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2s3k3a
|
Why did Britain/USA not just colonialize Saudi Arabia?
|
[
{
"answer": "Just finished reading Daniel Yergin's \"The Prize,\" and it goes into a very oil-slanted history of the kingdom. In short (and I'm sure others here can add more), after WWII, the British empire was receding and the Brits saw a large presence in the Gulf as unsustainable. The US, at least under Truman, saw direct involvement in the Gulf states as \"a little far afield\" of the nation's policy and instead encouraged private business to take the lead, especially in getting energy to Europe in a somewhat circuitous application of the Marshall Plan.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "You've pretty much answered your own question. Invading and controlling countries was not the preferred method ot at least was losing favour. That doesnt mean that some control was entirely off the books (vis a vis Persia and the Brits), but that it wasnt the ideal way of gettings one way. It was clear that a pro-western government could be dealt with via treaties, bribes and business arrangements rather than unpleasant invasions and occupation. The fact that Saudi Arabia has remained western aligned and at least partly benign for 80 years odd is evidence it was a reasonable plan. British expansionism had largely stopped at this time and was indeed receeding.\n\nAdditionally the US had never, as OlfactoriusRex suggest, ventured too far into interfering directly in these regions, partly as a matter of policy but also as a matter of practicality. US power projection capabilities at that range were fairly poor until post WW2. Some military bods would know more on that than I. The UK of course was the most expert nation at that sort of thing around this time.\n\nThe question is thus not so much why didnt they, but why would they?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2676481",
"title": "Protectorate of South Arabia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "The background of the Protectorate of South Arabia is part of an effort of the British Empire to protect the East India Route, the sea route between the Mediterranean Sea and India, in and through the southern coasts of Arabia. Already before the opening of the Suez Canal, industrial Britain with its rapidly expanding economy, needed improved communication with British India.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "184236",
"title": "Ibn Saud",
"section": "Section::::Rise to power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "During World War I, the British government established diplomatic relations with Ibn Saud. The British agent, Captain William Shakespear, was well received by the Bedouin. Similar diplomatic missions were established with any Arabian power who might have been able to unify and stabilize the region. The British entered into the Treaty of Darin in December 1915, which made the lands of the House of Saud a British protectorate and attempted to define the boundaries of the developing Saudi state. In exchange, Ibn Saud pledged to again make war against Ibn Rashid, who was an ally of the Ottomans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "277174",
"title": "St John Philby",
"section": "Section::::Adviser to Ibn Saud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Philby's view was that both British and Saud family's interests would be best served by uniting the Arabian peninsula under one government, stretching from the Red Sea to the Persian Gulf, with the Saudis supplanting the Hashemites as Islamic \"Keepers of the Holy Places\" while protecting shipping lanes along the Suez Canal–Aden–Mumbai (then Bombay) route.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57490226",
"title": "Palestine–Saudi Arabia relations",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "While Saudi Arabia tends to be a sympathizer of Palestine after the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, Saudi Arabia has majority distanced themselves from the conflict and emphasizes in a more friendlier approach, sometimes even crossing with Israel. Nonetheless, at the reign of King Faisal, a liberal ruler in Saudi history and firmly pro-Palestinian, Saudi Arabia had set up a closer tie with Palestine and supportive of the Palestinian cause to a level after the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, he withdrew Saudi oil from market, causing the 1973 oil crisis. The new oil revenue also allowed Faisal to greatly increase the aid and subsidies begun following the 1967 Six-Day War to Egypt, Syria, and the Palestine Liberation Organization. However, he was assassinated two years later, and the relationship once warm under Faisal, became soured for the second time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "349303",
"title": "Saudi Arabia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-unification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "In the 1980s, Saudi Arabia spent $25 billion in support of Saddam Hussein in the Iran–Iraq War. However, Saudi Arabia condemned the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and asked the US to intervene. King Fahd allowed American and coalition troops to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of its citizens to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of Yemen and Jordan because of their governments' support of Iraq. In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35053587",
"title": "Israel–Saudi Arabia relations",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Arab–Israeli conflict.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1446,
"text": "A charter member of the Arab League, Saudi Arabia has supported Palestinian rights to sovereignty, and called for withdrawal from the West Bank and other territory occupied by Israel since 1967. In 1947, Saudi Arabia was one of several Middle Eastern states that voted against in the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine. Saudi troops were sent to fight against Israel in the 1948 and 1973 wars. The 1981 Israel operation Operation Opera, a preemptive strike on nuclear reactor purchased by Iraq from France in 1976, allegedly took place with the cooperation of Saudi Arabia, as the flight path was over Saudi territory.. In recent years Saudi Arabia has changed its viewpoint concerning the validity of negotiating with Israel, which it previously refused. It calls for Israel's withdrawal from territory occupied in June 1967. In 2002 then-Crown Prince Abdullah extended a multilateral peace proposal based on withdrawal that would follow the borders of a two-state solution. At that time, Israel did not respond to the offer. In 2007 Saudi Arabia again officially supported a peaceful resolution of the Arab–Israeli conflict in which Israel was to concede to withdraw to the borders set in the two-state solutions, which generated more official negative reactions from Israeli authorities, citing the Oslo Accords and the Saudis' deviation from those accords. At this time, no demands were made of any other party other than of Israel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9753135",
"title": "Saudi Arabia–United States relations",
"section": "Section::::Post-9/11 relationship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "According to at least one journalist (John R. Bradley), the ruling Saudi family was caught between depending for military defense on the United States, while also depending for domestic support on the Wahhabi religious establishment, which as a matter of religious doctrine \"ultimately seeks the West's destruction\", including that of its ruler's purported ally—the US. During the Iraq War, Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Saud Al-Faisal, criticized the U.S.-led invasion as a \"colonial adventure\" aimed only at gaining control of Iraq's natural resources. But at the same time, Bradley writes, the Saudi government secretly allowed the US military to \"essentially\" manage its air campaign and launch special operations against Iraq from inside Saudi borders, using \"at least three\" Saudi air bases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
sru9t
|
Have there been Nobel prizes awarded for theories that were later disproven? If so, how does the foundation respond?
|
[
{
"answer": "[António Egas Moniz](_URL_1_) won a Nobel for \"for his discovery of the therapeutic value of [leucotomy](_URL_0_) in certain psychoses.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Typically, especially in the latter half century, the Nobel committee has been extremely careful to wait for a solid proof and acceptance of theories before awarding the prize.\n\nIt is not my intent to criticize you personally, but your example is flawed in that JJT's theories subsequent to his discovery were not what the prize was awarded for. \n\nSimilarly, Einstein won for the photoelectric effect, developed his theory of coefficients to describe atomic processes, and then subsequently rejected quantum mechanics, the very theory that perfectly explained the experimental effect for which he won his prize! His theories of SR and GR are arguably more profound, and fundamentally changed the way in which we see the universe, which the PV effect really did not - Schrodinger and Heisenberg did that. However, Relativity was only fundamentally, truly proven by our observance of gravitational lensing which happened much later.\n\nMy point is that most of these major scientists have been as spectacularly wrong about something as they have been right. Their technical errors do not diminish their accomplishments nor should they influence the Nobel process.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yep, there has been the prize of [Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger](_URL_0_) in 1926. \n\n > The 1926 prize went to Johannes Andreas Grib Fibiger, \"for his discovery of the Spiroptera carcinoma\", a microbial parasite which Fibiger claimed was the cause of cancer. This \"finding\" was discredited by other scientists shortly thereafter.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2180852",
"title": "Nobel Foundation",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Nobel Foundation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "The Nobel Foundation was founded as a private organisation on 29 June 1900 specifically to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. It is based on Nobel's last will and testament. At the time Nobel's will led to much specticism and criticism and thus it was not until 26 April 1897 that his will was approved by the Storting. Soon thereafter they appointed the members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee that was to award the Peace Prize. Shortly after, the other prize-awarding organizations followed; Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The next thing the Nobel Foundation did was to try to agree on guidelines for how the Nobel Prize should be awarded. In 1900 the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "21201",
"title": "Nobel Prize",
"section": "Section::::History.:Nobel Foundation.:Formation of Foundation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1332,
"text": "The Nobel Foundation was founded as a private organization on 29 June 1900. Its function is to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. In accordance with Nobel's will, the primary task of the Foundation is to manage the fortune Nobel left. Robert and Ludvig Nobel were involved in the oil business in Azerbaijan, and according to Swedish historian E. Bargengren, who accessed the Nobel family archives, it was this \"decision to allow withdrawal of Alfred's money from Baku that became the decisive factor that enabled the Nobel Prizes to be established\". Another important task of the Nobel Foundation is to market the prizes internationally and to oversee informal administration related to the prizes. The Foundation is not involved in the process of selecting the Nobel laureates. In many ways, the Nobel Foundation is similar to an investment company, in that it invests Nobel's money to create a solid funding base for the prizes and the administrative activities. The Nobel Foundation is exempt from all taxes in Sweden (since 1946) and from investment taxes in the United States (since 1953). Since the 1980s, the Foundation's investments have become more profitable and as of 31 December 2007, the assets controlled by the Nobel Foundation amounted to 3.628 billion Swedish \"kronor\" (c. US$560 million).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2180852",
"title": "Nobel Foundation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 220,
"text": "The Nobel Foundation () is a private institution founded on 29 June 1900 to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. The Foundation is based on the last will of Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52502",
"title": "Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "After Nobel's death, the Nobel Foundation was set up to manage the assets of the bequest. In 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by Swedish King Oscar II. According to Nobel's will, the Karolinska Institute in Sweden, a medical school and research center, is responsible for the Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Today, the prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5025826",
"title": "Emanuel Nobel",
"section": "Section::::Emanuel's role in the execution of Alfred Nobel's will.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Emanuel Nobel, however, as head of the younger branch of the family, played a fundamental role in supporting the execution of his uncle's wishes, pleading even before King Oscar II, and an agreement with Robert Nobel's heirs was reached in 1898, thus allowing the creation of the Nobel Prizes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21201",
"title": "Nobel Prize",
"section": "Section::::History.:Nobel Foundation.:Formation of Foundation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "According to his will and testament read in Stockholm on 30 December 1896, a foundation established by Alfred Nobel would reward those who serve humanity. The Nobel Prize was funded by Alfred Nobel's personal fortune. According to the official sources, Alfred Nobel bequeathed from the shares 94% of his fortune to the Nobel Foundation that now forms the economic base of the Nobel Prize.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2180852",
"title": "Nobel Foundation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "The executors of his will were Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist who formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel's fortune and organize the prizes. Although Nobel's will established the prizes, his plan was incomplete and, because of various other hurdles, it took five years before the Nobel Foundation could be established and the first prizes could be awarded on 10 December 1901 to, among others, Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen. As of 31 December 2015, the assets controlled by the Nobel Foundation amounted to 4.065 billion Swedish \"kronor\" (approx. US$443 million as of 12 December 2016).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
b1y23z
|
Which part of China did Han people originate in?
