women living together would 'cycle together' it turns out this is likely just a statistical error.\n\nLosing an ovary does not change your cycle as each ovary will kick out an egg until inhibited by the other, no inhibition from the other side just means one side is always the ovulating side. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "161856",
"title": "Ovulation",
"section": "Section::::Clinical presentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "The start of ovulation can be detected by signs. Because the signs are not readily discernible by people other than the female, humans are said to have a concealed ovulation. In many animal species there are distinctive signals indicating the period when the female is fertile. Several explanations have been proposed to explain concealed ovulation in humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3315213",
"title": "Sex differences in human physiology",
"section": "Section::::Sexual organs and reproductive systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "Female ejaculation has been observed for 2,000 years. It refers to the release of fluid experienced by some females during orgasm. The components of the ejaculate are comparable to that of the male ejaculate. The release of this fluid is a product of the Skene's gland (female prostate), located within the walls of the urethra. The female prostate is much smaller than the male prostate, but seems to behave similarly, although the female ejaculate does not contain sperm. The female prostate is visible through MRI and ultrasound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43806093",
"title": "Induced ovulation (animals)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "Spontaneous ovulation is the ovulatory process in which the maturing ovarian follicles secrete ovarian steroids to generate pulsatile GnRH (the neuropeptide which controls all vertebrate reproductive function) release into the median eminence (the area which connects the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary gland) to ultimately cause a pre-ovulatory LH surge. Spontaneously ovulating species go through menstrual cycles and are fertile at certain times based on what part of the cycle they are in. Species in which the females are spontaneous ovulators include rats, mice, guinea pigs, sheep, monkeys, and humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43806093",
"title": "Induced ovulation (animals)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Ovulation occurs at the ovary surface and is described as the process in which an oocyte (female germ cell) is released from the follicle. Ovulation is a non-deleterious 'inflammatory response' which is initiated by a luteinizing hormone (LH) surge. The mechanism of ovulation varies between species. In humans the ovulation process occurs around day 14 of the menstrual cycle, this can also be referred to as 'cyclical spontaneous ovulation'. However the monthly menstruation process is typically linked to humans and primates, all other animal species ovulate by various other mechanisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "161856",
"title": "Ovulation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Ovulation is the release of eggs from the ovaries. In humans, this event occurs when the ovarian follicles rupture and release the secondary oocyte ovarian cells. After ovulation, during the luteal phase, the egg will be available to be fertilized by sperm. In addition, the uterine lining (endometrium) is thickened to be able to receive a fertilized egg. If no conception occurs, the uterine lining as well as blood will be shed during menstruation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43806093",
"title": "Induced ovulation (animals)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Induced ovulation is when a female animal ovulates due to an externally-derived stimulus during, or just prior, to mating, rather than ovulating cyclically or spontaneously. Stimuli causing induced ovulation include the physical act of coitus or mechanical stimulation simulating this, sperm and pheromones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22546",
"title": "Orgasm",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical biological and evolutionary functions of female orgasm.:Fertility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Desmond Morris proposed that orgasm might facilitate conception by exhausting the female and keeping her horizontal, thus preventing the sperm from leaking out. This possibility, sometimes called the \"Poleaxe Hypothesis\" or the \"Knockout Hypothesis\", is now considered highly doubtful. A 1994 Learning Channel documentary on sex had fiber optic cameras inside the vagina of a woman while she had sexual intercourse. During her orgasm, her pelvic muscles contracted and her cervix repeatedly dipped into a pool of semen in the vaginal fornix, as if to ensure that sperm would proceed by the external orifice of the uterus, making conception more likely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
400506
|
Why weren't air rifles more widely used in the American Civil War?
|
[
{
"answer": "Can you elaborate?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18467712",
"title": "Rifles in the American Civil War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "During the American Civil War, an assortment of small arms found their way onto the battlefield. Though the muzzle-loading percussion cap rifle was the most numerous weapon, being standard-issue forth the Union and Confederate armies, many other firearms, ranging from the single shot breech-loading Sharps and Burnside rifles to the Spencer and the Henry rifles, two of the world's first repeating rifles, were issued by the hundreds of thousands, mostly by the Union. The civil war brought many advancements in gun technology, most notably the wide spread use of rifled barrels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14249030",
"title": "Siege artillery in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::The Federal siege train.:Rifled guns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "The Civil War was the first major war to see the use of rifled artillery. Rifling gave the guns greater velocity, range, accuracy, and penetrating power, making smoothbore siege guns obsolete. The ranges of these guns is somewhat problematic. The 6.4 inch (100-pounder) Parrott rifle had a maximum range of . However, the absence of suitable sights . and a good system of directing fire on targets that could not be seen from the gun, limited the effective range of the rifled guns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1868350",
"title": "Rifled musket",
"section": "Section::::Use in battle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "Rifled muskets were heavily used in the American Civil War. The American-made Springfield Model 1861 was the most widely used weapon in the war, followed by the British Pattern 1853 Enfield. The Lorenz rifle was the third most used rifle during the Civil War\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18467712",
"title": "Rifles in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Other rifles used.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Other rifles used during the Civil War included the British P-1841-Bored Brunswick Rifle (not common), Burnside carbine (used only by cavalry), Henry rifle (very limited issue; many brought privately by individuals), and the Spencer rifle (used almost exclusively by cavalry).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18783199",
"title": "North-South Skirmish Association",
"section": "Section::::Competition Arms.:Musket.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The standard infantry arm of the American Civil War was the rifle-Musket. These arms were muzzle-loading rifles firing the Minie ball. Major types of musket used by combatants during the Civil War were the Model 1861 and 1863 Springfield, as well as the British-made Pattern 1853 and 1858 Enfield. Although the long 'three-band' muskets (so called because they had three bands fastening the barrel to the stock) were the most widely issued, many N-SSA competitors favor the shorter 'two-band' muskets due to their superior balance and heavier barrels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50502333",
"title": "Armies in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Tactics.:Tactical doctrine in 1861.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "American troops took the tactical offensive in most Mexican War battles with great success, and they suffered fairly light losses. Unfortunately, similar tactics proved to be obsolete in the Civil War in part because of the innovation of the rifle musket. This new weapon greatly increased the infantry's range and accuracy and loaded as fast as a musket. By the beginning of the Civil War, rifle muskets were available in moderate numbers. It was the weapon of choice in both the Union and Confederate armies during the war; by 1864, the vast majority of infantry troops on both sides had rifle muskets of good quality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18467712",
"title": "Rifles in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "When the American Civil War broke out in April 1861, neither the North (about 360,000 small arms) nor the South (about 240,000) had enough weapons to fight a major war. Stockpiles of rifles and handguns carried by individual soldiers were limited. As the war escalated those arms stockpiles were quickly diminished. Soldiers were often forced to use older smoothbore and flintlock muskets, which had been considered to be obsolete, simply because the newer rifles were not available in sufficient quantities. Many soldiers were forced to use their own personal hunting rifles, which were typically Kentucky or Pennsylvania type rifles. These rifles, while more accurate than smoothbore muskets, had been designed for hunting, and fired less deadly smaller caliber ammunition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1y1ghe
|
When an electrical flow is traveling down a metal wire, what is going on at the atomic level?
|
[
{
"answer": "Electrical current is the \"pushing\" of electrons on each other. You can think of it as electrons being pulled from one atom, jumping to the next, and being replaced by those in line behind them to create a cycle. This is why electrical current only flows in a *circuit*, or a complete loop for the electrons to circulate in. They can't move into a \"dead end\", say a piece of wire sticking out of one terminal in a battery, because the electrons in the wire can't move. \n\nOne distinction that is important is the actual velocity of the electrons vs. the propagation of the current. Electrical current propagates at approximately 2.99 x 10^8 m/s, which is also the speed of light. (Light is a wave on the EM spectrum, and all electromagnetic waves propagate at the same speed.) However, electrons themselves move extremely slowly down the conductor, at a rate referred to as the *Drift Speed*. The electrons are actually moving very fast, but they are bouncing around and moving in directions other than the true flow of the current. \n\nAnother thing you will notice if you explore this topic further is the difference between true current flow and the standard in electrical engineering. When Benjamin Franklin was investigating electricity, he decided to model current flow as the flow of positive charge through conductors. Positive charges repel, so current was conventionally assumed to flow out of the positive terminal of a battery, through the circuit, and into the negative terminal. The Negativity/Positivity of charge is entirely arbitrary, but in modern physics we have assigned a charge of -1 to electrons, +1 to protons, and zero to neutrons. Since electric current flow is the movement of *electrons*, technically current \"flows\" negative to positive. This will never come up when you are constructing everyday circuits or solving problems, but it can be a stumbling block for beginners so make sure you remember that current is actually the flow of electrons from negative to positive, but is conventionally the flow of positive charge from positive to negative. \n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I will try to answer from my high school knowledge so please feel free to correct or extend. One of the main property of conductors such as metals is that they have free electrons. It is essentially sea of electrons on the surface of metal.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nWhen the two ends of the conductor have a difference in potential (eg by adding battery) the free electrons move from higher potential to lower potential (negative end of battery to positive end). Even though the electric pulse moves at an extremely high speed the electrons themselves move at very slow speed known as **drift velocity**. When there is no electric field the free electrons are in random motion called Brownian motion, the net result of brownian motion is that the electrons do not move in a certain direction collectively. But when the electric field is applied (using battery), the electrons move in a net direction with drift velocity. \n\n_URL_1_\n\nAs far as I know nothing happens at the nuclear level.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you imagine the metal wire, think of the bonds between the atoms as forming a crystalline structure. This is important because those pathways between the bonds are what allow the valence (outside, loose) electrons to move freely in the metal. \n\nWhen you attach a source of electric potential to the wire (such as a battery or plugging the circuit into the wall), you are inducing an electric field to flow through the wire. It is the electric field, more than the movement of electrons, that we consider \"electricity\". As pointed out by /u/Sushies and /u/badtemperedpeanut, the electrons in the wire are moving at a much slower rate than the electric field. If we relied on the movement of electrons to power our electronic devices, your lights in your room would turn on a long time after you flipped the switch. We can thank the electric field moving at close to the speed of light for the \"instantaneousness\" of electronics. \n\nThe electric field begins to flow through the wire, which is an invisible area of effect that causes an electric force to act on all charges in the area the field inhabits. This force causes the electrons to begin to move in a particular direction (what the others referred to as \"Drift Velocity\"). The electrons are able to flow through the crystalline lattice of the metal in the wire. The weak forces holding the valence electrons in place allow the metal atoms to \"share\" electrons in this free-floating sea; as one electron moves down the line it is replaced by the electrons from the atom next to it. Again, as pointed out before, this is why current only flows in a complete circuit, because otherwise this balance would be upset. \n\nThe crystalline structure of the atoms in the wire is not perfect, and this is one of the factors causing \"resistance\" in the wire. As the electrons flow through the empty gaps, they will eventually become jostled and forced through uneven or tight spaces, causing energy to be lost in the form of heat. You could do worse than imagining the resistance in a wire as akin to friction, although the two are not the same it is a decent analogy. You can think of cars on a highway hitting a sudden turn or merging into fewer lanes of traffic - the resulting traffic (of electrons) is what causes heat build up in the wire. A common fact for materials is that as the temperature goes up, so does the resistance. This is because as temperature increases, the atoms in that crystalline structure begin to vibrate more and knock into more electrons, causing more heat, which causes more resistance, which eventually causes your graphics card to melt while you are playing Skyrim on Ultra-High settings. \n\nWhat I find really interesting is that, according to Maxwell's equations, a current produces a magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of the wire. This means that as the electric field flows down the wire, a magnetic field springs up around the wire and circles it. If you point your right thumb in the direction of the electric current, your fingers curling towards your palm will show you the direction of the magnetic field being produced (this is known as the \"right hand rule\"). The right hand rule is also how most screws work, so if you want to unscrew something, point your right thumb out from the screw and turn the screwdriver in the direction your fingers curl. Try it!\n\nHere is a really interesting application of Maxwell's equations: physicists are able to super cool certain metals to create a \"superconductor\" which means that there is no resistance in the wire (remember resistance drops as temperature goes down). ~~When certain materials are cooled enough, the crystalline shape of the atoms we mentioned before becomes perfect, allowing the electrons to flow down a superhighway of available space with nothing holding them back.~~ Think about the effect as electricity being \"frictionless\" to get the idea. When you make the wire into a circle and induce a current, the electrons flow around the wire in an endless loop, never stopping due to the lack of resistance in the wire. The induced magnetic field looping around the wire is also maintained indefinitely. If you take that loop of wire and place it above a magnet, it will hover in the air suspended by the magnetic field! Watch some Youtube videos of this to have your mind thoroughly blown.\n\nI really hope this helps you conceptualize what is happening inside of a wire when a current runs through it. Electricity is one of the most difficult aspects of physics to fully understand, and it is best conceptualized through the disciplined use of analogies. My professor told me to think of the wire as a riverbed, the water of the river as the electrons and electric field, and the electric potential (voltage) as the slope of the land the river is running across. Resistance is like rocks in the riverbed causing turbulence. Using these analogies can take these cerebral and abstract concepts and make them more concrete and easier to understand. \n\nBest of luck with your adventures in understanding the world around you. Cheers!",
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"answer": "Here you go: [2 months ago on reddit - **What does current look like on a quantum level?**](_URL_0_)\n\n\nFizixPhun 304 points 2 months ago*\n\nThe heart of your question lies in solid state physics. This is a subset of quantum mechanics aimed at understanding why solids behave the way they do. On a quantum level, current is still just the amount of charge that moves through some space in a given time. The only difference is that the charge is now packaged up into discrete units (electrons, protons and other charged fundamental particles).\n\nTo understand how current flows in a material you first have to understand electrons behave in a material. The key feature of solid state physics is that many materials are crystals. This means that the atoms are spaced periodically. As you mention, band structures are the way that we summarize the effect of this periodic potential. Basically, a band structure just relates an electrons momentum (p=mv=hbar k) to its energy. The momentum can be positive or negative, the sign only denotes direction. In free space this is very boring, Energy=(m v2 )/2 = p2 /2m=(hbar k)2 /2m. When you throw in a periodic potential, this becomes modified and results in bands. Actually calculating band structures is quite difficult. The key idea is that there are ranges of energy where the electron can live and ranges of energy where the electron cannot live.\n\nThe electrons in a crystal live in the band structure. Each atom of the crystal brings a certain number of electrons with it. They fill the states in the bands starting from the lowest energy. Each of these states has a specific momentum associated with it. When a band is filled, the next electron has to be placed in a state in the next highest band. Applying a voltage to a material is the same as applying an electric field to the material (E=V/l where l is the length of the material). In the semiclassical picture, electrons with charge -e, feel a force F=-eE in the applied electric field. This force accelerates the electrons from lower voltage to higher voltage (they are negatively charged so lower voltage is actually higher energy for them as Energy=V*q where q is the charge, including the sign). These moving electrons constitute your current. A caveat to this is that electrons really live in quantum states and no two electrons can live in the same state(Pauli exclusion principle as electrons are Fermions). The electric field really moves electrons from states with one momentum to states with a momentum that is in the direction of the electric field. If the band is full, all the states are full and the electric field cannot change the electron’s state so no current flows. This is an insulator. When a band is partway filled, there are states that the electric field can move the electrons to. This allows a current to flow.\n\nTransistors are a little more complicated. The main thing you have to understand is p doping and n doping semiconductors. Imagine you have a crystal of silicon. If you take out a silicon atom and put a phosphorus atom in its place, you suddenly have an extra electron. A single phosphorus atom won’t change your band structure as you still have 1023 silicon atoms so it’s like you just added an extra electron to your system. Semiconductors have a filled band with another band with only slightly more energy (.5ish eV). This extra electron from the phosphorus can’t live in our filled band, called the valence band, because there are no more states. It must live in the next band, the conduction band. If you apply an electric field, this electron in the conduction band can flow because pretty much all the states in its band are empty. This is called n doping because we added an extra negative charge, the extra electron. If instead of a phosphorus atom we add an aluminum atom, we have one less electron. If the aluminum steals an electron from a neighbor, this neighbor now is missing an electron. Instead, of thinking of the aluminum as stealing an electron, you can think of the aluminum as giving the neighboring atom an empty state. This empty state is called a hole in solid state physics. A hole is basically a missing electron and it behaves like a particle with charge +e. If you apply an electric field to it, it can move around by trading places with an electron. Again, you get a current. We call this p doping a material as it is now missing an electron or you can think of it as having positively charged particles, holes. Transistors are semiconductors with a p doped region surrounded on both sides by an n doped region or vice versa. Honestly, I study physics and not material science or electrical engineering so I’m not super familiar with the details of how a transistor works. I hope this helps. Sorry it’s so long winded.\n\nedit:I explain how to find band structures in two limits down in the comments.\n\nedit 2:Paragraphs",
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"answer": "Note that electric currents in metals aren't from the electrons jumping between atoms. This is because those electrons are jumping between atoms all the time, even before the metal was made into wires and connected in a circuit.\n\nDuring zero current, the movable electrons are constantly \"orbiting\" randomly around all the atoms in the metal. But during an electric current, the whole population of free electrons also is forced to move slowly along. Physicists call the slow motion of electric current by the name \"drift velocity.\"\n\nAlso, there are three separate flows going on: the rapid random motion of individual electrons, the slow flow of the charge-population in one direction, and the fast propagation of waves (waves of charge-starting, waves of charge-stopping.)\n\nThe fast random motion is associated with the high temperature of the metal, as well as with electron \"orbiting\" or quantum effects.\n\nThe slow flow is the electric current, measured in amperes.\n\nThe fast waves are the electric energy, measured in watts.\n\nIt might help to also think about electric currents in long glass pipes full of salt water. In that case there are no free electrons involved. The entire electric current is a group of positive-charged sodium atoms moving in one direction, and another group of negatively-charged chlorine atoms moving opposite. (Heh, which then is the true direction of the current?!!) We can **see** this electric current if we add a patch of blue copper chloride in one spot in the tube. Very slowly the blue patch will move along the tube as the positive and blue-colored copper ions are forced to flow as an electric current. These water-hoses can be used in place of wires in most any circuit configuration.\n\nAnalogies: metals are like a solid sponge of positive electricity, soaked with a fluid of negative electricity. No turbulence or bubbles allowed. It only takes a small force to push the negative liquid into motion. But it takes a very enormous force to pull the negatives and positives away from each other. So, our everyday electric circuitry is composed of rings and loops: like donut-shaped tanks where the \"liquid\" can move like a circular drive-belt, while the positive solid remains still. That way the positive and negative \"stuff\" remains close together. That's the basic nature of \"electric circuits.\"\n\n",
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"answer": "Let's imagine a perfectly cold piece of metal. There are a bunch of ways electrons could fit into this metal ('states') so that the electron has a well-defined energy (not all states do). Some of these states are local to specific atoms, close to the nucleus. Other states are spread out across the whole chunk of metal.\n\nNow, rank these ways by energy. Our perfectly cold piece of metal has one electron in each of the states with the lowest energy, filling up until it runs out of electrons (normally, until the charge is balanced between the nuclei and the electrons). At the top end of this, you find states that are empty and states that are full right next to each other. This boundary is called the 'Fermi surface'.\n\nNow, let's add a bit of heat. Around the Fermi surface, you begin to get mixing - some states that are below it end up not having an electron, and some above it end up having an electron. The hotter it is, the wider the range over which this occurs. But, long before the electrons at the bottom feel anything, the metal would have melted or boiled. The occupied electron states are collectively called the 'Fermi Sea', and all the action is at the surface.\n\nOkay, back to being cold just to keep things simple. Now let's add an electrical field. This changes things up so the order of states is different. It takes some states and makes them higher energy and others lower. As it turns out, this ordering is one that puts the electrons in motion. You take away electrons from some states that are moving one way, and put them into states that are moving the other way. The Fermi surface becomes slanted towards moving that one way. Again, this effect can't reach deep into the Fermi Sea.\n\nIn a normal conductor, you have both of these going on at the same time.\n\nWhere does resistance come from? The electrical field is pushing the slant ever steeper, and the metal nuclei are pulling it back towards flat. Each time the electrical field pushes an electron into a faster state, that gives the electron energy. Each time the nuclei bump an electron down into a slower state, that electron gives the energy to the nuclei. That heats the metal lattice. (Note, there is not only heat in the nuclei - the electrons also have a temperature - but since the nuclei are much much heavier, that's where most of the heat capacity is)",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "294989",
"title": "Spark gap",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Visual entertainment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "When high voltage is applied to the gap, a spark forms across the bottom of the wires where they are nearest each other, rapidly changing to an electric arc. Air breaks down at about 30 kV/cm, depending on humidity, temperature, etc. Apart from the anode and cathode voltage drops, the arc behaves almost as a short circuit, drawing as much current as the electrical power supply can deliver, and the heavy load dramatically reduces the voltage across the gap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22274918",
"title": "Optical interconnect",
"section": "Section::::Problems of the current interconnect in the package.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Conventional physical metal wires possess both resistance and capacitance, limiting the rise time of signals. Bits of information will overlap with each other when the frequency of signal is increased to a certain level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337065",
"title": "Exploding-bridgewire detonator",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "During initiation, the wire heats with the passing current until melting point is reached. The heating rate is high enough that the liquid metal has no time to flow away, and heats further until it vaporizes. During this phase the electrical resistance of the bridgewire assembly rises. Then an electric arc forms in the metal vapor, leading to drop of electrical resistance and sharp growth of the current, quick further heating of the ionized metal vapor, and formation of a shock wave. To achieve the melting and subsequent vaporizing of the wire in time sufficiently short to create a shock wave, a current rise rate of at least 100 amperes per microsecond is required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "200919",
"title": "Drift velocity",
"section": "Section::::Numerical example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Therefore, in this wire the electrons are flowing at the rate of . At 60 Hz alternating current, this means that within half a cycle the electrons drift less than 0.2 μm. In other words, electrons flowing across the contact point in a switch will never actually leave the switch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "563847",
"title": "Electromigration",
"section": "Section::::Fundamentals.:Forces on ions in an electrical field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "Electromigration occurs when some of the momentum of a moving electron is transferred to a nearby activated ion. This causes the ion to move from its original position. Over time this force knocks a significant number of atoms far from their original positions. A break or gap can develop in the conducting material, preventing the flow of electricity. In narrow interconnect conductors, such as those linking transistors and other components in integrated circuits, this is known as a \"void\" or \"internal\" \"failure\" (open circuit). Electromigration can also cause the atoms of a conductor to pile up and drift toward other nearby conductors, creating an unintended electrical connection known as a hillock failure or whisker failure (short circuit). Both of these situations can lead to a malfunction of the circuit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18695732",
"title": "Molecular scale electronics",
"section": "Section::::Problems.:Artifacts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Applying a voltage drop on the order of volts across a nanometer sized junction results in a very strong electrical field. The field can cause metal atoms to migrate and eventually close the gap by a thin filament, which can be broken again when carrying a current. The two levels of conductance imitate molecular switching between a conductive and an isolating state of a molecule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "940296",
"title": "Ground loop (electricity)",
"section": "Section::::Common ground loops.:Ground currents on signal cables.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "If a current \"I\" from a separate source is flowing through the ground conductor, the resistance \"R\" of the conductor will create a voltage drop along the cable ground of \"IR\", so the destination end of the ground conductor will be at a different potential than the source end \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
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] | null |
26l4ae
|
Was "boiling oil" ever regularly used in siege warfare, or is this a myth, or something that only happened a few times?
|
[
{
"answer": "From the point of view of European medieval siege warfare, there are instances of a whole host of things being thrown by defenders over walls, through machicolations and down murder holes, or via siege engines by attackers. These include everything from rocks and pitch, to waste and effluent, to human corpses and animal parts. Considering that chroniclers were not very interested in recording all details of all sieges, we are left with a patchwork of insights. The other sources are manuscript images, some bas relief sculpture and other artworks, themselves a patchwork. So, one couldn't simply say \"it's a myth\" or \"it's true\".\n\nWhat the chronicles and artworks do give us a sense of is the amount of tactical preparedness *and improvisation* that went on in siege warfare. The best for this, from early to late medieval, are the following, all making tremendous use of primary sources that you can refer back to:\n\n* Bradbury, Jim. *The Medieval Siege* (Boydell & Brewer, 1992)\n\n* Purton, Peter Fraser. *A History of the Early Medieval Siege, C. 450-1220* (Boydell & Brewer, 2009)\n\n* Purton, Peter Fraser. *A History of the Late Medieval Siege, 1200-1500* (Boydell & Brewer, 2010)\n\nNeither of these authors give credence to 'vats of oil' poured over the walls, generally because of \n\n1. expense/availability, \n\n2. logistical difficulty of getting and handling large quantities of heated oil on the parapets, and, \n\n3. tactical ineffectiveness except *perhaps* against mining cats and mantelets. \n\nHowever a small pot of hot oil would be very, very effective through a murder hole or machicolation, which Bradbury in particular found some evidence of.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Piggybacking on this, I recall reading about the Phoenicians attacking Greeks with pots of heated sand at the Siege of Tyre because it was hell on the eyes and got in under armor. \n\nAnyone able to tell me more on that?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8875134",
"title": "Meng Huo You",
"section": "Section::::Historical records of petroleum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Due to the chemical characteristics of petroleum that it continues to burn in water, it was widely used by feudal militaries. Some examples include the defense of the city of Jiuquan in Gansu Province in the year 578 against the invading Göktürk army, in which the defenders used petroleum to ignite and destroy the siege engines brought in by the invaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1060546",
"title": "Early thermal weapons",
"section": "Section::::Types of weapons.:Hot oil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Another use of oil can be seen in the naval battle of La Rochelle during the Hundred Years' War; the Castilians sprayed oil on the decks of English ships then ignited it by shooting flaming arrows down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32544339",
"title": "Hydraulic fracturing",
"section": "Section::::History.:Precursors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "Fracturing as a method to stimulate shallow, hard rock oil wells dates back to the 1860s. Dynamite or nitroglycerin detonations were used to increase oil and natural gas production from petroleum bearing formations. On 25 April 1865, US Civil War veteran Col. Edward A. L. Roberts received a patent for an \"exploding torpedo\". It was employed in Pennsylvania, New York, Kentucky, and West Virginia using liquid and also, later, solidified nitroglycerin. Later still the same method was applied to water and gas wells. Stimulation of wells with acid, instead of explosive fluids, was introduced in the 1930s. Due to acid etching, fractures would not close completely resulting in further productivity increase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1060546",
"title": "Early thermal weapons",
"section": "Section::::Types of weapons.:Hot oil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "Pouring-oil was used in historic battles, and Josephus described its use at Jotapata in AD 67, saying \"the oil did easily run down the whole body from head to foot, under their entire armour, and fed upon their flesh like flame itself.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50073",
"title": "Chemical warfare",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early modern era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "In the 17th century during sieges, armies attempted to start fires by launching incendiary shells filled with sulfur, tallow, rosin, turpentine, saltpeter, and/or antimony. Even when fires were not started, the resulting smoke and fumes provided a considerable distraction. Although their primary function was never abandoned, a variety of fills for shells were developed to maximize the effects of the smoke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8875134",
"title": "Meng Huo You",
"section": "Section::::Practice and proliferation of Meng Huo You.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "In ancient China, the use of petroleum in warfare was the most effective during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period and the following four major dynasties and powers from Song through to Yuan, including the Jin Dynasty and Liao Dynasty. During this time a small dynasty in Vietnam paid tribute to the Chinese emperor with petroleum. Before this time, fire attacks were limited to burning wood or animal fat; using petroleum greatly increased the potency of fire attacks, and the fact that trying to douse the burning petroleum with water will only spread the fire more rapidly made burning oil an ideal weapon for destroying cities filled with wooden structures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2837917",
"title": "Chip pan",
"section": "Section::::Fire hazard.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "The dangers of oil or fat fires (generally flammable substances less dense than water) are well known in industrial processes. Attempts to extinguish oil fires with water result in a boilover: an extremely hazardous condition whereby the flaming oil is violently expelled from the container. These fires result from either heating the oil to its autoignition point or by oil splattering onto the heat source.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
gezjw
|
Would the Superconducting Super Collider, that was cancelled have been a huge science gain over the LHC?
|
[
{
"answer": "It would have had about three times the energy: 40 TeV total vs 14. That means that it would have gotten the same results faster (look at how fast the LHC found what the Tevatron spent years looking for) and would have had a better chance at finding new physics like supersymmetry.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Likely yes. The SSC would have been capable of a much more thorough test of the existence of the Higgs boson (among other things) than the LHC.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "As far i understand, two variables are most inportant, CM energy, and luminosity. The latter determines how many cases of stuff you see, how good your statistical errors are. The energies are 14Tev(7 currently tho) vs 40Tev, question is: how do the luminosities compare? (Edit: someone told me that the LHC was the largest they could make it, 'because it was on stable layers', so much for that...)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "36772327",
"title": "Search for the Higgs boson",
"section": "Section::::Experimental search and discovery of unknown boson.:Superconducting Super Collider.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Planning for a new powerful collider to explore new physics at the 1 TeV scale had already started in 1983. The Superconducting Super Collider was to accelerate protons in an underground circular tunnel just outside Dallas, Texas to energies of each. One of the primary goals of this megaproject was finding the Higgs boson.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41142048",
"title": "James A. Krumhansl",
"section": "Section::::Congressional testimony.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "In 1987, while serving as the American Physical Society's President-elect, Krumhansl testified before the Science Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives, arguing against building the Superconducting Super Collider. In his view, the collider would be so expensive that it would drain funds from other worthy research. As his Cornell colleague James P. Sethna put it, Krumhansl \"valued the science of the supercollider highly, but he did not value it a thousand times more than other fields of science.\" Congress canceled the collider project in 1993 after completing one-fifth of it at a cost of $2 billion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5521184",
"title": "National Academy of Engineering",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "In 1989, the National Academy of Engineering in conjunction with the National Academy of Science advised the Department of Energy on a site location for the then proposed Superconducting Super Collider (SSC) from a number of States proposals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5871160",
"title": "Electron-cloud effect",
"section": "Section::::Proposed remedies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 758,
"text": "The Large Hadron Collider is very prone to multipacting due to the tight spacing (25 ns) of its proton bunches. During Run 1 (2010–2013) science operation mainly used beams with 50 ns spacing, while 25 ns beams were only employed for short tests in 2011 and 2012. In addition to using a ribbed beam screen designed to minimize secondary electron emission, the effect can also be reduced by in-situ electron bombardment. This is done in the LHC by circulating a special non-science \"scrubbing\" beam that is specifically designed to generate as many electrons as possible within the constraints of heat dissipation and beam stability. This technique was tested during Run 1, and will be used to allow operation at 25 ns bunch spacing during Run 2 (2015–2018).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "109503",
"title": "Hilliard, Florida",
"section": "Section::::Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Because of specific soil conditions and a great deal of open rural land in the area, Hilliard was at one time considered by the Department of Energy as a possible site for the Superconducting Super Collider; however, that never materialized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "599215",
"title": "Synchrotron",
"section": "Section::::In large-scale facilities.:As part of colliders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "Until August 2008, the highest energy collider in the world was the Tevatron, at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory, in the United States. It accelerated protons and antiprotons to slightly less than 1 TeV of kinetic energy and collided them together. The Large Hadron Collider (LHC), which has been built at the European Laboratory for High Energy Physics (CERN), has roughly seven times this energy (so proton-proton collisions occur at roughly 14 TeV). It is housed in the 27 km tunnel which formerly housed the Large Electron Positron (LEP) collider, so it will maintain the claim as the largest scientific device ever built. The LHC will also accelerate heavy ions (such as lead) up to an energy of 1.15 PeV.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "205859",
"title": "Steven Weinberg",
"section": "Section::::Selected publications.:Popular articles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Crisis of Big Science, May 10, 2012, \"New York Review of Books\". Weinberg places the cancellation of the Superconducting Super Collider in the context of a bigger national and global socio-economic crisis, including a general crisis in funding for science research and for the provision of adequate education, healthcare, transportation and communication infrastructure, and criminal justice and law enforcement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d2napm
|
why do many high-education-required jobs pay less than low-education-required counterparts?
|
[
{
"answer": "It really depends on the details, you'd need to be more specific. A trade skill can be quite valuable if it's in demand and doesn't require a degree, so probably plumbers with no degree make more money on average than people with many kinds of humanities degrees. But on average across the whole population, people with degrees make more money than people without degrees.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's down to value of your skills and labour supply. \n\nFor example a single (high skill) coder can provide millions in value for Google, but Google must pay well because good coders are in short supply and many other companies will also offer them high salaries. \n\nThere are lots of jobs with low value and a huge supply. Almost anyone *could* work at Mcdonalds, so the labor supply is massive and Mcdonalds doesn't have pay highly. Education does not guarantee valuable skills and even when you are valuable and highly-educated you might find that there are many like you. There are millions of good engineers in China so a company might not have to pay as much even though their engineers provide immense value.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61009214",
"title": "Issues in higher education in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Financial value of degrees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "People with higher education have always tended to have higher salaries and less unemployment than people with less education. However, the type of degree has a large impact on future earnings. Average annual earnings range from $27,000 for high school dropouts to $80,000 for those with a graduate degree. Undergraduate earnings range from $46,000 in education to $85,000 in architecture and engineering. Graduate earnings for those same majors are $61,000 and $107,000 respectively. It must be kept in mind, however, that these figures are only averages. There is a significant amount of overlap in the earning power of different levels of education, and the different fields of study.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "243413",
"title": "Social class in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Markers.:Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Also, scholarships offered by universities and government do exist, and low-interest loans are available. Still, the average cost of education, by all accounts, is increasing. The attainment of post-secondary and graduate degrees is the perhaps most important feature of a middle and upper middle class person with the university being regarded as the most essential institution and gatekeeper of the professional middle class. Educational attainment is also directly linked to income.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1170988",
"title": "Student financial aid (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Financial aid application process.:Non-need-based aid versus need-based aid.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "With the yearly rising cost of tuition, room and board, and fees among schools across the nation, low-income students are finding it harder to pay for their education. In an attempt to help students meet the high, costly demands of college, schools have increased merit-based grants, for students with outstanding academic position, involvement in organizations, or high athletic talent. The issue is that these reasons for awarding scholarships take away from low-income students who often do not meet these merit standards. In other words, funds for merit-based scholarships are taking away from the already small amount of federal aid available to low-income students who simply cannot pay for college without some kind of financial aid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61029894",
"title": "Cost and financing issues facing higher education in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Cost and finances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "In addition to tuition, living expenses, books, supplies and fees, students face a less-acknowledged opportunity cost in years of missed potential income. A high school educated person could expect to earn about $84,000 for four years of work; in choosing to attend and pay for college, an individual forgoes those earnings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "445913",
"title": "Higher Education Act 2004",
"section": "Section::::Arguments in favour of the proposals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Further to this argument, it is argued that since studies show that most graduates earn more during their career than non-graduates, it is logical that they should be the ones to pay for this opportunity, not the public at large. Critics, however, have suggested that if this is the case, they will pay more income tax anyway, and that this would be a fairer source of the money. Some have also pointed out that the country as a whole benefits from an increased level of expertise, and therefore it is in everyone's interests to pay for higher education.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61029894",
"title": "Cost and financing issues facing higher education in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Cost and finances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1742,
"text": "Because schools are assured of receiving their fees no matter what happens to their students, they have felt free to raise their fees to very high levels, to accept students of inadequate academic ability, and to produce too many graduates in some fields of study. Despite the vast expense and economic distortions that result from student aid, the proportion of graduates who come from poor backgrounds has actually declined since 1970. Analyst Robert E. Wright predicted cost increases without matching increases in quality would continue until professors were encouraged to own colleges in private partnerships; he predicted that would not happen until barriers to entry are decreased and government education subsidies are paid directly to students instead of to colleges and universities. A report in \"The Economist\" criticized American universities for generally losing sight of how to contain costs. Analyst Jeffrey Selingo in the \"Chronicle of Higher Education\" blamed rising costs on unnecessary amenities such as private residence rooms, luxury dining facilities, climbing walls, and sometimes even so-called lazy rivers similar to ones found in amusement parks. The 2014 documentary \"Ivory Tower\" described colleges as participating in an \"arms race\" to provide the best luxury facilities, and asked whether college was worth the expense in an era of \"predatory loan systems\" and job scarcity and rampant inequality. One analyst argued that second-tier schools with \"Ivy League Envy\" had become \"so obsessed with rising up the academic hierarchy\" that they focused too heavily on research while neglecting undergraduate education, and argued that schools should embrace Internet technology and online software to streamline costs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16961745",
"title": "Middle-class squeeze",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Costs of key goods and services.:Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1681,
"text": "The Center for American Progress reported in September 2014 that the real (inflation adjusted) cost of higher education for middle-class families had risen by 62% between 2000 and 2012. The benefits of higher education are something that clearly correlates to higher income in later life, with findings showing that the average high school graduate earns $31,286, while the average college graduate makes $57,181, and education is often considered the gateway for upward mobility for the middle class. However, because of increases in college education costs, many middle-class Americans are missing out on a college education because of high prices, or caused them to leave college with massive amounts of debt, not allowing the middle class to enjoy the full benefits of a college education. Studies show that the average cost of a four-year college or university has increased by 76% since 2000, adding to this the middle class faces struggles because of decreasing financial aid. There has been no increase in government Pell grants, while at the same time interest rates for student loans has increased to a 16 year high. These price increases don't just affect middle-class Americans trying to get into college, but they also continue to affect those who attain a college education using the high interest rates of student loans. Two out of three college graduates begin their careers with student loan debt, amounting to $19,300 for the median borrower. These debts have a long-term effect on middle-class Americans, as 25% of Americans who have college debt claim it caused them to delay a medical or dental procedure and 14% report it caused them to delay their marriage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
iut19
|
Does it save energy to turn down your furnace (or
AC) during the day?
|
[
{
"answer": "I think the confusing thing though is that people mention the HVAC \"working hard\". The system doesn't really work harder, just longer if the target temp is a ways off or it's not at peak efficiency.\n\nThe outdoor temperature can effect the efficiency of an A/C system or heat pump. In cooling, the hotter it is outside the higher the temperature the condenser coil will be. This means the Evaporator coil inside will not get as cold as it could and raise the temperature of the delivered air in the house. So it should be best to raise the thermostat target temp during the day so the system will not cycle as often to maintain a lower indoor temp. Since the hottest part of the day is when it will be most inefficient.\n\nIn heating, if the unit is an electric, gas, or oil burner the outdoor temp will not really change the efficiency. They usually are at their peak efficiency once they started going and the electric coil or burner is at temp. So one 30 min cycle would be more efficient than three 10 min cycles. If the unit is a heat pump and the temp outside is too cold, it will engage it's backup electric or gas heat. So that type of system can have reduced efficiency from outdoor temps.\n\nBasically, the main goal is to use your HVAC in a way that reduces the amount of total running time. Generally turning it up during the day and one longer cycle in the evening when you get back is ideal. Not every situation is perfect, so you have to figure out what works for you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The answer relates to [Newton's Law of Cooling](_URL_0_). To calculate how much heat leaked out of (or into) a house, you only need to know the *average temperature difference* between the inside and outside. So we have two scenarios:\n\nTracy Wastrel leaves the house for some interval, and leaves the thermostat untouched. The furnace works while she is gone to maintain room temperature.\n\nSally Smartie leaves the house for some interval, and turns the thermostat down. The house cools down toward outdoor temperature, and warms up when she returns.\n\nSince thermostats work to counteract heat leakage, we know that the average temperature of Sally's house was closer to ambient than the average temperature of Tracy's house. So by Newton's Law of Cooling, we know that less heat leaked out of Sally's house than Tracy's house.\n\nNow here's the kicker: **Since the final temperatures are the same, the amount of heat added is equal to the amount of heat that leaked out.** Therefore we can conclude that it *never* uses more energy to warm the building up than you saved.\n\n**edit:** If it's good advice for furnaces, it's even better advice for air-con. Because air-conditioners pump heat outside, the energy use is a function of the *square* of the temperature difference (twice as much heat leaks in, *and* the air-con works twice as hard).\n\nTL;DR less heat leaked out, so there's less heat needs to put back",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24400357",
"title": "Cost of electricity by source",
"section": "Section::::Renewables.:Solar thermal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "When a solar thermal storage plant is forced to idle due to lack of sunlight locally during cloudy days, it is possible to consume the cheap excess infirm power from solar PV, wind and hydro power plants (similar to a lesser efficient, huge capacity and low cost battery storage system) by heating the hot molten salt to higher temperature for converting the stored thermal energy in to electricity during the peak demand hours when the electricity sale price is profitable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19864556",
"title": "Induction shrink fitting",
"section": "Section::::Advantages & disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "BULLET::::- Process controllability - Unlike a traditional electric or gas furnace the induction system requires no pre-heat cycle or controlled shutdown. The heat is available on demand. In addition to the benefits of rapid availability in the event of a downstream interruption to production, the power can be switched off thus saving energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1669741",
"title": "District heating",
"section": "Section::::Heat generation.:Heat pumps for district heat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "BULLET::::2. As a means of recovering heat from the cooling loop of a power plant to increase either the level of flue gas heat recovery (as the district heating plant return pipe is now cooled by the heat pump) or by cooling the closed steam loop and artificially lowering the condensing pressure and thereby increasing the electricity generation efficiency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6453717",
"title": "Air source heat pumps",
"section": "Section::::Impact on electric utilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1038,
"text": "While heat pumps with backup systems other than electrical resistance heating are often encouraged by electric utilities, air source heat pumps are a concern for winter-peaking utilities if electrical resistance heating is used as the supplemental or replacement heat source when the temperature drops below the point that the heat pump can meet all of the home's heat requirement. Even if there is a non-electric backup system, the fact that efficiencies of ASHPs decrease with outside temperatures is a concern to electric utilities. The drop in efficiency means their electrical load increases steeply as temperatures drop. A study in Canada's Yukon Territory, where diesel generators are used for peaking capacity, noted that widespread adoption of air source heat pumps could lead to increased diesel consumption if the increased electrical demand due to ASHP use exceeds available hydroelectric capacity Notwithstanding those concerns, the study did conclude that ASHPs are a cost effective heating alternative for Yukon residents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3508315",
"title": "Electric heating",
"section": "Section::::Environmental and efficiency aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "To provide heat more efficiently, an electrically driven heat pump can raise the indoor temperature by extracting energy from the ground, the outside air, or waste streams such as exhaust air. This can cut the electricity consumption to as little as 35% of that used by resistive heating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2696466",
"title": "Demand response",
"section": "Section::::Technologies for demand reduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1273,
"text": "The process may involve turning down or off certain appliances or sinks (and, when demand is unexpectedly low, potentially increasing usage). For example, heating may be turned down or air conditioning or refrigeration may be turned up (turning up to a higher temperature uses less electricity), delaying slightly the draw until a peak in usage has passed. In the city of Toronto, certain residential users can participate in a program (Peaksaver AC) whereby the system operator can automatically control hot water heaters or air conditioning during peak demand; the grid benefits by delaying peak demand (allowing peaking plants time to cycle up or avoiding peak events), and the participant benefits by delaying consumption until after peak demand periods, when pricing should be lower. Although this is an experimental program, at scale these solutions have the potential to reduce peak demand considerably. The success of such programs depends on the development of appropriate technology, a suitable pricing system for electricity, and the cost of the underlying technology. Bonneville Power experimented with direct-control technologies in Washington and Oregon residences, and found that the avoided transmission investment would justify the cost of the technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50889773",
"title": "Solar-assisted heat pump",
"section": "Section::::Comparison.:Separated production systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "In comparison with only heat pump utilization, it is possible to reduce the amount of electrical energy consumed by the machine during the weather evolution from winter season to the spring, and then finally only use thermal solar panels to produce all the heat demand required (only in case of indirect-expansion machine), thus saving on variable costs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
371m3k
|
why are bogs so good at preserving organic material?
|
[
{
"answer": "The broad answer: loss of sunlight and oxygen (due to excess pigmented and colloidal organic material), low pH, (due to organic acids, especially humic acids), and low N, K, and P content (bogs are usually relatively upland, and away from volcanic soils or metamorphic mineral soils). Corrections to my description are welcome. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The soils in bogs are saturated with water. This equates to no air pockets. Eventually, biological activity sucks all the dissolved oxygen in the water, creating anoxic soils. Without oxygen, the decomposition of organic matter (like moss) happens very slowly. It builds up at a faster rate than it can be converted into CO2. \n\nAnoxia is the ultimate cause of the rotten egg odor in many wetlands (not necessarily bogs, though). Bacteria are forced to utilize other molecules as an electron acceptor in the absence of oxygen. If sulfate is used (as it commonly is in brackish and saltwater marshes), you end up with hydrogen sulfide. (The rotten egg smell is not caused by methanogens, since methane is odorless).\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are tons of soil science experts that can address this better, but the lignin derived acids from mosses and pines may have a capacity to enter dead animals and replace animal organic acids, and lead to a unique form of preservation. The bogs in Ireland are the most famous examples of this. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "645624",
"title": "Sphagnum",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Anaerobic acidic sphagnum bogs have low rates of decay, and hence preserve plant fragments and pollen to allow reconstruction of past environments. They even preserve human bodies for millennia; examples of these preserved specimens are Tollund Man, Haraldskær Woman, Clonycavan Man and Lindow Man. Such bogs can also preserve human hair and clothing, one of the most noteworthy examples being Egtved Girl, Denmark. Because of the acidity of peat, however, bones are dissolved rather than preserved. These bogs have also been used to preserve food. Up to 2000-year-old containers of butter or lard have been found.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102411",
"title": "Bog body",
"section": "Section::::Bog chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1228,
"text": "A limited number of bogs have the correct conditions for preservation of mammalian tissue. Most of these are located in colder climates near bodies of salt water. For example, in the area of Denmark where the Haraldskær Woman was recovered, salt air from the North Sea blows across the Jutland wetlands and provides an ideal environment for the growth of peat. As new peat replaces the old peat, the older material underneath rots and releases humic acid, also known as bog acid. The bog acids, with pH levels similar to vinegar, conserve the human bodies in the same way as fruit is preserved by pickling. In addition, peat bogs form in areas lacking drainage and hence are characterized by almost completely anaerobic conditions. This environment, highly acidic and devoid of oxygen, denies the prevalent subsurface aerobic organisms any opportunity to initiate decomposition. Researchers discovered that conservation also required that they place the body in the bog during the winter or early spring when the water temperature is cold—i.e., less than 4 °C (40 °F). This allows bog acids to saturate the tissues before decay can begin. Bacteria are unable to grow rapidly enough for decomposition at temperatures under 4 °C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147341",
"title": "Bog",
"section": "Section::::Archaeology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 997,
"text": "The anaerobic environment and presence of tannic acids within bogs can result in the remarkable preservation of organic material. Finds of such material have been made in Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Russia, and the United Kingdom. Some bogs have preserved bog-wood such as ancient oak logs useful in dendrochronology, and they have yielded extremely well preserved bog bodies, with hair, organs, and skin intact, buried there thousands of years ago after apparent Germanic and Celtic human sacrifice. Excellent examples of such human specimens are Haraldskær Woman and Tollund Man in Denmark, and Lindow man found at Lindow Common in England. At Céide Fields in County Mayo in Ireland, a 5,000-year-old neolithic farming landscape has been found preserved under a blanket bog, complete with field walls and hut sites. One ancient artifact found in various bogs is bog butter, large masses of fat, usually in wooden containers. These are thought to have been food stores, of both butter and tallow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52151771",
"title": "Cornelia C. Cameron",
"section": "Section::::Peat for Energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Peat is partially decayed organic matter, that is composed mostly of plant material. It is commonly found in wetland environments, such as bogs and swamps. This material is formed due to the high acidity of wetlands, which prevents the organic material from fully decaying and allows the organic material to accumulate over time. For a long time, peat has been used as an alternative heat and energy resource, and it can also be mixed with soil to modify it's acidity and moisture retention, in order to support the growth of certain plants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102411",
"title": "Bog body",
"section": "Section::::Bog chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "The preservation of bog bodies in peat bogs is a natural phenomenon, and not the result of human mummification processes. It is caused by the unique physical and biochemical composition of the bogs. Different types of bogs can affect the mummification process differently: raised bogs best preserve the corpses, whereas fens and transitional bogs tend to preserve harder tissues such as the skeleton rather than the soft tissue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6532966",
"title": "Bog-wood",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Because bog-wood can remain free of decay for thousands of years it is of use in dendrochronology, often providing records much older than living trees. Wooden artefacts lost or buried in bogs become preserved as bog-wood, and are important in archaeology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102411",
"title": "Bog body",
"section": "Section::::Bog chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1023,
"text": "The bog chemical environment involves a completely saturated acidic environment, where considerable concentrations of organic acids and aldehydes are present. Layers of sphagnum and peat assist in preserving the cadavers by enveloping the tissue in a cold immobilizing matrix, impeding water circulation and any oxygenation. An additional feature of anaerobic preservation by acidic bogs is the ability to conserve hair, clothing and leather items. Modern experimenters have been able to mimic bog conditions in the laboratory and successfully demonstrate the preservation process, albeit over shorter time frames than the 2,500 years that Haraldskær Woman's body has survived. Most of the bog bodies discovered showed some aspects of decay or else were not properly conserved. When such specimens are exposed to the normal atmosphere, they may begin to decompose rapidly. As a result, many specimens have been effectively destroyed. As of 1979, the number of specimens that have been preserved following discovery was 53.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
44qa5e
|
why isn't the female condom more popular?
|
[
{
"answer": "The male condom has a few advantages, mostly simply because it was invented first. It's more widely known, so people feel more comfortable with it and trust it more (this is fallacious, of course). Most importantly, male condom use is taught in schools, whereas I don't believe female condom use is nearly as widely taught.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because it feels like you are fucking a plastic bag. A condom sucks too but atleast you feel something",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They're difficult to wear, less attractive to look at, and they're more failure prone than male.condoms. They also get in the way during sex as you have a plastic supporting ring hanging outside the vagina.\n\nHorrid devices. There's nothing less sexy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A few side notes: receptive condoms (the preferred term) empower those who are on the receiving end of penises to protect themselves, this their utility. And they are not just for females--they can be very useful in receptive anal intercourse, too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "5$ each?\n\nHow much do you pay for a condom???",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've been using the FC2 and they are WAAAAAY better than male condoms. They're $1.50 each when you buy 50 on amazon. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they sound and feel like you're having sex with a ziplock bag up your vagina. \n\nOh right. You are. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9785931",
"title": "Female condom",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "The female condom was developed in the late 20th century (male condoms have been used for centuries). A primary motive for its creation is the well-documented refusal of some men to use a condom because of loss of sensation and the resulting impact on the hardness of the man's erection, and secondarily by its implication that the male could transmit an STI.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9785931",
"title": "Female condom",
"section": "Section::::Worldwide use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 1063,
"text": "Sales of female condoms have been low in developed countries, though developing countries are increasingly using them to complement already existing family planning and HIV/AIDS programming. Probable causes for poor sales are that inserting the female condom is a skill that has to be learned and that female condoms can be significantly more expensive than male condoms (upwards of 2 or 3 times the cost). Also, reported \"rustling\" sounds from the original version of the female condom during intercourse turn off some potential users, as does the visibility of the outer ring which remains outside the vagina. Regulatory issues have also limited interest in manufacturing female condoms. In the United States, the FDA historically categorized female condoms as Class III medical devices, a category with more stringent requirements than Class II, which includes external condoms. Following proposals to reclassify female condoms, the FDA announced in 2018 that single-use female condoms would now be known as single-use internal condoms, and moved to Class II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22566527",
"title": "Spray-on condom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Besides being attractive to some because of its novelty, the spray-on condom was intended to solve several problems. The product's proponents hoped that consumers would find it easier to apply and use correctly than a traditional condom. Because it is easier to operate correctly, the device's inventor hoped that the condom would be more successful in preventing unwanted pregnancy and STD transmission. Because the condom uses the penis as a mould for its creation, it could be especially attractive to men with unusually sized or oddly shaped penises.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18978770",
"title": "Birth control",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Barrier.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "Globally, condoms are the most common method of birth control. Male condoms are put on a man's erect penis and physically block ejaculated sperm from entering the body of a sexual partner. Modern condoms are most often made from latex, but some are made from other materials such as polyurethane, or lamb's intestine. Female condoms are also available, most often made of nitrile, latex or polyurethane. Male condoms have the advantage of being inexpensive, easy to use, and have few adverse effects. Making condoms available to teenagers does not appear to affect the age of onset of sexual activity or its frequency. In Japan, about 80% of couples who are using birth control use condoms, while in Germany this number is about 25%, and in the United States it is 18%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20014929",
"title": "Human female sexuality",
"section": "Section::::Women as responsible for sexual safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Others speculate that the responsibility for condom use falling on women is not so much imposed by society, but is instead resultant of the possible consequences of unprotected sex being generally more serious for women than men (pregnancy, greater likelihood of STI transmission, etc.). Bacterial STIs, such as chlamydia and gonorrhea, show that rates among women can be three times higher than men in high prevalence areas of the United States, and one-fourth of pregnancies in developing countries and one-half of pregnancies in the United States are unintended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48750931",
"title": "Mary Ann Leeper",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Female condom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "Her most recent contribution was the launch of the female condom. She switched from polyurethane material to synthetic latex, which overall saves manufacturing costs and makes the condom much more affordable. The female condom is an over the counter contraceptive, which has been FDA approved for over 20 years. The female condom gives females an option in choosing the best contraceptive, while remaining sexually active. The female condom contains just as high of a success rate as the male condom. It has between 93% to 95% pregnancy prevention success, which is lower than oral contraceptives, injectables, or the IUD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9785931",
"title": "Female condom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "A female condom (also known as a femidom or internal condom) is a device that is used during sexual intercourse as a barrier contraceptive to reduce the risk of sexually transmitted infections (STIs – such as gonorrhea, syphilis, and HIV, though its protection against them is inferior to that by male condoms) and unintended pregnancy. Invented by Danish MD Lasse Hessel, it is worn internally by the female partner and provides a physical barrier to prevent exposure to ejaculated semen or other body fluids. Female condoms can be used by the receptive partner during anal sex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
y9mjx
|
how are the children of illegal immigrants in the us (who, therefore, are also illegal) able to attend high schools and universities?
|
[
{
"answer": "Public schools generally only require that you list your place of residence and you arrange for transportation, whether by school bus route or personally picking up or dropping off. Most school districts don't check citizenship because it's never been an issue.\n\nColleges just don't care about citizenship. They only look at high school grades, financials if you apply for loans, and extracurricular activities for applicants.\n\nBottom line: no one checks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First, we should probably clear up a little terminology before continuing. The term \"illegal\" when used in reference can be rather offensive to said individuals and others. In sociology, and elsewhere, the preferred term is \"undocumented,\" which has a much less harsh connotation. Not all illegal acts are also immoral, after all. \n\nWhy does this matter? Because whenever that child was younger they did not come to this country of their own volition, which means that they are not innately at fault for their being here. They had little or no say in coming here, and - as most parents are responsible for the actions or decisions of their children up to a certain age - the child them self is not the one who has committed the crime of crossing some imaginary border through less than official means. \n\nOnce here, so long as they are what most would consider to be a law-abiding citizen (for all intents and purposes, ignoring their undocumented status,) then the local, state, and federal governments really have little or no reason to pursue any legal recourse insofar as deportation, imprisonment, etc. As an aside, it should also be mentioned that the vast majority of undocumented persons actually pay taxes annually, which includes consumption taxes, etc., so there is little perpetuation of a perceived criminal act when you look at the larger picture. \n\nEDIT FROM BELOW: Everyone downvoting me because they disagree with what I have to say is breaking common reddiquette, which states that downvoting others because you disagree with them is frowned upon. I have contributed to the conversation, if nothing else.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In many states, California in particular, it is illegal for state agencies to enquire about the immigration states of the people they deal with.\n\nAlso, while illegal immigrants are breaking the law be remaining in the US, deporting them is a low political priority. It typically only happens when they commit crimes, and often not even then.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Undocumented kids also qualify for in-state tuition at least in CA, maybe other states.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Obvious throwaway here because I'm very self-conscious about my situation, but I just came back from my lawyer's office and filed my application for the deferred action so if anyone has any questions, I can tell you about my experience.\n\n I came to the US when I was 3 and was given a social security card, my parents and I moved into an apartment and that became my place of residence. Most public schools only require an address/place of residence in order to enroll. In most states, it's illegal to actually ask about someone's immigration status so for the most part these kids--and myself--are safe. The college that i attend is very aware of the undocumented population in my city (Chicago) so they offer an affidavit that basically--when signed by the student--makes a deal that, in exchange for enrolling at the university, the student must file for residency as soon as possible. \n\nAs far as this new process going around the country atm, it is to ensure that young adults who have been in the country for a certain amount of time, came here when they were children, have graduated HS or have a GED of some sort, and have no prior arrests are able to work with a 2-year workers permit AND are protected from deportation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Supreme Court decided in [Plyler vs. Doe](_URL_0_) (1982) that undocumented immigrant children must receive an education just like any other children do. This case was prompted by Texas's attempt to forbid illegal immigrant children from going to school. The Wikipedia link I gave explains the logic quite well:\n\n > The court majority found that the Texas law was \"directed against children, and impose[d] its discriminatory burden on the basis of a legal characteristic over which children can have little control\" — namely, the fact of their having been brought illegally into the United States by their parents. The majority also observed that denying the children in question a proper education would likely contribute to \"the creation and perpetuation of a subclass of illiterates within our boundaries, surely adding to the problems and costs of unemployment, welfare, and crime.\" The majority refused to accept that any substantial state interest would be served by discrimination on this basis, and it struck down the Texas law.\n\nTo summarize that:\n\n1. These children are not at fault for the problem, and denying them schooling would be a punishment.\n2. If they were denied schooling this would also cause larger problems than schooling them does.\n3. This constitutes a form of discrimination forbidden by the 14th Amendment.\n\n5 of the 9 judges agreed on all three of these points. The other 4 disagreed with the third one, but not the first two.\n\nThis however applies only to grades K-12. A college that admits illegal immigrants does so either because it chooses to, or because state law requires it to do so. As other people have pointed out, California public universities will admit them. There have been also private universities willing to do so. One of the strongest arguments here is that if the public has already paid to educate a talented student from K-12, we want to keep them in the country, not deport them. The other strong argument is similar to the above: when a child is brought to the USA illegally, it's not the child's fault; and deporting them is even worse when the child was brought at an early age, because you'd be deporting them to a country that they may have no memory of—and may not even speak the language!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here in America the legal system has an open structure rather than a closed structure. What this means is that all actions are allowed, unless there is a specific law that restricts that action.\n\nSo you would have to go out and make a specific law that says only children that are US citizens can go to the free US public schools and no on else. \n\nFortunately, no one has proposed such a restrictive law. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37783638",
"title": "Moral exclusion",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Immigrants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1340,
"text": "Another example includes undocumented students, immigrants to the United States, and people who look like immigrants. Regarding undocumented students, this refers to children born in the United States to parents who had illegally entered the U.S These students are actual U.S. citizens, but have been in danger of exportation or being denied the opportunity to go to school in the United States because they lack appropriate documentation. This is an issue in many states. Particular to Arizona, the state legislature passed a law, Arizona SB 1070, granting police officers the capability to stop anyone they suspect may be illegally in the U.S. and ask them to present their birth certificate. As explored by Mukherjee, Molina and Adams (2012), this legislation may be intended to contain illegal immigration, or it may be ethnic categorization as the basis for excluding rights to certain U.S. citizens who do not look like the dominant group. A similar type of moral exclusion is seen in the treatment of people in the city of New York. Individuals can be stopped, questioned and frisked without cause, because they \"look suspicious\" to police officers in the area. The police officers believe they have the authority to violate these peoples' rights in order to meet certain standards in their respective divisions. See video link [1].\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1007667",
"title": "Hispanic and Latino Americans",
"section": "Section::::Education.:Hispanic or Latino K-12 education.:Immigration status.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Illegal Immigrants have not always had access to compulsory education in the United States. However, due to the landmark Supreme Court case \"Plyler v. Doe\" in 1982, immigrants are allowed access to K-12 education. This significantly impacted all immigrant groups, including Latinos. However, their academic achievement is dependent upon several factors including, but not limited to time of arrival and schooling in country of origin. Moreover, Latinos' immigration/nativity status plays a major role regarding their academic achievement. For instance, first- and second- generation Latinos outperform their later generational counterparts. Additionally, their aspirations appear to decrease as well. This has major implications on their postsecondary futures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33246262",
"title": "Alabama HB 56",
"section": "Section::::Provisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "The law prohibits illegal immigrants from receiving any public benefits at either the state or local level. It bans illegal immigrants from attending publicly owned colleges or universities (currently blocked). At the high, middle, and elementary public school levels, the law requires that school officials ascertain whether students are illegal immigrants. Attendance is not prohibited for such students; school districts are mandated to submit annual tallies on the suspected number of illegal immigrants when making report to state education officials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35304479",
"title": "Inequality within immigrant families in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Generation.:Social mobility and resources.:Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "In many immigrants' countries of origin, education is not free. Children therefore rely on their parents for the fees necessary to obtain an education. In some cases, this means that children are unable to complete their education because their parents are unable to pay the school fees or would rather invest that money someplace else, perhaps in another child's education. Girls, in particular, may be unlikely to complete their education because of many cultures' preference for boys. After immigrating to the United States, all children have access to free education through high school, and can apply for scholarships to help fund a college education as well. While parental contributions are still important, especially in the case of college tuition, this removes many of the barriers to educational achievement and also means that parents no longer have as much control over their children's access to educational opportunities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5044573",
"title": "Illegal immigration to the United States",
"section": "Section::::Profile and demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "In 2012, an estimated 14 million people live in families in which the head of household or the spouse is in the United States without authorization. Illegal immigrants arriving recently before 2012 tend to be better educated than those who have been in the country a decade or more. A quarter of all immigrants who have arrived in recently before 2012 have at least some college education. Nonetheless, illegal immigrants as a group tend to be less educated than other sections of the U.S. population: 49 percent haven't completed high school, compared with 9 percent of native-born Americans and 25 percent of legal immigrants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5044573",
"title": "Illegal immigration to the United States",
"section": "Section::::Legal issues.:Deportation.:Complications of birthright citizen children and illegal immigrant parents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Complications in deportation efforts ensue when parents are illegal immigrants but their children are birthright citizens. Federal appellate courts have upheld the refusal by the Immigration and Naturalization Service to stay the deportation of illegal immigrants merely on the grounds that they have U.S.-citizen, minor children. As of 2005, there were some 3.1 million United States citizen children living in families in which the head of the family or a spouse was unauthorized; at least 13,000 children had one or both parents deported in the years 2005–2007.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13809224",
"title": "Education in Florida",
"section": "Section::::Primary and secondary schools.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "In 2010, there were about 60,750 foreign-born children of illegal immigrants attending public schools. The cost per year averaged $9,035 annually. The total cost of educating these children is over $548 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
rymvy
|
Why does a space shuttle do a quarter turn 15-30 seconds into launch? Why not just launch it with that orientation rather than turning?