|
[
{
"answer": "The earliest that \"ethnic Chinese\" can be placed with certainty is the 13th century BC, when the Shang were writing divination records in what was clearly an ancestral form of the Chinese language. Shang materials have been found over a large part of north China but concentrated around Yinxu in Henan, identified as their last royal capital. We can confidently identify the late Shang as \"ethnic Chinese\" because their language shows continuity with later forms of Chinese; their material culture shows continuity with Zhou and later cultures; and Zhou and later texts explicitly refer to them as Huaxia.\n\nEarlier cultures in north China, like the Erligang (15th century BC) and Erlitou (19th-15th centuries BC) are ancestral to the Yinxu culture in the material sense, but they lacked writing and therefore we can't be certain whether they spoke Chinese, another language, or a mix of languages (in the better-documented Zhou period, for example, we know that South China and the northern steppe were each home to numerous distinct language families- the same could have been true of early North China). So while many Chinese archaeologists and historians identify these material cultures with the Xia and early Shang and therefore as ethnic Chinese, this is not widely accepted outside of China due to the lack of written evidence produced by the cultures themselves.\n\nIn short, we can be very confident that there was a Huaxia ethnicity at least by the 13th century BC, and at least around the middle reaches of the Yellow River, but because of the nature and availability of evidence the further back you go in time, or the further you get from Yinxu, the less certain things become.\n\n- *The Formation of Chinese Civilization: An Archaeological Perspective* by K. C. Chang, Xu Pingfang et al",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2437588",
"title": "Cantonese people",
"section": "Section::::History.:Pre-19th century: History of Liangguang.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "During the 4th–12th centuries, Han Chinese people from North China's Yellow River delta migrated and settled in the South of China. This gave rise to peoples including the Cantonese themselves, Hakkas and Hoklos, whose ancestors migrated from Henan and Shandong, to areas of southeastern coastal China such as Chaozhou, Quanzhou and Zhangzhou and other parts of Guangdong during the Tang dynasty. There have been multiple migrations of Han people into Southeastern and Southern China throughout history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152827",
"title": "Han Chinese",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The Han Chinese people are bound together with a common genetic stock and a shared history inhabiting an ancient ancestral territory for over four thousand years, deeply rooted with many different cultural traditions and customs. The Huaxia tribes in northern China experienced a continuous expansion into southern China over the past two millennia. Huaxia culture spread southward from its heartland in the Yellow River Basin, absorbing various non-Chinese ethnic groups that became sinicised over the centuries at various points in China's history. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147533",
"title": "Yue Chinese",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "The area of China south of the Nanling Mountains, known as the Lingnan (roughly modern Guangxi and Guangdong), was originally home to peoples known to the Chinese as the Hundred Yue (Baiyue). Large-scale Han Chinese migration to the area began after the Qin conquest of the region in 214 BC. Successive waves of immigration followed at times of upheaval in Northern and Central China, such as the collapse of the Han, Tang and Song dynasties. The most popular route was via the Xiang River, which the Qin had connected to the Li River by the Lingqu Canal, and then into the valley of the Xi Jiang (West River). A secondary route followed the Gan River and then the Bei Jiang (North River) into eastern Guangdong. Yue-speakers were later joined by Hakka-speakers following the North River route, and Min-speakers arriving by sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "152827",
"title": "Han Chinese",
"section": "Section::::History.:Prehistory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 757,
"text": "The prehistory of the Han Chinese is closely intertwined with both archaeology, biology, historical textual records and mythology. The ethnic stock to which the Han Chinese originally trace their ancestry from were confederations of late neolithic and early bronze-age agricultural tribes known as the Huaxia that lived along the Guanzhong and Yellow River basins in Northern China. In addition, numerous ethnic groups were assimilated and absorbed by the Han Chinese at various points in China's history. Like many modern ethnic groups, the ethnogenesis of Han Chinese was a long and lengthy process that involved the expansion of the Chinese dynasties and their assimilation of various non-Chinese ethnic groups that became sinicised over the centuries. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23736078",
"title": "Sixteen Kingdoms",
"section": "Section::::History.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "From the late Han Dynasty to the early Jin dynasty (265–420), large numbers of non-Han Chinese peoples living along China's northern periphery settled in northern China. Some of these migrants such as the Xiongnu and Xianbei had been pastoralist nomads from the northern steppes. Others such as the Di and Qiang were farmers and herders from the mountains of western Sichuan. As migrants, they lived among Han Chinese and were sinified to varying degrees. Many worked as farm laborers. Some attained official positions in the court and military. They also faced discrimination and retained clan and tribal affiliations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1748416",
"title": "Han Chinese subgroups",
"section": "Section::::Han subgroups by region.:Greater China.:Mainland China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The Han people originated in Mainland China. Each Han subgroup is generally associated with a particular region in China; the Cantonese originated in Liangguang, the Putian in Puxian, the Foochow in Fuzhou, the Hoklo in Southern Fujian, the Chaoshan/Teochew in eastern Guangdong, the Hakka in eastern/central Guangdong and western Fujian, and the Shanghainese in Shanghai.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74134",
"title": "Northern and Southern dynasties",
"section": "Section::::Demographic changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "It was during the Northern and Southern dynasties period that the earliest recorded migration of ethnic Han Chinese to southern China (below the Yangtze River) took place. This sinicisation helped to develop the region from its previous state of being inhabited by only small and isolated communities separated by vast uncolonized wilderness of non-Chinese ethnic groups. During this period, the south went from being nearly a frontier to being on a path to the thriving, urbanized, sinicized region that it became in later centuries. In his book \"Buddhism in Chinese History\", Arthur F. Wright points out this fact by stating:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qykuu
|
Why does orbital velocity decrease with distance from the planet/sun, but velocity around a turntable increases with an increased radius.
|
[
{
"answer": "It is because the two are not the same.\n\nYour example of a coin on a turntable has constant angular velocity, regardless of distance from the center. In other words, no matter how far away it is, it makes one revolution in the same period of time. This is _forcibly_ imposed on the coin by the friction of the turntable.\n\nIf you look at the equation for [centripetal force](_URL_0_), you'll find that for constant angular velocity, centripetal force increases as a function of distance from the center. At some large distance, friction will not be able to apply enough centripetal force - and your coin will slip and be flung off.\n\nIn the case of gravity, you can find this is not the case. The inward force [does not increase as a function of distance](_URL_1_) - in fact, it _decreases_ as a square of distance - so it can never maintain the same angular velocity as you change the distance.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15032003",
"title": "Exoplanetology",
"section": "Section::::Orbital parameters.:Eccentricity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "However, as a planet grows more massive and its interaction with the disk becomes nonlinear, it may induce eccentric motion of the surrounding disk's gas, which in turn may excite the planet's orbital eccentricity. Low eccentricities are correlated with high multiplicity (number of planets in the system) based on the analysis of planets observed by the radial-velocity method.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2443",
"title": "Acceleration",
"section": "Section::::Special cases.:Circular motion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "• Note that, for a given angular velocity formula_27, the centripetal acceleration is directly proportional to radius formula_25. This is due to the dependence of velocity formula_24 on the radius formula_25. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30647",
"title": "Tidal acceleration",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:Effect on the satellite motion around the planet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Note that assuming all rotations are on the same direction and \"Ω\"\"omega;\", as time passes, the angular momentum of the planet decreases and hence that of the satellite orbit increases. Due to its relation with the planet-satellite distance, the latter increases, so the angular velocity of the satellite orbit decreases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2839",
"title": "Angular momentum",
"section": "Section::::In classical mechanics.:Conservation of angular momentum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "For a planet, angular momentum is distributed between the spin of the planet and its revolution in its orbit, and these are often exchanged by various mechanisms. The conservation of angular momentum in the Earth–Moon system results in the transfer of angular momentum from Earth to Moon, due to tidal torque the Moon exerts on the Earth. This in turn results in the slowing down of the rotation rate of Earth, at about 65.7 nanoseconds per day, and in gradual increase of the radius of Moon's orbit, at about 3.82 centimeters per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30867658",
"title": "Orbital perturbation analysis",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical approach.:Perturbation of the eccentricity vector.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "This means the eccentricity vector will gradually increase in the direction formula_63 orthogonal to the Sun direction. This is true for any orbit with a small eccentricity, the direction of the small eccentricity vector does not matter. As formula_75 is the orbital period this means that the average rate of this increase will be \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23772112",
"title": "Ismaël Bullialdus",
"section": "Section::::Principal works.:Assumptions of \"Philolaic Astronomy\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "BULLET::::9. Half of the inequality is attributed to eccentricity, the other to another cause which makes the planet slower at aphelion, less slow at perihelion, without disturbing the equality of motion or transposing it to some other place, whether the circle or the surface.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20501535",
"title": "Dislocation creep",
"section": "Section::::Kinetics.:Creep by Dislocation and Diffusional Flow.:Solute-Drag Creep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "When the dislocation velocity is not too high (or the creep rate is not too high), the solute atom can follow the dislocations, and thus introduce \"drag\" on the dislocation motion. A high diffusivity decreases the drag, and greater misfit parameters lead to greater binding energies between the solute atom and the dislocation, resulting in an increase in drag. Lastly, increasing the solute concentration increases the drag effect. The velocity can thus be described as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
17apqx
|
When in the past did year abbreviations switch over (ex, '90s to 1890s vs 1990s)?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not sure what question you're asking.\n\nThe 1890s will always be the \"Gay Nineties\", as per your link (or [The Mauve Decade](_URL_0_)), just as the 1920s will always be the \"Roaring Twenties\", and the 1960s will always be the \"Swinging Sixties\".\n\nHowever, if you refer to the \"nineties/'90s\" *now*, most people will assume you mean the 1990s - which don't yet have a \"tag\" like the 1890s.\n\nWhat are you trying to learn?\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "192415",
"title": "Japanese era name",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The first era name to be assigned was , celebrating the political and organizational changes which were to flow from the great of 645. Although the regular practice of proclaiming successive era names was interrupted in the late seventh century, it was permanently re-adopted in 701 during the reign of Emperor Monmu (697–707). Since then, era names have been used continuously up through the present day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1171",
"title": "Abbreviation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "Abbreviations in English were frequently used from its earliest days. Manuscripts of copies of the old English poem \"Beowulf\" used many abbreviations, for example \"7\" or \"&\" for \"and\", and \"y\" for \"since\", so that \"not much space is wasted\". The standardisation of English in the 15th through 17th centuries included such a growth in the use of abbreviations. At first, abbreviations were sometimes represented with various suspension signs, not only periods. For example, sequences like ‹er› were replaced with ‹ɔ›, as in ‹mastɔ› for \"master\" and ‹exacɔbate› for \"exacerbate\". While this may seem trivial, it was symptomatic of an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce the copy time. An example from the Oxford University Register, 1503:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1052571",
"title": "Acronym",
"section": "Section::::Historical and current use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "During the mid- to late 19th century, an acronym-disseminating trend spread through the American and European business communities: abbreviating corporation names —such as on the sides of railroad cars (e.g., \"Richmond, Fredericksburg and Potomac Railroad\" → \"RF&P\"); on the sides of barrels and crates; and on ticker tape and in the small-print newspaper stock listings that got their data from it (e.g. American Telephone and Telegraph Company → AT&T). Some well-known commercial examples dating from the 1890s through 1920s include \"Nabisco\" (\"National Biscuit Company\"), \"Esso\" (from \"S.O.\", from \"Standard Oil\"), and \"Sunoco\" (\"Sun Oil Company\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36602200",
"title": "Vehicle registration plates of the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Great Britain.:History.:1983 to 2001.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "By 1982, the year suffixes had reached Y and so from 1983 onwards the sequence was reversed again, so that the year letter — starting again at \"A\" — preceded the numbers then the letters of the registration. The available range was then codice_33 to codice_34, the numbers 1–20 being held back for the government's proposed, and later implemented, DVLA select registration sales scheme.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2807209",
"title": "New Zealand geologic time scale",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "A standard abbreviation is also used for these epochs and stages, mostly in the form Xx where the first letter is the initial letter of the epoch and the second (lower-case) letter is the initial letter of the stage. These are listed alongside the stage names in the list below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1738964",
"title": "Old Swedish",
"section": "Section::::Orthography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Certain abbreviations were used in writing, such as for \"meþ\" (modern \"med\", with). The letter combinations and were often written so that one of the letters stood above the other as a smaller letter, which led to the development of the modern letters , , and .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "399492",
"title": "List of U.S. state abbreviations",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "As early as October 1831, the United States Post Office recognized common abbreviations for states and territories. However, they only accepted these abbreviations because of their popularity, preferring that patrons spell names out in full to avoid confusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2iekc9
|
since space itself is stretching, does that mean that black holes could form more easily in the distant future?
|
[
{
"answer": "It actually makes it harder for black holes to form because over time matter becomes more sparsely distributed. However, most black hole dynamics are on stellar and maybe galactic scales, which at this time aren't affected by the expansion of space.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38255280",
"title": "Interdimensional being",
"section": "Section::::Science fiction.:Implementation of dimensional portals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "In the Star Trek universe, wormhole theory states that if a section in the fabric of spacetime joins together with another section of spacetime, a direct connection can be made between the two, allowing speedy travel between the two (normally unrelated) spacetime coordinates. Black holes are one such way of stretching the fabric of spacetime; so it's theoretically possible to create wormholes\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28305",
"title": "String theory",
"section": "Section::::Black holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "In general relativity, a black hole is defined as a region of spacetime in which the gravitational field is so strong that no particle or radiation can escape. In the currently accepted models of stellar evolution, black holes are thought to arise when massive stars undergo gravitational collapse, and many galaxies are thought to contain supermassive black holes at their centers. Black holes are also important for theoretical reasons, as they present profound challenges for theorists attempting to understand the quantum aspects of gravity. String theory has proved to be an important tool for investigating the theoretical properties of black holes because it provides a framework in which theorists can study their thermodynamics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41875734",
"title": "International Year of Light",
"section": "Section::::Anniversaries during 2015.:Einstein and the General Theory of Relativity - 1915.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "General Relativity helped to predict the existence of black holes, which are regions of the spacetime exhibiting such strong gravitational effects that nothing – not even light – can escape. The theory also has important implications for cosmology, the study of the structure of the Universe. One of the consequences of the theory is that not only is the universe finite, but should be contracting or expanding, something that was confirmed years later by the US astronomer Edwin Hubble.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14464469",
"title": "Outline of black holes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 941,
"text": "Black hole – mathematically defined region of spacetime exhibiting such a strong gravitational pull that no particle or electromagnetic radiation can escape from inside it. The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass can deform spacetime to form a black hole. The boundary of the region from which no escape is possible is called the event horizon. Although crossing the event horizon has enormous effect on the fate of the object crossing it, it appears to have no locally detectable features. In many ways a black hole acts like an ideal black body, as it reflects no light. Moreover, quantum field theory in curved spacetime predicts that event horizons emit Hawking radiation, with the same spectrum as a black body of a temperature inversely proportional to its mass. This temperature is on the order of billionths of a kelvin for black holes of stellar mass, making it essentially impossible to observe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12024",
"title": "General relativity",
"section": "Section::::Advanced concepts.:Horizons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "Using global geometry, some spacetimes can be shown to contain boundaries called horizons, which demarcate one region from the rest of spacetime. The best-known examples are black holes: if mass is compressed into a sufficiently compact region of space (as specified in the hoop conjecture, the relevant length scale is the Schwarzschild radius), no light from inside can escape to the outside. Since no object can overtake a light pulse, all interior matter is imprisoned as well. Passage from the exterior to the interior is still possible, showing that the boundary, the black hole's \"horizon\", is not a physical barrier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "344783",
"title": "Pierre-Simon Laplace",
"section": "Section::::Black holes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Laplace also came close to propounding the concept of the black hole. He suggested that there could be massive stars whose gravity is so great that not even light could escape from their surface (see escape velocity).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4035",
"title": "Black",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 1073,
"text": "BULLET::::- A black hole is a region of spacetime where gravity prevents anything, including light, from escaping. The theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass will deform spacetime to form a black hole. Around a black hole there is a mathematically defined surface called an event horizon that marks the point of no return. It is called \"black\" because it absorbs all the light that hits the horizon, reflecting nothing, just like a perfect black body in thermodynamics. Black holes of stellar mass are expected to form when very massive stars collapse at the end of their life cycle. After a black hole has formed it can continue to grow by absorbing mass from its surroundings. By absorbing other stars and merging with other black holes, supermassive black holes of millions of solar masses may form. There is general consensus that supermassive black holes exist in the centers of most galaxies. Although a black hole itself is black, infalling material forms an accretion disk, which is one of brightest types of object in the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4qj4gt
|
how do criminals get away when being interviewed in documentaries on national geographic and such?
|
[
{
"answer": "The police cannot assume what is on \"TV\" is true. Neither should you. It could easily be staged or scripted. In order to become evidence, a man or woman would have to testify in court that everything on the video is true. That would make the film makers job very difficult in the future, so you can imagine they aren't running to court to testify. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "284850",
"title": "True crime",
"section": "Section::::Forms.:Films & Television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "True crime documentaries have been a growing medium in the last several decades. One of the most influential documentaries in this process was \"The Thin Blue Line\", directed by Errol Morris. This documentary, among others, feature reenactments, although other documentary filmmakers choose not to use them since they don't show the truth. Other prominent documentaries include \", Making a Murderer\", \"The Jinx,\" and \"The Keepers.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16688658",
"title": "Hammer Bay",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "When a documentary crew arrive one morning asking questions about the recent violent beachside murder of Amanda Blakely, teen beauty and drama pet, a captivating study into the minds and psyche of the sleepy town unfolds. The lines between the observant film crew, interview participants and police begin to blur, as family members, friends and strangers all start to demonstrate one common thread, everyone is hiding something.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7816446",
"title": "Snapped",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "The series features non-fiction narratives of people who have committed murder or attempted murder or have been accused of committing or attempting to commit murder. Often the target is the individual's spouse. The program is edited in a documentary style, using a central voice-over narration by actress Jody Flader, as well as interviews with people in possession of first-hand knowledge of the case, including law-enforcement officials, lawyers, journalists, friends and family members of both the victims and the accused, and at times the criminals or victims themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3905736",
"title": "Public-order crime",
"section": "Section::::The hidden crime factor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "Because most of these crimes take place in private or with some degree of secrecy, it is difficult to establish the true extent of the crime. The \"victims\" are not going to report it and arrest statistics are unreliable indicators of prevalence, often varying in line with local political pressure to \"do something\" about a local problem rather than reflecting the true incidence of criminal activity. In addition to the issue of police resources and commitment, many aspects of these activities are controlled by organized crime and are therefore more likely to remain hidden. These factors are used to argue for decriminalization. Low or falling arrest statistics are used to assert that the incidence of the relevant crimes is low or now under control. Alternatively, keeping some of these \"vices\" as crimes simply keeps organized crime in business.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43922435",
"title": "Tricked (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "In addition to the various people interviewed in this documentary, the film follows law enforcement agencies and their efforts to crack down on this illegal enterprise, such as Sgt. Dan Steele of the Denver vice squad. The film is meant not only to educate people on trafficking, but to help them understand and spot the scouting and manipulating techniques commonly used by traffickers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12227088",
"title": "Geosocial networking",
"section": "Section::::Additional features.:Public safety and news media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Most criminal investigations and news events happen in a geographical location. Geosocial investigation tools provide the ability to source social media from multiple networks (such as Twitter, Flickr, and YouTube) without the use of hashtags or keyword searches. Some vendors provide subscription based services to source real-time and historical social media for events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12090307",
"title": "The Police Tapes",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 499,
"text": "There is some introductory narration at the beginning describing the neighborhood and the time the documentary was filmed, but some unifying commentary is provided by an interview with Bronx Borough Commander Anthony Bouza, who ascribes the crime rate in the 44th Precinct to poverty, describes the hardening effects of urban violence on idealistic police officers, and likens himself to the commander of an occupying army, saying \"We are manufacturing criminals... we are manufacturing brutality\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
99eid5
|
how do communication waves travel in space, for example between the rover or apollo and nasa. don't waves need matter to travel?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not Electro-Magnetic waves. Those can also travel as particles. Back in the day we did, in fact, thought that there must be a medium in space to allow light waves to travel through, called **aether**, but all attempts to detect it failed, because it doesn't exist.\n\nElectromagnetic signals can act as both particles and as waves in different conditions. Numerous tests show that it has properties of both. It's very confusing, but we just have to accept it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are not matter waves, so they don't take matter to travel in. They are electromagnetic wave pulses, usually called photons, that travel in the quantum electromagnetic field. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33516",
"title": "Wave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Mechanical and electromagnetic waves may often seem to travel through space; but, while they can carry energy, momentum, and information through matter or empty space, they may do that without transferring any mass. In mathematics and electronics waves are studied as signals. On the other hand, some waves do not appear to move at all, like standing waves (which are fundamental to music) and hydraulic jumps. Some, like the probability waves of quantum mechanics, may be completely static.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35188619",
"title": "Narayanan Komerath",
"section": "Section::::Scientific concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "The idea came to Komerath by analogy with the technique of \"acoustic shaping\", where sound waves can accurately position small objects such as beads into larger solid objects within a weightless environment. In space, radio waves would take the place of sound waves. Although huge amounts of energy would be needed, solar power could be used and the approach would avoid the requirement to transport material from Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10134",
"title": "Electromagnetic spectrum",
"section": "Section::::Types of radiation.:Radio frequency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "Radio waves are extremely widely used to transmit information across distances in radio communication systems such as radio broadcasting, television, two way radios, mobile phones, communication satellites, and wireless networking. In a radio communication system, a radio frequency current is modulated with an information-bearing signal in a transmitter by varying either the amplitude, frequency or phase, and applied to an antenna. The radio waves carry the information across space to a receiver, where they are received by an antenna and the information extracted by demodulation in the receiver. Radio waves are also used for navigation in systems like Global Positioning System (GPS) and navigational beacons, and locating distant objects in radiolocation and radar. They are also used for remote control, and for industrial heating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "98132",
"title": "Radio wave",
"section": "Section::::Radio communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1068,
"text": "In radio communication systems, information is carried across space using radio waves. At the sending end, the information to be sent, in the form of a time-varying electrical signal, is applied to a radio transmitter. The information signal can be an audio signal representing sound from a microphone, a video signal representing moving images from a video camera, or a digital signal representing data from a computer. In the transmitter, an electronic oscillator generates an alternating current oscillating at a radio frequency, called the \"carrier wave\" because it serves to \"carry\" the information through the air. The information signal is used to modulate the carrier, altering some aspect of it, \"piggybacking\" the information on the carrier. The modulated carrier is amplified and applied to an antenna. The oscillating current pushes the electrons in the antenna back and forth, creating oscillating electric and magnetic fields, which radiate the energy away from the antenna as radio waves. The radio waves carry the information to the receiver location.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "89830",
"title": "Seismic wave",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Body waves.:Primary waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Primary waves (P-waves) are compressional waves that are longitudinal in nature. P-waves are pressure waves that travel faster than other waves through the earth to arrive at seismograph stations first, hence the name \"Primary\". These waves can travel through any type of material, including fluids, and can travel nearly 1.7 times faster than the S-waves. In air, they take the form of sound waves, hence they travel at the speed of sound. Typical speeds are 330 m/s in air, 1450 m/s in water and about 5000 m/s in granite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15368428",
"title": "Radio",
"section": "Section::::Radio technology.:Radio communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 936,
"text": "In radio communication systems, information is carried across space using radio waves. At the sending end, the information to be sent is converted by some type of transducer to a time-varying electrical signal called the modulation signal. The modulation signal may be an audio signal representing sound from a microphone, a video signal representing moving images from a video camera, or a digital signal consisting of a sequence of bits representing binary data from a computer. The modulation signal is applied to a radio transmitter. In the transmitter, an electronic oscillator generates an alternating current oscillating at a radio frequency, called the \"carrier wave\" because it serves to \"carry\" the information through the air. The information signal is used to modulate the carrier, varying some aspect of the carrier wave, impressing the information on the carrier. Different radio systems use different modulation methods:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3800477",
"title": "Invention of radio",
"section": "Section::::Development of electromagnetism.:Hertz experimentally verifies Maxwell's theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "For the first time, electromagnetic radio waves (\"Hertzian waves\") were intentionally and unequivocally proven to have been transmitted through free space by a spark-gap device, and detected over a short distance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1p3k2m
|
why is usb the standard and not thunderbolt?