|
[
{
"answer": "When a rocket launches, its goal is (typically) to attain orbit around the earth. In order to do that, it needs to have a good deal of lateral velocity. However, near the ground, there is air resistance to be accounted for. If a rocket launched at a steep angle, then it would be fighting against air resistance for a longer time, and would waste energy. Alternatively, if the rocket launched straight up until it was out of the atmosphere, it would then need to stop and make a 90 degree turn to begin accelerating towards an orbit.\n\nThe compromise between the two is to have the rocket launch vertically at first, minimizing time in the dense (low altitude) part of the atmosphere, and therefore minimizing energy lost due to air resistance, and then curve towards its intended orbit at high altitude where the air is thinner and resistance is reduced, maximizing its orbital speed once it is out of the atmosphere.\n\nEdit: Mis-read the question. My mistake.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the orientation it needs will be different with each launch, but it can only sit on the launch pad one way. If you watch the video Enkaybee posted, notice the Shuttle rolls just before it pitches (starts leaning over on its \"back\")---the angle it rolls to determines its heading as it flies away from Cape Canaveral. Ultimately, that heading determines which orbit it flies into. In the video, it's going to rendezvous with the International Space Station, so it has to launch into a matching orbit.\n\nExactly which angle it'll take to do that depends on the time of the launch, down to almost the second. A different launch window means a different roll angle. A different destination orbit (visiting the Hubble telescope, say) means a different roll angle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Excellent question!\n\nThe roll program is executed around T+12 to orient the shuttle into a heads down attitude to reduce structural loading, gain downrange velocity, and provide a easier abort maneuver setup.\n\nThe roll program is a combined roll, yaw and pitch maneuver. I think your question is mainly about the roll and yaw portions of the maneuver. The pitch maneuver brings the nose around with the belly up, points it downrange and gives the trajectory that arc shape.\n\nSo, why does the shuttle need to roll and yaw? Because the launch pad has a fixed orientation, but the shuttle orbits at various inclinations (angle relative to the equator) depending on the mission. A typical inclination of 28 degrees takes advantage of the earth's rotation for lifting heavy payloads. Space station missions are flown at a 52 degree inclination. So, since the pad is fixed, the roll program is necessary to orient the shuttle to the correct orbital inclination.\n\nSo, why didn't they just pick the most likely inclination and orient the launch pad accordingly; thereby only needing to execute the pitch portion of the program for most missions? This is the answer I didn't know and had to dig for. Apparently the launch pads are leftovers from the Apollo program and the access tower and support structures are oriented as they were for the Saturn V rockets. Also, the shuttle straddles two leftover flame trenches, one for the boosters and one for the main engines, which also dictate the shuttle's launch orientation.\n\nEdit: Fixed the time of the roll program.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "179132",
"title": "Spacelab",
"section": "Section::::Components.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "The system had some unique features including an intended two-week turn-around time (for the original Space Shuttle launch turn-around time) and the roll-on-roll-off for loading in aircraft (Earth-transportation).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7089180",
"title": "STS-68",
"section": "Section::::Mission Highlights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "One of the small rocket engines which help control the pointing of the Shuttle was turned off because of a temperature sensor problem. That caused all of the vernier jets, used for delicate pointing control, to be turned off and the larger steering jets to be used. The flight control team late Wednesday decided to allow the Shuttle's pointing to vary over a wider range to save thruster fuel while the initial problem was being addressed. A software change which will disregard the failed temperature sensor should be in place within 24 hours. Radar operations will be resumed once the update is made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28189",
"title": "Space Shuttle",
"section": "Section::::Mission profile.:Re-entry and landing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "The vehicle began re-entry by firing the Orbital maneuvering system engines, while flying upside down, backside first, in the opposite direction to orbital motion for approximately three minutes, which reduced the Shuttle's velocity by about . The resultant slowing of the Shuttle lowered its orbital perigee down into the upper atmosphere. The Shuttle then flipped over, by pushing its nose down (which was actually \"up\" relative to the Earth, because it was flying upside down). This OMS firing was done roughly halfway around the globe from the landing site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18952422",
"title": "North American DC-3",
"section": "Section::::History.:End of DC-3.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Satellites orbit around the center of the Earth, not the surface. If a spacecraft were launched due East from the equator into a 90-minute low-Earth orbit, it will circle the Earth and return to the spot where it was launched 90 minutes later. However, the launch site will have moved due to the Earth's rotation. Over the 90 minute period, the Earth would rotate to the east, escaping from the spacecraft it as it returns. Given the orbital speed about , simply starting the re-entry some five minutes later than the complete 90 minute orbit would make up this difference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "526876",
"title": "STS-74",
"section": "Section::::Mission timeline.:12 November (launch and flight day 1).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "About 43 minutes after launch, a 2-minute and 13 second engine firing changed the shuttle's path into a 162 nautical mile circular orbit. Once on orbit, the five crew members began configuring \"Atlantis\" for on-orbit operations. \"Atlantis\"'s payload bay doors were opened about 90 minutes into the flight, followed by a \"go\" for on-orbit operations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28189",
"title": "Space Shuttle",
"section": "Section::::Mission profile.:Launch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "At around \"T\"+126 seconds, pyrotechnic fasteners released the SRBs and small separation rockets pushed them laterally away from the vehicle. The SRBs parachuted back to the ocean to be reused. The Shuttle then began accelerating to orbit on the main engines. Acceleration at this point would typically fall to .9 \"g\", and the vehicle would take on a somewhat nose-up angle to the horizonit used the main engines to gain and then maintain altitude while it accelerated horizontally towards orbit. At about five and three-quarter minutes into ascent, the orbiter's direct communication links with the ground began to fade, at which point it rolled heads up to reroute its communication links to the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "454300",
"title": "Constellation program",
"section": "Section::::Missions.:International Space Station and low-Earth orbit flights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 905,
"text": "Once the Orion reached a safe distance from the ISS, the Command Module (after having jettisoned the disposable service module) would re-enter in the same manner as all NASA spacecraft prior to the Shuttle, using the ablative heat shield to both deflect heat from the spacecraft and to slow it down from a speed of 28,000 km/h (17,500 mph or Mach 23) to 480 km/h (300 mph or Mach 0.5). After reentry was completed, the forward assembly would be jettisoned, and two drogue parachutes released, followed at by three main parachutes and airbags filled with nitrogen (N), which does not combust when exposed to heat, allowing the spacecraft to splashdown. The Command Module would then be returned to Kennedy Space Center for refurbishment for a later flight. Unlike the Apollo CM, which was used only for one flight, an Orion CM could theoretically be used up to ten times under normal operating conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bhz9i4
|
If light is produced by the release of photons when electrons return to stable energy levels, why do blackbody objects emit light over a continuous and wide spectrum?
|
[
{
"answer": "Charged particles emit a (quasi-)discrete spectrum of EM radiation when they transition between *bound* states, but they can also emit continuous spectra when they transition between *scattering* states.\n\nThis is what bremsstrahlung is, and that's ultimately what causes the continuous Planck spectrum of a black body.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The energy for black-body radiation is basically coming from their linear motion, which can have any continuous value. It's a key aspect of both classical and quantum electrodynamics that accelerating/decelerating electrical charges release light. In a gas or solid in thermal equilibrium you have all sorts of things colliding with one another and sharing and trading energy to maintain equilibrium. The collisions represent acceleration/deceleration events and release light and, since light carries energy, they are slowed down as a result. If you have a black-body in some infinite isolate vacuum then we see pretty clearly that it is getting colder by emitting this light as the atoms get slower and slower.\n\n > I was told that photons are released through the excitement of electrons\n\nThis is a very frequent misconception. Transitions between electron states certainly can release light, but it is absolutely by no means the ONLY way light is produced. As we've discussed, scattering and collisions of charges releases light. Also, there are more states to an atom than electronic, they also have rotational and vibrational states that can be transitioned between to release light. On top of that there is also the nucleus which has it own spectrum of states. Beyond that there are also ionization/recombination events that allow a continuum of energies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23579",
"title": "Photoelectric effect",
"section": "Section::::Emission mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "The photons of a light beam have a characteristic energy which is proportional to the frequency of the light. In the photoemission process, if an electron within some material absorbs the energy of one photon and acquires more energy than the work function (the electron binding energy) of the material, it is ejected. If the photon energy is too low, the electron is unable to escape the material. Since an increase in the intensity of low-frequency light will only increase the number of low-energy photons sent over a given interval of time, this change in intensity will not create any single photon with enough energy to dislodge an electron. Thus, the energy of the emitted electrons does not depend on the intensity of the incoming light, but only on the energy (equivalent frequency) of the individual photons. It is an interaction between the incident photon and the innermost electrons. The movement of an outer electron to occupy the vacancy then result in the emission of a photon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "351077",
"title": "Transparency and translucency",
"section": "Section::::Absorption of light in solids.:UV-Vis: Electronic transitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Thus, when a material is illuminated, individual photons of light can make the valence electrons of an atom transition to a higher electronic energy level. The photon is destroyed in the process and the absorbed radiant energy is transformed to electric potential energy. Several things can happen then to the absorbed energy: it may be re-emitted by the electron as radiant energy (in this case the overall effect is in fact a scattering of light), dissipated to the rest of the material (i.e. transformed into heat), or the electron can be freed from the atom (as in the photoelectric and Compton effects).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55236",
"title": "Compton scattering",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1012,
"text": "Thomson scattering, the classical theory of an electromagnetic wave scattered by charged particles, cannot explain shifts in wavelength at low intensity: classically, light of sufficient intensity for the electric field to accelerate a charged particle to a relativistic speed will cause radiation-pressure recoil and an associated Doppler shift of the scattered light, but the effect would become arbitrarily small at sufficiently low light intensities \"regardless of wavelength\". Thus, light behaves as if it consists of particles, if we are to explain low-intensity Compton scattering. Or the assumption that the electron can be treated as free is invalid resulting in the effectively infinite electron mass equal to the nuclear mass (see e.g. the comment below on elastic scattering of X-rays being from that effect). Compton's experiment convinced physicists that light can be treated as a stream of particle-like objects (quanta called photons), whose energy is proportional to the light wave's frequency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33431450",
"title": "Modern searches for Lorentz violation",
"section": "Section::::Maximal attainable speed.:Threshold constraints.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Photon decay\" at superluminal speed. These (hypothetical) high-energy photons would quickly decay into other particles, which means that high energy light cannot propagate over long distances. So the mere existence of high energy light from astronomic sources constrains possible deviations from the limiting velocity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20055670",
"title": "Shockley–Queisser limit",
"section": "Section::::The limit.:Spectrum losses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "Another important contributor to losses is that any energy above and beyond the bandgap energy is lost. While blue light has roughly twice the energy of red light, that energy is not captured by devices with a single p-n junction. The electron is ejected with higher energy when struck by a blue photon, but it loses this extra energy as it travels toward the p-n junction (the energy is converted into heat). This accounts for about 33% of the incident sunlight, meaning that, for silicon, from spectrum losses alone there is a theoretical conversion efficiency limit of about 48%, ignoring all other factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "396320",
"title": "Matrix mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical development.:Conservation of energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "The process of emission and absorption of photons seemed to demand that the conservation of energy will hold at best on average. If a wave containing exactly one photon passes over some atoms, and one of them absorbs it, that atom needs to tell the others that they can't absorb the photon anymore. But if the atoms are far apart, any signal cannot reach the other atoms in time, and they might end up absorbing the same photon anyway and dissipating the energy to the environment. When the signal reached them, the other atoms would have to somehow recall that energy. This paradox led Bohr, Kramers and Slater to abandon exact conservation of energy. Heisenberg's formalism, when extended to include the electromagnetic field, was obviously going to sidestep this problem, a hint that the interpretation of the theory will involve wavefunction collapse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1502669",
"title": "Rendering equation",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "BULLET::::- Non-linear effects, where very intense light can increase the energy level of an electron with more energy than that of a single photon (this can occur if the electron is hit by two photons at the same time), and emission of light with higher frequency than the frequency of the light that hit the surface suddenly becomes possible, and\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
53iatp
|
If time dilation increases exponentially as an object approaches a black hole's event horizon, how does anything ever reach the singularity?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well, the key point is that time passes differently for different observers. So yes, someone looking from far away would see everything quickly redshift and essentially become frozen and dark right on the surface of the black hole (at least until it evaporates). \n\nBut from the perspective of whatever is falling into the black hole, time passes normally, and things take a finite amount of proper time (that is, time as measured by them) to reach the singularity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > If so, how does matter actually reach the singularity?\n\nIt doesn't really matter. We can't observe anything that happens beyond the event horizon. There need not even be a singularity.\n\n > Wouldn't the majority of every black hole's mass be currently in the process of still crossing the event horizon\n\nYou would need to take into account that as matter enter the black hole, or even gets close to it, the event horizon expands. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "293670",
"title": "Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates",
"section": "Section::::Tortoise coordinate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "The increase in the time coordinate to infinity as one approaches the event horizon is why information could never be received back from any probe that is sent through such an event horizon. This is despite the fact that the probe itself can nonetheless travel past the horizon. It is also why the space-time metric of the black hole, when expressed in Schwarzschild coordinates, becomes singular at the horizon - and thereby fails to be able to fully chart the trajectory of an infalling probe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293670",
"title": "Eddington–Finkelstein coordinates",
"section": "Section::::Tortoise coordinate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "When some probe (such as a light ray or an observer) approaches a black hole event horizon, its Schwarzschild time coordinate grows infinite. The outgoing null rays in this coordinate system have an infinite change in \"t\" on travelling out from the horizon. The tortoise coordinate is intended to grow infinite at the appropriate rate such as to cancel out this singular behaviour in coordinate systems constructed from it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "207820",
"title": "Compact star",
"section": "Section::::Black holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "In the classical theory of general relativity, a gravitational singularity occupying no more than a point will form. There may be a new halt of the catastrophic gravitational collapse at a size comparable to the Planck length, but at these lengths there is no known theory of gravity to predict what will happen. Adding any extra mass to the black hole will cause the radius of the event horizon to increase linearly with the mass of the central singularity. This will induce certain changes in the properties of the black hole, such as reducing the tidal stress near the event horizon, and reducing the gravitational field strength at the horizon. However, there will not be any further qualitative changes in the structure associated with any mass increase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1729618",
"title": "Stasis (fiction)",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "There are real phenomena that cause time dilation similar that of a stasis field. Extremely high velocities approaching light speed or immensely powerful gravitational fields such as those existing near the event horizons of black holes will cause time to progress more slowly. However, there is no known theoretical way of causing such time dilation independently of such conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29320146",
"title": "Event horizon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "Any object approaching the horizon from the observer's side appears to slow down and never quite pass through the horizon, with its image becoming more and more redshifted as time elapses. This means that the wavelength of the light emitted from the object is getting longer as the object moves away from the observer. The notion of an event horizon was originally restricted to black holes; light originating inside an event horizon could cross it temporarily but would return. Later a strict definition was introduced as a boundary beyond which events cannot affect any outside observer at all, encompassing other scenarios than black holes. This strict definition of EH has caused information and firewall paradoxes; therefore Stephen Hawking has supposed an apparent horizon to be used. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14286",
"title": "Holographic principle",
"section": "Section::::Black hole entropy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "Stephen Hawking had shown earlier that the total horizon area of a collection of black holes always increases with time. The horizon is a boundary defined by light-like geodesics; it is those light rays that are just barely unable to escape. If neighboring geodesics start moving toward each other they eventually collide, at which point their extension is inside the black hole. So the geodesics are always moving apart, and the number of geodesics which generate the boundary, the area of the horizon, always increases. Hawking's result was called the second law of black hole thermodynamics, by analogy with the law of entropy increase, but at first, he did not take the analogy too seriously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "Section::::Properties and structure.:Event horizon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "On the other hand, indestructible observers falling into a black hole do not notice any of these effects as they cross the event horizon. According to their own clocks, which appear to them to tick normally, they cross the event horizon after a finite time without noting any singular behaviour; in classical general relativity, it is impossible to determine the location of the event horizon from local observations, due to Einstein's equivalence principle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1moce6
|
- the dot com crash
|
[
{
"answer": "When the internet was first becoming popular and a mainstay in most homes, tons of \".com\" companies were being started. For instance, I remember _URL_0_ being a Company that would deliver groceries to your door after you ordered online. Anyway, tons of these startups were being established, going public, which led to a boost in the economy/stock market. The \"crash\" is those Companies either failing due to oversaturation of internet startups, or just the realization that their idea was flawed. Everyone tries to sell/dump the stock which turns the stock market/economy to shit (compared to what it used to be, at least).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9021",
"title": "Dot-com bubble",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "The Nasdaq Composite stock market index, which included many Internet-based companies, peaked in value on March 10, 2000, before crashing. The burst of the bubble, known as the dot-com crash, lasted from March 11, 2000, to October 9, 2004. During the crash, many online shopping companies, such as Pets.com, Webvan, and Boo.com, as well as communication companies, such as Worldcom, NorthPoint Communications and Global Crossing, failed and shut down. Others, such as Cisco, whose stock declined by 86%, and Qualcomm, lost a large portion of their market capitalization but survived, and some companies, such as eBay and Amazon.com, declined in value but recovered quickly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13692",
"title": "History of the Internet",
"section": "Section::::Use and culture.:Dot-com bubble.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 169,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 169,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "The dot-com bubble burst in March 2000, with the technology heavy NASDAQ Composite index peaking at 5,048.62 on March 10 (5,132.52 intraday), more than double its value just a year before. By 2001, the bubble's deflation was running full speed. A majority of the dot-coms had ceased trading, after having burnt through their venture capital and IPO capital, often without ever making a profit. But despite this, the Internet continues to grow, driven by commerce, ever greater amounts of online information and knowledge and social networking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3682503",
"title": "Dot-com company",
"section": "Section::::Dot-com bubble.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "With the stock market crash around the year 2000 that ended the dot-com bubble, many failed and failing dot-com companies were referred to punningly as dot-bombs, dot-cons or dot-gones. Many of the surviving firms dropped the \".com\" suffix from their names.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11981581",
"title": "Telecoms crash",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The Telecoms crash was a stock market crash which occurred in 2001. It is sometimes confused with the Dot Com crash which happened at around the same time. Unlike the dot com crash however, the telecoms sector relied on long engineering research and development cycles, and the development companies on the telecom operators buying software maintenance contracts and upgrade paths. The dot com boom was caused by people investing money in ideas that were unrealistic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19755176",
"title": "Supply chain attack",
"section": "Section::::Recent examples.:Target.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Between November 27 and December 15, 2013, Target's American brick-and-mortars stores experienced a data hack. Around 40 million customers credit and debit cards became susceptible to fraud after malware was introduced into the POS system in over 1,800 stores. The data breach of Target's customer information saw a direct impact on the company's profit, which fell 46 percent in the fourth quarter of 2013.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5726165",
"title": "Shelby Bryan",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Bryan saw the warning signs of the looming dot-com bust: an overbuilt, unpredictable industry that was over-funded. When he shared his concerns with the company's stakeholders, his prediction was very unpopular. Bryan stepped down from his role at ICG in 2000 when the company, like most of those in the Internet business, began to face difficult times during the dot-com meltdown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1421793",
"title": "Slippage (finance)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "With regard to futures contracts as well as other financial instruments, slippage is the difference between where the computer signaled the entry and exit for a trade and where actual clients, with actual money, entered and exited the market using the computer’s signals. Market impact, liquidity, and frictional costs may also contribute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3soc3x
|
who or what determines a day to be "national 'whatever' day!" that i see on facebook and listen on the radio every day?
|
[
{
"answer": "Marketing departments of parties with a vested interest. National Chocolate Day will be promoted by the International Association of Chocolate Manufacturers etc. etc. There's nothing 'official' about it. You can declare any day to be anything and just shout about it on social media.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35986742",
"title": "College Radio Day",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "The aim of the event is to “raise a greater, national awareness of the many college and high school radio stations that operate in North America by encouraging people who would not normally listen to college radio to do so on this day.” This first event had over 360 participating college and high school radio stations in America, Canada and Jamaica. Because of international interest, World College Radio Day was founded in 2012, and is now celebrated the same day as College Radio Day in countries around the world outside of the USA. Rob Quicke is also the Co-Founder of World College Radio Day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20464914",
"title": "Weekly address of the President of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The Weekly address of the President of the United States (also known as the Weekly (Radio) Address or Your Weekly Address) is the weekly speech by the President of the United States to the nation. Franklin D. Roosevelt was the first U.S. president to deliver such radio addresses. Ronald Reagan revived the practice of delivering a weekly Saturday radio broadcast in 1982, and his successors all continued the practice until Donald Trump ceased it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "442771",
"title": "Cross Country Checkup",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "Close to half-a-million listeners tune in every Sunday afternoon to hear a lively exchange of ideas between callers and invited guests, and a broad cross-section of opinion on the topic of the day. On average, 5,000 to 10,000 people attempt to call the program during the broadcast to join the discussion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20450205",
"title": "National Day of Listening",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "The National Day of Listening is an unofficial day of observance where Americans are encouraged to set aside time to record the stories of their families, friends, and local communities. It was first launched by the national oral history project StoryCorps in 2008 and now recurs on the Friday after Thanksgiving Day, when families are more likely to spend time together. It was proposed as an alternative to \"Black Friday\", a day many businesses see as a high volume pre-Christmas sale day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25724754",
"title": "Your Call",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Your Call is a call-in radio talk show program produced by KALW hosted by Rose Aguilar and Sandip Roy in San Francisco, California. \"Your Call\" features in-depth dialogue and debate on politics, culture, poverty, and the environment The format of \"Your Call\" varies from show to show, but generally involves an in-person interview with one or more subjects, including nationally prominent authors and scholars and grassroots activists. The program airs from 10-11am PST on weekday mornings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "548300",
"title": "This is Your Day",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "This is Your Day is a Christian television show hosted by Pastor Benny Hinn and broadcast several times a week in the United States and globally by the Trinity Broadcasting Network, the Daystar Television Network, Revelation TV, Grace TV, VisionTV, INSP Networks, The God Channel and various local affiliates to an estimated four million followers. The program began airing in 1990 and is a half-hour long.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33400973",
"title": "World Radio Day",
"section": "Section::::World Radio Day 2017.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "World Radio Day 2017 was held on 13 February 2017 around the theme of \"Radio is You\", with the goal of celebrating how audiences interact with radio. The theme was designed to encourage radio stations to be the best they can, by having audience engagement policies, ethical committees, public editors, self review programmes and by ensuring their community radio networks were strong. A record number of countries, took part in World Radio Day 2017, with more than 500 events worldwide. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8t38sm
|
in places where water is scarce, could a dehumidifier collect water from the air that would be potable?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. It's called an atmospheric water generator. The cost is that it uses a substantial amount of energy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Theoretically yes, but areas that don't get much rain will also have proportionally dry air. So, you wouldn't get much water from the air. In addition, this would require refrigerating a heat exchanger which would require a steady supply of electricity which is also usually a problem in areas of the world with hardly any access to fresh water. \n\nEdit: spelling ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "*”According to the Environmental Protection Agency, stagnant condensate can harbor biological contaminants, including mold, mildew and algae, especially if the collection bucket isn't cleaned regularly. Moreover, the condensate can contain lead and other metal residues from the component parts of the dehumidifier. Unlike distilled water (see Nitty Gritty), dehumidifier water is never sterilized through boiling. In case you were still entertaining the thought, let me make it clear: do not drink the condensate! It is better to be thirsty than to be sick”*\n\n_URL_0_\n\n\nI usually just pour mine into the garden. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The quality depends on the machine itself, the materials it's made of, etc. Strictly speaking, the condensation effect affects water directly. There's not \"need\" for it to collect other unwanted stuff from the air. In fact, you could filter the air to remove dust before using the dehumidifier, and end up with very pure water.\n\nThe problem is that, where water is scarce, humidity is also low. This would require a ton of energy and yield little water in those cases. It won't work in a desert.\n\nCollecting dew, which is a natural version of what the dehumidifier does artificially, is mentioned as a survival technique if you're stranded on an island for example. Islands are a great example of where there may be humidity, but not drinkable water. I'm not sure how effective it is, but likely better than nothing.\n\nIt just wouldn't be cost effective on a large scale, to provide water for a whole village for example. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To add a different take on this there are some places, I want to say in South America? That place nets on the sides of mountains which collect water from the clouds passing over the mountain. This allows them to collect water without the energy requirements of an active humidifier. However as you might guess if there aren’t any clouds there isn’t any water.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thanks for the replies everyone!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The short answer is yes, you can. There was an experimental bilboard but up in Brazil IIRC that does just that. Collects fresh water from moisture in the air. \n\nSo why don't we have a bunch of Tatooine-style moisture farms feeding thirsty deserts? The long answer is that it's too energy intensive. \n\nThere's really not a lot of difference between an AC and a dehumidifier. They both work the same way. You pass air over cold coils to remove heat and moisture. The compressors draw a lot of electricity, as anybody with an air conditioner will attest to when they get their summer hydro bill. \n\nIt's not as big an issue in a place like Brazil, where their air is very humid. You'll get a lot of fresh water. But in an arid environment, you'd need an awful lot of those things to get enough usable water. Sure, you could build a bunch of solar panels to power them for essentially free, but those initial building costs are going to be very high. A cost that would make even wealthier countries shudder. \n\nIt's the same reason why you don't see desalination of sea water used more often. It's cheaper and more efficient to just pipe or truck water in from far away sources. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "These have cropped up alot lately in one form or another, I see them debunked by the YouTuber Thunderf00t often enough. The basic flaw in all of these is that the enegry cost to pull that water from the air is too great. If it's powered by solar in most instances the average rainfall per square foot is greater than what the machine an collect, meaning two $5 tarps will collect more water than one of these machines. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As many people have said, you can but it’s energy intensive because you are inducing a phase change in water from gas to liquid and in places that are arid there tends not to be much moisture in the air anyways.\n\nBut please, never drink the condensate coming off an air conditioner or dehumidifier not specifically made to produce drinking water, even if you treat it with chemicals. My dim witted cousin was talked into drinking condensate water from an air conditioner “because it was basically distilled water” ( she drinks distilled water on a regular basis and thinks vaccines cause autism). She got legionnaires disease and almost died. She even tried treating the water with hydrogen peroxide before hand just in case there was any bad bacteria which of course didn’t work. So besides the water in air conditioner condensate possibly having high levels of heavy metals, it will most definitely contain bacteria and other organisms that will make you sick.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The quality of water really depends on the dehumidifier itself, but in theory it could produce drinkable water. Though in regards to:\n > is there enough water content in the air to pull liquid water out in places where people don't have enough water to drink? \n\nNo, not really.\nLet's say you have a temperature of 30°C and a humidity of 100%. \nWe then have about 27g of water per kg of air. \nTo get water out of air, we have to reduce the temperature, so that the air gets oversaturated. \nLet's say we cool by 10 degrees (=10K). We now have 14.5g per Kg of water. \nthat means we have a Δ of 27-14.5 = 12.5g per Kg of water. \nThe specific heat capacity of air is 1,005 kJ / (kg K). (lets simplify with 1kJ/kgK) \nSo if you need 1l of water (=1kg), you would need: \n1kg/12.5g = 1kg/0.0125= 80kg of air \n1kJ/(kgK) * 80kg * Δ10K = 800kJ or 222,24Wh \nThen you would have to pump these 80kg of air through the dehumidifier. \n1kg of air is 0.773 m³ or 773.455L, \nso 80 * 777.455L = 62196.4 L \nLet's say we have the goal of producing 1L of water every 4 hours. \nthat means we have to pump 62196.4L/4h = 15549.1L/h \nThat would add at least another 120Wh on our energy total. \n \nSo, but that would all be possible, if energy was literally none of your concern. \nWhat I haven't mentioned yet, is that all of this is under the best possible circumstances. \nFirst of all I assume the theoretical 100% efficience when looking at the energy you might need for the dehumidifier itself. In reality, you would be happy if you got 50% efficiency, effectively doubling the energy consumption. \nThen I assume 100% humidity at 30°C. There's only one place on earth this is regulary the case, and this is a rainforest. In general you can assume that anywhere there's anything near 100% humidity, you don't have any issues with water. \nThen if the humidity drops below that, for example in a desert, where you would need water, you only get water out of the air, if you cool it below the point that air can hold that amount of water. \nIn the mojave desert, humidty is about 10% to 30% at a temperature of 40°C. \nso 15.26 g/kg of water. You now have to reduce the amount that the air could physically hold below 15.26 g/kg. \nWhen cooling the air, first the humidity rises up until 100%. If the air is saturated it releases spare water: \nThat would be at around 20°C ( 14.62 g/kg). Meaning you would have to cool the air by at least 20°C (from 40°C to 20°C) before you see any water. And at 20°C you would have a yield of 15.26g/kg-14.62 g/kg = 0.64g/kg, so basically nothing, you would have to pump 2000kg of air through the dehumidifier to get 1L, that's *1554910L of air*. Simply put: in places without water, the air also has no water. \ntldr.: it could be clean depending on the dehumidifier, but you couldn't generate a meaningfull amount of water with it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "251975",
"title": "Dehumidifier",
"section": "Section::::Condensate.:Disposal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Many portable dehumidifiers can also be adapted to connect the condensate drip output directly to a drain via a hose. Some dehumidifier models can tie into plumbing drains or use a built-in water pump to empty themselves as they collect moisture. Alternatively, a separate condensate pump may be used to move collected water to a disposal location when gravity drainage is not possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31150404",
"title": "Water scarcity in Africa",
"section": "Section::::Addressing the issue.:Solutions and technologies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Moving beyond sanitary waste disposal and pumps, clean water technology can now be found in the form of drinking straw filtration. Used as solution by Water Is Life, the straw is small, portable, and costs US$10 per unit. The filtration device is designed to eliminate waterborne diseases, and as a result, provide safe drinking water for one person for one year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251975",
"title": "Dehumidifier",
"section": "Section::::Maintenance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "If condensate water is handled automatically, most dehumidifiers require very little maintenance. Because of the volume of airflow through the appliance, dust buildup needs to be removed so it does not impede airflow; many designs feature removable and washable air filters. Condensate collection trays and containers may need occasional cleaning to remove debris buildup and prevent clogging of drainage passages, which can cause water leakage and overflow, if large amounts of certain particulates or dust are collected then this may need to be performed more often to avoid microbial growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251975",
"title": "Dehumidifier",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "A dehumidifier is an electrical appliance which reduces and maintains the level of humidity in the air, usually for health or comfort reasons, or to eliminate musty odor and to prevent the growth of mildew by extracting water from the air. It can be used for household, commercial, or industrial applications. Large dehumidifiers are used in commercial buildings such as indoor ice rinks and swimming pools, as well as manufacturing plants or storage warehouses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3187689",
"title": "Detritus",
"section": "Section::::Terrestrial ecosystems.:Consumers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "There is an extremely large number of detritus feeders in water. After all, a large quantity of material is carried in by water currents. Even if an organism stays in a fixed position, as long as it has a system for filtering water, it will be able to obtain enough food to get by. Many rooted organisms survive in this way, using developed gills or tentacles to filter the water to take in food, a process known as filter feeding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251975",
"title": "Dehumidifier",
"section": "Section::::Condensate.:Potability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Food-grade dehumidifiers, also called atmospheric water generators, are designed to avoid toxic metal contamination and to keep all water contact surfaces clean. The devices are primarily intended to produce pure water, and the dehumidifying effect is viewed as secondary to their operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "190450",
"title": "Appropriate technology",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Water and sanitation.:Water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "BULLET::::- Condensation bags and condensation pits can be an appropriate technology to get water, yet yields are low and are (for the amount of water obtained), labour-intensive. Still, it may be a good (very cheap) solution for certain desperate communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
24qxf1
|
why are millennials so obsessed with college and graduate school?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because your boomer parents were, back when college and grad school were both affordable and afforded advantages ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because the kinds of jobs the average millenial wants all require, at minimum, a college degree, and often a graduate degree of some kind. \n\nFor the record, though, the millenial generation includes anyone born between 1982 and 2002 (by most accounts). So, not all millenials are obsessed with college and graduate school. Some of them are obsessed with middle school.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They've spent their entire lives being told that college is the only way to get a good job & that doing any sort of physical labor is below them.\n\nThey get their bachelor's degrees & realize that there just aren't entry-level jobs for new graduates. This gives them two options: they either double down & go get more education or admit that they wasted their time getting a degree and pursue some other career.\n\nThrowing that college away goes against everything the average middle-class kid grew up learning. Becoming a plumber (even though it pays remarkably well) is \"failure\". Few people are willing to go against everything they've been raised to believe & risk disappointing their parents.\n\nThis means that grad school is the only option.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because baby boomers never shut the fuck up about it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1222155",
"title": "Senioritis",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "The College Board, the National Youth Leadership Council, and other youth-serving organizations suggest that there are many ways schools can help young people make the most of their senior year instead of succumbing to the temptation to take it easy once graduation is assured. Giving young people opportunities to make their academic work more meaningful through service-learning, or other forms of experiential education, can increase students' academic aspirations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51351055",
"title": "Kaviyaloor",
"section": "Section::::Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "People have realized the need for education more than anything else. Almost every house has at least one person who is a graduate or a post-graduate. The younger generation has begun looking for both jobs as well as business opportunities in the metropolitan cities in India as well as overseas that has brought about a significant change in the living standards of people. People prefer to send their kids to nearby town schools such as st.michaels matriculation school kattathurai, palliyadi L.M.S, Govt school swamiyarmadam, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51312742",
"title": "First-generation college students in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1171,
"text": "First-generation college students in the United States are college students whose parents did not attend college. Compared with their continuing-generation college student counterparts, first-generation college students tend to be older, come from families with lower incomes, attend college part-time, live off campus, and have more work responsibilities. They represent attendees of a diverse range of types of institutions. Whether by race, culture, or social class, first-generation college students often experience some kind of mismatch between their home environment and the college environment. Throughout the history of the United States, institutions of higher education have symbolized opportunity for social mobility of individuals. In the case of African Americans in the post-Reconstruction era, higher education was seen by some as a means of generating leadership to bring entire oppressed classes to recognition. These students' likelihood to attend college in the first place is highly influenced by their parents' education level; when a parent's education level is higher, the student is likely to enroll in postsecondary education increases as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39913949",
"title": "Bauchi State University",
"section": "Section::::History.:Rationale for the Establishment of the University.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Despite this phenomenal growth, we are likely to continue to witness the establishment of more and more Universities by the Federal and State Governments as well as by private individuals. This is because the number of minimally qualified students continues to grow from the nation's secondary schools which are still expanding their intake from the primary school system where up to 50% of children of primary school going age are still out of school. Even at present only about 20% of applicants to Universities in the country succeed in getting admission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13180488",
"title": "Sexuality in China",
"section": "Section::::Popularization of higher education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "The impact of higher education has been significant. The younger generation may adopt a different sexual ideology from the older generation because they have more opportunities to get exposure to humanities and social sciences. They are more geared toward the pursuit of equality, freedom, and self-realization. At the same time, society pays more and more attention to elite intellectuals such as professors, researchers, lawyers, and policy-making consultants. Their opinions and ideas are expressed to the public in media reports and at conferences. The spreading of knowledge has been the most influential way to eliminate sex discrimination and sex inequality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51312742",
"title": "First-generation college students in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Adult students' experiences.:Online learning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "According to a study of adult first-generation and continuing-generation online college students by Susan Dumais et al., most adult online learners, regardless of parent education level, are confident that they will succeed academically. However, ways that first-generation adult online learners differed from their continuing-generation counterparts in the study included \"greater intrinsic motivation\" to earn their degree and more usage of built-in student support services. Additionally, the first-generation students reported having more demanding work environments and less support from their employers to balance their work responsibilities with their family and academic responsibilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9977526",
"title": "Emerging adulthood and early adulthood",
"section": "Section::::Distinction from young adulthood and adolescence.:Exploration of identity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "People in emerging adulthood that choose to attend college often begin college or university with the worldview they were raised with and learned in childhood and adolescence. However, emerging adults who have attended college or university have been exposed to and have considered different worldviews, and eventually commit to a worldview that is distinct from the worldview with which they were raised by the end of their college or university career.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7r6mqs
|
bank of canada interest rate: why do they raise it, why is it good to raise it (and who for), and why can’t they leave it at 0%?