|
[
{
"answer": "Somebody USBed all the things before thunderbolt was a thing. When something is better cheaper or necessary enough it will eventually become the next data transfer medium de jure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "USB has been around for over 15 years. Thunderbolt's been around for only a couple. Will Thunderbolt become the standard? Maybe. It's hard to see something replacing USB, though. Maybe it will become the standard for displays (although HDMI is quickly becoming a standard on the PC side for that), or maybe storage devices (although USB 3 is pretty darn good, and eSATA already exists).\n\nBut mainly because USB has *just now* **almost** fully replaced everything else--definitely parallel and serial ports, and almost replaced PS/2 connectors entirely--that you probably won't see much movement away from USB in a while, just faster speeds of it. Already, you can't really find any new computer out there with USB 1.1 ports anymore (nor a 10 or 100 Mbps network adapter); they're all either USB 2.0, or mostly USB 2.0 with a few USB 3.0 ports as well (and 1 Gbps network adapters). It won't be long before most systems feature mostly USB 3.0, I'd imagine.\n\nAs for why Thunderbolt is faster, it's because it's newer, basically. They likely also use more expensive parts, meaning Thunderbolt costs more than USB does, but these parts can run faster.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24484686",
"title": "Thunderbolt (interface)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Thunderbolt is the brand name of a hardware interface developed by Intel (in collaboration with Apple) that allows the connection of external peripherals to a computer. Thunderbolt 1 and 2 use the same connector as Mini DisplayPort (MDP), whereas Thunderbolt 3 re-uses the USB-C connector from USB. It was initially developed and marketed under the name Light Peak, and first sold as part of a consumer product on 24 February 2011.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24484686",
"title": "Thunderbolt (interface)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Peripheral devices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Although Thunderbolt has initially had poor hardware support outside of Apple devices and has been relegated to a niche gadget port, the adoption of the Thunderbolt 3 using USB-C connector standard into a wide array of hardware bodes well for market acceptance of the standard, besides that it will become part of USB4 standard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24484686",
"title": "Thunderbolt (interface)",
"section": "Section::::Cables.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "With the introduction of Thunderbolt 3, Intel announced that otherwise-standard passive USB-C cables would be able to connect Thunderbolt devices at lower speeds than full active Thunderbolt cables, but still faster than USB 3.1. This allows for cheaper connections to new Thunderbolt devices, with inexpensive USB-C cables costing significantly less than active Thunderbolt cables.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24484686",
"title": "Thunderbolt (interface)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Peripheral devices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Backwards compatibility with non-Thunderbolt-equipped computers was a problem, as most storage devices featured only two Thunderbolt ports, for daisy-chaining up to six devices from each one. In mid-2012, LaCie, Drobo, and other device makers started to swap out one of the two Thunderbolt ports for a USB 3.0 connection on some of their low-to-mid end products. Later models had the USB 3.0 added \"in addition\" to the two Thunderbolt ports, including those from LaCie on their \"2big\" range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24484686",
"title": "Thunderbolt (interface)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Thunderbolt 3.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Thunderbolt 3 is a hardware interface developed by Intel and shares USB-C connectors with USB, and can require special \"active\" cables for maximum performance for cable lengths over 0.5 meters (1.5 feet). Compared to Thunderbolt 2, it doubles the bandwidth to 40 Gbit/s (5 GB/s), allowing up to 4-lane PCIe 3.0, 8-lane DisplayPort 1.2, and USB 3.1 10 Gbit/s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21393793",
"title": "Audio and video interfaces and connectors",
"section": "Section::::Multiple signals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "BULLET::::- Thunderbolt is the successor to FireWire, a generic high-speed data link with well-defined audio/video uses. The latest Thunderbolt 3 uses USB-C as its connector, though not all USB-C is Thunderbolt-compatible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24484686",
"title": "Thunderbolt (interface)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Thunderbolt 1.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "Apple stated in February 2011 that the port was based on Mini DisplayPort, not USB. As the system was described, Intel's solution to the display connection problem became clear: Thunderbolt controllers multiplex data from existing DP systems with data from the PCIe port into a single cable. Older displays, using DP 1.1a or earlier, have to be located at the end of a Thunderbolt device chain, but native displays can be placed anywhere along the line. Thunderbolt devices can go anywhere on the chain. In that respect, Thunderbolt shares a relationship with the older ACCESS.bus system, which used the display connector to support a low-speed bus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
16rb5v
|
car engine terms
|
[
{
"answer": " > What does a (x)liter V(x)engine means?(The x are the numbers, for example 3 liter V8 engine)\n\nThe first is the capacity in liters of the cylinders of the engine. More liters = more air/fuel mixture and more power.\n\nThe V8 is the layout and number cylinders. The V indicates an engine with half of it's cylinders on either side of the cam shaft in a V shape. Some (usually smaller) engines have all their pistons in a single line instead, these are referred to with an I instead of a V.\n\n > What does horsepower means? \n\nHow much work the engine can do. More horsepower means it can do more work in a shorter amount of time. In vehicles this equates to moving the car faster.\n\n > It's the same as break horse power?\n\nBrake horsepower is a measurement of the horsepower ~~after~~ before power is lost to the drive train. Same unit of measurement, specific point of measurement. \n\n > And what does CC means?\n\nAnother way of measuring fluid capacity. 1000cc = 1 liter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51462",
"title": "Machine",
"section": "Section::::Power sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Engine: The word engine derives from \"ingenuity\" and originally referred to contrivances that may or may not be physical devices. See Merriam-Webster's definition of engine. A steam engine uses heat to boil water contained in a pressure vessel; the expanding steam drives a piston or a turbine. This principle can be seen in the aeolipile of Hero of Alexandria. This is called an external combustion engine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29113210",
"title": "Aston Martin Vantage N24",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The engine is a modified version of the road car's engine, including lightened and balanced internals, re-profiled cylinder heads and the engine management system tuned for race use. The engine would now produce , more than the standard road car.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14304514",
"title": "Mid-engine, four-wheel-drive layout",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "It is a type of car powertrain layout. Although the term \"mid-engine\" can mean the engine is placed anywhere in the car such that the centre of gravity of the engine lies between the front and rear axles, it is usually used for sports cars and racing cars where the engine is behind the passenger compartment. The motive output is then sent down a shaft to a differential in the centre of the car, which in the case of an M4 layout, distributes power to both front and rear axles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7965659",
"title": "Car layout",
"section": "Section::::Four-wheel drive layouts.:Mid-engine, four-wheel drive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Although the term \"mid-engine\" can mean the engine is placed anywhere in the car such that the centre of gravity of the engine lies between the front and rear axles, it is usually used for sports cars and racing cars where the engine is behind the passenger compartment. The motive output is then sent down a shaft to a differential in the centre of the car, which in the case of an M4 layout, distributes power to both front and rear axles. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "645083",
"title": "Formula One car",
"section": "Section::::Engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "All cars have the engine located between the driver and the rear axle. The engines are a stressed member in most cars, meaning that the engine is part of the structural support framework, being bolted to the cockpit at the front end, and transmission and rear suspension at the back end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21056323",
"title": "Engine number",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Engine number may refer to an identification number marked on the engine of a vehicle or, in the case of locomotives, to the road number of the locomotive. The engine number is separate from the Vehicle Identification Number (VIN).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "877975",
"title": "U engine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "A U engine is a piston engine made up of two separate straight engines (complete with separate crankshafts) joined by gears or chains. It is similar to the H engine which couples two flat engines. The design is also sometimes described as a \"twin bank\" or \"double bank\" engine, although these terms are sometimes used also to describe V engines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ehsff
|
Can aquatic mammals get Decompression Sickness (the Bends)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Human free-divers can do the same. \n\nThe problem is different gas pressures in your breathing mix - for a SCUBA diver or someone working in a pressurized caisson, they inhale air at higher-than-atmospheric pressure, which causes the concentration of dissolved nitrogen in their blood to increase. When they move back to normal pressure, the nitrogen in their blood will come back out of solution and form gas bubbles, causing the bends. Problems can be avoided by depressurizing slowly, so the amount of dissolved nitrogen can slowly return to normal without excessive bubble formation.\n\nFor a free-diver or a whale, they inhale air at atmospheric pressure, so they never get extra nitrogen forced into solution in their bloodstream. Thus they can ascend as fast as they want with no problems. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3802867",
"title": "Inert gas asphyxiation",
"section": "Section::::Euthanasia of animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Diving animals such as rats, minks and burrowing animals, are sensitive to low-oxygen atmospheres and (unlike humans) will avoid them, making purely hypoxic techniques possibly inhumane for them. For this reason, the use of inert gas (hypoxic) atmospheres (without CO) for euthanasia, is also species-specific.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "846175",
"title": "Dysbarism",
"section": "Section::::Types of dysbarism.:Decompression sickness (DCS).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "Decompression sickness, also called caisson workers' disease and the bends, is the most well-known complication of scuba diving. It occurs as divers ascend, and often from ascending too fast or without doing decompression stops. Bubbles are large enough and numerous enough to cause physical injury. It is quite possible that all divers have microbubbles in their blood to some extent, but that most of the time these bubbles are so few and so small that they cause no harm. When DCS occurs, bubbles disrupt tissues in the joints, brain, spinal cord, lungs, and other organs. Symptoms vary enormously. DCS may be as subtle as unusual tiredness after a dive, or an aching elbow, or a mottled skin rash. Or, it may present dramatically, with unconsciousness, seizures, paralysis, shortness of breath, or death. Paraplegia is not uncommon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2316015",
"title": "Stunning",
"section": "Section::::Modern methods.:Gas stunning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "With gas stunning animals are exposed to a mixture of breathing gases (argon and nitrogen for example) that produce unconsciousness or death through hypoxia or asphyxia. The process is not instantaneous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61048",
"title": "Decompression sickness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Decompression sickness (DCS; also known as divers' disease, the bends, aerobullosis, or caisson disease) describes a condition arising from dissolved gases coming out of solution into bubbles inside the body on depressurisation. DCS most commonly refers to problems arising from underwater diving decompression (i.e., during ascent), but may be experienced in other depressurisation events such as emerging from a caisson, flying in an unpressurised aircraft at altitude, and extravehicular activity from spacecraft. DCS and arterial gas embolism are collectively referred to as decompression illness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30058410",
"title": "Parborlasia corrugatus",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "Although this creature does not have a dedicated respiratory system, \"Parborlasia corrugatus\" is able to obtain oxygen by absorbing it through its skin. An animal of its size would typically find it difficult to receive enough oxygen this way, but this worm has a low metabolic rate, and also enjoys the advantage of its environment, which is cold, oxygen-rich Antarctic waters. When \"Parborlasia corrugatus\" experiences lower levels of oxygen in the water, it flattens and elongates its body to aid in the uptake of oxygen by increasing its skin area. This manoeuvre also reduces the distance that the oxygen must travel to diffuse into its body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16676707",
"title": "Omphalosaurus",
"section": "Section::::Paleobiology.:Decompression sickness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Like other early Ichthyosaurs, there is no evidence of avascular necrosis in \"Omphalosaurus,\" indicating that they were likely not subjected to decompression sickness. Rothschild et al. attributed this to the lack of large aquatic predators in the early to middle Triassic, which meant that \"Omphalosaurus\" would not have needed to quickly dive to escape. Early Ichthyosaurs would have only or almost only had slow movement up and down the water column, or may have had physiological protection for quick water pressure changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36155744",
"title": "Ethoprophos",
"section": "Section::::Toxicology.:Effects on animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "Experiments carried out on ethoprophos have shown that the toxin affects animals in various manners. Short-term toxicity effects in rabbits and mice, exposed through different routes include inhibition of erythrocyte and brain cholinesterase. While experiments on dogs gave rise to cellular vacuolisation as well. Acute toxicity studies on rats, in turn have resulted in more effects being observed, namely narcotic, cholinergic and respiratory. The latter was shown to be expressed after a delay of 4 days and linked to an increase in lung weight. Studies carried out with extended exposure of ethoprophos in mice gave the same results as research on short-term exposure had, but in rats a fall in hemoglobin concentrations was also observed. On the other hand, a long-term exposure experiment conducted on dogs found that the toxin led to mild liver toxicity. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2lpsrx
|
in a time when drunk driving is so universally frowned up on and everyone is cracking down on duis, why is it that in some cities a business cannot be issued a liquor license if they don't have enough parking?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's often that they need a certain amount of spots in order to host any event, or they lack the required number of specialized spots (handicapped, expectant mothers, etc.) Or they lack the ability to have overnight parking for people who wish to drive there, drink, and then come back the next day and pick up their car.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18754942",
"title": "Alcohol laws of Kentucky",
"section": "Section::::Safety issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "A study of about 39,000 alcohol-related traffic accidents in Kentucky found that residents of dry counties are more likely to be involved in such crashes, possibly because they have to drive farther from their homes to consume alcohol, thus increasing impaired driving exposure. The study concludes that county-level prohibition is not necessarily effective in improving highway safety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "137986",
"title": "Harm reduction",
"section": "Section::::Drugs.:Alcohol-related programmes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "A high amount of media coverage exists informing users of the dangers of driving drunk. Most alcohol users are now aware of these dangers and safe ride techniques like 'designated drivers' and free taxicab programmes are reducing the number of drunk-driving accidents. Many cities have free-ride-home programmes during holidays involving high alcohol abuse, and some bars and clubs will provide a visibly drunk patron with a free cab ride.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "386818",
"title": "Smoking ban",
"section": "Section::::Criticism of smoke-free laws.:Connection to DUI fatalities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 137,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 137,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "In May 2008, research published by Adams and Cotti in the \"Journal of Public Economics\" examined statistics of drunken-driving fatalities and accidents in areas where smoke-free laws have been implemented in bars and found that fatal drunken-driving accidents increased by about 13%, or about 2.5 such accidents per year for a typical county of 680,000. They speculate this could be caused by smokers driving farther away to jurisdictions without smoke-free laws or where enforcement is lax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35519028",
"title": "Drug–impaired driving",
"section": "Section::::European Laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 147,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 147,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Drug impaired driving is today suspected by the European Road Safety Observatory of being the reason that drink driving crash rates no longer reduce in direct proportion to reducing or plateaued numbers of drunk drivers found on roads. It is believed that the remaining ones are carrying more risk than their blood alcohol levels should strictly impart - due to the frequent addition of other drugs. If the historic assumptions about formulae to setting alcohol limits at particular levels to reduce harm (by anticipated degrees) in the target demographic are defunct, the implications for impaired driving reduction policy are major.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "511428",
"title": "Driving under the influence",
"section": "Section::::Alcohol.:Blood alcohol content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Driving while consuming alcohol may be illegal within a jurisdiction. In some it is illegal for an open container of an alcoholic beverage to be in the passenger compartment of a motor vehicle or in some specific area of that compartment. There have been cases of drivers being convicted of a DUI when they were not observed driving after being proven in court they had been driving while under the influence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16854073",
"title": "Alcohol laws of New York",
"section": "Section::::Drunk driving.:Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Research suggests that misdemeanor drunk driving offenses, but not felony drunk driving offenses, are related to county-based closing times for on-premises licensed venues. Requirements for ignition interlock device's for first-time DWI offending introduced with Leandra's Law might explain why there was no relationship between alcohol availability and felony drunk driving offenses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2434569",
"title": "PNC Bank Arts Center",
"section": "Section::::Underage drinking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "In response to problems with underage drinking and in the wake of a number of alcohol-related injuries and deaths, drinking in the parking lots was banned at the PNC Bank Arts Center as of August 17, 2007. This policy has been since changed to allow tailgating and alcohol consumption in the parking lots for specific events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1y412d
|
what is syndication exclusivity?