|
[
{
"answer": "In general, low interest rates help boost the economy because it becomes cheaper to borrow money, which businesses can use to make investments in their business. Consumers can buy homes and other things cheaply. But there is no such thing as a free lunch, low interest rates accelerate the rate of inflation, and can potentially grow the economy too fast making it likely a correction, recession or depression will occur. \n\nHigher interest rates help slow the economy down by reducing borrowing because now borrowing has become more expensive. A business might be willing to borrow money for a high risk venture when interest rates are low, but might be more cautious when borrowing is expensive. A slowing economy can potentially lead to higher unemployment rates, and a lower rate of inflation, potentially even deflation.\n\nThe goal of most central banks is to balance between growing the economy at a steady pace while keeping inflation at a low predictable rate. \n\nIf the central bank's interest rate is 0, the bank can't lower interest rates to help jump start the economy, borrowing is already free. It can't fight inflation with a 0 rate either. So your central bank most likely felt the economy was strong enough that they needed to start raising it. \n\nGradual growing and slowing of the economy is generally preferred over a strong boom/bust cycle.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The central bank wants to maintain a specific amount of inflation, probably 2%. It does this by changing interest rates. Rates that are low help stimulate the economy and brings inflation up to 2%. Raising rates help slow the economy and brings inflation down.\n\nIf they leave it at 0, then the economy may overheat and inflation will go too high.\n\nLow and stable inflation targeting is the philosophy that many central banks try to follow to keep the economy healthy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22652626",
"title": "Global financial crisis in December 2008",
"section": "Section::::Reports of economic activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "On December 9, the Bank of Canada lowered its key interest rate by 0.75% to 1.5%, the lowest it had been since 1958; at the same time the Bank officially announced that Canada's economy was in recession. This move came after the news that Canada lost 70,600 jobs in the month of November, the most since 1982. The official Bank of Canada press release stated that \"[the] outlook for the world economy has deteriorated significantly and the global recession will be broader and deeper than previously anticipated.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3230405",
"title": "Bank of Canada",
"section": "Section::::Framework for unconventional monetary policy measures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "In December 2015, the Bank of Canada forecasted increasing annual growth throughout 2016 and 2017, with the Canadian economy reaching full capacity mid-2017. With this annual growth, the Bank estimated the effective lower bound for its policy interest rate to hit approximately 0.5 per cent. This is differing from the Bank's 2009 assessment of 0.25 per cent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3230405",
"title": "Bank of Canada",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Since the 1980s, the main priority of the Bank of Canada has been keeping inflation low. As part of that strategy, interest rates were kept at a low level for almost seven years in the 1990s. Since September 2010, the key interest rate (overnight rate) was 0.5%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3230405",
"title": "Bank of Canada",
"section": "Section::::Framework for unconventional monetary policy measures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Pushing for short-term interest rates below zero has become common amongst many banks, including ECB and Swiss National Bank. Due to the negative interest rates, these financial markets have adapted when faced with a financial crisis and continue to function. The Bank of Canada believes the Canadian financial market is capable of functioning in a negative interest rate environment and, as such, added it to its toolkit for unconventional monetary policy measures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "270937",
"title": "Gary Doer",
"section": "Section::::Premier.:Financial policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Doer encouraged the Bank of Canada to lower its rates in late 2003, saying that the rising strength of the Canadian dollar in relation to the United States dollar was causing increased unemployment. He later criticized Bank Governor David Dodge for doing nothing to save Canadian jobs and profits. In early 2008, he called for a national strategy to offset the disruptions caused by Canada's soaring dollar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13571049",
"title": "Mark Carney",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Governor of the Bank of Canada.:Financial crisis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "The Bank's decision to provide substantial additional liquidity to the Canadian financial system, and its unusual step of announcing a commitment to keep interest rates at their lowest possible level for one year, appear to have been significant contributors to Canada's weathering of the crisis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7001991",
"title": "Official cash rate",
"section": "Section::::New Zealand.:How the OCR works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "As a result, market interest rates are generally held around the Reserve Bank's OCR level. The practical result, over time, is that when market interest rates increase, people are inclined to spend less on goods and services. This is because their savings get a higher rate of interest and there is an incentive to save; and conversely, people with mortgages and other loans may experience higher interest payments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
25aqkd
|
what's happening on a biological level when my hair sticks up and i can't get it to go down?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's nothing biological. It could be sticking up for a number of reasons, one of which is static electricity. Static electricity comes about when there is an imbalance of positively charged and negatively charged atoms in a system (the system in this case being your hair). When your hair is charged, it will want to spread out away from all the other charged hairs, so it will end up sticking up.\n\nWater helps bring it down because it makes the hair heavier, thus able to resist the force of static electricity more.\n\nWater makes it worse right before bed because it will tend to stick in the same position in which it dries, which is usually a weird position when you are sleeping.\n\nHope this answered your question!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14313",
"title": "Hair",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Hair growth begins inside the hair follicle. The only \"living\" portion of the hair is found in the follicle. The hair that is visible is the hair shaft, which exhibits no biochemical activity and is considered \"dead\". The base of a hair's root (the \"bulb\") contains the cells that produce the hair shaft. Other structures of the hair follicle include the oil producing sebaceous gland which lubricates the hair and the arrector pili muscles, which are responsible for causing hairs to stand up. In humans with little body hair, the effect results in goose bumps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "200129",
"title": "Hair loss",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Drugs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "BULLET::::- Temporary or permanent hair loss can be caused by several medications, including those for blood pressure problems, diabetes, heart disease and cholesterol. Any that affect the body's hormone balance can have a pronounced effect: these include the contraceptive pill, hormone replacement therapy, steroids and acne medications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7172",
"title": "Chemotherapy",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Hair loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "Hair loss (alopecia) can be caused by chemotherapy that kills rapidly dividing cells; other medications may cause hair to thin. These are most often temporary effects: hair usually starts to regrow a few weeks after the last treatment, but sometimes with a change in colour, texture, thickness or style. Sometimes hair has a tendency to curl after regrowth, resulting in \"chemo curls.\" Severe hair loss occurs most often with drugs such as doxorubicin, daunorubicin, paclitaxel, docetaxel, cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide and etoposide. Permanent thinning or hair loss can result from some standard chemotherapy regimens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20672504",
"title": "Scarring hair loss",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "It can be caused by a diverse group of rare disorders that destroy the hair follicle, replace it with scar tissue, and cause permanent hair loss. A variety of distributions are possible. In some cases, hair loss is gradual, without symptoms, and is unnoticed for long periods. In other cases, hair loss is associated with severe itching, burning and pain and is rapidly progressive. The inflammation that destroys the follicle is below the skin surface and there is usually no \"scar\" seen on the scalp. Affected areas of the scalp may show little signs of inflammation, or have redness, scaling, increased or decreased pigmentation, pustules, or draining sinuses. Scarring hair loss occurs in otherwise healthy men and women of all ages and is seen worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26060462",
"title": "Human hair growth",
"section": "Section::::Growth inhibitors and disorders.:Hair loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "Alopecia is a hair loss disease that can occur in anyone at any stage of life. Specifically Alopecia areata is an autoimmune disease that causes hair to spontaneously fall out. It is mainly characterized by bald patches on the scalp or other parts of the body, and can ultimately cause baldness across the entire body. This disease interferes with the hair growth cycle by causing a follicle to prematurely leave the anagen, or active growth, phase and enter the resting, or telogen phase. The hair growth in the affected follicles is lessened or stopped completely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14539122",
"title": "Ophiasis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "This form of hair loss \"...targets the body's own hair follicles, resulting in hair loss...\" and although the immune system could be attacking hair follicle melanocytes, dermal papilla cells, and keratinocytes,” but the foundational cause of this disease is yet to be confirmed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "200129",
"title": "Hair loss",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Trauma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "BULLET::::- Traumas such as childbirth, major surgery, poisoning, and severe stress may cause a hair loss condition known as telogen effluvium, in which a large number of hairs enter the resting phase at the same time, causing shedding and subsequent thinning. The condition also presents as a side effect of chemotherapy – while targeting dividing cancer cells, this treatment also affects hair's growth phase with the result that almost 90% of hairs fall out soon after chemotherapy starts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cemkc2
|
what are the advantages (and disadvantages) of animals having larger males vs larger females?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is based on the type of animals and need to attract or defend. \n\nIn certain types for example bird males are more colorful because they need to attract the females. In this case, females choose the male based on their ability to sing, court, and color. They want to choose the best possible male mate for their babies. \n\nIn fish (only certain species) there are males that are big and more dominant that build spawning grounds and entice females to lay their eggs there. After females choose where to lay their eggs its up to the male to fertilize. There is also a phenomenon of \"sneaky males\" which look like females to trick the dominant male. The sneaky male will then go on to fertilize the eggs as well in hopes that some of the baby fish will be his.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It varies from species to species really. With lions, a single male keeps a pride of females and he is the only one to mate with them. Male lions grow very big because they are essentially brawlers. When a male lion wants to mate, he'll have to fight and beat a pride leader to take over his pride. If a male lion has a pride, he'll have to defend it from all other male lions. So they evolved to be very large for these fights.\n\nThe deep sea is a very dark and lonely place. There is very little nutrition down there so animals tend to be spread out over a vast cold pitch black desert. It can be difficult to find a partner to mate with down there. Angler fish solved this problem by having large females and tiny males. When a male actually finds a female, he bites her to hold on. Over time, the male fuses with the female and obtains it's nutrition from her bloodstream. Eventually the male shrivels until he's hardly more than a pair of testicles hanging from the female to provide her with sperm when needed. That way the female never has to go looking for a mate again.\n\nIn many bird species, males are brightly coloured while females are drab shades of brown. The male needs to show off his fitness by demonstrating that he can produce glorious plumage and still survive while being so conspicuous. The female on the other hand needs to sit on her nest and brood on her eggs, she needs to be small and well camouflaged.\n\nIn many invertebrate species like spiders, the females are larger to be able to better handle the physical demands of producing hundreds or even thousands of eggs.\n\nAnyway as you can see, there is no single reason why males or females grow larger.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "197179",
"title": "Sexual dimorphism",
"section": "Section::::Fish.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "There are cases where males are substantially larger than females. An example is \"Lamprologus callipterus\", a type of cichlid fish. In this fish, the males are characterized as being up to 60 times larger than the females. The male's increased size is believed to be advantageous because males collect and defend empty snail shells in each of which a female breeds. Males must be larger and more powerful in order to collect the largest shells. The female's body size must remain small because in order for her to breed, she must lay her eggs inside the empty shells. If she grows too large, she will not fit in the shells and will be unable to breed. Another example is the dragonet, in which males are considerably larger than females and possess longer fins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39320143",
"title": "Sexual selection in amphibians",
"section": "Section::::Dimorphism and morphology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Size is important in male-male competition, with larger males having an advantage, due to the \"male combat hypothesis\" which suggests that male combative behavior is positively related to male body size. Males in the tusked frog (\"Adelotus brevis\") and the fanged frog (\"Limnonectes kuhlii\") use fangs and tusks as weapons to defend their calling sites. Larger body size and larger weaponry leads to higher reproductive rates. However, data suggest that this male mechanism only operates in superfamily Dentrobatoidea, possibly due to alternative mating techniques that reduce selection pressure on body size. Large African bullfrog (\"Pyxicephalus adspersus\") males defend territories while small intimidated males move away and become satellite males. These smaller males use eavesdropping techniques and mate with females who are in range of their satellite location.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5397527",
"title": "Eastern carpenter bee",
"section": "Section::::Mating behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Larger males are usually more successful in mating. Because of their competitive advantage due to their size, males will likely claim a territory near female nest sites. Smaller males will stay at foraging sites or other areas they think females may pass so they can mate with reduced competition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39328862",
"title": "Sexual selection in spiders",
"section": "Section::::Male to male competition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "Size is a factor in the reproductive success of males with species such as \"Stegodyphus lineatus, Argiope aurantia and Argyroneta aquatica\" showing sexual dimorphism, beneficial for larger males, stronger and more aggressive, who fight off the smaller ones using their large chelicerae and forelegs. This leads to a decrease in the paternal success for smaller males since they are unable to gain access to females. In \"Argiope aurantia\" males can lose legs in combat, with the loss more prevalent in smaller males, evidence that larger males are favored in male-to-male competition. In the water spider \"Argyroneta aquatica\", where males and females permanently live in the water the males are larger, indicating sexual selective pressures for large body size. The large male water spiders are more mobile, helping them obtain more females.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197179",
"title": "Sexual dimorphism",
"section": "Section::::Reproductively advantageous.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Females are larger in many species of insects, many spiders, many fish, many reptiles, owls, birds of prey and certain mammals such as the spotted hyena, and baleen whales such as blue whale. As an example, in some species, females are sedentary, and so males must search for them. Fritz Vollrath and Geoff Parker argue that this difference in behaviour leads to radically different selection pressures on the two sexes, evidently favouring smaller males. Cases where the male is larger than the female have been studied as well, and require alternative explanations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37654",
"title": "Owl",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.:Sexual dimorphism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "A different theory suggests that the size difference between male and females is due to sexual selection: since large females can choose their mate and may violently reject a male's sexual advances, smaller male owls that have the ability to escape unreceptive females are more likely to have been selected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20431688",
"title": "Osmia bicornis",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Sex allocation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 965,
"text": "Female body size is indicative of the sex allocation of offspring. Larger females are able to collect more pollen than smaller females, making larger females less prone to open-cell parasitism while away from the nest. To \"make the best of a bad job\", or counteract the disadvantage they have, smaller females deliberately produce more male offspring and reduce female offspring body size. These changes occur because the smaller females are obtaining less pollen; investing in offspring that require fewer food provisions – males – therefore allows smaller females to combat their handicap. Larger females, in contrast, had more female offspring. In addition to increased foraging efficiency, females hold other advantages over small females, including increased egg production and longevity. Because it does not benefit males to be larger in size, due to the independence of body size on female mating selection, females normally invest more in female offspring.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fa11m
|
How unique are individual animals of the same species?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'd imagine if you were the member of another species of animal you'd see much greater range in phenotype. Many, many species of animal are extremely choosy about who they mate with. Think of peahens and birds of paradise. They notice any minute flaw in a male and will refuse to mate with him. \n\nAlso, think about dogs. I know we've domesticated them and they've been subject to artificial selection, but dog species vary widely in appearance and demeanor and many of them are still closely enough related that they can produce viable offspring. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > There is also a great variety amongst humans that is not typically found in other species.\n\nThat's just because you don't notice the difference in other species as much as you do in humans. It's \"all Asians look the same\" syndrome.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Other animals probably are just as individually unique, it's just we notice differences in humans because that's the way our brain has evolved. We we specialized circuits that analyze human features in faces and the such.\n\nHumans I believe are actually much less genetically variable that most other animals since we are all derived from a small population of early humans after a bottleneck event. We have a single nucleotide polymorphism only once every 1000 base pairs (which is why you see figures like 99.9% identity between humans), and I've been led to believe that the majority of other animals have a great degree of variation, although I can't name a source or remember numbers right now.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unique is not qualifiable. Either things are or are not unique. Individuals, by definition, are unique. \n\nTwins have historically been used to understand environmental effects on phenotypes because they share the same genotypes. They differ in many respects but also which genes are expressed due to the different environments they experience. A good example is the immune system which responds to the unique combination of pathogens and foreign objects an individual experiences.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18071",
"title": "Llama",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "In essential structural characteristics, as well as in general appearance and habits, all the animals of this genus very closely resemble each other, so whether they should be considered as belonging to one, two, or more species is a matter of controversy among naturalists.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12438552",
"title": "EDGE species",
"section": "Section::::Calculating EDGE Scores.:ED.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "Some species are more distinct than others because they represent a larger amount of unique evolution. Species like the aardvark have few close relatives and have been evolving independently for many millions of years. Others like the domestic dog originated only recently and have many close relatives. Species uniqueness’ can be measured as an 'Evolutionary Distinctiveness' (ED) score, using a phylogeny, or evolutionary tree. ED scores are calculated relative to a clade of species descended from a common ancestor. The three clades for which the EDGE of Existence Programme has calculated scores are all classes, namely mammals, amphibians, and corals. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47326",
"title": "Trout",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "There are many species, and even more populations, that are isolated from each other and morphologically different. However, since many of these distinct populations show no significant genetic differences, what may appear to be a large number of species is considered a much smaller number of distinct species by most ichthyologists. The trout found in the eastern United States are a good example of this. The brook trout, the aurora trout, and the (extinct) silver trout all have physical characteristics and colorations that distinguish them, yet genetic analysis shows that they are one species, \"Salvelinus fontinalis\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2339577",
"title": "Evidence of common descent",
"section": "Section::::Evidence from comparative anatomy.:Homologous structures and divergent (adaptive) evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "BULLET::::- In deciding how closely related two animals are, a comparative anatomist looks for structures that are fundamentally similar, even though they may serve different functions in the adult. Such structures are described as homologous and suggest a common origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60073107",
"title": "LOC101928193",
"section": "Section::::Homology and Evolution.:Phylogeny.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "No other species has LOC101928193 in the same form as in humans. Several species within mammals, amphibians, fish, mollusks, cnidarians, fungi, and bacteria have LOC101928193 in a slightly different form with a similarity usually between 30-50%. Several taxonomic groups do not express any proteins or genes similar to LOC101928193 including Archaeans, plants, and several animal species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16773815",
"title": "Myoictis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "The taxonomy for the species was difficult for most biologist to understand. Woolley proposed the names the four different species by recognizing the animal by the morphological differences. While also using genetic testing, scientist have found that \"Myoictis melas\" and \"Myoictis wallacei\" contain a sequence divergence of 12.85%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9334591",
"title": "Koinophilia",
"section": "Section::::Speciation and punctuated equilibria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Biologists from Darwin onwards have puzzled over how whose adult members look extraordinarily alike, and distinctively different from the members of other species. Lions and leopards are, for instance, both large carnivores that inhabit the same general environment, and hunt much the same prey, but look quite different. The question is why intermediates do not exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4rws9h
|
what the is escrow and what does it mean if my mortgage has an escrow shortage?
|
[
{
"answer": "Escrow is a source of funds held by a neutral 3rd party... in the case of your mortgage, it's money you pay as part of your monthly mortgage that's held to pay property taxes (typically paid twice a year) and homeowners insurance (paid annually).\n\nIf you have an escrow shortage, then it likely means that the monthly amount you've been paying into the escrow is less than the upcoming payment from that account will be... ie. if your property taxes have gone up but the monthly payments haven't been adjusted to reflect the increase (something I will personally be dealing with).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "263906",
"title": "Escrow",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Real estate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "In the U.S., escrow payment is a common term referring to the portion of a mortgage payment that is designated to pay for real property taxes and hazard insurance. It is an amount \"over and above\" the principal and interest portion of a mortgage payment. Since the escrow payment is used to pay taxes and insurance, it is referred to as \"T&I\", while the mortgage payment consisting of principal and interest is called \"P&I\". The sum total of all elements is then referred to as \"PITI\", for \"Principal, Interest, Tax, and Insurance\". Some mortgage companies require customers to maintain an escrow account that pays the property taxes and hazard insurance. Others offer it as an option for customers. Some types of loans, most notably Federal Housing Administration (FHA) loans, require the lender to maintain an escrow account for the life of the loan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263906",
"title": "Escrow",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1861,
"text": "Escrow generally refers to money held by a third party on behalf of transacting parties. It is mostly used regarding the purchase of shares of a company. It is best known in the United States in the context of real estate (specifically in mortgages where the mortgage company establishes an escrow account to pay property tax and insurance during the term of the mortgage). Escrow is an account separate from the mortgage account where deposit of funds occurs for payment of certain conditions that apply to the mortgage, usually property taxes and insurance. The escrow agent has the duty to properly account for the escrow funds and ensure that usage of funds is explicitly for the purpose intended. Since a mortgage lender is not willing to take the risk that a homeowner will not pay property tax, escrow is usually required under the mortgage terms. Escrow companies are also commonly used in the transfer of high value personal and business property, like websites and businesses, and in the completion of person-to-person remote auctions (such as eBay), although the advent of new low cost online escrow services has meant that even low-cost transactions are now starting to benefit from use of escrow. In the UK, escrow accounts are often used during private property transactions to hold solicitors' clients' money, such as the deposit, until such time as the transaction completes. Other examples include purchases of a second-hand car, where the money is hold on the name of the buyer in a temporary bank account, deposits for a property rental, where the money is released after the tenant moves out, provision of construction services, where the money may be released when the building work is complete to a defined standard, or when defined parts of the work are complete, perishable food products, sold on live seafood auctions (such as Gfresh).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263906",
"title": "Escrow",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Real estate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "The escrow payment used to pay T&I is a long-term escrow account that may last for years or for the life of the loan. Escrow can also refer to a shorter-term account used to facilitate the closing of a real estate transaction. In this type of escrow, the escrow company holds onto all documents and money related to closing the transaction, rather than having the buyer and the seller deal directly with each other. When and if the transaction is ready to close, the escrow company distributes all funds and documents to their rightful recipients, and records the deed with the appropriate authorities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5394016",
"title": "The One account",
"section": "Section::::Current Account Mortgages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "A low, mortgage-style interest rate is charged on the net balance of the account on a daily basis. Since customers pay their salary into the account this money has the effect of reducing the average balance and, therefore the interest paid when compared with a traditional mortgage. The interest rate used to vary with the Bank of England base rate, however in recent months the One Account interest rate has not decreased along with the bank rate. In June 2008, customers were informed that their mortgage rates would increase by 0.25% to reflect 'current market conditions' although the Bank of England rate had not increased.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46716831",
"title": "Darknet market",
"section": "Section::::Exit scams.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Centralised market escrow means that an individual market may close down and \"exit\" with the buyer's and vendor's cryptocurrency at any given time. This has happened on several occasions such as with BlackBank and most notoriously Evolution who pocketed $12 million of escrowed coins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18390988",
"title": "Causes of the United States housing bubble",
"section": "Section::::Government policies.:Historically low interest rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "In the United States, mortgage rates are typically set in relation to 10-year treasury bond yields, which, in turn, are affected by Federal Funds rates. The Federal Reserve acknowledges the connection between lower interest rates, higher home values, and the increased liquidity the higher home values bring to the overall economy. A Federal Reserve report reads:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263906",
"title": "Escrow",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "Being in escrow is a contractual arrangement in which a third party (the stakeholder or escrow agent) receives and disburses money or property for the primary transacting parties, most generally, used with plentiful terms that conduct the rightful actions that follow. The disbursement is dependent on conditions agreed to by the transacting parties. Examples include an account established by a broker for holding funds on behalf of the broker's principal or some other person until the consummation or termination of a transaction; or, a trust account held in the borrower's name to pay obligations such as property taxes and insurance premiums. The word derives from the Old French word \"\", meaning a scrap of paper or a scroll of parchment; this indicated the deed that a third party held until a transaction was completed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2pwj8i
|
if i can water down a drink (soda, gatorade, "juice") and it's still brightly coloured, why did the manufacture add so much colouring to begin with?