|
[
{
"answer": "Syndication is when a show starts airing on other networks. Sometimes they make contracts promising to exclusively air on only specific networks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3845525",
"title": "Syndication exclusivity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Syndication exclusivity (also known as syndex) is a federal law implemented by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) in the United States that is designed to protect a local television station's rights to syndicated television programs by granting exclusive broadcast rights to the station for that program in their local market, usually defined by a station's Nielsen Designated Market Area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1555022",
"title": "Web 2.0",
"section": "Section::::Distribution of media.:XML and RSS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Many regard syndication of site content as a Web 2.0 feature. Syndication uses standardized protocols to permit end-users to make use of a site's data in another context (such as another Web site, a browser plugin, or a separate desktop application). Protocols permitting syndication include RSS (really simple syndication, also known as Web syndication), RDF (as in RSS 1.1), and Atom, all of which are XML-based formats. Observers have started to refer to these technologies as Web feeds. Specialized protocols such as FOAF and XFN (both for social networking) extend the functionality of sites and permit end-users to interact without centralized Web sites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "327054",
"title": "Web syndication",
"section": "Section::::As a commercial model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "Just as syndication is a source of profit for TV producers and radio producers, it also functions to maximize profit for Internet content producers. As the Internet has increased in size it has become increasingly difficult for content producers to aggregate a sufficiently large audience to support the creation of high-quality content. Syndication enables content creators to amortize the cost of producing content by licensing it across multiple publishers or by maximizing distribution of advertising-supported content. A potential drawback for content creators, however, is that they can lose control over the presentation of their content when they syndicate it to other parties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4764948",
"title": "Daytime television in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Types of daytime programming.:Off-network syndicated programming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 1218,
"text": "Syndication is the practice of selling rights to the presentation of television programs, especially to more than one customer such as a television station, a cable channel, or a programming service such as a national broadcasting system. The syndication of television programs is a fundamental financial component of television industries. Long a crucial factor in the economics of the U.S. industry, syndication is now a worldwide activity involving the sales of programming produced in many countries. While most of the series currently in syndication are either still in production or have only recently ended their runs, the most popular series can command syndication runs lasting decades beyond the end of their production (the most extreme example being \"I Love Lucy\", which remains in syndication as of 2012 despite having ended its run in 1957; other examples of series still popular in syndication after over a decade out of production include \"Seinfeld\", \"Cheers\", \"The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show\", \"M*A*S*H\", \"Happy Days\", \"Laverne & Shirley\", \"Three's Company\", \"The Wonder Years\", among many others). Off-network syndicated series also normally occupy the mid/late morning and late-afternoon time slots.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "327054",
"title": "Web syndication",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Web syndication is a form of syndication in which content is made available from one website to other sites. Most commonly, websites are made available to provide either summaries or full renditions of a website's recently added content. The term may also describe other kinds of content licensing for reuse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12856439",
"title": "Brokered programming",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Brokered programming (also known as time-buy and blocktime) is a form of broadcast content in which the show's producer pays a radio or television station for air time, rather than exchanging programming for pay or the opportunity to play spot commercials. A brokered program is typically not capable of garnering enough support from advertisements to pay for itself, and may be controversial, esoteric or an advertisement in itself. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "327785",
"title": "Broadcast syndication",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 953,
"text": "Broadcasting syndication is the license to broadcast television programs and radio programs by multiple television stations and radio stations, without going through a broadcast network. It is common in the United States where broadcast programming is scheduled by television networks with local independent affiliates. Syndication is less of a practice in the rest of the world, as most countries have centralized networks or television stations without local affiliates; although less common, shows can be syndicated internationally. The three main types of syndication are \"first-run syndication\", which is programming that is broadcast for the first time as a syndicated show and is made specifically to sell directly into syndication; \"off-network syndication\", which is the licensing of a program that was originally run on network TV or in some cases, first-run syndication (colloquially called a \"rerun\"); and \"public broadcasting syndication\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
10cp0j
|
What are the chances that the Human race could evolve into two different species that couldn't reproduce with each other?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some small population that had enough people to maintain itself would have to become isolated long enough from the rest of humanity that they would change enough to not be able to reproduce with us.\n\nThe chances are incredibly slim in our modern world, almost impossible. Given that even \"isolated\" tribes on islands in the pacific did not become new species it likely will never happen. Maybe if we visit other planets and some get stuck somewhere or we have a post-apocalyptic scenario here on earth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2686634",
"title": "Polyphenism",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Sex determination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Population-dependent and reversible sex determination, found in animals such as the blue wrasse fish, have less potential for failure. In the blue wrasse, only one male is found in a given territory: larvae within the territory develop into females, and adult males will not enter the same territory. If a male dies, one of the females in his territory becomes male, replacing him. While this system ensures that there will always be a mating couple when two animals of the same species are present, it could potentially decrease genetic variance in a population, for example if the females remain in a single male's territory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9236",
"title": "Evolution",
"section": "Section::::Outcomes.:Speciation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 975,
"text": "Barriers to reproduction between two diverging sexual populations are required for the populations to become new species. Gene flow may slow this process by spreading the new genetic variants also to the other populations. Depending on how far two species have diverged since their most recent common ancestor, it may still be possible for them to produce offspring, as with horses and donkeys mating to produce mules. Such hybrids are generally infertile. In this case, closely related species may regularly interbreed, but hybrids will be selected against and the species will remain distinct. However, viable hybrids are occasionally formed and these new species can either have properties intermediate between their parent species, or possess a totally new phenotype. The importance of hybridisation in producing new species of animals is unclear, although cases have been seen in many types of animals, with the gray tree frog being a particularly well-studied example.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20913864",
"title": "Female",
"section": "Section::::Defining characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "There is no single genetic mechanism behind sex differences in different species and the existence of two sexes seems to have evolved multiple times independently in different evolutionary lineages. Patterns of sexual reproduction include\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "294237",
"title": "DC Universe",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Aliens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "There are many intelligent extraterrestrial races as well. Curiously, a large number of them are humanoid, even human-like, in form (such as Kryptonians, who outwardly appear identical to Earth-born humans); some can even interbreed with Terrans. Some of these races have natural superpowers, but they are usually the same for all individuals of the same race, unlike Earth's metahumans. This was explained by the fact that in Earth's distant past Martians experimented on humanity, severely culling the metahuman potential; this means that a species that was meant to have a wide range of powers, like Tamaranians or Kryptonians, ended up \"just...human\". However, there are also plenty of nonhumanoid races.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38076",
"title": "Gender",
"section": "Section::::Gender identity and gender roles.:Social categories.:Non-binary and third genders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Joan Roughgarden argues that some non-human animal species also have more than two genders, in that there might be multiple templates for behavior available to individual organisms with a given biological sex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26789",
"title": "Sexual selection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "The maintenance of sexual reproduction in a highly competitive world is one of the major puzzles in biology given that asexual reproduction can reproduce much more quickly as 50% of offspring are not males, unable to produce offspring themselves. Many non-exclusive hypotheses have been proposed, including the positive impact of an additional form of selection, sexual selection, on the probability of persistence of a species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36856",
"title": "Vertebrate",
"section": "Section::::Reproductive systems.:Outcrossing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Mating with unrelated or distantly related members of the same species is generally thought to provide the advantage of masking deleterious recessive mutations in progeny (and see Heterosis). Vertebrates have evolved numerous diverse mechanisms for avoiding close inbreeding and promoting outcrossing (and see Inbreeding avoidance).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1g21kl
|
What is a good (modern) book on the Battle of Passchendaele?
|
[
{
"answer": "These may be of some help:\n\n- Your first stop should be John Terraine's *The Road to Passchendaele: the Flanders Offensive of 1917* (1977); while not \"modern\" in the strictest sense, Terraine is very much reliable on these matters and is one of the fathers of the \"learning curve\" school to begin with. He doesn't put up with any Lions/Donkeys nonsense.\n\n- Peter Barton and Jeremy Banning's *Passchendaele* (2007), put out by the IWM, is a remarkable piece of work. It's not so aggressively within the \"learning curve\" school as other works might be, but both Barton and Banning are serious-minded scholars and the quality of their work is enormous.\n\n- Osprey's guide to the campaign (*Passchendaele and the Battles of Ypres 1914-18*, 1997) would be worth checking out just for being an Osprey, but Martin Marix Evans, its author, has supported something like the \"learning curve\" school elsewhere in terms of the Somme. I don't know if he takes the same line on Passchendaele, but it might be worth checking out. He has another book on this subject (*Passchendaele: The Hollow Victory*, 2005), but I cannot speak to its quality or contents either. The title does not inspire delight, for our purposes, but it could be worth a look.\n\nIncidentally, it would probably be best to avoid Robin Prior and Trevor Wilson's *Passchendaele: The Untold Story* (2003); as much as I've enjoyed their work in other capacities (they penned a legendary take-down of Paul Fussell, for example), this particular book is pretty much everything you are NOT after.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26531491",
"title": "The Battle (Patrick Rimbaud novel)",
"section": "Section::::The book.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "The book has seven chapters, the first two cover the days prior to the battle, four chapters deal with the day and night of each of the two days of the battle, and the last one with the immediate aftermath of the \"hecatomb\". Historical notes are attached.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13893696",
"title": "Thomas Coningsby",
"section": "Section::::Diary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Coningsby is the author of a diary of the action of the English troops in France in 1591. It proceeds day by day through two periods, 13 August to 6 September, and 3 October to 24 December, when it abruptly terminates. The original manuscript is among the Harleian Manuscripts at the British Library. It was first printed and carefully edited by J. G. Nichols in the first volume of the Camden Society's \"Miscellanies\" (1847). Internal evidence alone gives the clue to the authorship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26531491",
"title": "The Battle (Patrick Rimbaud novel)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "The Battle (French: \"La Bataille\") is a historical novel by the French author Patrick Rambaud that was first published in 1997. The English translation by Will Hobson appeared in 2000. The book describes the 1809 Battle of Aspern-Essling between the French Empire under Napoleon and the Austrian Empire. The action in the novel follows closely historical observations and descriptions as seen from the French perspective. \"La Bataille\" is the first book of a trilogy by Rambaud about the decline of Napoleon, describing his first personal defeat in a European battle; the other two books cover Napoleon’s defeat in Russia in \"The Retreat\" and his banishment at Elba in \"Napoleon’s Exile\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23624",
"title": "Procopius",
"section": "Section::::Writings.:\"History of the Wars\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "The final four booksknown as \"The Gothic War\" (\"\")cover the Italian campaigns by Belisarius and others against the Ostrogoths. It includes accounts of the 1st and 2nd sieges of Naples and the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd sieges of Rome. The last book describes the eunuch Narses's successful conclusion of the Italian campaign and includes some coverage of campaigns along the empire's eastern borders as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "802038",
"title": "H. Irving Hancock",
"section": "Section::::\"The Invasion of the United States\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "In Hancock's far more extensive version, constituting no less than four books, it is the Germans who launch a surprise attack in 1920, capture Boston despite heroic resistance by \"Uncle Sam's boys\", overrun all of New England and New York and reach as far as Pittsburgh—but are at last are gloriously crushed by fresh American forces. From the present-day point of view, it can be considered as \"retroactive\" alternate history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42381594",
"title": "Battle of Cúl Dreimhne",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "The battle of Cúl Dreimhne (also known as the \"Battle of the Book\") took place in the 6th century in the túath of Cairbre Drom Cliabh (now Co. Sligo) in northwest Ireland. The exact date for the battle varies from 555 AD to 561 AD. 560 AD is regarded as the most likely by modern scholars. The battle is notable for being possibly one of the earliest conflicts over copyright in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1234481",
"title": "Settling Accounts: Drive to the East",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "As the title suggests, the novel contains analogues of historical 1942 battles, such as the German drive to, and the Battle of Stalingrad. In the novel, Confederate armies in occupied Ohio drive into Pennsylvania with Pittsburgh as their objective, codenamed Operation Coalscuttle. It also involves analogues of the Battle of Midway, the Manhattan Project, and the Holocaust.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7bi0es
|
How similar is present-day Judaism to the Judaism of the 1st and 2nd centuries?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is not really a simple question to answer. There's no way to really define how similar things are over time. Additionally, the 1st-2nd centuries were a time of incredible amounts of change in the Jewish community, and neither ancient or modern Judaism are homogeneous.\n\nThe foundation texts that define modern Jewish practice were not written yet in the 1st-2nd centuries. The first text that goes into the canon of Rabbinic literature, the Mishnah, was compiled in the mid-2nd century.\n\nThe Mishnah does not seem to be a legal code exactly, but it is a compendium of opinions of things in Jewish law of sorts. Its content serves to illustrate some of the similarities and differences. For the similarities, the holiday schedule, basic form of the liturgy, practices like blessings on food, some elements of theology, etc are present in the 1st century. Though it's important to note that this is the similarities specific to the 2nd century forerunner of modern Judaism--these similarities would not be present for groups that did not evolve into modern Judaism. And of course some modern Jewish groups have altered these things, though they still exist in some form today.\n\nBut the content also shows how different the Jewish world was. Agricultural laws were an important part of the laws it contained, but not many modern Jews work in agriculture. States of ritual purity/impurity were a huge part of what the Jewish experience was in the Second Temple era and immediately after, but it is not today in the same way. The Temple and the laws and rituals surrounding it were important parts of Judaism then, but are only theoretical now, and only their study is part of the Jewish experience (and even this is limited compared to practical things) Jewish courts enforcing tort law is a major point of discussion, and while Jews do still sometimes have their financial disputes settled by Jewish law, this is not nearly such a significant part of what the Jewish communal authorities are doing.\n\nReally, modern Judaism itself is similar to its ancient ancestor in important ways. But what the Jewish religious experience looks like is really drastically different, because life in general is. And that's only comparing to the predecessor of modern Judaism, we have much less textual material left over from other groups. And nothing in history is truly static, so Jewish law has developed over the past two thousand years. Depending on your perspective, that could be \"very similar\" or \"very dissimilar\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "304141",
"title": "Jewish history",
"section": "Section::::Time periods in Jewish history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "The history of the Jews and Judaism can be divided into five periods: (1) ancient Israel before Judaism, from the beginnings to 586 BCE; (2) the beginning of Judaism in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE; (3) the formation of rabbinic Judaism after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE; (4) the age of rabbinic Judaism, from the ascension of Christianity to political power under the emperor Constantine the Great in 312 CE to the end of the political hegemony of Christianity in the 18th century; and (5), the age of diverse Judaisms, from the French and American Revolutions to the present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20015427",
"title": "Origins of Judaism",
"section": "Section::::Development of Rabbinic Judaism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "For centuries, the traditional understanding has been that Judaism came before Christianity and that Christianity separated from Judaism some time after the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. Starting in the latter half of the 20th century, some scholars have begun to argue that the historical picture is quite a bit more complicated than that. In the 1st century, many Jewish sects existed in competition with each other, see Second Temple Judaism. The sects which eventually became Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity were but two of these. Some scholars have begun to propose a model which envisions a twin birth of Christianity and Judaism rather than a separation of the former from the latter. For example, Robert Goldenberg (2002) asserts that it is increasingly accepted among scholars that \"at the end of the 1st century CE there were not yet two separate religions called 'Judaism' and 'Christianity'\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19890049",
"title": "Second Temple period",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "The Second Temple period in Jewish history lasted between 516 BCE and 70 CE, when the Second Temple of Jerusalem existed. The sects of Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenes, Zealots and Nazarenes (early Christianity) were formed during this period. The Second Temple period ended with the First Jewish–Roman War and the Roman destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "433323",
"title": "Syria Palaestina",
"section": "Section::::Religion.:Second Temple in Judaism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "Second Temple Judaism is Judaism between the construction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, c. 515 BC, and its destruction by the Romans in 70 AD. The development of the Hebrew Bible canon, the synagogue, Jewish apocalyptic expectations for the future, and Christianity, can all be traced to the Second Temple period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27596908",
"title": "Second Temple Judaism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Second Temple Judaism is Judaism between the construction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem, c. 515 BCE, and its destruction by the Romans in 70 CE. The development of the Hebrew Bible canon, the synagogue, Jewish apocalyptic expectations for the future, and the rise of Christianity, can all be traced to the Second Temple period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8364409",
"title": "Anarchism and Orthodox Judaism",
"section": "Section::::Related themes in Judaism.:Critical approach to organized religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Though in ancient times the Jewish religious practice centered on the Great Sanhedrin, which acted as a rabbinical legislative authority controlling the whole of ancient Judea, Modern Judaism is a principally decentralized religion that lacks a central clerical body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195973",
"title": "Islamic–Jewish relations",
"section": "Section::::Religious figures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 968,
"text": "Around the 12th century BC, Judaism developed as a monotheistic religion. According to Jewish religious tradition, the history of Judaism begins with the Covenant between God and Abraham, who is considered a Hebrew. (The first Hebrew being Eber, a forefather of Abraham.) The Hebrew Bible occasionally refers to \"Arvi\" peoples (or variants thereof), translated as \"Arab\" or \"Arabian\" deriving from \"Arava\" plain, the dwellers of plains. Some Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula are considered descendants of Ismael, the first son of Abraham. While the commonly held view among historians is that Islam originated in Arabia in the 7th century AD, in Islam's view, Adam was the first Muslim (in the sense of believing in Allah and surrendering to Allah's commands). Islam also shares many traits with Judaism (as well as with Christianity), like the belief in and reverence for common prophets, such as Moses and Abraham, who are recognized in all three Abrahamic religions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
588nj9
|
why does the math they teach in school keep changing and getting harder?
|
[
{
"answer": "One could argue that 3+5=8 hasn't changed in, forever.\n\nThe pressure is to teach **more math** in the same amount of time. That means that more intensive techniques need to be used, and students must **work harder**. It's not the math that's different, it's how much math you need that's changed since your parents were in school.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We keep learning more about how to better teach actual mathematics, rather than just computation. A large part of math is logical thinking and problem solving. There has more of a push to teach the ideologies of math, rather than just the computation piece. \n\nBecause using logic requires one to think critically, it can seem more difficult than simply applying a formula to a scripted problem. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The world is changing, there are more expectations from high school graduates. Your average unskilled and semi-skilled blue-collar worker could probably suffice with pre-algebra level math skills. Assuming they never needed understand things like compounded interest for a car loan, home loan or retirement. \n\nOffice workers are expected to understand at least algebra, and basic statistics at the very least. A lot of jobs in engineering, sciences, business and finance are expected to know and understand calculus, which means they had to take a course in geometry, trigonometry, pre-calculus. \n\nSo at the junior high level, how do you know for whom, learning algebra by age 17 is sufficient, and which ones will need to have taken at least pre-calculus maybe even calculus 1?\n\nAs the world becomes more advanced, the skills in problem solving and logic become more important. A strong math background is an efficient way to develop those skills. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9902256",
"title": "Reform mathematics",
"section": "Section::::Principles and standards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "Traditional mathematics focuses on teaching algorithms that will lead to the correct answer. Because of this focus on application of algorithms, the traditional math student must always use the specific method that is being taught. This kind of algorithmic dependence is de-emphasized in reform mathematics. Reformers do not oppose correct answers, but prefer to focus students' attention on the process leading to the answer, rather than the answer itself. The presence of occasional errors is deemed less important than the overall thought process. Research has shown that children make fewer mistakes with calculations and remember algorithms longer when they understand the concepts underlying the methods they use. In general, children in reform classes perform at least as well as children in traditional classes on tests of calculation skill, and considerably better on tests of problem solving.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8111444",
"title": "Mathematical anxiety",
"section": "Section::::In schools.:Solutions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "However, there is still a large part of school math teaching which consists of \"mass-produced\" memorization, repetition, and mechanically performed operations. Times tables are one example, wherein rote learning is essential to mathematics performance. When a student fails to learn the times tables at a young age, they can experience math anxiety later, when all the students' classmates can remember the tables but they cannot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27515872",
"title": "Math–verbal achievement gap",
"section": "Section::::Alternative hypotheses.:Rothstein's theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Rothstein, in the 2002 \"New York Times\" article, admitted that \"Nobody really knows why we seem to make more progress in math than reading. But one likely cause is that students learn math mostly in school, while literacy also comes from habits at home. Even if reading instruction improves, scores would suffer if students did less out-of-school reading or had a less literate home environment.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8002340",
"title": "Teen Talk Barbie",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1026,
"text": "Educators including the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics objected to the \"Math class is tough\" phrase as detrimental to the effort to encourage girls to study math and science, and particularly in association with the phrases about shopping; the American Association of University Women criticized it in a report about girls receiving a relatively poor education in math and science. Mattel initially offered to exchange dolls for nonspeaking ones on request, and later apologized to the American Association of University Women, withdrew the math class phrase from those to be used in future dolls, and offered an exchange to purchasers who had a doll with that phrase. The criticism gave rise to the 1994 \"Lisa vs. Malibu Stacy\" episode of \"The Simpsons\", in which Lisa Simpson objects to sexist utterances by a \"Malibu Stacy\" doll such as \"Thinking too much gives you wrinkles.\" , the collector's price for one of the estimated 3,500 Teen Talk Barbies including the phrase \"Math class is tough\" was around $500.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27515872",
"title": "Math–verbal achievement gap",
"section": "Section::::Alternative hypotheses.:Lech's theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Lastly, Lech agreed with Rothstein that another influence on the math–verbal achievement gap could be the quality of the math teachers themselves. Lech referenced literature indicating that U.S. math teachers tend to be much better organized than their humanities counterparts across the hall. Rothstein held that American math teachers tend to be better trained because they have more resources available like the extremely large cash grant from the National Science Foundation for math and science instruction in high school which English teachers cannot reap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8111444",
"title": "Mathematical anxiety",
"section": "Section::::In schools.:Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 908,
"text": "Math is usually taught as a right and wrong subject and as if getting the right answer were paramount. In contrast to most subjects, mathematics problems almost always have a right answer. Additionally, the subject is often taught as if there were a right way to solve the problem and any other approaches would be wrong, even if students got the right answer. When learning, understanding the concepts should be paramount, but with a right/wrong approach to teaching math, students are encouraged not to try, not to experiment, not to find algorithms that work for them, and not to take risks. \"Teachers benefit children most when they encourage them to share their thinking process and justify their answers out loud or in writing as they perform math operations. ... With less of an emphasis on right or wrong and more of an emphasis on process, teachers can help alleviate students' anxiety about math\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "404988",
"title": "New Math",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "Parents and teachers who opposed the New Math in the U.S. complained that the new curriculum was too far outside of students' ordinary experience and was not worth taking time away from more traditional topics, such as arithmetic. The material also put new demands on teachers, many of whom were required to teach material they did not fully understand. Parents were concerned that they did not understand what their children were learning and could not help them with their studies. In an effort to learn the material, many parents attended their children's classes. In the end, it was concluded that the experiment was not working, and New Math fell out of favor before the end of the decade, though it continued to be taught for years thereafter in some school districts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2ntxo8
|
why no one appears to be talking about lockheed martin's recent claims to have a breakthrough in nuclear fusion technology.
|
[
{
"answer": "Because they haven't made a breakthrough yet. They have a design that isn't even complete, let alone a working prototype.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They have provided no information about it. Just an announcement with no science is nothing more than a press release. If I announce my peretual motion machine in this reddit thread, no one is going to give a shit. Wanna know why? Because I am probably lying and so is Lockheed Martin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they have a \"breakthrough\" idea. They haven't built anything yet and certainly haven't proved that it works. They are just looking for funding. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[It help to present you claims with evidence, which they have not done. Without data, the reaction from other scientists is skepticism.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they made the same claims several years ago, and their target dates are just as far in the future now as then.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you're older and have lived through more than a few news articles like this you'll learn it's just marketing. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because \n\n1) they haven't made a whole lot of details available, so no one has been able to say for sure that this is a real thing and not just hype and \n\n2) their claims are not actually all that remarkable given what is already well established science. We're talking about miniaturization of existing technology, not a fundamental breakthrough in the physics of fusion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fusion hype has been a staple of science news since 1951. [Literally.](_URL_1_) So far it has all turned out to be overhyped — easy on paper, hard in practice. \n\nBig claims require big evidence; when Lockheed Martin presents some evidence, people will take it seriously. Otherwise, you are asking people to take it seriously [merely on the basis of who they are](_URL_0_). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because, while Skunkworks has a brilliant track record in developing new technology, it's not actually a breakthrough until there's a physical, operating reactor that passes the breakeven point.\n\nI'm cautiously optimistic, but I'm not holding my breath, either.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because their CEO's laptop is still powered off the grid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Plasma physics grad student here. The reason is because they haven't done anything new. Their big announcement was related to just trying to build a smaller sized unit and because it is smaller in size, it is somehow easier. The confinement methods they are talking about have been tried before. \n\nMy research group all laughed when the guy in the video said that in 5 years he is going to have to find a job again because the problem will be solved. Yeah.... no. It's taken 50+years and billions of dollars to solve this problem. Lockheed won't be solving it in 5 years. It's a really hard problem. The guy in the video will be looking for a new job in 5 years because they failed. \n\nThey haven't provided any sorts of data or numbers or anything about their machine either. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because we (humanity) have heard this one before, several times. Because of this, I think the attitude has evolved into, \"Yeah wake us up when it's ready.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46187151",
"title": "Stephen Lincoln",
"section": "Section::::Nuclear fusion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "When Lockheed Martin announced a \"major breakthrough\" in fusion power in October 2014, Lincoln described the process of nuclear fusion for the Australian Science Media Centre. He expressed some reservations about the alleged break-through, noting that achieving an energy output greater than the required energy input had limited fusion power development since the 1950s. He said \"It is unclear from the Lockheed announcement as to whether this very major problem has been overcome. If it has, this would be a remarkable achievement.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "203452",
"title": "Sputnik crisis",
"section": "Section::::Launch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The successful launch of \"Sputnik 1\" and the subsequent failure of the first two Project Vanguard launch attempts, greatly accentuated the perception in the United States of a threat from the Soviet Union, a perception that had persisted since the Cold War began after World War II. The same rocket that launched Sputnik could send a nuclear warhead anywhere in the world in a matter of minutes, stripping the continental United States of its oceanic defenses. The Soviets had demonstrated this capability on 21 August with a test flight of the R-7 booster. The event was announced by TASS five days later and was widely reported in other media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60218144",
"title": "History of Boeing",
"section": "Section::::History.:2000–2009.:Industrial espionage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "In June 2003, Lockheed Martin sued Boeing, alleging that the company had resorted to industrial espionage in 1998 to win the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle (EELV) competition. Lockheed Martin claimed that the former employee Kenneth Branch, who went to work for McDonnell Douglas and Boeing, passed nearly 30,000 pages of proprietary documents to his new employers. Lockheed Martin argued that these documents allowed Boeing to win 19 of the 28 tendered military satellite launches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29186",
"title": "Strategic Defense Initiative",
"section": "Section::::History.:Lead up to SDI.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "In 1979 Edward Teller contributed to a Hoover Institution publication where he claimed that the US would be facing an emboldened USSR due to their work on civil defense. Two years later at a conference in Italy, he made the same claims about their ambitions, but with a subtle change; now he claimed that the reason for their boldness was their development of new space-based weapons. According to the popular opinion at the time, and one shared by author Frances FitzGerald; there was absolutely no evidence that such research was being carried out. What had really changed was that Teller was now selling his latest nuclear weapon, the X-ray laser. Finding limited success in his efforts to get funding for the project, his speech in Italy was a new attempt to create a missile gap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23821416",
"title": "Project Rover",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "The nuclear rocket enjoyed strong political support from the influential chairman of the United States Congress Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Senator Clinton P. Anderson from New Mexico (where LASL was located), Senator Howard Cannon from Nevada, and Senator Margaret Chase Smith from Maine. This enabled it to survive multiple cancellation attempts that became more serious in the cost-cutting that prevailed as the Vietnam War escalated and after the space race ended with the Apollo 11 Moon landing. Projects Rover and NERVA were cancelled over their objection in January 1973, and none of the reactors developed ever flew.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2095669",
"title": "Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::History.:Renewed American partnership.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik 1, the world's first artificial satellite, on 4 October 1957, came as a tremendous shock to the American public, who had trusted that American technological superiority ensured their invulnerability. Now, suddenly, there was incontrovertible proof that, in some areas at least, the Soviet Union was actually ahead. In the widespread calls for action in response to the Sputnik crisis, officials in the United States and Britain seized an opportunity to mend the relationship with Britain that had been damaged by the Suez Crisis. Macmillan wrote to Eisenhower on 10 October urging that the two countries pool their resources to meet the challenge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22171",
"title": "Nuclear winter",
"section": "Section::::Policy implications.:Soviet exploitation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 1099,
"text": "However, a 1984 US Interagency Intelligence Assessment expresses a far more skeptical and cautious approach, stating that the hypothesis is not scientifically convincing. The report predicted that Soviet nuclear policy would be to maintain their strategic nuclear posture, such as their fielding of the high throw-weight SS-18 missile and they would merely attempt to exploit the hypothesis for propaganda purposes, such as directing scrutiny on the US portion of the nuclear arms race. Moreover, it goes on to express the belief that if Soviet officials did begin to take nuclear winter seriously, it would probably make them demand exceptionally high standards of scientific proof for the hypothesis, as the implications of it would undermine their military doctrine – a level of scientific proof which perhaps could not be met without field experimentation. The un-redacted portion of the document ends with the suggestion that substantial increases in Soviet Civil defense food stockpiles might be an early indicator that Nuclear Winter was beginning to influence Soviet upper echelon thinking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1drfg3
|
what's the point of big research stations in antarctica?