|
[
{
"answer": "The point of the dye is to change the color from something that is probably grotesque/unappealing, to something more matching our expectations based on described flavor. So let's say your cherry drink is really blue, with all of the chemicals in it, before coloring. you add a heap of red, but it doesn't change much. you add a few more heaps of red, and all of a sudden it's purple, not really what you want either, so you keep adding heaps of red until you've finally gotten a red drink. So now you go and add a little bit of water to a little bit of the total drink made, and you will reduce the vibrancy of the drink, but if they added less red to begin with, they'd end up with a different color entirely",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3046511",
"title": "Hi-C",
"section": "Section::::Product lines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "The Hi-C products used to be the color implied by their flavor, but in 2002, Hi-C juice boxes was re-introduced as a yellowish clear beverage that would not stain clothing. Thus, flavors like Shoutin' Orange Tangergreen lost their distinctive colors. The soda fountain versions of Fruit Punch, Poppin' Pink Lemonade and Orange Lavaburst, however, still retain their red, pink and orange colors, respectively. There also is a \"light\" version of Flashin' Fruit Punch that exists for soda fountains. In 2013, the size of the juice boxes was slightly reduced from 6.75 fl oz (200 mL) to 6 fl oz. Starting in 2017, a new logo for the brand has been rolled out. In early 2019, new packaging was released for the drink boxes, and the calories and sugar have been reduced in half by using a new sweetener.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15763023",
"title": "Orange Tundra",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "This mixed drink was first discovered in 2003 and became wildly popular thereafter. This drink's name is largely attributed to its cold serving temperature and orange appearance due to the use of orange juice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1922808",
"title": "Brilliant Blue FCF",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Brilliant Blue FCF dye within beverages items—such as soda—can be used in the blue bottle experiment. In such foods, both the dye and reducing agents are incorporated in the same solution. When the solution is blue, oxygen is present. On the addition of NaOH, a reaction occurs that removes the oxygen, turning the solution clear. The dye turns back to blue once it is reoxidized by swirling the solution, incorporating oxygen from the air as an oxidizing agent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10591",
"title": "Flavor",
"section": "Section::::Flavorants or flavorings.:Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "In one study, adding more red color to a drink increased the perceived sweetness, with darker colored solutions being rated 2–10% better than lighter ones, though it had 1% less sucrose concentration. Food manufacturers exploit this phenomenon; different colors of Froot Loops cereal and most brands of gummy bears often use the same flavorings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19952316",
"title": "Bouvrage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "The company has since introduced two other drinks, one made with blaeberries and the other with strawberries. The latter was not initially possible, since strawberries discoloured and the drink turned brown over time, but the company developed a technique to ensure that the colour of the strawberry juice is maintained as a pale orangey-pink.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "627598",
"title": "Orange drink",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Typically such beverages contain little or no orange juice and are mainly composed of water, sugar or sweeteners, flavor, coloring, and additives, sometimes in that order. As such, they are very low in nutritional value, although many are fortified with vitamin C. In 2002, however, a \"cheap, fortified, orange-flavored drink\" was developed with the intention of improving nutrition in the third world by adding vitamin A, iron, and iodine to people's diets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5537778",
"title": "Leninade",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The soda has been made since the early 2000s, with the earliest signs of its availability being around 2002. It has been described as a lemonade soda that is colored bright red or pink. It is not caffeinated and its ingredients include carbonated water, cane sugar, citric acid, gum acadia, natural and artificial flavor, glyceryl abietate and sodium benzoate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
mf3f3
|
Physics debate on Kennedy Assassination
|
[
{
"answer": "From the hearings:\n\nExcerpts from testimony of Alfred G. Olivier, DVM to Rockefeller Commission, April 18, 1975. Transcript of testimony taken beginning at page 21 of the testimony. Dr. Olivier, (A.) a wound ballistics scientist, is being questioned by Robert Olsen. (Q.)\n\n\nQ. What is your opinion, based upon the expertise that you have acquired in these 18 years at the Edgewood Arsenal in wound ballistics, with respect to the question of the direction from which the bullet came that struck the President in the head?\n\nA. Well, the President in 313, the head appears to have moved slightly forward from the previous frame. Now, I say appears, because unless you measured this precisely you don't know. But it appears to have moved slightly.\n\nAnd this would not be inconsistent with the momentum of the bullet being transferred to the head. Whereas I said a bullet cannot knock a person down or move a body in any violent way, it could conceivably move the head a little bit. We fired at human skulls filled with gelatin sitting on the table, and they would roll off the table. And this apparent side movement of the head is in the correct direction if the bullet came from the book depository.\n\nQ. That is, from the rear of the President?\n\nA. From the rear of the President.\n\nQ. Now, then, what can you tell us with respect to the subsequent action of the President's head and body after that initial apparent slight movement forward?\n\nA. There could be two reasons for it. One reason, there is a jet of blood and brain material from the head, some bone seemed to fly up in the air, but the bulk of it appears to fly forward and maybe slightly to the right. This gives an indication that that is possibly in the direction that the bullet exited from the skull.\n\nQ. Now, was there any movement of the President's head and body associated with that?\n\nA. That material going in that direction would have a tendency as a result of this jet effect to push the head in the other direction. This was demonstrated by Louis Alvarez in California several years ago by shooting melons. When you could get a jet of honeydew melon going out the front, the melon would roll toward the gun, showing that there is some movement from this jet effect.\n\nQ. That also a moderate movement?\n\nA. That would be moderate, yes. Now, most of the movement you see of the President moving backwards and his body moving sideward I believe is a neuromuscular reaction.\n\nAnother factor that could be involved is acceleration of the car. I have no idea of when the car started to accelerate. But at any rate, it is typical of animals or humans struck on the head to have a violent muscular reaction to it. And this is what is appears to me. Certainly the bullet didn't knock him backwards and sideways. This was, I think a neuromuscular reaction. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From the hearings:\n\nExcerpts from testimony of Alfred G. Olivier, DVM to Rockefeller Commission, April 18, 1975. Transcript of testimony taken beginning at page 21 of the testimony. Dr. Olivier, (A.) a wound ballistics scientist, is being questioned by Robert Olsen. (Q.)\n\n\nQ. What is your opinion, based upon the expertise that you have acquired in these 18 years at the Edgewood Arsenal in wound ballistics, with respect to the question of the direction from which the bullet came that struck the President in the head?\n\nA. Well, the President in 313, the head appears to have moved slightly forward from the previous frame. Now, I say appears, because unless you measured this precisely you don't know. But it appears to have moved slightly.\n\nAnd this would not be inconsistent with the momentum of the bullet being transferred to the head. Whereas I said a bullet cannot knock a person down or move a body in any violent way, it could conceivably move the head a little bit. We fired at human skulls filled with gelatin sitting on the table, and they would roll off the table. And this apparent side movement of the head is in the correct direction if the bullet came from the book depository.\n\nQ. That is, from the rear of the President?\n\nA. From the rear of the President.\n\nQ. Now, then, what can you tell us with respect to the subsequent action of the President's head and body after that initial apparent slight movement forward?\n\nA. There could be two reasons for it. One reason, there is a jet of blood and brain material from the head, some bone seemed to fly up in the air, but the bulk of it appears to fly forward and maybe slightly to the right. This gives an indication that that is possibly in the direction that the bullet exited from the skull.\n\nQ. Now, was there any movement of the President's head and body associated with that?\n\nA. That material going in that direction would have a tendency as a result of this jet effect to push the head in the other direction. This was demonstrated by Louis Alvarez in California several years ago by shooting melons. When you could get a jet of honeydew melon going out the front, the melon would roll toward the gun, showing that there is some movement from this jet effect.\n\nQ. That also a moderate movement?\n\nA. That would be moderate, yes. Now, most of the movement you see of the President moving backwards and his body moving sideward I believe is a neuromuscular reaction.\n\nAnother factor that could be involved is acceleration of the car. I have no idea of when the car started to accelerate. But at any rate, it is typical of animals or humans struck on the head to have a violent muscular reaction to it. And this is what is appears to me. Certainly the bullet didn't knock him backwards and sideways. This was, I think a neuromuscular reaction. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37706416",
"title": "Killing Kennedy",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "In \"Killing Kennedy\" the authors narrate the events leading up to the assassination of President Kennedy as well as the event's aftermath. O'Reilly and Dugard also focus on the element of the growing Cold War, Kennedy's attempt to deal with the rise of Communism, and the potential threat from organized crime.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "217346",
"title": "Mark Fuhrman",
"section": "Section::::Post-trial.:Other books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "In 2006, he published \"A Simple Act of Murder: November 22, 1963\" (), about the John F. Kennedy assassination. In it, Fuhrman advanced a theory debunking the Single-bullet theory while still maintaining that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone. He claimed that the Warren Commission was forced to ratify the Single-bullet theory for political reasons. However, he said that a dent in the chrome above the windshield of the presidential limousine used that day vindicated the story told by John Connally that the first shot that hit President John F. Kennedy did not also hit him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "543729",
"title": "John Sherman Cooper",
"section": "Section::::Later service in the Senate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Cooper to the Warren Commission, which was charged with investigating Kennedy's assassination in 1963. Cooper attended 50 of the 94 hearings and rejected the single-bullet theory stating that \"there was no evidence to show that [Kennedy and Texas Governor John Connally] were hit by the same bullet.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3721825",
"title": "John F. Kennedy assassination rifle",
"section": "Section::::Other research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1166,
"text": "In 2008, The Discovery Channel produced a documentary that played out several different versions of the Kennedy Assassination on a dummy that had been specifically designed for ballistics tests, recreating the elevation, wind speed and distance at a California shooting range. Their forensic analysis, backed by computer models, showed that it was most likely that the shot that killed President Kennedy came from the Texas School Book Depository. They also concluded that a shot from the grassy knoll would have completely obliterated Kennedy's skull, contrary to what is seen in the Zapruder Film. However, in this conclusion they assumed that an assassin on the grassy knoll would have used hollow point ammunition, which expands on impact to maximize damage. Thereafter, they attempted a second shot from the grassy knoll position, using a solid round. Analysis revealed that this bullet would have passed through Kennedy's skull from right to left, causing an exit wound on the left-hand side of the skull that did not match any postmortem reports. They also suggested that the bullet trajectory from this shot would have struck and likely killed Mrs. Kennedy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10663147",
"title": "Assassination of John F. Kennedy in popular culture",
"section": "Section::::In books.:Comic books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "In the 2008-2009 series \"\" by Gerard Way and Gabriel Bá, the Kennedy assassination is a central plot element. The series initially takes place in a timeline where the assassination never happened, until an organisation of time-travelling assassins go back to 1963 to kill Kennedy. When the Umbrella Academy intercept the gunmen, The Rumour, disguised as Jacqueline Kennedy, uses her powers to make Kennedy's head explode. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39494933",
"title": "September 1964",
"section": "Section::::September 18, 1964 (Friday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Warren Commission, charged with investigating the 1963 assassination of President John F. Kennedy, held its final meeting before the scheduled September 24 submission date of its report to U.S. President Johnson. While the Commission would vote to accept the \"single-bullet theory\" endorsed by the staff's investigators (that the bullet from the first gunshot that struck the President also struck Texas Governor John Connally), the majority would turn out later to have been 4 to 3. Earl Warren, Gerald R. Ford, Allen Dulles and John J. McCloy endorsed the conclusion, while Hale Boggs, John Sherman Cooper and Richard Russell Jr. \"thought it improbable\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "367801",
"title": "Arlen Specter",
"section": "Section::::Early political career.:Involvement with the Warren Commission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "Specter worked for Lyndon Johnson's Warren Commission, which investigated the assassination of John F. Kennedy, at the recommendation of Representative Gerald Ford, who was then one of the Commissioners. As an assistant for the commission, he co-wrote the proposal of the \"single bullet theory\", which suggested the non-fatal wounds to Kennedy and wounds to Texas Governor John Connally were caused by the same bullet. This was a crucial assertion for the Warren Commission, since if the two had been wounded by separate bullets within such a short time frame, that would have demonstrated the presence of a second assassin and therefore a conspiracy. The United States House Select Committee on Assassinations published their report in 1979 stating that their \"forensic pathology panel's conclusions were consistent with the so-called single bullet theory advanced by the Warren Commission\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9pzeur
|
Since all the plates are constanly moving, will there ever be a time where the continents will move into eachother and form a new supercontinent?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes. The exact arrangement of the next supercontinent is debated, with layouts such as \"Amasia\" and \"Pangea Ultima\" proposed, depending mainly on whether subduction zones form at the edge of the Atlantic Ocean or not. But another supercontinent of some sort is very likely in future.\n\nAnd yes, rifting can split a plate in two. Africa and South America were once one continent on one plate. In the current era, East Africa is in the process of splitting off from the rest of the continent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As /u/cantab314 said, it is indeed estimated that another supercontinent is in the works. However one must keep in mind that predictions of the future about chaos-driven processes such as those of geology are by definition tentative.\n\nHowever, a few facts must be put on the table first: there have been several times in our planets history where all continental plates were connected. Most people only ever heard of Pangea, but there were a bunch. Some of these supercontinents are better documented than others (the older they are, the less we know about them), but there have been quite a few: \n\n* Pangaea\n\n* Pannotia (600–545 million years ago)\n\n* Rodinia (1.1 Ga–750 million years ago)\n\n* Columbia (1.8–1.5 Ga ago)\n\n* Kenorland (2.7 Ga ago)\n\n* Ur (3 Ga ago)\n\nThus, there is nothing particularly special about supercontinents in and of themselves, and no particular reason why yet another one might not occur at some indeterminate time in our future.\n\nAs to the other question (\"*Also can new plates form from one plate splitting?*\"), the answer is that yes, it sort of happens all the time. For instance, each one of the previous supercontinents eventually broke up in a bunch of sub-plates. The process involved is \"rifting\" and it is active even today, in eastern Africa, where the appropriately named [\"Great rift valley\"](_URL_1_) is actively involved in volcanic activity and crustal doming and thinning which may eventually split eastern Africa apart, from the Afar triangle to somewhere in Mozambique.\n\nThe two basic mechanisms behind [plate tectonics](_URL_0_) are rifting/extensional tectonics and subduction. [Rifting](_URL_2_) creates new crust while [subduction](_URL_3_) destroys/recycles older material.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24944",
"title": "Plate tectonics",
"section": "Section::::Plate reconstruction.:Formation and break-up of continents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "The movement of plates has caused the formation and break-up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a supercontinent that contains most or all of the continents. The supercontinent Columbia or Nuna formed during a period of and broke up about . The supercontinent Rodinia is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago and to have embodied most or all of Earth's continents, and broken up into eight continents around . The eight continents later re-assembled into another supercontinent called Pangaea; Pangaea broke up into Laurasia (which became North America and Eurasia) and Gondwana (which became the remaining continents).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19630739",
"title": "Continent",
"section": "Section::::Geology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "The movement of plates has caused the formation and break-up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a supercontinent that contains most or all of the continents. The supercontinent Columbia or Nuna formed during a period of 2.0–1.8 billion years ago and broke up about 1.5–1.3 billion years ago. The supercontinent Rodinia is thought to have formed about 1 billion years ago and to have embodied most or all of Earth's continents, and broken up into eight continents around 600 million years ago. The eight continents later re-assembled into another supercontinent called Pangaea; Pangaea broke up into Laurasia (which became North America and Eurasia) and Gondwana (which became the remaining continents).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24179592",
"title": "Future of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Geodynamics.:Continental drift.:Introversion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "As this scenario continues, by 100 million years from the present, the continental spreading will have reached its maximum extent and the continents will then begin to coalesce. In 250 million years, North America will collide with Africa. South America will wrap around the southern tip of Africa. The result will be the formation of a new supercontinent (sometimes called Pangaea Ultima), with the Pacific Ocean stretching across half the planet. Antarctica will reverse direction and return to the South Pole, building up a new ice cap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23645",
"title": "Precambrian",
"section": "Section::::Precambrian supercontinents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "The movement of Earth's plates has caused the formation and break-up of continents over time, including occasional formation of a supercontinent containing most or all of the landmass. The earliest known supercontinent was Vaalbara. It formed from proto-continents and was a supercontinent 3.636 billion years ago. Vaalbara broke up c. 2.845–2.803 Ga ago. The supercontinent Kenorland was formed c. 2.72 Ga ago and then broke sometime after 2.45–2.1 Ga into the proto-continent cratons called Laurentia, Baltica, Yilgarn craton, and Kalahari. The supercontinent Columbia or Nuna formed 2.06–1.82 billion years ago and broke up about 1.5–1.35 billion years ago. The supercontinent Rodinia is thought to have formed about 1.13–1.071 billion years ago, to have embodied most or all of Earth's continents and to have broken up into eight continents around 750–600 million years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24179592",
"title": "Future of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Geodynamics.:Continental drift.:Extroversion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "In an extroversion model, the closure of the Pacific Ocean would be complete in about 350 million years. This marks the completion of the current supercontinent cycle, wherein the continents split apart and then rejoin each other about every 400–500 million years. Once the supercontinent is built, plate tectonics may enter a period of inactivity as the rate of subduction drops by an order of magnitude. This period of stability could cause an increase in the mantle temperature at the rate of every 100 million years, which is the minimum lifetime of past supercontinents. As a consequence, volcanic activity may increase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11603215",
"title": "Geological history of Earth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years, continents formed and broke apart. They migrated across the surface, occasionally combining to form a supercontinent. Roughly , the earliest-known supercontinent Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, , then finally Pangaea, which broke apart .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21494511",
"title": "Olympic-Wallowa Lineament",
"section": "Section::::Broader context.:Subduction of the Farallon and Kula Plates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 702,
"text": "Roughly 205 million years ago (during the Jurassic period) the Pangaea supercontinent began to break up as a rift separated the North American Plate from what is now Europe, and pushed it west against the Farallon Plate. During the subsequent Cretaceous Period (144 to 66 Ma ago) the entire Pacific coast of North America, from Alaska to Central America, was a subduction zone. The Farallon plate is notable for having been very large, and for subducting nearly horizontally under much of the United States and Mexico; it is likely connected with the Laramide Orogeny. About 85 Ma ago the part of the Farallon plate from approximately California to the Gulf of Alaska separated to form the Kula Plate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ndkka
|
Did any of Leonardo Da Vinci's research actually lead to technological advancement, or was it all lost until it became irrelevant?
|
[
{
"answer": "I actually wrote a paper on this last year, which allows me the delicious pretentiousness of quoting myself.\n\n**TL;DR:** His rediscovered papers helped design a surgical robot in the late 1990s, and improved a specific type of heart surgery in the early 2000s. (**Edit:** And, as others have pointed out, not much else.)\n\n**On the subject of Leonardo's research being lost until too late, for those unfamiliar:**\n\nUpon Leonardo's death in 1519, his student Melzi took possession of his notes but the dense content proved impossible to prepare for publication. No small part of the blame here may be laid at the doorstep of the master himself, for Leonardo’s style was difficult at best.\n\nHe is well-known for his “mirrored” handwriting, with the notes moving from right to left across the page, but that was only the first layer of the problem. He used no punctuation, invented his own shorthand as well as compounding and dividing words at apparent random, and even formed letters of the alphabet in his own personal way. Oftentimes he eschewed the written word completely in favor of multi-page sequences of hand-drawn images, which like his writing ran backwards from right to left.\n\nAnd of course the knowledge contained within this labyrinthine set of documentation was revolutionary for the time: in scientific terms only a few others on the planet would have been able to follow along Leonardo’s path of analysis with true understanding and comprehension, and even thirty years after Leonardo’s death the scholar Vasari referred to him as heretical.\n\nIt would have taken a unique person to decipher Leonardo’s notes, make sense of the findings within, organize and compile them into something suitable for publication, and then have the bravery to publish in an inimical political and religious climate—and perhaps in the end there was no one better suited to accomplish this than Leonardo himself. Our best hope at the time was the aforementioned student, Francesco Melzi, who made a valiant attempt but found himself adrift in the eighteen volumes of notes Leonardo left him. Even with two assistants to help process the deluge and forty years of effort, he was overwhelmed, and upon his death in 1568 the studies ended up passing from person to person throughout the centuries, never fully appreciated or understood, until finally being published in 1900 after the surviving folios made their way to London and the Royal Collection.\n\nTheir significance was immediately recognized, but “by then, their power to affect the progress of anatomical knowledge had long passed.” \n\n**On the subject of whether or not any of it is still useful:**\n\nOne of Leonardo's modern-day proponents is a British heart surgeon, Francis Wells. Doctor Wells specializes in mitral valve repair operations. Typically, this type of repair is accomplished by narrowing the valve’s diameter to restrict backflow, but after studying Leonardo’s anatomical analyses of the heart, the surgeon discovered there was a better way, thanks to Leonardo’s identification of the opening phase of the valve’s movement as crucial to the overall cycle. With this new knowledge, Doctor Wells has modified his mitral valve repair procedures and successfully treated 80 patients (**Edit:** /u/ItsAConspiracy found a [more recent source](_URL_1_) upping this number to 2,000+), restoring them to a quality of life previously not possible. He suggests, “Leonardo had a depth of appreciation of the anatomy and physiology of the body—its structure and function—that perhaps has been overlooked by some,” and is studying the rest of Leonardo’s anatomical work in hopes of finding other refinements to modern procedures.\n\nEven more compelling is Leonardo’s influence on the cutting edge of modern medicine—the development of precision robots to assist in surgical procedures. Leonardo himself, despite his prescience in so many other technological areas, may have been surprised to learn that since 1983, some surgeries have been accomplished with robotic tools. There is some reason to think Leonardo may have anticipated this eventuality, however; in 1495, Leonardo designed and built one of the first humanoid robots, a mechanical knight capable of sitting up, turning his head, and waving his arms, all in time to the sounds of artificial drums. When modern-day robotics expert Mark Rosenheim set out to duplicate this robot, it took him five years of work, and in his research he discovered:\n\n > Leonardo’s anatomical drawings were unique and gave him the information needed to emulate the complex joints and muscles of the human body. The wrist joint, which is one of the body’s most complicated joints, presented challenges to robot design. However, Leonardo’s principles enabled engineers to construct a suitable model. It is from these and other experiments that the first prototype for robotic surgery was developed.\n\nAnd so in 1998, the first da Vinci robot-assisted surgery, a heart bypass, was performed, inaugurating a career for the telepresence tool that has resulted in over 200,000 surgeries performed by a robot designed in part with the help of Leonardo’s anatomical studies. Each of these procedures was safer, faster, and less invasive compared to the non-robotically-assisted alternative, and each patient has Leonardo’s work to thank for their speedy and comfortable recovery. As of 2009, there are over 1,600 da Vinci robots installed worldwide, performing minimally-invasive laparoscopic surgeries to treat heart, prostate, kidney, bladder, and testicular issues, from malignant tumor removal to complete organ transplant. \n\n**Sources**\n\nKeele, Kenneth D., “Leonardo da Vinci’s Influence on Renaissance Anatomy,” Medical History 8, no. 4 (1964): 362, doi:10.1017/S0025727300029835\n\nClayton, Martin, \"Medicine: Leonardo's anatomy years,\" Nature 484, no. 7394 (April 19, 2012): 314, doi:10.1038/484314a\n\nDa Vinci clue for heart surgeon, BBC News, last modified September 28, 2005, _URL_0_\n\nYates, David R., Christophe Vaessen, and Morgan Roupret, \"From Leonardo to da Vinci: the history of robot-assisted surgery in urology,\" BJU International 108, no. 11 (December 2011): 1708-1713, doi: 10.1111/j.1464-410X.2011.10576.x\n\nA. R. Rao, et al, \"Leonardo da Vinci and His Contribution to Medicine and Urology,\" Auanews 14, no. 5 (May 2009): 25-26, Academic Search Complete, EBSCOhost.\n\n**Edit:** Corrected a typo in a year-old paper. Sigh.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "He designed a bridge to cross the Golden Horn in Istanbul, but it wasn't constructed at the time because the Sultan thought it would be impossible. \nLo and behold, in 2006 a bridge with Leonardo's exact measurements, based on his design, was finally built and is currently in use. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9282401",
"title": "Science and inventions of Leonardo da Vinci",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "While the full extent of his scientific studies has only become recognized in the last 150 years, he was, during his lifetime, employed for his engineering and skill of invention. Many of his designs, such as the movable dikes to protect Venice from invasion, proved too costly or impractical. Some of his smaller inventions entered the world of manufacturing unheralded. As an engineer, Leonardo conceived ideas vastly ahead of his own time, conceptually inventing the parachute, the helicopter, an armored fighting vehicle, the use of concentrated solar power, a calculator, a rudimentary theory of plate tectonics and the double hull . In practice, he greatly advanced the state of knowledge in the fields of anatomy, astronomy, civil engineering, optics, and the study of water (hydrodynamics).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7709883",
"title": "Leonardo da Vinci: The Flights of the Mind",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "The book researches the life of Leonardo da Vinci in Tuscane and explores the reasons of his historic success. The author's main observation is that most of da Vinci's work was unfinished. Through a thorough research, the author dismisses most of the romanticized facts about da Vinci and concludes that a lot is unknown about the genius inventor. Da Vinci is described as an engineer obsessed with natural designs. \"Washington Post\" writer Alexander Nagel criticized Nicholl's technical analysis of the inventor's paintings that lack insight and misses an opportunity to push deeper into the mind of da Vinci.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23468036",
"title": "History of weapons",
"section": "Section::::Early-Modern Period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Leonardo da Vinci journeyed to Mantua, he resided there for a while and then went from there to Venice. The danger from Turkish fleet was looming on the city, which inspired him to come up with another invention, something like a submarine and a snorkel and diving suit for underwater saboteurs. But the Venetians thought it was not required. So he went back to Florence, and in the year 1502, Valentino chose Leonardo da Vinci as his engineer general. Leonardo sketched new devices for war, something like pointed artillery projectile, bearing very close resemblance to an aerial bomb.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "78971",
"title": "Fritjof Capra",
"section": "Section::::Bibliography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"The Science of Leonardo: Inside the Mind of the Great Genius of the Renaissance\" (2007). Its central idea is that Leonardo da Vinci's science is a science of living forms, of quality, which can be seen as a distant forerunner of today's complexity and systems theories. The book has been published in 7 editions in 5 languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18079",
"title": "Leonardo da Vinci",
"section": "Section::::Fame and reputation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "The interest in Leonardo's genius has continued unabated; experts study and translate his writings, analyse his paintings using scientific techniques, argue over attributions and search for works which have been recorded but never found. Liana Bortolon, writing in 1967, said: \"Because of the multiplicity of interests that spurred him to pursue every field of knowledge ... Leonardo can be considered, quite rightly, to have been the universal genius par excellence, and with all the disquieting overtones inherent in that term. Man is as uncomfortable today, faced with a genius, as he was in the 16th century. Five centuries have passed, yet we still view Leonardo with awe.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14973076",
"title": "Medical Renaissance",
"section": "Section::::Individuals.:Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1568,
"text": "Leonardo da Vinci made many contributions in the fields of science and technology. His research centered around his desire to learn more about how the human brain processes visual and sensory information and how that connects to the soul. Though his artwork was widely observed before, some of his original research was not made public until the 20th century. Some of da Vinci's research involved studying vision. He believed that visual information entered the body through the eye, then continued by sending nerve impulses through the optic nerve, and eventually reaching the soul. Da Vinci subscribed to the ancient notion that the soul was housed in the brain. He did research on the role of the spinal cord in humans by studying frogs. He noted that as soon as the frogs medulla of the spine is broken, the frog would die. This led him to believe that the spine is the basis for the sense of touch, cause of movement, and the origin of nerves. As a result of his studies on the spinal cord, he also came to the conclusion that all peripheral nerves begin from the spinal cord. Da Vinci also did some research on the sense of smell. He is credited with being the first to define the olfactory nerve as one of the cranial nerves. Leonardo da Vinci made his anatomical sketches based on observing and dissecting 30 cadavers. His sketches were very detailed and included organs, muscles of superior extremity, the hand, and the skull. Leonardo was well known for his three-dimensional drawings. His anatomical drawings were not found until 380 years after his death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "105355",
"title": "Biomechanics",
"section": "Section::::History.:Renaissance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 978,
"text": "The next major biomechanic would not be around until 1452, with the birth of Leonardo da Vinci. Da Vinci was an artist and mechanic and engineer. He contributed to mechanics and military and civil engineering projects. He had a great understanding of science and mechanics and studied anatomy in a mechanics context. He analyzed muscle forces and movements and studied joint functions. These studies could be considered studies in the realm of biomechanics. Leonardo da Vinci studied anatomy in the context of mechanics. He analyzed muscle forces as acting along lines connecting origins and insertions, and studied joint function. Da Vinci tended to mimic some animal features in his machines. For example, he studied the flight of birds to find means by which humans could fly; and because horses were the principal source of mechanical power in that time, he studied their muscular systems to design machines that would better benefit from the forces applied by this animal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
] | null |
5eykrs
|
how are subtitles created for films?
|
[
{
"answer": "You give someone the film and a copy of the script, and they type out the subtitles/CC. It's a lot of work, I've done it for a few 10min videos on YouTube and it took hours. However, YouTube can auto-generate captions and you can edit those, which drastically reduces the time required, but it still takes a while. \n \nThis is why the subtitles/CC are sometimes slightly different for a few lines, the person typing them out just used the script and when films the actor slightly changed the line by mistake and ge director though it was minor enough that it didn't require a re-shoot.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8860",
"title": "Dubbing (filmmaking)",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives.:Dubbing and subtitling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 264,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 264,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "In Bulgaria, television series are dubbed, but most television channels use subtitles for action and drama movies. AXN uses subtitles for its series, but as of 2008 emphasizes dubbing. Only Diema channels dub all programs. Movies in theaters, with the exception of films for children, use dubbing and subtitles. Dubbing of television programs is usually done using voiceovers, but usually, voices professional actors, while trying to give each character a different voice by using appropriate intonations. Dubbing with synchronized voices is rarely used, mostly for animated films. \"Mrs. Doubtfire\" is a rare example of a feature film dubbed this way on BNT Channel 1, though a subtitled version is currently shown on other channels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7224224",
"title": "Subtitle",
"section": "Section::::Translation.:Subtitles vs. dubbing and lectoring.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "In many Latin American countries, local network television will show dubbed versions of English-language programs and movies, while cable stations (often international) more commonly broadcast subtitled material. Preference for subtitles or dubbing varies according to individual taste and reading ability, and theaters may order two prints of the most popular films, allowing moviegoers to choose between dubbing or subtitles. Animation and children's programming, however, is nearly universally dubbed, as in other regions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8860",
"title": "Dubbing (filmmaking)",
"section": "Section::::Global use.:Europe.:Kids/Family films and programming.:Portugal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 1371,
"text": "While on TV, children's shows and movies are always dubbed, in cinemas, films with a clear juvenile target can be found in two versions, one dubbed (identified by the letters V.P. for \"versão portuguesa\" - \"Portuguese version\") and another subtitled version (V.O. for \"versão original\" - \"original version\"). This duality applies only to juvenile films. Others use subtitles only. While the quality of these dubs is recognized (some have already received international recognition and prizes), original versions with subtitles are usually preferred by the adults (\"Bee Movie\", for example). Dubbing cartoons aimed at adults (such as \"The Simpsons\" or \"South Park\") is less common. When \"The Simpsons Movie\" debuted in Portugal, most cinemas showed both versions (V.O. and V.P.), but in some small cities, cinemas decided to offer only the Portuguese version, a decision that led to public protest. Presently, live action series and movies are always shown in their original language format with Portuguese subtitles. Television programs for young children (such as \"Power Rangers\", \"Goosebumps\", \"Big Bad Beetleborgs\", etc.) are dubbed into European Portuguese. Some video games aimed at adults (such as God of War III, Halo 3, Assassin's Creed III and inFamous 2) are dubbed in European Portuguese, although there they provide an option to select the original language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8860",
"title": "Dubbing (filmmaking)",
"section": "Section::::Alternatives.:Subtitles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 260,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 260,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "In the Netherlands, Flanders, Nordic countries, Estonia and Portugal, films and television programmes are shown in the original language (usually English) with subtitles, and only cartoons and children's movies and programs are dubbed, such as the \"Harry Potter\" series, \"Finding Nemo\", \"Shrek\", \"Charlie and the Chocolate Factory\" and others. Cinemas usually show both a dubbed version and one with subtitles for this kind of movie, with the subtitled version shown later in the evening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24946015",
"title": "Subtitle editor",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "In television, subtitles are used for \"clarification, translation, services for the deaf, as well as identifying places or people in the news.\" In movies, subtitles are mainly used for translations from foreign languages. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8860",
"title": "Dubbing (filmmaking)",
"section": "Section::::Global use.:Europe.:Kids/Family films and programming.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "In the United Kingdom, the vast majority of foreign language films are subtitled, although mostly animated films and TV programmes are dubbed in English. These usually originate from North America, as opposed to being dubbed locally. There have, however, been notable examples of films and TV programmes successfully dubbed in the UK, such as the Japanese \"Monkey\" and French \"Magic Roundabout\" series. When airing films on television, channels in the UK often choose subtitling over dubbing, even if a dubbing in English exists. It is also a fairly common practice for animation aimed at preschool children to be re-dubbed with British voice actors replacing the original voices, such as Spin Master Entertainment's Paw Patrol series, although this is not done with shows aimed at older audiences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8860",
"title": "Dubbing (filmmaking)",
"section": "Section::::Global use.:Europe.:General films and programming.:France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "In France, movies and TV series are, except purely arthouse films, usually released in the dubbed French language version. The original language version of the film with French subtitles is released in designated theaters which show only subtitled versions or both versions are shown at different times or split screenings between both versions. However, dubbing is the norm and subtitling is only for niche audience and movies with subtitles are usually very small arthouse films with very limited commercial prospects for pay and free TV airings and also home entertainment (VOD, DVD). Dubbing in the French Language is thus absolutely essential for any sale to be made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lfej2
|
the relationship between pressure and density in a fluid.
|
[
{
"answer": "Because barometers measure pressure, so it makes sense to use the most direct qualifier to describe the air, instead of putting it through an unnecessary conversion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3032798",
"title": "Wet gas",
"section": "Section::::Wet gas measurement terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Gas is compressible and the density changes significantly with changes in pressure. Liquids, on the other hand, are considered to be incompressible and so their density does not tend to change with a change in pressure. If the pressure of a wet gas system increases, the density of the gas will increase but the density of the liquid will not change. The densities of the flow components are an important consideration in flow measurement as they relate to the actual mass quantities of the fluids present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2711593",
"title": "Well control",
"section": "Section::::Fluid pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 814,
"text": "The fluid is any substance that flows; e.g., oil, water, gas and ice are all examples of fluids. Under extreme pressure and temperature, almost anything acts as a fluid. Fluids exert pressure, and this pressure comes from the density and height of the fluid column. Oil companies typically measure density in pounds per gallon (ppg) or kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m) and pressure measurement in pounds per square inch (psi) or bar or pascal (Pa). Pressure increases with fluid density. To find out the amount of pressure fluid of a known density exerts per unit length, the pressure gradient is used. The pressure gradient is defined as the pressure increase per unit of depth due to its density and it is usually measured in pounds per square inch per foot or bars per meter. It is expressed mathematically as;\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12092048",
"title": "Capillary length",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "The pressure of a static fluid does not depend on the shape, total mass or surface area of the fluid. It is directly proportional to the fluid's specific weight – the force exerted by gravity over a specific volume, and its vertical height. However, a fluid also experiences pressure that is induced by surface tension, commonly referred to as the Young-Laplace pressure. Surface tension originates from cohesive forces between molecules, and in the bulk of the fluid, molecules experience attractive forces from all directions. The surface of a fluid is curved because exposed molecules on the surface have fewer neighbouring interactions, resulting in a net force that contracts the surface. There exists a pressure difference either side of this curvature, and when this balances out the pressure due to gravity, one can rearrange to find the capillary length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12704078",
"title": "Base conditions",
"section": "Section::::Pressure and temperature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The density of both gases and liquids depends on the pressure and temperature of the fluid. Thus volumes measured in cold conditions or in pressurised conditions will be lower than the same mass of fluid at warmer or depressurised conditions. This fact gives rise to the necessity of choosing a benchmark pressure and temperature in which all 'net' volumes will be expressed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1614121",
"title": "Barotropic fluid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "A fluid which is not barotropic is baroclinic, i. e., pressure is not the only factor to determine density. For a barotropic fluid or a barotropic flow (such as a barotropic atmosphere), the baroclinic vector is zero.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23619",
"title": "Pressure",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Liquid pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Liquid pressure also depends on the density of the liquid. If someone was submerged in a liquid more dense than water, the pressure would be correspondingly greater. thus we can say that the depth, density and liquid pressure are directly proportionate. The pressure due to a liquid in liquid columns of constant density or at a depth within a substance is represented by the following formula:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33914934",
"title": "Vertical pressure variation",
"section": "Section::::Basic formula.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "When density and gravity are approximately constant (that is, for relatively small changes in height), simply multiplying height difference, gravity, and density will yield a good approximation of pressure difference. Where different fluids are layered on top of one another, the total pressure difference would be obtained by adding the two pressure differences; the first being from point 1 to the boundary, the second being from the boundary to point 2; which would just involve substituting the and values for each fluid and taking the sum of the results. If the density of the fluid varies with height, mathematical integration would be required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3acvbd
|
Armistice was 11 o'clock on the 11th of November. How widespread (immediate) among the trenches was this, and is there any evidence that commanders ordered unnecessary assaults?
|
[
{
"answer": "The armstice was actually reached at 5am in the morning that day, to be enacted at 11am. So there was a 6 hour delay to allow the implementation of the truce. The armstice was announced in Paris at 9am, and in London around 10:20 am. Allied artillery continue to fire on the Germans even after the truce was announced, so that they would be in better positions should the fighting restart. \n\nThe last soldiers killed were, as per the wikipedia article:\n\n > > Augustin Trébuchon was the last Frenchman to die when he was shot on his way to tell fellow soldiers that hot soup would be served after the ceasefire. He was killed at 10:45 am. The last soldier from the UK to die, George Edwin Ellison of the 5th Royal Irish Lancers, was killed earlier that morning at around 9:30 am while scouting on the outskirts of Mons, Belgium. The final Canadian, and Commonwealth, soldier to die, Private George Lawrence Price, was shot and killed by a sniper just two minutes before the armistice to the north of Mons at 10:58 am, to be recognized as one of the last killed with a monument to his name. And finally, American Henry Gunther is generally recognized as the last soldier killed in action in World War I. He was killed 60 seconds before the armistice came into force while charging astonished German troops who were aware the Armistice was nearly upon them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > How widespread (immediate) among **the trenches** was this\n\n/u/DeSoulis has covered when the armistice was received, but it's worth pointing out that aside from the lines south of the Argonne Forest, where there had been little major fighting since 1914, there were no more trenches. Fighting had become mobile once again, and the Allied armies were barrelling towards the German frontier.\n\n > is there any evidence that commanders ordered unnecessary assaults\n\nA controversial topic, but considering that there were fears that the armistice might not last, or that the fighting would not stop, Allied commanders wanted to inflict as much loss on the enemy, and recover as much occupied territory as possible, before the German Armies (hypothetically) stood down and 'were allowed to go home.' Most commanders gave notice of the Armistice time, and advised that attacks should be avoided if they promised to involve heavy losses; for example, Arthur Currie, GOC Canadian Corps, at Mons.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "92231",
"title": "Armistice Day",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "Armistice Day is commemorated every year on 11 November to mark the armistice signed between the Allies of World War I and Germany at Compiègne, France at 5:45 am, for the cessation of hostilities on the Western Front of World War I, which took effect at eleven o'clock in the morning—the \"eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month\" of 1918. But, according to Thomas R. Gowenlock, an intelligence officer with the US First Division, shelling from both sides continued for the rest of the day, only ending at nightfall. The armistice initially expired after a period of 36 days and had to be extended several times. A formal peace agreement was only reached when the Treaty of Versailles was signed the following year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "763514",
"title": "Armistice of 11 November 1918",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "The British public was notified of the armistice by a subjoined official communiqué issued from the Press Bureau at 10:20 a.m., when British Prime Minister David Lloyd George announced: \"The armistice was signed at five o'clock this morning, and hostilities are to cease on all fronts at 11 a.m. to-day.\" An official communique was published by the United States at 2:30 pm: \"In accordance with the terms of the Armistice, hostilities on the fronts of the American armies were suspended at eleven o'clock this morning.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "763514",
"title": "Armistice of 11 November 1918",
"section": "Section::::Negotiation process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "The Armistice was agreed upon at 5:00 a.m. on 11 November 1918, to come into effect at 11:00 a.m. Paris time (noon German time), for which reason the occasion is sometimes referred to as \"the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month\". Signatures were made between 5:12 a.m. and 5:20 a.m., Paris time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53740695",
"title": "The Arlington Times",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "On November 7, 1918, \"The Times\" published an erroneous dispatch from the United Press Association announcing that the ongoing war had ceased and an armistice was to be signed later in the day. The dispatch was actually reporting on a temporary ceasefire while German delegates arrived in Paris to negotiate an armistice, which was reached five days later. The article triggered celebrations in the city, including the hoisting of a wooden coffin for Kaiser Wilhelm II, and continued into the night despite the dispatch being rescinded. A celebration was also held for the actual armistice days later with 3,000 residents and visitors who doubled the city's population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20167671",
"title": "Augustin Trébuchon",
"section": "Section::::Memorial and burial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "The date on his memorial at Malzieu-Forain and in the village records is 10 November 1918. The Germans had asked for an armistice on 9 November and it came into effect on 11 November. Nobody knows who ordered the death date to be changed, but it is said to be so for all French soldiers who died on 11 November. Speculation that the army was ashamed of sending men into battle knowing the armistice had already been agreed grew when the 115th Infantry Regiment was not invited to the victory parade through Paris on 14 July 1919.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32817844",
"title": "Two Minutes Silence",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "On Armistice Day, some years after World War I has ended, four people gather in General Gresham's London drawing room. As the clock strikes eleven, they think back to their experiences of the way. Mrs Trott (Ethel Gabriel), a charlady, recalls hearing her son has died in action. The general (Frank Bradley) remembers making an error of judgement that led to the death of his men. Denise (Marie Lorraine), the French governess to the general's grandchildren, relives the return of her war hero lover, Pierre (Campbell Copelin), from the front; Pierre could not forgive Denise for having a child to a German officer who had raped her. The general's butler, James (Leonard Stephens), recollects living as a beggar on the Thames embankment after the war and seeing the suicide of an ex-soldier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "763514",
"title": "Armistice of 11 November 1918",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 1138,
"text": "News of the armistice being signed was officially announced towards 9 a.m. in Paris. One hour later, Foch, accompanied by a British admiral, presented himself at the Ministry of War, where he was immediately received by Georges Clemenceau, the Prime Minister of France. At 10:50 a.m., Foch issued this general order: \"Hostilities will cease on the whole front as from November 11 at 11 o'clock French time The Allied troops will not, until further order, go beyond the line reached on that date and at that hour.\" Five minutes later, Clemenceau, Foch and the British admiral went to the Élysée Palace. At the first shot fired from the Eiffel Tower, the Ministry of War and the Élysée Palace displayed flags, while bells around Paris rang. Five hundred students gathered in front of the Ministry and called upon Clemenceau, who appeared on the balcony. Clemenceau exclaimed \"Vive la France!\"—the crowd echoed him. At 11:00 a.m., the first peace-gunshot was fired from Fort Mont-Valérien, which told the population of Paris that the armistice was concluded, but the population were already aware of it from official circles and newspapers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zupxl
|
Can you approach a black hole from any dimension and experience the same result?
|
[
{
"answer": "What do you mean from any dimension? Do you mean from any direction?\n\nIf the black hole isn't spinning very fast then yes. If it's spinning fast enough it depends on your direction relative to its equator.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2336109",
"title": "Frame fields in general relativity",
"section": "Section::::Example: Lemaître observers in the Schwarzschild vacuum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "If our massive object is in fact a (nonrotating) black hole, we probably wish to follow the experience of the Lemaître observers as they fall through the event horizon at formula_71. Since the static polar spherical coordinates have a coordinate singularity at the horizon, we'll need to switch to a more appropriate coordinate chart. The simplest possible choice is to define a new time coordinate by\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4650",
"title": "Black hole",
"section": "Section::::Properties and structure.:Singularity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Observers falling into a Schwarzschild black hole (\"i.e.\", non-rotating and not charged) cannot avoid being carried into the singularity, once they cross the event horizon. They can prolong the experience by accelerating away to slow their descent, but only up to a limit. When they reach the singularity, they are crushed to infinite density and their mass is added to the total of the black hole. Before that happens, they will have been torn apart by the growing tidal forces in a process sometimes referred to as spaghettification or the \"noodle effect\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "456715",
"title": "Kerr metric",
"section": "Section::::Ergosphere and the Penrose process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "A black hole in general is surrounded by a surface, called the event horizon and situated at the Schwarzschild radius for a nonrotating black hole, where the escape velocity is equal to the velocity of light. Within this surface, no observer/particle can maintain itself at a constant radius. It is forced to fall inwards, and so this is sometimes called the \"static limit\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1415072",
"title": "Fuzzball (string theory)",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "With classical-model black holes, objects passing through the event horizon on their way to the singularity are thought to enter a realm of curved spacetime where the escape velocity exceeds the speed of light. It is a realm that is devoid of all structure. Further, at the singularity—the heart of a classic black hole—spacetime is thought to have infinite curvature (that is, gravity is thought to have infinite intensity) since its mass is believed to have collapsed to zero (infinitely small) volume where it has infinite density. Such infinite conditions are problematic with known physics because key calculations are not able to be computed with a divisor of zero. With the fuzzball model, however, the strings comprising an object are believed to simply fall onto and absorb into the surface of the fuzzball, which corresponds to the event horizon—the threshold at which the escape velocity equals the speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1987207",
"title": "Black hole electron",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "However, Carter's calculations also show that a would-be black hole with these parameters would be 'super-extremal'. Thus, unlike a true black hole, this object would display a naked singularity, meaning a singularity in spacetime not hidden behind an event horizon. It would also give rise to closed timelike curves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1415072",
"title": "Fuzzball (string theory)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "BULLET::::1. The information paradox wherein the quantum information bound in infalling matter and energy entirely disappears into a singularity; that is, the black hole would undergo zero physical change in its composition regardless of the nature of what fell into it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14464469",
"title": "Outline of black holes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 941,
"text": "Black hole – mathematically defined region of spacetime exhibiting such a strong gravitational pull that no particle or electromagnetic radiation can escape from inside it. The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole. The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon. Although crossing the event horizon has enormous effect on the fate of the object crossing it, it appears to have no locally detectable features. In many ways a black hole acts like an ideal black body, as it reflects no light. Moreover, quantum field theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation, with the same spectrum as a black body of a temperature inversely proportional to its mass. This temperature is on the order of billionths of a kelvin for black holes of stellar mass, making it essentially impossible to observe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
26dirs
|
why does being warm make us drowsy, whereas being cold makes us alert ?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your heart hate slows in a warm environment because it doesn't have to work as hard to keep your body warm. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm the opposite actually... When I'm cold, I become narcoleptic basically ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because we don't wanna die. You want your body temperature to stay regulated. If you are too hot, your body wants to sleep to stop using its muscles and generating heat. If you are cold, your body wants to stay awake and move around so you can keep your body warm.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Body temperature is the result of a balance between production and loss of heat. The body needs to keep it to a standard level. When the environmental temperature is high, heat loss is slow and so the body has to lower heat production: one of the many ways this is accomplished is lowering the propension to movement, because muscles produce heat. Vice versa, when the environmental temperature is low, heat loss is faster and we need to produce more heat, so we tend to move (and we shiver, too). \n\nThere is also a seasonal variability in hormones secretion: during winter, we produce more thyroidal hormones, which enhance mental and muscle activity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This reminds me of The Wire, where the inner-city teachers close the classroom windows to keep the kids somewhat drowsy and under control.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you are cold, your reaction is to move and generate heat; shivering warms you up.\nIf you are hot, you slow down so you don't overheat; staying still and sweating cools you down.\n\nIf you tried to run in the summer with three coats on you would pass out from the heat, and if you fell asleep in the snow in a pair of shorts you would probably get very very ill.\n\nGetting lethargic against heat and active against cold stops both of these things, it's your bodies way of countering the elements to keep you at the temperature you run at.\n\nIt's like, why does being hungry make you weak, because you need food and your body isn't happy to waste it even though technically you still have the power and fuel to do things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is the opposite for me. I don't think this is a fact to be explained.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Doesn't do this for me, does the opposite. I go into a torpor when it's cold and am wide awake and happy when it's warm.\n\nTeacher used to keep my classroom at about 55-60F to \"keep us alert\". Always made me want to bundle up and sleep and had difficulty focusing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It has to do with circadian rhythm. Your core temperature is not a constant 98.6. It fluctuates naturally throughout the day. Partly because of the things(activities) you do during the day and partly because of all the chemical reactions to do with life(environment and food). Not to mention surface area and sweating, but i digress. Your sleepi/alert-ness seems to be largely a function controlled by core temperature. You can make yourself sleepy, for instance, if you take a suffocating, passing-out hot shower/bath. You artificially raise your tempature with the hot water and then cool off fast (laying on a towel, air-drying in the wind of a fan works well). You will almost certainly end up napping. It is the rapid change in core temp that 'flips the switch' from alert to sleepy and back. Coincidentally, in the morning your temp. is at it's lowest just as you wake up. No matter how much bedding you sleep under. _URL_0_ for good primer. Otherwise, Google it, the science of circadian rhythm is old and well-studied.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Is it weird that I have the opposite effect, I feel drastically more energetic the hotter it gets, but feel weaker and more tired when it is cold.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You need to maintain a constant blood temperature, so when it's warm your body doesn't have to work as hard as when it's cold.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Being cold makes me want to sleep. Am I weird? I don't know anyone else like this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "146879",
"title": "Hypothermia",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Paradoxical undressing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "One explanation for the effect is a cold-induced malfunction of the hypothalamus, the part of the brain that regulates body temperature. Another explanation is that the muscles contracting peripheral blood vessels become exhausted (known as a loss of vasomotor tone) and relax, leading to a sudden surge of blood (and heat) to the extremities, causing the person to feel overheated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19725090",
"title": "Cold",
"section": "Section::::Physiological effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Cold has numerous physiological and pathological effects on the human body, as well as on other organisms. Cold environments may promote certain psychological traits, as well as having direct effects on the ability to move. Shivering is one of the first physiological responses to cold. Extreme cold temperatures may lead to frostbite, sepsis, and hypothermia, which in turn may result in death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "893432",
"title": "Clothes line",
"section": "Section::::Drying laundry indoors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The evaporation of the moisture from the clothes will cool the indoor air and increase the humidity level, which may or may not be desirable. In cold, dry weather, moderate increases in humidity make most people feel more comfortable. In warm weather, increased humidity makes most people feel even hotter. Increased humidity can also increase growth of fungi, which can cause health problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "758763",
"title": "Cold-stimulus headache",
"section": "Section::::Cause and frequency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "It is possible to suffer from a cold-stimulus headache in both hot and cold weather, because the effect relies upon the temperature of the food being consumed rather than that of the environment. Other causes that may mimic the sensation of cold-stimulus headache include that produced when high speed drilling is performed through the inner table of the skull in people undergoing such a procedure in an awake or sedated state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32173050",
"title": "High-volume low-speed fan",
"section": "Section::::Heating and cooling benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Air movement can have a significant influence on human thermal comfort. Wind chill in cold conditions is considered detrimental, but air movement in neutral to warm environments is considered beneficial. This is because normally under conditions with air temperatures above about 74°F, the body needs to lose heat in order to maintain a constant internal temperature. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36168126",
"title": "Iranian traditional medicine",
"section": "Section::::Temperaments, basis for Iranian traditional medicine.:Everything has a temperament.:Day and night hours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "The amount of warmness and humidity fluctuate over days and nights, therefore different temperaments form: morning is cold and wet, before noon is warm and wet, afternoon is warm and dry and evening and night are cold and dry. The various \"Mizaj\" of the day and night are the reasons behind mood swings and pain or discomfort varying during the day and night.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167184",
"title": "Rapid eye movement sleep",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Circulation, respiration, and thermoregulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Consequently, hot or cold environmental temperatures can reduce the proportion of REM sleep, as well as amount of total sleep. In other words, if at the end of a phase of deep sleep, the organism's thermal indicators fall outside of a certain range, it will not enter paradoxical sleep lest deregulation allow temperature to drift further from the desirable value. This mechanism can be 'fooled' by artificially warming the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8hg4xt
|
how can a scratched dvd sometimes work when just 1 wrong letter can crash computer codes?
|
[
{
"answer": "Error correction routines. Essentially, they assume the disc will be scratched eventually and structure the data such that minor issues can be accounted for and dealt with.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Error correction can be a beautiful thing. If you have enough information around the error it's sometimes possible to correct it. Like filling in a missing word in a sentence.\n\nHowever in a programming language one misplaced bracket doesn't really have the same context for a program to find the error on its own.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Might be wrong here, but if I were inventing the DVD protocol, I’d put some redundancy on it. Most of the disk isn’t used anyways, so I’d rewrite the data, or make it to where I can recalculate lost data",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To add to what everyone else has said about error correction, if a scratch is bad enough that error correction cannot recover the data, on an audio CD or DVD it may just show up as a glitch in the sound or video that can be played right through. A CD-ROM storing sofrware, like a PC game or old installation disk, can in a sense be less resilient to scratches because an unrecoverable error that affects just a few bytes in a critical computer software code can render said software completely unusable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a protective layer over the data layer - that is typically what gets scratched first. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Without getting technical, the DVD is coded very cleverly. It is coded so that if it is scratched somewhere, the computer knows that there is a scratch, or \"that there is a wrong letter\". Then there are algorithms and coding schemes that can replaces the wrong letter with the correct one. Sometimes the disc will be so scratched up that the computer can't recover the data, and the computer knows this, so it will just complain rather than try to process the corrupted code. \n\nThe processor then happily cranks away given the correct letter in the computer code. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Adding extra data on the DVD so that if you get a scratch it won't matter to the side that decodes it. \n\nEEEExxxxppppllllaaaaiiiinnnn iiiitttt lllliiiikkkkeeee IIII''''mmmm ffffiiiivvvveeee.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Let's say you have two people, a person playing a song and a person telling you how to perform some complex task. A horn goes off in the middle of their song/instruction \\-\\- they don't pause or repeat themselves, just keep on like nothing happened.\n\nHow likely are you to care about the one or two measures of the song you missed, versus how likely you are to have missed a critical instruction that will ensure you screw up the task? That's the difference between corrupting a song and corrupting a program.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "CD or DVD are encoded with an error correcting scheme that allow to recover errors, no matter where it is (there is no sensitive spot).\n\nThe simplest example is to repeat 3 times: PPPoootttaaatttooo...\n\nNotice that this scheme has two major flaws:\n\n* It takes 3 times as much space\n* It fail if you have two consecutive errors (errors need to be sprinkled which is not typically what happen with a scratch)\n\nIt helps if you interleave differently the 3 copies: Potato.Potato.Potato.\n\nNow you can scratch up to 7 consecutive letters and still decode perfectly. But it might require you to read the entire CD to do so, which slow down the reading speed.\n\nCD and DVD uses Reed-Solomon codes with a custom Interleaving Scheme (even QR Code use those!) which allows you to choose the trade-off between correction capabilities and waste of space and throughput.\n\nOn CD you have a guaranteed correction for bursts up to 3500 bits in sequence (2.4mm long scratch). If this is stereo sound, they can compensate a loss for one ear by using the sound for the other ear. So they interleave those carefully (aka. put them far apart) so that a scratch will not usually corrupt both ears.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Video and sound can easily survive lots of changes to the data. (\"1 bit off? That's OK. It just means that one pixel that is on a screen with thousands of pixels and only visible for 1/30th of a second is a slightly different shade of green.)\n\nMost of the bits make up the data rather than the instructions regarding the data.\n\nIn a computer program, changing a few bits might completely change the instructions that the computer is trying to follow. Resulting in an error and a crash. (Maybe cause an infinite loop due to a response never getting sent, or maybe a crash due to an unhandled error.)\n\nIn the case of a missing semicolon or curly bracket, you have a program that is reading the text you wrote (a compiler or interpreter) and trying to turn it into instructions for the CPU. It gets really messy to try to correct that without screwing other stuff up or getting something wrong. So instead it's better to just throw an error. \n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "[Par and Par2 files](_URL_0_) (from Usenet days) always used to blow my mind. Seemed like magic, lol.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "A couple of other takes. The lasers and lenses will be focused below the surface of the disk. Just like if you take a photo very close to a chain link fend each you can focus past and the links will disappear the dvd will do the same with a surface scratch. \n\nAdditionally you have error correction bits on the data bytes. So if only a couple of bits are dead then they can actually figure out what they should have been. \n\nAnd the way most video works are key frames and delta frames. They don’t store every bit for every frame of video. They store key frames ever so often and then track changes to it. If a key frame is lost you might get a visible glitch for a second. If you get bits corrupted in one of the delta frames, no biggie. Just skip it and show the next. This will result in stuff moving slightly further than intended. \n\nNote that the second two occur with both digital video signals (I.e. cable) as well as video streaming. Both of those can lose data in transit which isn’t a lot different than a scratched disk. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'll try this in true eli5:\n\nThink of a cd as a scroll with instructions. You are given the scroll and started reading. The first line says: \"read the following 20 lines:\"\n\nThis is then followed by a 20 line story. You read this aloud. If anything in that story is wrong, you may sound a little stupid, but you continue until you have read 20 lines, regardless of typos. \n\nNow imagine the first line has a typo and instead is: \"Dead the following 20 lines:\". Will you be smart enough to know it means read? Not if you are a computer.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "In addition to the error correction mentioned over and over again, it depends on where the scratch is. The data is below the surface of the shiney side, so a minor scratch in the surface may not obscure the data.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Each group of 8 bits (a byte) is encoded into 14 bits (a word). There are a lot more possible 14 bit combinations than 8 bit combinations, and not all are used. The encoding method makes sure that only certain 14-bit combinations are selected to be different enough so that if one of the 14 bits is wrong, it is still the closest possible to the correct one, so you can get back the original word and find the 8 bits it came from.\n\nAnother technique to prevent the scratch from ruining things is to mix up the 14-bit words a little bit. Rather than just write the 14 bits in a row, write all the first bits of 33 words. Then write the second bits, and so on. This way, a scratch may ruin only one bit from a few words, rather than all the bits in the same word.\n\nStill, some scratches can ruin the disk beyond what the encoding can handle. Make sure to clean the disk from the center out, across the tracks, and not along the tracks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hey! Computer nerd here!\n\nSo here's some basics on error correction.\n\nThe simplest form is \"mirroring\". You keep one copy of the data on one side of the disc, and another copy elsewhere on the disc. If one gets scratched, you still have the other.\n\nThe problem with that is that you need double the storage in order to have a perfect mirror, so enter \"parity\". You'll first need to understand Exclusive Or (XOR). a XOR b returns 1 if the numbers are different, and 0 if the numbers are the same. So the full table is:\n\n- 0 XOR 0 = 0\n- 0 XOR 1 = 1\n- 1 XOR 0 = 1\n- 1 XOR 1 = 0\n\nYou can also do this on sequences of numbers. So XOR(0110) = (0 XOR 1) XOR (1 XOR 0) = 1 XOR 1 = 0. This is how you produce a \"parity bit\" for error correction. So to store 0110 with a parity bit, you would store 0110-P0.\n\nNow, let's say you've got a disc that stored 1011-P1. It gets scratched, and you lose a number. So now you have 10?1-P1. Now, all you need to do is XOR the remaining numbers together and you will find your lost bit. XOR(1011)=1. Yay!\n\nCDs and DVDs are actually much more complicated than that, but that's the basics of error correction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As many others have noted, CDs and DVDs have error-correcting codes included in the stored data. These schemes can tolerate a certain number of errors, and compensate for those errors, recreating the original, uncorrupted data. If the number of errors exceeds the maximum, the data cannot be recovered. This is why some damage to a CD or DVD can be tolerated, but at some point, you just lose data.\n\nThis is completely unrelated to the second part of the question, which is asking about computer programs that have, what are basically, spelling or grammatical errors. In these cases, the software that translates the program into machine code would report the error and stop. The programmer then has to fix the error, and after a few cycles of this, there is a syntactically correct program. (Whether it behaves correctly is another matter entirely.)\n\nTo get to what I think the second part of the question really intended: What if the translated machine code -- which is just a long sequence of bits, much like a DVD -- gets corrupted? It depends on where the corruption occurs. When you install an application on your computer or phone, it gets stored on a disk. Disks typically have error correction mechanisms, similar to those of a CD or DVD.\n\nWhen you run an application, the machine code is copied into memory (RAM -- random access memory), and again the same considerations apply. If you are using memory with error-correcting capabilities, then there is some tolerance for error. But the errors here are rare, caused by things like cosmic rays (no, seriously). If you don't have error-correcting RAM, then a single bad bit could crash your program.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ELI5 \n\nScratching a CD with music is like erasing a couple words from a novel, you will be able to read the whole thing and most of the time you will be able to guess the missing words because of the context. \n\nComputer code is like a recipe, if you don't know the exact ingredients or quantities, it will make something completely different.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Programming code is just like giving an instruction to the computer, misplace a bracket or semicolon will result in giving wrong instruction. Therefore the computer won’t understand what the instruction is trying to say.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A computer needs to understand the code to do the operations in the code or it cant do its job and fails. A dvd players job on the other hand is merely to visualize code for us to see, not to understand whats in the code/film. So regardless of what we think of the visualisation - the dvd player is actually still doing its job - it is in fact working - up to the point where it cant read anything coeherent enough to even visualize it.\n\nOr how about:\nA computer needs to read the words. A dvd player just needs to show images of the letters... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > At least in my understanding, even the smallest scratch on a CD or DVD should destroy some bits of information.\n\nThat's not actually true. The data on a CD is not on the surface; it's under a layer of plastic. This protective layer is thick enough that most scratches will not go deep enough to damage where the data is actually stored. \n\nAlso, the scratch is unlikely to disrupt the ability to read the data underneath due to how it is read with a laser. The laser has a specific focal point, and this is set to where the data is. This means the laser is not focused on the surface (where the scratch is). So if you think of it from the 'point of view' of the laser, the scratch is very blurry and not well defined, whereas the data is clear and in focus. The end result is that each bit of data under the scratch is unlikely to be obstructed enough to make the mistake of reading a 1 as a 0 (or vice versa). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ECC (or error correcting codes) will let the disk figure out and revert the scratch to get the original info",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As far as I know about the DVD thing there are multiple layers of a cd. There’s the data then some thin clear layers. The clear layers are in top so they get scratched up first. As far as it not working sometimes and other times working is beyond me. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This isn't 5 y/o material, but bear with me. \n \nA CD or DVD can still work just fine with data missing due to error correcting codes/algorithms. It's kind of like a Sudoku puzzle -- wherever there is a missing number, you try to fill in the blank. You can be sure you entered the correct numbers because there is only one solution. The program that's reading the data off a CD is just reading off the numbers and if/when a \"blank\" shows up, it looks at the other numbers around it ( *sort of* ), to figure out what the \"blank\" should be. \n \nWhen writing computer code, or a program, a different process is involved when the computer reads the code. The code that being written is written by a human so it isn't possible to be 100% sure what the error is. For instance, imagine I have the following line of code (the 'Echo' command just writes something to the console/command prompt/hacker-box-thingie-you-see-in-movies) -- \n \n > Echo \"Person_Age; \n \nThis will error because there is no quotation mark before the semi-colon, so the semi-colon isn't interpreted as an \"end of the line\" semi-colon, but it thinks you actually want to write the semi-colon to the console and as such, there is no \"end of the line\" semi-colon, so it just breaks. The programmer may have intended any of the following, while the computer itself has no way to know 100% what you meant, as there isn't a system in place (error correcting code/algorithm) to detect this error and be able to fix it: \n \n > Echo Person_Age; \n \n > Echo \"Person_Age\"; \n \n > Echo \"Person_Age;\";\n \nIf you have a variable called Person_Age, then in the second (of four) lines above, it would output the value of that variable, the person's age, perhaps '23'. On the other hand, with the quotation marks (line 3 of 4), it would just output the actual characters of 'Person_Age'. And the final line (4 of 4) would output 'Person_Age;'. There are also an infinite more ways this could be interpreted as what the programmer wanted, as maybe he wanted to 'Echo' a whole bunch of lines and he meant to have an end-quote with semi-colon several lines down, so he'd have an output like: \n \n > Echo \"Person_Age; \n\n > Person_Height; \n\n > Person_Weight; \n\n > Person_Name; \"; \n \nThe above code would work just fine, too (at least in some languages). It'd get totally fucked up if the code was actually: \n \n > Echo \"Person_Age; \n\n > Function doSomething() { \n\n > for y = 1 to 5 { \n\n > Echo \"Hello World!\"; \n\n > } \n\n > } \n \nBecause it would follow the quotations \"Person_Age; Function doSomething() { for y = 1 to 5 { Echo \". And now everything is just super-fucked. \n \nThe computer has to compile the program before it can run. Basically it turns it from C++ or whatever language you write it in, into a \"computer version\" of that code (and it then turns it into all 1's and 0's, although different languages do this differently, from what I remember). Once your C++ code has been turned into 1's and 0's, it can run. During the compilation process, it can simply find errors and say \"Hey, this shit here, something's wrong on this line\" and it can give you a hint as to what the error might be, but it doesn't know exactly what the error is, since it doesn't know what you meant to write. \n \nCould you imagine the frustration a programmer would have if the compilation process included an auto-guess-fix? With the lines above, sure, that'd be easy for the programmer to spot the error after the fact, then re-compile. But for a much more severe error, the compilation process would just be making random ass guesses (okay, *not* random, but you know what I mean), and the output would be TOTALLY messed up, and the programmer wouldn't have a great idea of where the error is. \n \nWhen you compile a program, at least in my experience, if there's an error, it'll basically tell you, \"There's an error on line #271\" and it may tell you what kind of error it is.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To add what others have already said but DVD and media in general is no t critical data, we can have plenty of bits flipped and packets lost before it really affect quality of service. CD, DVD and BluRay media pretty much expects errors to happen and if we don't catch it, it is not the end of the world. Data meant for computation is different, one scratch on a data disc can render it useless and on media it is \"meh\"... Not that it has a lot of anything to do with how error correction works but to highlight the difference; optical media came first since absolute perfection was not required and we started to use optical discs for data only when the format, printing methods, materials and the devices themselves had improved. It was never designed to host data and somehow we managed to fit RW, DVD and BluRay in the same size disc and multiple formats are playable by same devices. Overall has been great success and shows why standards are important. Lots of proprietary formats have come and gone but Redbook and it's followers is what ruled over them all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "346451",
"title": "Abrasive",
"section": "Section::::Manufactured abrasives.:Other abrasives and their uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Scratched compact discs and DVDs may sometimes be repaired through buffing with a very fine compound, the principle being that a multitude of small scratches will be more optically transparent than a single large scratch. However, this does take some skill and will eventually cause the protective coating of the disc to be entirely eroded (especially if the original scratch is deep), at which time, the data surface will be destroyed if abrasion continues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3469088",
"title": "Disc rot",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Disc rot is the tendency of CD or DVD or other optical discs to become unreadable because of physical or chemical deterioration. The causes of this effect vary from oxidation of the reflective layer, to physical scuffing and abrasion of disc surfaces or edges, including visible scratches, to other kinds of reactions with contaminants, to ultra-violet light damage and de-bonding of the adhesive used to adhere the layers of the disc together.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49627",
"title": "Universal Disk Format",
"section": "Section::::Specifications.:VAT build.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "The write-once nature of CD-R or DVD-R media means that when a file is deleted on the disc, the file's data still remains on the disc. It does not appear in the directory any more, but it still occupies the original space where it was stored. Eventually, after using this scheme for some time, the disc will be full, as free space cannot be recovered by deleting files. Special tools can be used to access the previous state of the disc (the state before the delete occurred), making recovery possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168479",
"title": "Enhanced CD",
"section": "Section::::Problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Sometimes computer CD-ripping programs (particularly cdparanoia and CDBurnerXP) have problems ripping some enhanced CDs, especially those that have the data in a separate section after the audio section. These CDs have the data 11,400 sectors (2m32s) after the audio, but some CD rippers may try to rip this blank section with the last track; the end result is that the ripper stalls during the last track or simply reports errors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49627",
"title": "Universal Disk Format",
"section": "Section::::Specifications.:Spared (RW) build.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Rewriteable media such as DVD-RW and CD-RW have fewer limitations than DVD-R and CD-R media. Sectors can be rewritten at random (though in packets at a time). These media can be erased entirely at any time, making the disc blank again, ready for writing a new UDF or other file system (e.g., ISO 9660 or CD Audio) to it. However, sectors of \"-RW\" media may \"wear out\" after a while, meaning that their data becomes unreliable, through having been rewritten too often (typically after a few hundred rewrites, with CD-RW).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4454235",
"title": "DiscT@2",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 983,
"text": "While a CD-R or DVD cannot be rewritten, when not full new data can be appended to old data in a conventional disc. In a DiscT@2-engraved disc, by contrast, this is impossible; the disc must be closed after writing the label, even if the label doesn't extend all the way to the disc's edge. This is because data on compact discs is written via a process called eight-to-fourteen modulation. As a consequence of this encoding scheme, the \"pits\" on the disc can only be between 3T (0.83mm @ 1.2m/s) and 11T (3.05mm @ 1.2m/s). For the fine details in a photograph and in some fonts, for example, 3T is too large; the original DiscT@2 drive, for example, was capable of making pits of less than 0.1mm. Therefore, if the label were able to be read as data, it would be invalid; meaning that some optical drives or consumer equipment might not be able to retrieve data after the label even if it could be written. Therefore, the disc's Table of Contents must always come before the label.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11587090",
"title": "Optical media preservation",
"section": "Section::::Damage to optical discs.:Scratches.:Scratches on the top of an optical disc.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Because a CD's reflective metal layer and data layer are both directly beneath the thin lacquer surface of the label, data can be destroyed by even a small scratch on the top of a CD. The instrument used to label CDs should be seriously considered. Pens or markers with hard tips, or with solvents that can affect the protective layers, can scratch or damage the data layer; water-based felt-tip pens are safest. The data layer of a double-sided DVD is in the middle of the disc, surrounded by the substrate on both sides so scratches to either side are equivalent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1cf6jp
|
pythagoreanism
|
[
{
"answer": "The sum of squares on the short sides is equal to the square on the long side in a right triangle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10649725",
"title": "Hellenistic philosophy",
"section": "Section::::Hellenistic schools of thought.:Pythagoreanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Pythagoreanism is the name given to the system of philosophy and science developed by Pythagoras, which influenced nearly all the systems of Hellenistic philosophy that followed. Two schools of Pythagorean thought eventually developed; one based largely on mathematics and continuing his line of scientific work, while the other focused on his metaphysical teachings, though each shared a part of the other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16886145",
"title": "Education in ancient Greece",
"section": "Section::::Other Greek educators.:Pythagoras (570–490 BCE).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Pythagoras was one of many Greek philosophers. He lived his life on the island Samos and is known for his contributions to mathematics. Pythagoras taught philosophy of life, religion and mathematics in his own school in Kroton, which is a Greek colony. Pythagoras' school is linked to the theorem that states that the square of the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. The students of Pythagoras were known as pythagoreans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291170",
"title": "Pythagoreanism",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.:Geometry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1049,
"text": "The Pythagoreans engaged with geometry as a liberal philosophy which served to establish principles and allowed theorems to be explored abstractly and mentally. Pythagorean philosophers believed that there was a close relationship between numbers and geometrical forms. Early-Pythagorean philosophers proved simple geometrical theorems, including \"the sum of the angles of a triangle equals two right angles\". Pythagoreans also came up with three of the five regular polyhedra: the tetrahedron, the cube and the dodecahedron. The sides of a regular dodecahedron are regular pentagons, which for Pythagoreans symbolized health. They also revered the pentagram, as each diagonal divides the two others at the golden ratio. When linear geometrical figures replaced the dots, the combination of Babylonian algebra and Pythagorean arithmetic provided the basis for Greek geometric algebra. By attempting to establish a system of concrete and permanent rules, Pythagoreans helped to establish strict axiomatic procedures of solving mathematical problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6035",
"title": "Celibacy",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Greece and Rome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Pythagoreanism was the system of esoteric and metaphysical beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers. Pythagorean thinking was dominated by a profoundly mystical view of the world. The Pythagorean code further restricted his members from eating meat, fish, and beans which they practised for religious, ethical and ascetic reasons, in particular the idea of metempsychosis – the transmigration of souls into the bodies of other animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291170",
"title": "Pythagoreanism",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Today scholars typically distinguish two periods of Pythagoreanism: early-Pythagoreanism, from the 6th till the 5th century BC, and late-Pythagoreanism, from the 4th till the 3rd century BC. The Spartan colony of Taranto in Italy became the home for many practitioners of Pythagoreanism and later for Neopythagorean philosophers. Pythagoras had also lived in Crotone and Metaponto, both were Achaean colonies. Early-Pythagorean sects lived in Croton and throughout Magna Graecia. They espoused to a rigorous life of the intellect and strict rules on diet, clothing and behavior. Their burial rites were tied to their belief in the immortality of the soul. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23275",
"title": "Pythagoras",
"section": "Section::::Pythagoreanism.:Communal lifestyle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1270,
"text": "Two groups existed within early Pythagoreanism: the \"mathematikoi\" (\"learners\") and the \"akousmatikoi\" (\"listeners\"). The \"akousmatikoi\" are traditionally identified by scholars as \"old believers\" in mysticism, numerology, and religious teachings; whereas the \"mathematikoi\" are traditionally identified as a more intellectual, modernist faction who were more rationalist and scientific. Gregory cautions that there was probably not a sharp distinction between them and that many Pythagoreans probably believed the two approaches were compatible. The study of mathematics and music may have been connected to the worship of Apollo. The Pythagoreans believed that music was a purification for the soul, just as medicine was a purification for the body. One anecdote of Pythagoras reports that when he encountered some drunken youths trying to break into the home of a virtuous woman, he sang a solemn tune with long spondees and the boys' \"raging willfulness\" was quelled. The Pythagoreans also placed particular emphasis on the importance of physical exercise; therapeutic dancing, daily morning walks along scenic routes, and athletics were major components of the Pythagorean lifestyle. Moments of contemplation at the beginning and end of each day were also advised.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291170",
"title": "Pythagoreanism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Pythagoreanism originated in the 6th century BC, based on the teachings and beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers, the Pythagoreans. Pythagoras established the first Pythagorean community in Crotone, Italy. Early Pythagorean communities spread throughout Magna Graecia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ayg2i
|
how do companies trademark super common words/terms
|
[
{
"answer": "There's different levels of trademarks, and even then it's not an end-all be-all to stop anyone from using that term or word.\n\nA trademark (™) is the lower tier one. You can use this one wherever, no legal paperwork required. It's to notify competitors that you consider this thing a part of YOUR brand. But it may not necessarily stand up in court. Furthermore, it's only people who are competing with you.\n\nA registered trademark (®) requires some actual paperwork and getting it registered as a thing. This has more legal legs, because it's something that's *uniquely* you, which is why it's harder to get one. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Trademarks are very specific and contextual, unlike, say, copyright. A copyright protects you pretty much regardless of the context (*pretty much* but not always). But copyright requires a whole body of work. For instance, \"Harry Potter\" is copyrighted, but there's a whole novel there. JK Rowling can't just stamp \"Harry Potter\" on the cover of a book and call it a day, you can't copyright just a title. But with that copyright, you can't write a Harry Potter song, or make a Harry Potter movie, etc.\n\nTrademarks are a lot more specific. You can trademark just short words or phrases, but your trademark only protects you as much as a *reasonable person* might be confused by similarly named products. So Apple computers is a trademark, but you could have a store that sells Apple ceiling tile installation services or whatever (assuming you didn't steal their logo or anything). As long as no reasonable person would think your Apple ceiling tile installation company is related to Apple electronics, they can't stop you. So the burden to establish ownership of the intellectual property is much lower for trademark, but the protection doesn't extend as far.\n\nAlso with trademark, you can't get ownership over a common word or phrase that anyone in the same business *has* to use. So for instance, you can't trademark Apple brand apples, because everyone selling apples has to use it. For that reason, I do not believe any company could trademark \"hot\" hotsauce, it's too generic. However, they *could* trademark the word \"hot\" in a particular font that clearly associates it with one brand.\n\nThe most important things to remember are that trademark is based on what a *reasonable consumer* would think, it's about common sense, not ridiculous ownership; and, it's a decision made by a judge, not just something you write on paper and it's done. You apply for a trademark, but you don't necessarily get it if the judge thinks it's too generic or didn't follow the other rules. And that means that if a trademark was granted, someone thought about it first and decided it made sense, they didn't just hand it out without thinking.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18935023",
"title": "Trademark",
"section": "Section::::Styles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "A trademark is typically a name, word, phrase, logo, symbol, design, image, or a combination of these elements. There is also a range of non-conventional trademarks comprising marks which do not fall into these standard categories, such as those based on colour, smell, or sound (like jingles). Trademarks which are considered offensive are often rejected according to a nation's trademark law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1392493",
"title": "Industrial property",
"section": "Section::::Trademarks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 1172,
"text": "A trademark is a sign, or a combination of signs, that distinguishes the goods or services of one company from those of another. Such signs may use words, letters, numerals, pictures, shapes and colors, or any combination thereof. An increasing number of countries also allow for the registration of less traditional forms of trademarks, such as three-dimensional signs (like the Coca-Cola bottle or Toblerone chocolate bar), audible signs (sounds such as the roar of the lion at the beginning of films produced by MGM), or olfactory signs (such as the smell of a particular type of motor oil or embroidery yarn). However, many countries have set limits on what may be registered as a trademark, generally allowing only signs that are visually perceptible or can be represented graphically. Trademarks are used on goods or in connection with the market - ing of goods or services. The trademark may appear not only on the goods themselves but also on the container or packaging in which the goods are marketed. When used in connection with the sale of goods or services, the sign may appear in advertisements, for example, in newspapers, on television or in shop windows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38385458",
"title": "Abercrombie & Fitch Co. v. Hunting World, Inc.",
"section": "Section::::The spectrum of distinctiveness.:Arbitrary marks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "An arbitrary trademark is usually a common word which is used in a meaningless context (e.g. \"Apple\" for computers). Such marks consist of words or images which have some dictionary meaning before being adopted as trademarks, but which are used in connection with products or services unrelated to that dictionary meaning. Arbitrary marks are also immediately eligible for registration. \"Salty\" would be an arbitrary mark if it used in connection with e.g. telephones such as in \"Salty Telephones\", as the term \"salt\" has no particular connection with such products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15673153",
"title": "Trademark distinctiveness",
"section": "Section::::The spectrum of distinctiveness.:Arbitrary marks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "An arbitrary trademark is usually a common word which is used in a meaningless context (e.g. \"Apple\" for computers). Such marks consist of words or images which have some dictionary meaning before being adopted as trademarks, but which are used in connection with products or services unrelated to that dictionary meaning. Arbitrary marks are also immediately eligible for registration. \"Salty\" would be an arbitrary mark if it used in connection with e.g. telephones such as in \"Salty Telephones\", as the term \"salt\" has no particular connection with such products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "218856",
"title": "United States trademark law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "A trademark is a word, phrase, or logo that identifies the source of goods or services. Trademark law protects a business' commercial identity or brand by discouraging other businesses from adopting a name or logo that is \"confusingly similar\" to an existing trademark. The goal is to allow consumers to easily identify the producers of goods and services and avoid confusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7903060",
"title": "Fair use (U.S. trademark law)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Many trademarks are adapted from words or symbols that are common to the culture, as Apple, Inc. using a trademark that is based upon the apple. Other trademarks are invented by the mark owner (such as Kodak) and have no common use until introduced by the owner. Courts have recognized that ownership of a trademark or service mark cannot be used to prevent others from using the word or symbol in accord with its plain and ordinary meaning, such as if the trademark is a descriptive word or common symbol such as a pine tree. As a result, the less distinctive or original the trademark, the less able the trademark owner will be to control how it is used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54223909",
"title": "Trademarks Act, 2004",
"section": "Section::::Registration of Trademarks.:Meaning of Trademark.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Per the Amendment, a trademark means, sign or combination of signs including words such as personal names, letters, numerals, and figurative elements. A trademark may consist of words, personal names, designs, letters, colours, numerals, shapes, holograms, sounds or a combination of any of these elements; slogans, where they are not long enough to be protected by copyrights. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
vfu2y
|
Can aerosol spray cans used as flamethrowers explode at any time?