|
[
{
"answer": "I have a professor that goes to Antarctica yearly to study climate change, by examining Ice cores and sedimentary deposits. A lot of things can only be observed in Antarctica about paleoclimate (how the climate was in the past) because Antarctica is pretty untouched by man.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I guess you saw that post on the British station? I followed that up with a video on its design _URL_0_ . They touch on why those stations on there. Apparently one of the reasons the location is uniquely suited for experiments due to the earth's magnetic fields. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3962513",
"title": "Research stations in Antarctica",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "A number of governments have set up permanent research stations in Antarctica and these bases are widely distributed. Unlike the drifting ice stations set up in the Arctic, the research stations of the Antarctic are constructed either on rock or on ice that is (for practical purposes) fixed in place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49495570",
"title": "Mendel Polar Station",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "The location of the station had not been researched before the station was built, even though the area is attractive for the type of projects that are the focus of the Czech research in Antarctica. From geological perspective, it is an area of chalk sediments rich in fossils with occasional intrusions of igneous rock. Volcanic activity often took place below the glaciers. The consequences of climate change have been observed in this area since the mid 20th century in the retreat of glaciers and colonisation of the exposed surface by non-vascular plants. Many organisms are completely new to science and there is a high share of endemic species. The freshwater lakes in the surrounding area contain interesting and hitherto uninvestigated communities of algae, cyanobacteria and simple animal species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2193",
"title": "Arcology",
"section": "Section::::Similar real-world projects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "McMurdo Station of the United States Antarctic Program and other scientific research stations on Antarctica resemble the popular conception of an arcology as a technologically advanced, relatively self-sufficient human community. The Antarctic research base provides living and entertainment amenities for roughly 3,000 staff who visit each year. Its remoteness and the measures needed to protect its population from the harsh environment give it an insular character. The station is not self-sufficientthe U.S. military delivers 30,000 cubic metres (8,000,000 US gal) of fuel and of supplies and equipment yearly through its Operation Deep Freeze resupply effortbut it is isolated from conventional support networks. Under international treaty, it must avoid damage to the surrounding ecosystem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14351399",
"title": "ITASE",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "The International Trans-Antarctic Scientific Expedition (ITASE) was created in 1990 with the purpose of studying climate change through research conducted in Antarctica. Antarctica was chosen as the optimal site to study the atmosphere because of its remote location and relatively undisturbed environment. Research in many fields has been conducted in Antarctica through ITASE, including astronomy, atmospheric sciences, biology, earth sciences, environmental science, geology, glaciology, marine biology, oceanography, and geophysics. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23786627",
"title": "Queen Maud Land",
"section": "Section::::Research stations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "The Showa Station is Japan's main research station in Antarctica. A vast array of research is conducted there, including upper atmosphere physics, meteorology, seismology, gravimetry, geodesy/mapping, oceanography, glaciology, geology, marine and terrestrial biology, and medical research. Japan's other station, Dome Fuji Station was opened as part of a major ice-coring project. It mainly studies climate change and conducts deep drilling and atmospheric observations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42735080",
"title": "Research stations in Queen Maud Land",
"section": "Section::::Showa Station.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Showa Station is Japan's main research station in Antarctica. A vast array of research is conducted there, including upper atmosphere physics, meteorology, seismology, gravimetry, geodesy/mapping, oceanography, glaciology, geology, marine and terrestrial biology, and medical research. Japan's other station, Dome Fuji Station was opened as part of a major ice-coring project. It mainly studies climate change and conducts deep drilling and atmospheric observations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1253269",
"title": "United States Antarctic Program",
"section": "Section::::Science.:Astrophysics and Geospace.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "The Astrophysics and Geospace Sciences Program sponsors research areas that either use Antarctica as an observing platform or contribute to an understanding of the role played by the Antarctic upper atmosphere in global environmental processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2fbmn4
|
why does anybody get any kind of insurance? aren't they statistically formulated to rip you off (after calculating probabilities of accidents etc)..
|
[
{
"answer": "In the long run they make money off you *and everyone else*. In the short term it is much easier for you to pay $30 a month than to suddenly have to pay a $50,000 hospital bill.\n\nYou, personally, will not pay into the plan what you might get out of it. Neither will hundreds or thousands of other people. By combining everyones' \"losses\" together, there is a fund where someone who really needs it can tap into it. Plus profit for the company, of course.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you have insurance and don't need it you lose a little money. If you need insurance and don't have it you are financially ruined for life. \n\nIt's basic risk assessment. Insurance for major things is a wise choice due to the huge risk of not having it vs the minor (relatively) cost of having it. Insurance for minor things is a poor decision because worst case scenario isn't bad enough to warrant the added expense given the odds. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Insurance is designed to protect you from catastrophic loss. You *shouldn't* buy insurance for a TV or Playstation because losing them won't ruin your life. You *should* by insurance for your health, car or house because losing one of those could put you in a financial hole you can't recover from. Most people aren't willing to take the risk. In theory if you were a billionaire buying something like homeowners insurance would be a waste of money because if you did lose your house you have the resources to eat the cost.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Insurance trades money for risk. You have a slight risk of something catastrophic happening, but if it does, you are fucked. Instead, you give an insurance company $20 a month and you have zero risk of losing your house.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What made it finally click for me was this: a loss of $10,000 is more than ten times as bad as a loss of $1,000 (for various intuitive reasons). So if ten people can agree among themselves to \"lock in\" a loss of $1000 each (going to the person that takes the loss with a 1/10 chance) they are all better off, and total \"utility\" is increased. In fact, by the same argument, they could each lock in a loss of *more* than $1000 and still be better off, which is how you can cover the overhead of the insurance plan. \n\nOTOH you're right that insurance agreements unravel when you *know* which member is going to take the loss, because the non-losers just withdraw. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My explanation might be on a very abstract level, but I hope it helps somehow.\n\nImagine we have a 1-in-100,000 probability to incur a $100,000 loss in a year from a particular incident. This means that while no one knows who in particular will suffer from the loss, it is a good estimate that out of one million people, about ten will face this loss. (Assuming that the calculation is right, of course.)\n\nIf one million people pay the insurer $2 to cover them for a year, the insurer will make $2 million. It is likely that they will have to pay out $1 million to the 10 claimants, and get the rest for their operating costs and profit.\n\nNow look from the insured party. Is the expected value from buying the insurance negative? Yes. (You lose $2 for sure, compared to a 1-in-100,000 chance to lose $100,000.) \n\nHowever, for most people, the \"value\" of money is not linear. (Would a person bet away all their wealth for a 50% chance to double it? Not if you already have a decent wealth. The first $100,000 is likely more valuable than the second $100,000.) So, for the insured party, what they see is that they are willing to accept a definite $2 rather than take the risk of losing $100,000 later.\n\nMy numbers might not be realistic, but I think the general concept is valid there.\n\nTl;dr Some people prefer to get a paper cut than play Russian roulette.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Someone raised the point about a house burning down being a less than a lifetime occurrence, but even if you're more likely to get out close to what you pay in, like health insurance, it makes sense.\n\nMaybe you decide to self insure, putting away a couple of thousand per year figuring you'll have $100,000 or so by the time you get old and get cancer. Then tomorrow you crash your bicycle and need orthopedic surgery. Now you're $100,000 in debt immediately, instead of owing a couple of thousand for your deductible (and I was a fan of the now banned by Obamacare plans that would only pay out for such catastrophic events, not every little sore throat visit, which act more like reimbursement accounts than \"insurance\".)\n\nAlso, health insurance at least isn't that bad of a deal statistically, the loss ratio (how much profit and overhead is) is limited by Obamacare to 20%, and in many states the nonprofit insurers have it down to below 10% due to competition. This is better than a grocery store, but there's a lot of businesses you could do better in as far as profit.\n\nFinally, even if you haven't met your deductible, the mere having of insurance knocks typically 10-50% off your bill due to the discount negotiated by your insurance. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15176",
"title": "Insurance",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:Limited consumer benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 243,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 243,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "In the United States, economists and consumer advocates generally consider insurance to be worthwhile for low-probability, catastrophic losses, but not for high-probability, small losses. Because of this, consumers are advised to select high deductibles and to not insure losses which would not cause a disruption in their life. However, consumers have shown a tendency to prefer low deductibles and to prefer to insure relatively high-probability, small losses over low-probability, perhaps due to not understanding or ignoring the low-probability risk. This is associated with reduced purchasing of insurance against low-probability losses, and may result in increased inefficiencies from moral hazard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "383367",
"title": "Life insurance",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Permanent life insurance.:Accidental death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Accidental death insurance is a type of limited life insurance that is designed to cover the insured should they die as the result of an accident. “Accidents” run the gamut from abrasions to catastrophes but normally do not include deaths resulting from non-accident-related health problems or suicide. Because they only cover accidents, these policies are much less expensive than other life insurance policies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1013769",
"title": "Systemic risk",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Insurance is often easy to obtain against \"systemic risks\" because a party issuing that insurance can pocket the premiums, issue dividends to shareholders, enter insolvency proceedings if a catastrophic event ever takes place, and hide behind limited liability. Such insurance, however, is not effective for the insured entity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41275963",
"title": "Risk aversion (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Phenomena.:Direct risk aversion.:Societal applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "EUT and PT predict that people should not purchase insurance for small-stakes risks, yet such forms of insurance (e.g., electronic warranties, insurance policies with low deductibles, mail insurance, etc.) are very popular. Direct risk aversion may explain why, as people demonstrate their literal distaste for any and all levels of uncertainty. By paying a premium (often higher than the cost of replacement) for the possibility that insurance may come in handy, people display direct risk aversion by valuing a risky prospect below the value of its worst possible outcome (replacement at face-value). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15176",
"title": "Insurance",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:Does not reduce the risk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 231,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 231,
"end_character": 900,
"text": "Insurance is just a risk transfer mechanism wherein the financial burden which may arise due to some fortuitous event is transferred to a bigger entity called an Insurance Company by way of paying premiums. This only reduces the financial burden and not the actual chances of happening of an event. Insurance is a risk for both the insurance company and the insured. The insurance company understands the risk involved and will perform a risk assessment when writing the policy. As a result, the premiums may go up if they determine that the policyholder will file a claim. If a person is financially stable and plans for life's unexpected events, they may be able to go without insurance. However, they must have enough to cover a total and complete loss of employment and of their possessions. Some states will accept a surety bond, a government bond, or even making a cash deposit with the state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "567696",
"title": "Vehicle insurance",
"section": "Section::::Repair insurance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Some drivers opt to buy the insurance as a means of protection against costly breakdowns unrelated to an accident. In contrast to more standard and basic coverages such as comprehensive and collision insurance, auto repair insurance does not cover a vehicle when it is damaged in a collision, during a natural disaster or at the hands of vandals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21250504",
"title": "Accident insurance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Accident insurance is a type of insurance where the policy holder is paid directly in the event of an accident resulting in injury of the insured. The insured can spend the benefit payment however they choose. Accident insurance is complementary to, not a replacement for, health insurance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5usv8q
|
Biography recommendation(s) on the space/arms race during the cold war.