|
[
{
"answer": "In order for a gas to ignite it needs to combine with (usually) oxygen. There is no oxygen in the can so the flame cannot backup into the can to explode.\n\nThis is the same reason a gas stove does not send the flame back down the pipes. The gas can only burn once it is in the presence of oxygen and there is none (or nearly none) in the pipes to your house.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The can can explode because it can fail as a pressure vessel due to stress such as a temperature gradient. It is not a problem of the flame traveling inside the can because there is no oxygen inside, but rather excessive or uneven heating of the outside of the can making it rupture. Once it ruptures, the contents will mix with ambient oxygen as they rapidly escape from the ruptured can and result in a fireball. [Here's a video of an aerosol can exploding when placed in a bonfire](_URL_0_), so aerosol cans can clearly fail in that manner.\n\nSo yes, the aerosol can can explode. How likely is it? Probably not very, but I am not expert on this, so won't speculate further.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ok, so there's two different elements at work here so I'll address them separately.\n\nStarting with explosions. An explosion occurs when the flame speed of a combustion reaction exceeds the speed of sound in a fluid. I am not familiar enough with aerosols to be able to tell you the flame speeds, but generally speaking pressurized flammable gases will exceed this level, but many things (such as natural gas) must be heavily pressurized before they can actually explode (which is very different from merely burning rapidly.\n\nNow, burning. As was already discussed, burning requires three things. First, fuel; in this case the propellant provides plenty of fuel, which is why you can make a \"flame thrower\" at all. (Worth noting, what you have made is actually a cone of fire, real flamethrowers intentionally use jellies so that it will stick to and continue to burn target locations). Second, you need a source of oxygen. This source can be O2 from the air, or it can be chemically reactive oxygen molecules contained in a different form (such as nitrous oxide). If your can contains no oxygen then you cannot burn inside an intact can, if, however, your compounds inside contain sufficient oxygen sources then it is possible that they will burn in the can. Finally, you need an ignition source. In your case the existing flame. If the speed of the aerosol moving out is greater than the flame speed of the burning mixture then it can't propagate up stream into the can. It isn't a question of pressure (which expresses force) but purely one of speeds.\n\nIf all three are present then you can get burning, even internally. Now then, potential ways to get all three in the can (assuming your can does not have an oxidizer internally). First, the most likely. Heating the nozzle may cause it to fail releasing all the gas at once, this would definitely appear to be an explosion (although it wouldn't be a true explosion). Second you could be causing a rupture in the can due to thermal variation. Same outcome from this as if the nozzle fails. The least likely (obvious) cause would be that heating the compounds inside denatures them and causes the to become valid oxidizing agents.\n\nJust my thoughts and a bit about flame propagation vs explosions from a fundamentals perspective.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "583877",
"title": "Aerosol spray",
"section": "Section::::Safety concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "BULLET::::- The propellants in aerosol cans are typically combinations of ignitable gases and have been known to cause fires and explosions. However, non-flammable compressed gases such as nitrogen and nitrous oxide have been widely adopted into a number of aerosol systems (such as air fresheners and aerosolized whipped cream) as have non-flammable liquid propellants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1820388",
"title": "Gas duster",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "The products are most often a can that, when a trigger is pressed, blasts a stream of compressed gas through a nozzle. Despite the name \"canned air\", the cans actually contain gases that are compressable into liquids. True liquid air is not practical, as it cannot be stored in metal spray cans due to extreme pressure and temperature requirements. Common duster gases are 1,1-difluoroethane, 1,1,1-trifluoroethane, or 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane. Hydrocarbons, like butane, were often used in the past, but their flammable nature forced manufacturers to use fluorocarbons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265044",
"title": "Propellant",
"section": "Section::::Aerosol sprays.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "In aerosol spray cans, the propellant is simply a pressurized gas in equilibrium with its liquid (at its saturated vapour pressure). As some gas escapes to expel the payload, more liquid evaporates, maintaining an even pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "583877",
"title": "Aerosol spray",
"section": "Section::::Safety concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "BULLET::::- Aerosol contents may be deliberately inhaled to achieve intoxication from the propellant (known as inhalant abuse or \"huffing\"). Calling them \"canned air\" or \"cans of compressed air\" could mislead the ignorant to think they are harmless. In fact, death has resulted from such misuse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8855042",
"title": "Building insulation materials",
"section": "Section::::Spray foam.:Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 841,
"text": "BULLET::::- (often sold under brand name \"Great Stuff\"): A Dow Chemical product that comes in cans and consists of several complex chemicals mixed together (isocyanates, ether, polyol). Dow manufactures this for small applications, but there is nothing stopping someone from buying dozens of cans for a large retrofit task, such as sealing the sill plate. Since the blowing agent is a flammable gas, using large quantities in a short time requires strict attention to ventilation. Toxic vapors are minimal due to low vapor pressure and what little there is should be removed quickly if adequate ventilation is used. However, a respirator with an organic vapor sorbent may be advisable in some cases, for example if the foam is heated. Very thick applications should be done layer-by-layer to ensure proper curing in a reasonable time frame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8874570",
"title": "Spray nozzle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "A spray nozzle is a precision device that facilitates dispersion of liquid into a spray. Nozzles are used for three purposes: to distribute a liquid over an area, to increase liquid surface area, and create impact force on a solid surface. A wide variety of spray nozzle applications use a number of spray characteristics to describe the spray.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42075360",
"title": "Patternation",
"section": "Section::::Uses of Sprays.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Sprays are also used in many internal combustion engines to directly disperse the fuel into the combustion chamber and mix it with air so that either spontaneously ignite under high pressure and temperatures or they can be ignited using spark plugs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4mlx0i
|
why reading strings of numbers or letters out loud helps with short term memorization
|
[
{
"answer": "It doesn't. What you're doing is *rehearsing* which moves stuff from working/short-term memory to long-term memory. But because you're not storing it in any effective way, you'll have trouble retrieving it very shortly. \n\nShort-term/working memory can usually hold 7 items at once (maybe 1 more, maybe 1 less), and you can't really improve it, as such. \n\nThere are tricks to help you, though - the number you referenced can easily be broken into manageable chunks - rather than remembering 13 digits, you can break it into \"Six hundred eighty one / Thirty Nine / Five hundred / Five hundred / Fifty\" for example - now you're only working with five items. This is, appropriately, called \"chunking\". ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37549630",
"title": "Dual-route hypothesis to reading aloud",
"section": "Section::::Reading speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "Skilled readers demonstrate longer reaction times when reading aloud irregular words that do not follow spelling-sound rules compared to regular words. When an irregular word is presented, both the lexical and nonlexical pathways are activated but they generate conflicting information that takes time to be resolved. The decision-making process that appears to take place indicates that the two routes are not entirely independent from one another. This data further explains why regular words, that follow spelling-sound rules but also have been stored in long-term memory, are read faster since both pathways can \"agree\" about the issue of pronunciation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38405447",
"title": "Noun string",
"section": "Section::::As a usage problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Since connecting elements such as prepositions or apostrophes are omitted from noun strings, readers must infer the relationship between the words. If the string is fairly short and the reader is already familiar with the field, he or she will probably be able to interpret a noun string without too much difficulty. When strings become longer than three words, they can make readers labor. This is particularly true when the reader is not already familiar with the subject or technical domain. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "248274",
"title": "Phonetic transcription",
"section": "Section::::Narrow versus broad transcription.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1003,
"text": "The advantage of the narrow transcription is that it can help learners to get exactly the right sound, and allows linguists to make detailed analyses of language variation. The disadvantage is that a narrow transcription is rarely representative of all speakers of a language. Most Americans, Canadians and Australians would pronounce the of \"little\" as a tap (t-/d-flapping). Some people in southern England would say /t/ as (a glottal stop; t-glottalization) and/or the second as or something similar (L-vocalization), possibly yielding . A further disadvantage in less technical contexts is that narrow transcription involves a larger number of symbols that may be unfamiliar to non-specialists. To most native English speakers, even those who don't merge and as in unstressed positions; the phonemic distinction between \"little\" the constructed word \"*leetle\" is far more contrastive than \"little\" and *\"liddle\"; despite the cross-linguistic rarity of a phonemic contrast between and as in English.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38405447",
"title": "Noun string",
"section": "Section::::As a usage problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Because of this problem, overly long noun strings are increasingly recognized as a problem in technical and business writing. For instance, a noun string like \"Municipal Solid Waste Classification Methodology\" though not incomprehensible, is at least irritating to most readers. According to Burnett, strings of five words or more are open to several different interpretations and can be indecipherable. Because of these problems, most guides to technical writing advise writers to either limit the length of nouns strings or to avoid them altogether.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "355291",
"title": "Readability",
"section": "Section::::Vocabulary frequency lists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Educational psychologist Edward Thorndike of Columbia University noted that, in Russia and Germany, teachers used word frequency counts to match books to students. Word skill was the best sign of intellectual development, and the strongest predictor of reading ease. In 1921, Thorndike published \"Teachers Word Book\", which contained the frequencies of 10,000 words. It made it easier for teachers to choose books that matched class reading skills. It also provided a basis for future research on reading ease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1393831",
"title": "Syllabification",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "In some languages, the spoken syllables are also the basis of syllabification in writing. However, possibly due to the weak correspondence between sounds and letters in the spelling of modern English, written syllabification in English is based mostly on etymological or morphological instead of phonetic principles. For example, it is not possible to syllabify \"learning\" as \"lear-ning\" according to the correct syllabification of the living language. Seeing only \"lear-\" at the end of a line might mislead the reader into pronouncing the word incorrectly, as the digraph \"ea\" can hold many different values. The history of English orthography accounts for such phenomena.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13804375",
"title": "Grammaticality",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Criteria that don't determine grammaticality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "A grammatical string is not necessarily meaningful, as exemplified by Chomsky's famous sentence ‘Colorless green ideas sleep furiously’. However, language speakers can still understand nonsensical strings by means of natural intonation. Speakers are also able to recall them more easily than ungrammatical sentences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5xuo0m
|
what happens if you try to play an instrument in space ?
|
[
{
"answer": "Instruments will not make any noise in space. Sound is the collision of particles in a substance, and there are (practically) no particles in a vacuum.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "With no way to escape into the nonexistent air, the vibrations would travel through the instrument itself and the musician holding it. In the case of a solid-body electric guitar, the pickups might well still work in vacuum, since they're not detecting the sound, but the motion of the strings themselves in a magnetic field.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An electric guitar with magnetic pickups would work in a vacuum because it does not rely on air to carry the vibration of the strings to the pickups- it senses motion of the metal strings instead.\n\nMost other instruments would not generate any noise in space, as they almost all require air as a medium in some capacity to create sound waves.\n\nThe audio signal created would have to be played or reproduced in an atmosphere to be audible, of course.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, they weren't actually in space :D\n\nYeah, if you were actually in space itself, it wouldn't work, though the person playing the guitar might hear/feel vibrations through their suit. If you were inside a spaceship, it would sound fairly normal, though in a zero-grav environment, wind instruments might have more problems with getting clogged with spit because they can't drain properly, or spit droplets getting in the air. The real problem is that instruments can be relatively heavy, so justifying flying that much weight into space could be hard!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52189964",
"title": "Music in space",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "Music in space is music played in or broadcast from a spacecraft in outer space. According to the Smithsonian Institution, the first musical instruments played in outer space were an 8-note Hohner \"Little Lady\" harmonica and a handful of small bells carried by American astronauts Wally Schirra and Thomas P. Stafford aboard Gemini 6A. Upon achieving a space rendezvous in Earth orbit with their sister ship Gemini 7 in December 1965, Schirra and Stafford played a rendition of \"Jingle Bells\" over the radio after jokingly claiming to have seen an unidentified flying object piloted by Santa Claus. The instruments had been smuggled on-board without NASA's knowledge, leading Mission Control director Elliot See to exclaim \"You're too much\" to Schirra after the song. The harmonica was donated to the Smithsonian by Schirra in 1967, with his note that it \"...plays quite well\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52189964",
"title": "Music in space",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "In the 1970s music tape cassettes were brought to the American space station Skylab, while Soviet cosmonauts Aleksandr Laveikin and Yuri Romanenko brought a guitar to the space station \"Mir\" in 1987. Musical instruments must be checked for gases they may emit before being taken aboard the confined environment of a space station. As of 2003, instruments that have been aboard the International Space Station include a flute, a keyboard guitar, a saxophone, and a didgeridoo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38639846",
"title": "Cosmic Cruiser",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "The player controls the astronaut, whose first objective is to navigate to the laser cannon and blast holes into the side of the space station through which he can enter. Once inside the space station the astronaut must locate and rescue any crew members, while avoiding hostile aliens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47694066",
"title": "Philip Belt",
"section": "Section::::Personal traits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "He could not read music, nor was he able to play his instruments other than (in Kunkel's words) to \"strike a few pleasant chords\". He also had perfect pitch, and could tune an instrument by ear alone, although sometimes he would use a middle \"C\" tuning fork to get his bearings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35486415",
"title": "Songs2See",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "BULLET::::- Users can play their own musical instruments to the computer microphone without the need of a game controller. Currently, guitar, voice, piano, saxophone, trumpet, bass and flute are supported.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30203098",
"title": "Ruyter Suys",
"section": "Section::::Music career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "\"When I play I barely even see what’s going on around me. It’s like I’m hypnotizing myself or something like that with the volume, and I’m just breathing in really deep and I just fill myself up with the sonic bombast. I have my eyes shut half the night and I basically see obstacles if I’m lucky, like 'don’t hit your head on this' and like 'don’t step in this hole in the stage' or whatever. I know where things are, but usually I just 'go away and disappear into my own little world'. It’s up there with really good sex, you know.\" –from Ruyter's Facebook Fan page (see link below).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2148134",
"title": "Space music",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "Hill believes that space music can evoke a \"continuum of spatial imagery and emotion\", which can be beneficial for introspection, and for developing, through a practice of \"deep listening\", an awareness of the spatiality of sound phenomenon. This type of psychonautic listening can produce a subtle trance-like state in certain individuals which can in turn lead to sensations of flying, floating, cruising, gliding, or hovering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2tc2zk
|
How ISS orbit height was decided?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Karman line is generally considered to be the boundary between space and the atmosphere because at that altitude the air is so thin that you would have to fly faster than orbital velocity to generate enough lift for flight. However, in reality the border between space and our atmosphere is fairly fuzzy, and different organizations and governments define the height at which space begins in different ways.\n\n As for the orbital height of the ISS, I'm not sure, but it was probably a trade off between the accessibility (Low orbital height and orbital inclination) and the drag caused be the atmosphere (which means it requires occasional boosts). Sending things to space is extremely expensive, so they probably calculated the cost of how much it would take to get to a specific orbit and how much fuel they would need to use to maintain that orbit. Additionally, the vehicles that service the space station have service ceilings(the Space Shuttles had a ceiling of about 500 miles), so it's likely this came into play when planning also. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It all comes down to cost. Launching anything into space is very expensive and any oppertunity to safely cut cost is taken. As far as the atmospheric drag, we are talking about the indivdual atmospheric particles being meters apart from each other. To correct for this drag takes very little effort and is much cheaper than having the resupply ships go up any higher. \n\nAs for the karman line, this is a calculated altitude in which an aircraft would have to go faster than orbital velocity to support itself with aerodynamic lift. This should not be taken as the boundary of Earths atmosphere and space.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15740948",
"title": "Soyuz TMA-17",
"section": "Section::::Undocking and landing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Prior to the landing on May 26, 2010, the orbital altitude of the ISS was lowered by 1.5 kilometers to 345 kilometers to ensure perfect conditions for the re-entry of the Soyuz TMA-17 into the Earth's atmosphere. The orbit of the ISS was adjusted using the four engines on board the Progress M-05M spacecraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "979306",
"title": "Orbital station-keeping",
"section": "Section::::Station-keeping in low Earth orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The upper limitation of orbit altitude is due to the constraints imposed by the Soyuz spacecraft. On 25 April 2008, the Automated Transfer Vehicle \"Jules Verne\" raised the orbit of the ISS for the first time, thereby proving its ability to replace (and outperform) the Soyuz at this task.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "741153",
"title": "SpaceShipOne flight 15P",
"section": "Section::::Flight profile.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "The planned apogee altitude was 360,000 feet (110 km), but due to the attitude problem encountered during the climb the craft actually attained only 328,491 feet (100,124 m). In doing so it passed the boundary to space at 100 km, making the flight, as planned, officially a spaceflight. It can be calculated that the altitude exceeded 100 km for approximately 10.23 s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "245797",
"title": "Salyut 3",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "It attained an altitude of 219 to 270 km on launch and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272 km. Only one of the three intended crews successfully boarded and manned the station, brought by Soyuz 14; Soyuz 15 attempted to bring a second crew but failed to dock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "922604",
"title": "Helios (spacecraft)",
"section": "Section::::Structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "At launch, each probe was tall with a maximum diameter of . Once in orbit, a telecommunications antenna unfolded on top of the probe and increased the total height to . Also deployed on orbit were two rigid booms carrying sensors and magnetometers, attached on both sides of the central body, and two flexible antennae used for the detection of radio waves, which extended perpendicular to the axis of the spacecraft for a design length of each.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15043",
"title": "International Space Station",
"section": "Section::::Operations.:Orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "The ISS is maintained in a nearly circular orbit with a minimum mean altitude of and a maximum of , in the centre of the thermosphere, at an inclination of 51.6 degrees to Earth's equator, necessary to ensure that Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome may be safely launched to reach the station. Spent rocket stages must be dropped into uninhabited areas and this limits the directions rockets can be launched from the spaceport.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "979306",
"title": "Orbital station-keeping",
"section": "Section::::Station-keeping in low Earth orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "An example of this is the International Space Station (ISS), which has an operational altitude above Earth's surface of between 330 and 410 km. Due to atmospheric drag the space station is constantly losing orbital energy. In order to compensate for this loss, which would eventually lead to a re-entry of the station, it has from time to time been re-boosted to a higher orbit. The chosen orbital altitude is a trade-off between the average thrust needed to counter-act the air drag and the delta-v needed to send payloads and people to the station. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3jvfcn
|
Does every chemical reaction emit a sound?
|
[
{
"answer": "Im guessing you're referring to things like the barking dog experiment. \n\nIn general reactions, unless they're very exothermic and fast (ie explosions and combustion), tend to be pretty dull. In order to make a sound you need to move a lot of air, and this is generally accomplished by by rapidly heating it. Some very large scale examples of this are things like the recent Tianjin disaster or the PEPCON explosion. These are examples of many ton scale chemical reactions gone very very wrong.\n\nIn chemistry labs reactions tend to occur on the order of minutes to hours, so even if they are exothermic they amount of energy released is spread out over a long time.\n\nIn biological systems on the other hand you may have thousands and thousands of reactions going at any given moment but they're all on very small scale so once again the amount of energy released isn't enough to cause any sound.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sound is basically vibration. Vibrations that result from some source of displacement. In an abstract sense, even molecular movements like an enzyme changing its conformation create 'sound' in that when the energy resulting in the physical change is released and some of it is displaced outwardly to the environment in the form of mechanical/kinetic 'sound' waves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "242006",
"title": "Reaction rate",
"section": "Section::::Temperature dependence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "A chemical reaction takes place only when the reacting particles collide. However, not all collisions are effective in causing the reaction. Products are formed only when the colliding particles possess a certain minimum energy called threshold energy. As a rule of thumb, reaction rates for many reactions double for every 10 degrees Celsius increase in temperature, For a given reaction, the ratio of its rate constant at a higher temperature to its rate constant at a lower temperature is known as its temperature coefficient (\"Q\"). \"Q\" is commonly used as the ratio of rate constants that are 10 °C apart.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1967563",
"title": "Speeds of sound of the elements",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "The speed of sound in any chemical element in the fluid phase has one temperature-dependent value. In the solid phase, different types of sound wave may be propagated, each with its own speed: among these types of wave are longitudinal (as in fluids), transversal, and (along a surface or plate) extensional.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5180",
"title": "Chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Modern principles.:Reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "When a chemical substance is transformed as a result of its interaction with another substance or with energy, a chemical reaction is said to have occurred. A \"chemical reaction\" is therefore a concept related to the \"reaction\" of a substance when it comes in close contact with another, whether as a mixture or a solution; exposure to some form of energy, or both. It results in some energy exchange between the constituents of the reaction as well as with the system environment, which may be designed vessels—often laboratory glassware.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10192",
"title": "Explosive",
"section": "Section::::Properties of explosive materials.:Chemical composition.:Chemically pure compounds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Some chemical compounds are unstable in that, when shocked, they react, possibly to the point of detonation. Each molecule of the compound dissociates into two or more new molecules (generally gases) with the release of energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1326645",
"title": "Chemical change",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "When chemical reactions occur, the atoms are rearranged and the reaction is accompanied by an energy change as new products are generated. An example of a chemical change is the reaction between sodium and water to produce sodium hydroxide and hydrogen. So much energy is released that the hydrogen gas released spontaneously burns in the air. This is an example of a chemical change because the end products are chemically different from the substances before the chemical reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15774067",
"title": "Synaptic noise",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Chemical sensing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Chemical sensing, such as that of taste and smell which rely on an external chemical stimulus, is affected by thermodynamics. Chemical molecules arrive at the appropriate receptor at random times based on the rate of diffusion of these particles. Also, receptors can't perfectly count the number of signaling molecules that pass through. These two factors are additional causes of synaptic noise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1810113",
"title": "Ringing rocks",
"section": "Section::::Early investigations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "In 1965, geologist Richard Faas of Lafayette College took a few of the rocks back to his lab for testing. He found that when the rocks were struck, they created a series of tones at frequencies lower than the human ear can hear. An audible sound is only produced because these tones interact with each other. Although Faas's experiments explained the nature of the tones, they did not identify the specific physical mechanism in the rock which made them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1b20vv
|
if ww3 happened tomorrow, what would be the biggest difference in warfare stuff compared to ww2?
|
[
{
"answer": "We just don't know. People keep trying to predict what war tactics will look like in the future, and since World War I, they've pretty consistently been wrong. We haven't had a war between major powers for over 60 years, so nobody knows how that kind of war would be fought.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"I do not know how the Third World War will be fought, but I can tell you what they will use in the Fourth — rocks!\" - [Albert Einstein](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tech that was around in WWII:\n\n* Radar\n* Sonar\n* Computerized fire control\n* Jet engines\n* Helicopters\n* Guided munitions\n* Remote control\n* In flight aerial refueling\n* Night vision\n* Assault rifles\n* Nuclear weapons\n* Ballistic missiles\n* Cruise missiles\n* Body armor\n* Television\n* Plastics\n* Composites\n\nStuff that wasn't around but is critical to modern warfare:\n\n* Microchips\n* Lasers\n* Satellites\n* Atomic clocks\n\nTechnology has greatly increased weapon precision and ranges, and upped defenses. Tactics wise a single aircraft can slip undetected deep into enemy territory and hit multiple vital targets with pinpoint accuracy, day or night. A single pass from a properly equipped bomber can devastate a massed armor formation. Infantry regularly operate at night, carry weapons designed to wound, not kill, and wear body armor that can stop multiple bullets. Navies have become glass cannons, they can sling cruise missiles hundreds of miles away, but if they let a single anti-ship missile past their defenses, they won't be able to shrug it off.\n\nStrategy wise, intelligence collection is much better, and a modern military will actively \"shoot for the head\" bypassing established defenses and striking against leadership. Strategic weapons like nukes have made large, all out battles politically unfavorable.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29974",
"title": "Total war",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:Postwar era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Since the end of World War II, no industrial nation has fought such a large, decisive war. This is likely due to the availability of nuclear weapons, whose destructive power and quick deployment render a full mobilization of a country's resources such as in World War II logistically impractical and strategically irrelevant. Such weapons are developed and maintained with relatively modest peacetime defense budgets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24150726",
"title": "20th-century events",
"section": "Section::::Events in the 20th century.:The world at the beginning of the century.:\"The war to end all wars\": World War I (1914–1918).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "The war itself was also a chance for the combatant nations to show off their military strength and technological ingenuity. The Germans introduced the machine gun, U-Boats and deadly gases. The British first used the tank. Both sides had a chance to test out their new aircraft to see if they could be used in warfare. It was widely believed that the war would be short. Unfortunately, since trench warfare was the best form of defense, advances on both sides were very slow, and came at a terrible cost in lives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29974",
"title": "Total war",
"section": "Section::::20th century.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "The Second World War was the quintessential total war of modernity. The level of national mobilization of resources on all sides of the conflict, the battlespace being contested, the scale of the armies, navies, and air forces raised through conscription, the active targeting of non-combatants (and non-combatant property), the general disregard for collateral damage, and the unrestricted aims of the belligerents marked total war on an unprecedented and unsurpassed, multicontinental scale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1176764",
"title": "Tactical Air Command",
"section": "Section::::History.:Operational history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "World War II showed the effectiveness of tactical air power in supporting army ground forces. However, the rapid demobilization in late 1945 meant that the huge air armada that had brought Germany to her knees and victory in Europe had been downsized to a shadow of its former self.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2726726",
"title": "Military logistics",
"section": "Section::::Modern developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1293,
"text": "In major military conflicts, logistics matters are often crucial in deciding the overall outcome of wars. For instance, tonnage war—the bulk sinking of cargo ships—was a crucial factor in World War II. The successful Allied anti-submarine campaign and the failure of the German Navy to sink enough cargo in the Battle of the Atlantic allowed Britain to stay in the war and the ability to maintain a Mediterranean supply chain allowed the maintenance of the second front against the Nazis in North Africa; by contrast, the successful U.S. submarine campaign against Japanese maritime shipping across Asian waters effectively crippled its economy and its military production capabilities and the Axis were unable to consistently maintain a supply chain to their North African forces with on average 25% fewer supplies than required being landed and critical fuel shortages dictating strategic decisions. In a tactical scale, in the Battle of Ilomantsi, the Soviets had an overwhelming numerical superiority in guns and men, but managed to fire only 10,000 shells against the Finnish 36,000 shells, eventually being forced to abandon their heavy equipment and flee the battlefield, resulting in a Finnish victory. One reason for this was the successful Finnish harassment of Soviet supply lines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34558",
"title": "20th century",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1019,
"text": "Technological advancements during World War I changed the way war was fought, as new inventions such as tanks, chemical weapons, and aircraft modified tactics and strategy. After more than four years of trench warfare in Western Europe, and 20 million dead, the powers that had formed the Triple Entente (France, Britain, and Russia, later replaced by the United States and joined by Italy and Romania) emerged victorious over the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria). In addition to annexing many of the colonial possessions of the vanquished states, the Triple Entente exacted punitive restitution payments from them, plunging Germany in particular into economic depression. The Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires were dismantled at the war's conclusion. The Russian Revolution resulted in the overthrow of the Tsarist regime of Nicholas II and the onset of the Russian Civil War. The victorious Bolsheviks then established the Soviet Union, the world's first communist state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3238121",
"title": "Industrial warfare",
"section": "Section::::Modern warfare.:The Cold War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Since the end of WWII, no industrial nations have fought such a large, decisive war, due to the availability of weapons that are so destructive that their use would offset the advantages of victory. The fighting of a total war where nuclear weapons are used is something that instead of taking years and the full mobilisation of a country's resources such as in WWII, would take tens of minutes. Such weapons are developed and maintained with relatively modest peace time defence budgets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
yd6zd
|
In your opinion at point had the Roman Republic irrevocably fallen?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Roman Republic wasn't a singular entity, it was a collection of laws, customs, and institutions that together formed a government. Some of these were ended fairly early--Sulla's march on Rome, for example, or Cicero's execution of citizens without trial. Some of these were ended late--it wasn't until 69 CE that an emperor was made outside of Rome without the official backing of the Senate. It was a process.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When Sulla set the precedent of marching on Rome, taking power, and purging the opposition. From then it was just a matter of time until someone did it again, but bigger and more thoroughly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'd put my money on Actium, from that point forward resistance in the name of the Republic ended. It was perfectly reasonable to assume that the republic would go back to normal with the death of Julius Caesar, after all Rome had had a dictator for life, Sulla, before. However when Augustus became the sole ruler of the Roman world, it established a precedent of succession since Augustus's only real claim to power when Julius Caesar died was that he his heir. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I mark the end of the Republic as the creation of the first Triumvirate ending with the constitutional settlement of Augustus. The First Triumvirate marked when an entity outside of the Republics traditions institutions took and kept power. There had been extra-contitional breaks before with Marius and Sulla, but with the Triumvirate, Caesarians, and the 2nd Triumvirate was the final push that moved Rome to Empire.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are lots points along the way where the Republic can be seen to change:\n\n* When Marius became consul unconstitutionally for 7 times.\n\n* When Sulla became the first person to march on Rome.\n\n* When the first Triumvirate (Caesar, Pompey, Crassus) created itself to run Rome outside of convention and the constitution.\n\n* When Julius Caesar was declared dictator for life.\n\nHowever, you're looking for *the point of no return*, and none of these fit that description:\n\n* Marius never got absolute power. He bent the constitution, but didn't break it.\n\n* Sulla tried to re-constitute (pun intended) the traditional Roman constitution, and make things the way they were. \n\n* The Triumvirate fell apart. \n\n* Even Caesar got killed.\n\nSo, all these actions were reversible.\n\nTo me, the point of no return was when the assassins did not stand up and take responsibility for their action in killing Caesar. They should have stood up and declared themselves as king-killers. This was supposedly their reason for killing Caesar: because they believed he was setting himself up as king in everything but name. They even included Brutus in their conspiracy, as the descendant of the earlier Brutus who had killed the last king of Rome, to give themselves legitimacy as king-killers. If they had stood on the steps of the Senate and proudly declared \"The King is dead!\", they would have had public acclaim and support. \n\nThey could then have gone back to the way things were before (or, at least, made their best attempt to do so). Consuls could have been appointed/elected, the Senate could take back its authority, and the Republic could have limped along for a while longer until the next crisis.\n\nHowever, by hiding and/or fleeing, they left a power vacuum in Rome. No previous action in the past few decades had left Rome so much lacking a leader or leaders. This vacancy invited - almost *required* - someone to fill it. And, rather than merely replacing a consul, the competing factions now knew they could replace a *dictator*. The prize was bigger and more attractive.\n\nAnd, *that*, I believe, is the moment that Rome could never return to being a Republic: when the liberatores didn't declare themselves king-killers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "925498",
"title": "Battle of Carrhae",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1157,
"text": "However, the fall of the Roman Republic intervened, and the beginning of imperial monarchy at Rome followed. Sulla's first march on Rome in 88 BC had begun the collapse of the republican form of government, but the death of Crassus and the loss of his legions utterly reconfigured the balance of power at Rome. An old theory ran that the death of Crassus, along with the death of Julia in 54, Pompey's wife and Caesar's daughter, may have severed the ties between Caesar and Pompey; the first Triumvirate no longer existed. As a result, civil war broke out. Caesar won, and the Republic quickly became an autocratic dictatorship. Several historians note the lapse of time between Crassus' death and the outbreak of civil war. Gaius Stern has claimed that Crassus' death nearly cut the links the First Triumvirate enjoyed with the blue-blooded aristocracy, leaving the entire state vulnerable to the friction that eventually turned into civil war. Thus, an immediate effect of the battle may have been the elimination of certain private checks and balances (e.g. Crassus' relationship to Metellus Pius Scipio) that formerly kept a lid on political tensions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25176543",
"title": "Latins (Italic tribe)",
"section": "Section::::Political unification under Rome (550–338 BC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 916,
"text": "The fall of the Roman monarchy was probably a more lengthy, violent and international process than the swift, bloodless and internal coup related by tradition. The role in the revolution played by the Etruscan Lars Porsenna, king of Clusium, who led an invasion of Roman territory at the time of the revolution, was probably distorted for propaganda reasons by later Roman chroniclers. Livy claims that Porsenna aimed to restore Tarquin to his throne, but failed to take Rome after a siege. However, Tacitus suggests that Porsenna's army succeeded in occupying the City. The fact that there is no evidence of Tarquin's restoration during this occupation has led some scholars to suggest that it was Porsenna who was the real agent in the expulsion of Tarquin, and that he aimed to replace him as king of Rome. However, any danger of an Etruscan takeover of Rome was removed by Porsenna's defeat at Aricia in 504 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13212",
"title": "History of Europe",
"section": "Section::::Classical antiquity.:Decline of the Roman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "The Roman Empire had been repeatedly attacked by invading armies from Northern Europe and in 476, Rome finally fell. Romulus Augustus, the last Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, surrendered to the Germanic King Odoacer. The British historian Edward Gibbon argued in \"The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire\" (1776) that the Romans had become decadent, they had lost civic virtue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40998423",
"title": "Overthrow of the Roman monarchy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "The overthrow of the Roman monarchy, a political revolution in ancient Rome, took place around 509 BC and resulted in the expulsion of the last king of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, and the establishment of the Roman Republic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21967718",
"title": "History of Rome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Roman Empire: With the rise of Julius Caesar, the Republic waned and by all measures, concluded after a period of civil war and the victory of Octavian, the adopted son of Caesar in 27 BC over Mark Antony. After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, Rome managed to hang onto the empire, still known as the Roman Empire but long centered on the eastern Mediterranean, until the 8th century as the Duchy of Rome. At this time, the city was reduced to a fraction of its former size, being sacked several times in the 5th to 6th centuries, in 546 even temporarily depopulated entirely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "521555",
"title": "Ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Fall of the Western Roman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "After some 1200 years of independence and nearly 700 years as a great power, the rule of Rome in the West ended. Various reasons for Rome's fall have been proposed ever since, including loss of Republicanism, moral decay, military tyranny, class war, slavery, economic stagnation, environmental change, disease, the decline of the Roman race, as well as the inevitable ebb and flow that all civilizations experience. At the time many pagans argued that Christianity and the decline of traditional Roman religion were responsible; some rationalist thinkers of the modern era attribute the fall to a change from a martial to a more pacifist religion that lessened the number of available soldiers; while Christians such as Augustine of Hippo argued that the sinful nature of Roman society itself was to blame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18062550",
"title": "The Last Generation of the Roman Republic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "The central argument of the work is that the Late Roman Republic can be characterised by the strength and continuity of its institutions, rather than by their gradual disintegration. The latter view was popularly accepted prior to the release of this work, that understanding initially begun by Ronald Syme's great work \"The Roman Revolution\" (1939). Gruen's work in \"The Last Generation\" is often considered a reply to Syme.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8c6uzl
|
How inaccurate is this "Adam Ruins Everything" video about the history of Anatomy?
|
[
{
"answer": "Just a brief response -- despite the host's claim to \"ruin everything\" by giving counterfactual stories, he's actually delivering a very mainstream hagiography of Vesalius that would have not seemed out of place in the 19th century (though still is popular today, especially in the medical field). The actual history -- both of Vesalius' accomplishments, the long-running influence of Galen, and the birth of scientific medicine -- is much more nuanced. \n\nSo just briefly -- human dissection was picked up again by Europeans in the 13th century in Italy, influenced by Arab medicine. When the host talks about \"Galen\" he's talking about Arab text books translated into Latin like \"The Canon of Medicine.\" By Vesalius' time (16th century), Galen would have also been translated directly from the original Greek into Latin, but Arabic translations were still a large part of the curriculum (and remained that way in some areas into the 19th century). Arab physicians were greatly influenced by Galen, but more recent scholars have shown that there was also a great deal of innovation in this period as well. Al-Nafis, for example, largely described the pulmonary circulation based on dissection, and had already corrected some of Galen's misconceptions, including that the septum of the heart was fully porous.\n\nMondino is probably one of the first European Arab-inspired physicians, and who most inspired Vesalius. His \"Anatomy\" was basically a dissection guide (the spiritual predecessor to the disgusting formaldehyde-covered guide that I used and ruined in my first year of medical school). It was based on his observations rather than old text books, though was not illustrated (since it was a guide). Vesalius used his book when doing his dissections. \n\nSo here's the biggest misconception that the video probably advocates -- while *we* see Vesalius as the father of anatomy, *he* most certainly did not see himself in that way. Galenic medicine (or what we should probably call something like \"traditional Western medicine,\" though \"humoral theory\" is usually used) is an all-encompassing explanatory model. Anatomy and physiology are not seen as separate disciplines. Vesalius clearly thought of himself as participating in this tradition, and thought that his findings would help shore up this model by improving on Galen -- and then, most importantly, disseminating this information.\n\nThe hagiography about the challenge to Galen is a creating of 18th century doctors who wanted an origin story (and one that would conveniently create a link between the Greeks and European physicians and cleverly cut out the Arabs).\n\nSo that was a bit longer than I intended. The history of science and medicine is fascinating, and I think helps us understand trends today. **BUT** repeating simplified stories like the one in the video do little to help us understand how scientists and doctors think, or the complicated, messy tale of scientific advance. I'll get off my soap box now.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "984053",
"title": "Lateral sulcus",
"section": "Section::::Popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Stark observes that the American Medical Journal reported that Michelangelo's \"The Creation of Adam\" appears to conform deliberately to the neuroanatomical shape of the brain, its Sylvian fissure clearly evident, suggesting Michelangelo may have intentionally conflated theology with neurology ( Meshberger 1990: 1837). Others though, have likened the cloak to the uterus and umbilical cord.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14814",
"title": "Indiana Jones",
"section": "Section::::Cultural impact.:Archaeological influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 868,
"text": "Archeologist Anne Pyburn described the influence of Indiana Jones as elitist and sexist, and argued that the film series had caused new discoveries in the field of archaeology to become oversimplified and overhyped in an attempt to gain public interest, which negatively influences archaeology as a whole. Eric Powell, an editor with the magazine \"Archaeology\", said \"O.K., fine, the movie romanticizes what we do\", and that \"Indy may be a horrible archeologist, but he's a great diplomat for archeology. I think we'll see a spike in kids who want to become archeologists\". Kevin McGeoughs, associate professor of archaeology, describes the original archaeological criticism of the film as missing the point of the film: \"dramatic interest is what is at issue, and it is unlikely that film will change in order to promote and foster better archaeological techniques\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3071336",
"title": "Crucifix (Michelangelo)",
"section": "Section::::Other crucifix attributed to Michelangelo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Some art historians attributed the work to Michelangelo based only on stylistic criteria, as the sculpture is not documented by contemporary biographers of Michelangelo Ascanio Condivi and Giorgio Vasari. The figure measures and was allegedly made around 1495. In December 2009, an inquiry has been opened into the acquisition of the crucifix by the Italian state. ANSA reports that: \"several experts have cast doubts on the attribution, with the doyenne of Michelangelo cross studies, German art historian Margrit Lisner, saying it was probably a Sansovino.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3146221",
"title": "The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "2014's \"The Anatomy Lesson\" by Nina Siegal is a fictionalized account of the painting's creation and backstory, based on six years of historical research and archival documents about Aris Kindt's life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4801957",
"title": "The Last Judgment (Michelangelo)",
"section": "Section::::Reception and later changes.:Religious objections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "\"The Last Judgment\" became controversial as soon as it was seen, with disputes between critics in the Catholic Counter-Reformation and supporters of the genius of the artist and the style of the painting. Michelangelo was accused of being insensitive to proper decorum, in respect of nudity and other aspects of the work, and of pursuing artistic effect over following the scriptural description of the event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4801957",
"title": "The Last Judgment (Michelangelo)",
"section": "Section::::Reception and later changes.:Artistic criticism.:Modern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "S.J. Freedberg commented that \"The vast repertory of anatomies that Michelangelo conceived for the \"Last Judgment\" seems often to have been determined more by the requirements of art than by compelling needs of meaning ... meant not just to entertain but to overpower us with their effects. Often, too, the figures assume attitudes of which a major sense is one of ornament...\" He notes that the two frescos in the Cappella Paolina, Michelangelo's last paintings, begun in November 1542, almost immediately after the \"Last Judgment\", show from the start a major change in style, away from grace and aesthetic effect to an exclusive concern with illustrating the narrative, with no regard for beauty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45356779",
"title": "Jonty Hurwitz",
"section": "Section::::Career in art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "In a 2015, documentary by CNN International on Hurwitz's artwork, BBC Radio 2 art critic Estelle Lovatt commented on Hurwitz's work: \"If Leonardo Da Vinci were alive today, he would have been doing what Jonty is doing. He would have been using algorithms. No one else works like him today. His art is the mix between the emotional and the intelligent, and that's what gives it that spark.\" Hurwitz's work focuses on the aesthetics of art in the context of human perception. His early body of sculpture was discovered by Estelle Lovatt during 2011 in an article for \"Art of England Magazine\": \"Thinning the divide gap between art and science, Hurwitz is cognisant of the two being holistically co-joined in the same way as we are naturally, comfortably split between our spiritual and operational self\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
14g3ve
|
Just to add more to the current discussion on beer, I have a few questions inside
|
[
{
"answer": "1. Water was always an option. Drinking water from sources or even collected rain wasn't that unhealthy. Pure water could become a problem in medieval cities due to the population density and the disposal of waste in natural bodies of water. But as stated in one of the answers of the post you're referring to water from wells, springs and collected rainwater was always reasonable safe to drink.\n\n\n2. There are malt drinks on the market as health drinks [vitamalz](_URL_1_) for example. But most health drink fixated types will shun the connotation with beer and will take their hop extract and beer yeast pills with a gulp of mangosteen juice or whatever fad there happens to be the next fad. Shame really, a nice trappist ale will provide them with most of whats in there.\n\n\n\n3. Making beer was invented in Mesopotamia (persia) about the same time as humans transitioned from hunter/gatherer lifestyle to a farming based society. Writing and mathematics were a direct result of that transition as stocks needed to be kept and the farming surface needed to be measured. Beer made us in the people we are. [See this doc, for example](_URL_0_).\nNote that we live closer to the time of cleopatra than cleopatra lived to the first mesopotamian settlers. So we've been drinking beer for a LONG time.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13421650",
"title": "Museum of Beer and Brewing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "The Museum of Beer and Brewing is a non-profit educational organization that was founded in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, United States, by a group of beer history enthusiasts. Since its conception, the group has lost one of its founding members, Karl Strauss, a retired brewer from the Pabst Brewing Company. Strauss died in 2006, at the age of 94.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52419549",
"title": "Beer and Oktoberfest Museum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "On the ground floor, the history of the beer and the art of brewing, is displayed with extensive information and exhibits based on the beer culture. The history of the Oktoberfest is presented on the upper floor. On the ground floor there is also a beer stall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36284334",
"title": "All About Beer",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "\"All About Beer\" was founded in Los Angeles in 1979 by printing executive Mike Bosak and six colleagues from the print and publishing world. The first issue appeared in March of that year. None of the original founders was a beer expert.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27626779",
"title": "B Is for Beer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "B is for Beer is a novel by Tom Robbins published in 2009 by HarperCollins. It is presented as a children's book, about Gracie Perke, a young girl exploring the world of beer. She learns why every adult enjoys it and why she's not allowed to drink it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36298785",
"title": "Michael Beer (poet)",
"section": "Section::::Works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Beer's poetic output includes a series of 'Elegies' written in Italy, a protest at the injustice of criminal sentencing (\"Im Gerichtssaal\"), and a satirical poem on the paradoxes of extreme religiosity (\"Der fromme Rabbi\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12147096",
"title": "European Beer Consumers' Union",
"section": "Section::::Current members.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "In 2008, the member organisations signed up to a constitution which defined the formal aims and structure and the role of traditional beer as a prime component of European culture, history and daily life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36284334",
"title": "All About Beer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "All About Beer was an English-language magazine published by All About Beer, LLC. Under current owner Chris Rice, it filed for bankruptcy in 2019. It was located in Durham, NC, USA and was published six times per year, plus one special annual issue. At its peak it and has a distribution of over 46,000, with subscribers and newsstand sales in more than 40 countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
b95yqn
|
Where does Cicero talk about "a certain Roman praetor, Cassius"?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's at Cic., *Pro Rosc.*, 84:\n\n > L. Cassius ille quem populus Romanus verissimum et sapientissimum iudicem putabat identidem in causis quaerere solebat 'cui bono' fuisset.\n\n > > That great L. Cassius, whom the Roman people considered the truest and wisest judge [i.e. juror], who was accustomed to asking in court cases over and over 'to whose benefit' it was.\n\nL. Cassius was consul 127, censor 125, and was best known for his involvement in the prosecution of the Vestals in 113 and especially for his tribunate in 137, during which he promulgated a *lex tabellaria* on the secret ballot (Cic., *Brut*., 97; 106; *Leg*., 3,35 -37)\n\n > where in Cicero is this discussion?\n\n~~I'm not sure what you mean. Cicero had not been born yet~~ [Never mind, I read you wrong]. He refers to L. Cassius' principle because the whole point of the speech is that Magnus and Capito stood to gain the most from the death of Roscius' father, and that it doesn't make sense to charge Roscius when all fingers are really pointing at Magnus and Capito. \n\nI also don't understand why Hobbes singles L. Cassius out as a praetor. He held the praetorship, but his was fairly uneventful--his tribunate and time as *iudex* over the Vestals is what he was famous for, and what Cicero singles him out for. Hobbes may be thinking that since praetors often presided over civil courts, Cassius must have been praetor when he made his pronouncement. But Cicero clearly calls him *iudex*, and the praetor would not have been a juror at the same time. Further, Hobbes incorrectly associates the praetorship with criminal courts, which is erroneous.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1577654",
"title": "Brutus (Cicero)",
"section": "Section::::Criticism of the \"Brutus\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "Cicero's work is typically seen as a list of orators and the development of oratory in Rome. While the purpose of the Brutus is to record the history of oratory and confirm that it has failed to exist, some scholars believe that Cicero fails in adequately achieving his task. This is a problem because Cicero fails to include a reliable list of Roman oratory by purposely omitting figures like Marius, Sulla, Catiline, and Clodius. Scholars also argue that the \"Brutus\" is not a complete list because Cicero fails to include himself in his list.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1577654",
"title": "Brutus (Cicero)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "Cicero's Brutus (also known as \"De claris oratibus\") is a history of Roman oratory. It is written in the form of a dialogue, in which Brutus and Atticus ask Cicero to describe the qualities of all the leading Roman orators up to their time. Cicero then attempts to propose a reconstruction of Roman history. Although it is written in the form of a dialogue, the majority of the talking is done by Cicero with occasional intervention by Brutus and Atticus. The work was probably composed in 46 BC, with the purpose of defending Cicero's own oratory. He begins with an introductory section on Greek oratory of the Attic, Asianic, and Rhodian schools, before discussing Roman orators, beginning with Lucius Junius Brutus, \"The Liberator\", though becoming more specific from the time of Marcus Cornelius Cethegus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2992693",
"title": "De Legibus",
"section": "Section::::Book One.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Atticus takes the opportunity to prod Cicero to starting a promised work on Roman history (if such a work existed, it has not surfaced to any extent in modern times) and flatters him by pointing out that in any case, Cicero may be one of the more qualified men in Rome to do it, given the numerous flaws of Roman historians of the era. Cicero begs off, mentioning that he has his hands full with studying the law in preparation for cases. This brings us to the meat of the book, an exposition of the wellspring of the law. Atticus, as a divertissment, asks Cicero to put some of his knowledge to use right then and there and give them a discussion on the law as they walk across his estate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31947221",
"title": "Marcus Tullius Cicero (Rome character)",
"section": "Section::::Comparison to the historical Marcus Tullius Cicero.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "The historical Cicero was a courageous intellectual who, by dint of his talent, learning, and rhetorical ability, had risen through the ranks of the Republic to become the last of her novi homines. He had a history of brave public and vocal opposition to real and would-be tyrants such as Sulla and Catiline, as well as to their subordinates. The narrative of the series does little besides allude to any of these past troubles of the Roman Republic or to Cicero's role in all them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "894355",
"title": "Quintus Tullius Cicero",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Quintus Tullius Cicero (; ; 102 BC – 43 BC) was a Roman statesman and military leader, the younger brother of Marcus Tullius Cicero. He was born into a family of the equestrian order, as the son of a wealthy landowner in Arpinum, some 100 kilometres south-east of Rome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1814280",
"title": "Pro Archia Poeta",
"section": "Section::::Structure of the speech.:\"Narratio\" or statement of the case.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Cicero begins his account of Archias' life and travels through Asia and Greece during the poet's early career before his first arrival in Rome. He says that he was yet only sixteen or seventeen years old, wearing the striped toga or \"praetextatus\", when he began his studies in the arts and gained the attention of some of Rome's most influential citizens. Cicero emphasizes the stature of those who gave patronage to Archias by altering the usual word order.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18058",
"title": "Latin literature",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Golden Age.:The age of Cicero.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 900,
"text": "Cicero has traditionally been considered the master of Latin prose. The writing he produced from about 80 BC until his death in 43 BC exceeds that of any Latin author whose work survives in terms of quantity and variety of genre and subject matter, as well as possessing unsurpassed stylistic excellence. Cicero's many works can be divided into four groups: (1) letters, (2) rhetorical treatises, (3) philosophical works, and (4) orations. His letters provide detailed information about an important period in Roman history and offer a vivid picture of the public and private life among the Roman governing class. Cicero's works on oratory are our most valuable Latin sources for ancient theories on education and rhetoric. His philosophical works were the basis of moral philosophy during the Middle Ages. His speeches inspired many European political leaders and the founders of the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
11ppxm
|
Help explaining some of the pockets of Europe NOT hit by the Black Death
|
[
{
"answer": "Krakow and Milan both instituted very draconian quarantine procedures early on. I have no idea what happened in the Pyrénées, but it could easily be related to lack of travel in that relatively sparsely populated and mountainous area.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54253",
"title": "Silk Road",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.:Mongol empire (13-14th centuries).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Some studies indicate that the Black Death, which devastated Europe starting in the late 1340s, may have reached Europe from Central Asia (or China) along the trade routes of the Mongol Empire. One theory holds that Genoese traders coming from the entrepot of Trebizond in northern Turkey carried the disease to Western Europe; like many other outbreaks of plague, there is strong evidence that it originated in marmots in Central Asia and was carried westwards to the Black Sea by Silk Road traders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240146",
"title": "Mongol Empire",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 836,
"text": "BULLET::::- Some studies indicate that the Black Death which devastated Europe in the late 1340s may have traveled from China to Europe along the trade routes of the Mongol Empire. In 1347, the Genoese possessor of Caffa, a great trade emporium on the Crimean Peninsula, came under siege by an army of Mongol warriors under the command of Janibeg. After a protracted siege during which the Mongol army was reportedly withering from disease, they decided to use the infected corpses as a biological weapon. The corpses were catapulted over the city walls, infecting the inhabitants. The Genoese traders fled, transferring the plague via their ships into the south of Europe, from where it rapidly spread. The total number of deaths worldwide from the pandemic is estimated at 75–200 million with up to 50 million deaths in Europe alone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40748568",
"title": "The Gate of Worlds",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "The Black Death killed three fourths of the European population, delaying progress and, ultimately, the Industrial Revolution. Most of Central Europe was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, which occupied it until the twentieth century, leaving it in no shape for colonization of much of the non-European world as in our timeline. Constantinople was conquered in 1420, the Ottomans moved into Vienna in 1440, and took over Paris in 1460, before invading the British Isles in 1490. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33390780",
"title": "Second plague pandemic",
"section": "Section::::Black Death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 868,
"text": "Arab historians Ibn Al-Wardni and Almaqrizi believed the Black Death originated in Mongolia, and Chinese records show a huge outbreak in Mongolia in the early 1330s. Europe was initially protected by a hiatus in the Silk Road, but a 1347 Mongolian siege at Caffa—the last Italian outpost on the Crimean Peninsula—spread it to the defenders, who carried it back with them that winter. It arrived at Genoa and Venice in January 1348, while simultaneously spreading through Asia Minor and into Egypt. The bubonic form was described graphically in Florence in \"The Decameron\" and Guy de Chauliac also described the pneumonic form at Avignon. It rapidly spread to France and Spain, by 1349 was in England, in 1350 was afflicting eastern Europe and it reached the centre of Russia by 1351. In most parts it blew itself out within about three years, though only temporarily.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "248788",
"title": "Feodosia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Kaffa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 898,
"text": "It is believed that the devastating pandemic the Black Death entered Europe for the first time via Kaffa in 1347, through the movements of the Golden Horde. After a protracted siege during which the Mongol army under Janibeg was reportedly withering from the disease, they catapulted the infected corpses over the city walls, infecting the inhabitants, in one of the first cases of biological warfare. Fleeing inhabitants may have carried the disease back to Italy, causing its spread across Europe. However, the plague appears to have spread in a stepwise fashion, taking over a year to reach Europe from Crimea. Also, there were a number of Crimean ports under Mongol control, so it is unlikely that Kaffa was the only source of plague-infested ships heading to Europe. Additionally, there were overland caravan routes from the East that would have been carrying the disease into Europe as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7952603",
"title": "History of Crimea",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.:Mongol invasion and later medieval period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "In 1346 the Golden Horde army besieging Genoese Kaffa (present-day Feodosiya) catapulted the bodies of Mongol warriors who had died of plague over the walls of the city. Historians have speculated that Genoese refugees from this engagement may have brought the Black Death to Western Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24255",
"title": "Pandemic",
"section": "Section::::Biological warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "In 1346, the bodies of Mongol warriors who had died of plague were thrown over the walls of the besieged Crimean city of Kaffa (now Theodosia). After a protracted siege, during which the Mongol army under Jani Beg was suffering the disease, they catapulted the infected corpses over the city walls to infect the inhabitants. It has been speculated that this operation may have been responsible for the arrival of the Black Death in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2j39j2
|
why does out stomach hurt and we get diarrhea after eating something really spicy and hot? what happens inside of our body?
|
[
{
"answer": "im not a biologist so take this with a grain of salt, but im guessing its because the stomach is irritated by the spicy food and wants to purge itself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Chili contains capsaicin, your body does not break down these compounds during digestion, and they can cause irritation to the lining in your stomach and intestines. \n\nThere is a common [myth](_URL_0_) that spices are often used by people to cover up the taste of spoiled meat, so it is not really the spice that upsets your stomach, but the bacteria.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What lcav said. I would add that your body gets used to it so if you eat spicy food regularly those side effects will diminish.\r\rSource: I eat a shit load (no pun intended) of spicy food and poop just fine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12128133",
"title": "Gastroparesis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, feeling full soon after beginning to eat (early satiety), abdominal bloating, and heartburn. The most common known mechanism is autonomic neuropathy of the nerve which innervates the stomach: the vagus nerve. Uncontrolled diabetes mellitus is a major cause of this nerve damage; other causes include post-infectious and trauma to the vagus nerve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "326481",
"title": "Irritation",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Stomach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 927,
"text": "Gastritis or stomach upset is a common irritating disorder affecting millions of people. Gastritis is basically inflammation of the stomach wall lining and has many causes. Smoking, excess alcohol consumption and the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen, account for the majority of causes of gastritis. In some cases, gastritis may develop after surgery, a major burn, infection or emotional stress. The most common symptoms of gastritis include sharp abdominal pain which may radiate to the back. This may be associated with nausea, vomiting, abdominal bloating and a lack of appetite. When the condition is severe it may even result in loss of blood on the stools. The condition often comes and goes for years because most people continue to drink alcohol or use NSAIDs. Treatment includes the use of antacids or acid neutralizing drugs, antibiotics, and avoiding spicy food and alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13008446",
"title": "Bowel ischemia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Bowel ischemia produces abdominal pain, which can be extreme. Underlying causes include embolism, blood clots in arteries (called \"thrombosis\"), and insufficient blood flow, either due to damage to arteries, compression caused by other situations such as bowel obstruction, or arteries that are unable to supply the extra blood flow needed while digesting food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63791",
"title": "Peptic ulcer disease",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "Burning or gnawing feeling in the stomach area lasting between 30 minutes and 3 hours commonly accompanies ulcers. This pain can be misinterpreted as hunger, indigestion or heartburn. Pain is usually caused by the ulcer but it may be aggravated by the stomach acid when it comes into contact with the ulcerated area. The pain caused by peptic ulcers can be felt anywhere from the navel up to the sternum, it may last from few minutes to several hours and it may be worse when the stomach is empty. Also, sometimes the pain may flare at night and it can commonly be temporarily relieved by eating foods that buffer stomach acid or by taking anti-acid medication. However, peptic ulcer disease symptoms may be different for every sufferer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17615699",
"title": "Stomach disease",
"section": "Section::::Chronic disorders.:Gastritis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 900,
"text": "In the stomach there is a slight balance between acid and the wall lining which is protected by mucus. When this mucus lining is disrupted for whatever reason, signs and symptoms of acidity result. This may result in upper abdominal pain, indigestion, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting and heartburn. When the condition is allowed to progress, the pain may become continuous; blood may start to leak and be seen in the stools. If the bleeding is rapid and of adequate volume it may even result in vomiting of bright red blood (hematemesis). When the acidity is uncontrolled, it can even cause severe blood loss (anemia) or lead to perforation (hole) in the stomach which is a surgical emergency. In many individuals, the progressive bleeding from an ulcer mixes with the feces and presents as black stools. Presence of blood in stools is often the first sign that there is a problem in the stomach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17615699",
"title": "Stomach disease",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "There are many types of chronic disorders which affect the stomach. However, since the symptoms are localized to this organ, the typical symptoms of stomach problems include nausea, vomiting, bloating, cramps, diarrhea and pain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1562567",
"title": "Intussusception (medical disorder)",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Early symptoms can include periodic abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting (sometimes green in color from bile), pulling legs to the chest area, and intermittent moderate to severe cramping abdominal pain. Pain is intermittent—not because the intussusception temporarily resolves, but because the intussuscepted bowel segment transiently stops contracting. Later signs include rectal bleeding, often with \"red currant jelly\" stool (stool mixed with blood and mucus), and lethargy. Physical examination may reveal a \"sausage-shaped\" mass, felt upon palpating the abdomen. Children, or those unable to communicate symptoms verbally, may cry, draw their knees up to their chest, or experience dyspnea (difficult or painful breathing) with paroxysms of pain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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