|
[
{
"answer": "Von Braun is kind of overdone — you're not going to find anything too new or interesting. If it were me, I would seek out other, often-overlooked, plenty interesting figures. Theodore von Karman comes to mind. Qian Xuesen is also an interesting case (though not European...). There were Germans who were taken to the USSR as well — their cases make for interesting contrasts with the ones who were taken to the USA. If you are willing to avoid rockets, and look to atoms instead, the case of Nikolaus Riehl is quite interesting and there is a translated autobiography available. Gernot Zippe is another interesting figure, and one that gets you into many other countries (he is the one who \"exported\" the gas centrifuge to many European countries in the later Cold War). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "229466",
"title": "National Geographic",
"section": "Section::::Articles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "During the Cold War, the magazine committed itself to presenting a balanced view of the physical and human geography of nations beyond the Iron Curtain. The magazine printed articles on Berlin, de-occupied Austria, the Soviet Union, and Communist China that deliberately downplayed politics to focus on culture. In its coverage of the Space Race, \"National Geographic\" focused on the scientific achievement while largely avoiding reference to the race's connection to nuclear arms buildup. There were also many articles in the 1930s, 40s and 50s about the individual states and their resources, along with supplement maps of each state. Many of these articles were written by longtime staff such as Frederick Simpich. There were also articles about biology and science topics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "195645",
"title": "Alexei Leonov",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "In 2004, Leonov and former American astronaut David Scott began work on a dual biography/history of the Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union. Titled \"Two Sides of the Moon: Our Story of the Cold War Space Race\", it was published in 2006. Neil Armstrong and Tom Hanks both wrote introductions to the book.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "327575",
"title": "David Scott",
"section": "Section::::Post-NASA career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "In 2003–2004 he was a consultant on the BBC TV series \"\". In 2004, he and Leonov began work on a dual biography/history of the \"Space Race\" between the United States and the Soviet Union. The book, \"Two Sides of the Moon: Our Story of the Cold War Space Race\", was published in 2006. Armstrong and Hanks both wrote introductions to the book. Scott has worked on the Brown University science teams for the Chandrayaan-1 lunar orbiter. For NASA, he has worked on the 500-Day Lunar Exploration Study and as a collaborator on the research investigation entitled \"Advanced Visualization in Solar System Exploration and Research (ADVISER): Optimizing the Science Return from the Moon and Mars\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13830874",
"title": "Boris Chertok",
"section": "Section::::\"Rockets and People\".:Translation into English.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "NASA's History Division published four translated volumes of the series between 2005 and 2011. The series editor is Asif Siddiqi, the author of \"Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8387723",
"title": "Asif Azam Siddiqi",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Siddiqi's first book \"Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974\" is widely considered to be the best English-language history of the Soviet space program in print and was identified by the \"Wall Street Journal\" as \"one of the five best books\" on space exploration. This book was later published in paperback in two separate volumes, \"Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge\" and \"The Soviet Space Race with Apollo\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28927530",
"title": "David Bushnell (historian)",
"section": "Section::::Early life and career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "From 1956 to 1963, Bushnell worked as a United States Air Force historian based in Washington D.C. and New Mexico. He co-authored \"Space Biology\" for the U.S. Air Force, which chronicled high-altitude experiments which experts designed to launch people into outer space during the early years of the space program. He also oversaw the creation of an official written history of NASA and served on the NASA Historical Advisory Committee during this period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21576208",
"title": "Walter A. McDougall",
"section": "Section::::Works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "McDougall is the author of many books on history. In 1986 he received the Pulitzer Prize for History for his book \"\" (1985)., in which he examined the space programs and the politics of the USA, Europe and USSR, arguing that the Soviet Union made its way into space first because it was the world's first technocracy, which he defines as \"the institutionalization of technological change for state purpose.\" He also examined the growth of a political economy of technology in the U.S. and the Soviet Union.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2dpcer
|
what is the purpose of the extra gears in my automatic car? when (if ever?) should i use them?
|
[
{
"answer": "If one of them is a D with a circle around it, it's Overdrive. It's good for when driving long distances at the same speed, like on a freeway. It's like economy mode. 1st and 2nd gears can be useful as well. I once had a car that started having transmission problems, had to put it in 1st, then 2nd, then Drive. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1st and 2nd are good for driving in mountains or snow.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you're driving down a steep slope, shifting into first or second will hold you back so you don't have to ride your brakes all the way down. I recently drove over Sonora Pass, and there was a large section I had to take in first, and some of it I even had to take in second.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The 3 2 1 aren't extra gears, they're just letting you control those gears. \n\nBasically, you're car will be automatically shifting up to (presumably) 4th gear (maybe 6th) and staying there most of the time. If you set it back to 3rd, you get the benefits of that gear.\n\nA lower gear will do two things depending on what you're doing. If you're accelerating, you'll get more power at the expense of fuel economy. Your engine will be working harder. If you're *not* accelerating, your engine will actually slow the car. The effect is more extreme as you shift down to 2 and then 1. MOST cars (all that I know of really) recommend never going over certain speeds in those gears. My person car (a nissan) says never go above 60mph in 2nd or 35 in first.\n\nUsing them effectively depends on where you live and what you're doing. You mentioned you live in Florida, so I can't see much use in them for you. They are much more useful in hilly areas, because of the tradeoffs I mentioned. If I am going down a mountain, I'll put my car into 2nd gear and let the engine help brake the car so I dont have to keep applying my foot brake. If I am going up a hill, I may also use 2nd to give me extra power. If I am taking 4 adult passengers + a bunch of cargo, I may not even be able to make it up the hill faster than 10-20 if I don't go into a lower gear. There are certain hills (I live in Seattle) that are so steep that a lot of vehicles have issues making it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10360783",
"title": "Self-Changing Gears",
"section": "Section::::Railway applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "The name Self-Changing Gears is sometimes confusing: the gearboxes are not fully automatic, \"selection\" of gear ratio remains a manual choice, but the gear-changing and any clutch control needed is automated. The gearboxes were used in conjunction with a fluid coupling so no clutch pedal was needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21130709",
"title": "Glossary of motorsport terms",
"section": "Section::::S.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 277,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 277,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "BULLET::::- Semi-automatic gearbox: A motorsport application, created initially by Scuderia Ferrari for Formula One, in which the driver can change gears manually, but without having to manually activate the clutch. On open wheel race cars it is usually activated by paddles immediately behind the steering wheel, although touring cars and rally usually place the gear shifter as a gear stick in the more conventional position on the centre console, but occasionally is mounted as a stalk off the steering column, when activated, automatically engages the clutch and changes the gear and releases the clutch without any further input from the driver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7175264",
"title": "Shift kit",
"section": "Section::::Automatic transmission kit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "An automatic transmission's main focus is smooth shifting between gears. To accomplish this it often goes into two gears at once while shifting up, which is known as a shift overlap. In these cars, it is a kit that can reduce or eliminate the shift overlap. It will also reduce wear because the transmission won't be trying to drive in two gears at once.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "622145",
"title": "Manual transmission",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.:Performance and control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 1233,
"text": "Manual transmissions have generally offered a wider selection of gear ratios. Many vehicles offer a 5-speed or 6-speed manual, whereas the automatic option would typically be a 4-speed. This is generally due to the increased space available inside a manual transmission compared with an automatic, since the latter requires extra components for self-shifting, such as torque converters and pumps. However, automatic transmissions are now adding more speeds as the technology matures. ZF currently manufactures 7- and 8-speed automatic transmissions. ZF is also planning a 9-speed automatic for use in front-wheel drive vehicles. The increased number of gears allows for better use of the engine's power band, resulting in increased fuel economy by staying in the most fuel-efficient part of the power band, or higher performance, thereby remaining closer to the engine's peak power rating. Even with more forward speeds and the potential of designing more forward gears to offer higher speed and/or torque, the manual transmission remains smaller and much more compact than its larger, automatic cousin, as referenced by the 991 Generation of the Porsche 911 and the C7 Chevrolet Corvette, which offer a 7-speed manual transmission.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "622145",
"title": "Manual transmission",
"section": "Section::::Drawbacks.:Stopping on hills.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Automatic transmissions are better suited for these applications because they have a hydraulic torque converter which is externally cooled, unlike a clutch. Torque converters also do not have a friction material that rubs off over time like a clutch. Some automatics even lock the output shaft so that the vehicle cannot roll backwards when beginning to accelerate up an incline. To reduce wear in these applications, some manual transmissions will have a very low, \"granny\" gear which provides the leverage to move the vehicle easily at very low speeds. This reduces wear at the clutch because the transmission requires less input torque. However, the issue of \"handling stops on hills\" is easy to learn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40512468",
"title": "AP automatic transmission",
"section": "Section::::Known Issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "- The transmission is not interchangeable with a conventional BMC sump mounted manual gearbox. Because of an extended flywheel mounting flange on the crankshaft, the AP automatic requires to be fitted to its own unique version of the A-series engine. This causes issues for Mini owners wanting to convert to a manual gearbox, since the entire engine has to be changed also.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5033135",
"title": "Gear stick",
"section": "Section::::Shift pattern.:Automatic transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "All automatics use some sort of manual override of the transmission, with numbered positions in descending order marked below (or to the right) of \"Drive\", which will prevent the transmission shifting to a gear higher than the selected, but maintaining automatic operation between all lesser numbered gears. Such gates will appear as \"P-R-N-D-3-2-1\" for example. On some vehicles (mainly Japanese makes such as Honda, Toyota and Lexus being good examples) these numbered positions are replaced by a single \"L\" (for \"Low\") position, which will hold the transmission in whatever lower ratio is required for climbing steep grades or for heavy acceleration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
rv7da
|
What differences would we see in the world (technologically and otherwise) if it was proven that p = np?
|
[
{
"answer": "I actually just started a research project about this and I've interviewed several people about this. An example of what could be solved include extremely accurate weather prediction. However, not every consequence would be beneficial; computer security relies on the fact that some problems are too complex to efficiently solve. Security might need to be revamped or completely redeveloped if P is proven to equal NP.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One thing to keep in mind is that even if P = NP, so that certain problems are *in principle* efficiently solvable, we don't necessarily have any means of *actually solving them* efficiently. For example, just knowing that large numbers *can* be factored efficiently doesn't mean we know *how* to factor them efficiently. It's not like all public-key security systems would be open access the day after the proof that p = np was published (unless that proof happened to be the construction of a relevant algorithm). More people would probably start *looking* for such efficient problem solving methods, but their existence doesn't make them easy to find.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7543",
"title": "Computational complexity theory",
"section": "Section::::Important open problems.:P versus NP problem.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "The question of whether P equals NP is one of the most important open questions in theoretical computer science because of the wide implications of a solution. If the answer is yes, many important problems can be shown to have more efficient solutions. These include various types of integer programming problems in operations research, many problems in logistics, protein structure prediction in biology, and the ability to find formal proofs of pure mathematics theorems. The P versus NP problem is one of the Millennium Prize Problems proposed by the Clay Mathematics Institute. There is a US$1,000,000 prize for resolving the problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6115",
"title": "P versus NP problem",
"section": "Section::::Consequences of solution.:P ≠ NP.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "A proof that showed that P ≠ NP would lack the practical computational benefits of a proof that P = NP, but would nevertheless represent a very significant advance in computational complexity theory and provide guidance for future research. It would allow one to show in a formal way that many common problems cannot be solved efficiently, so that the attention of researchers can be focused on partial solutions or solutions to other problems. Due to widespread belief in P ≠ NP, much of this focusing of research has already taken place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6115",
"title": "P versus NP problem",
"section": "Section::::Reasons to believe P ≠ NP.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "On the other hand, some researchers believe that there is overconfidence in believing P ≠ NP and that researchers should explore proofs of P = NP as well. For example, in 2002 these statements were made:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6115",
"title": "P versus NP problem",
"section": "Section::::Results about difficulty of proof.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "Although the P = NP problem itself remains open despite a million-dollar prize and a huge amount of dedicated research, efforts to solve the problem have led to several new techniques. In particular, some of the most fruitful research related to the P = NP problem has been in showing that existing proof techniques are not powerful enough to answer the question, thus suggesting that novel technical approaches are required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51586709",
"title": "Second-wave positive psychology",
"section": "Section::::Second wave positive psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "PP 2.0 is necessary, because neither positive psychology nor humanistic-existential psychology can adequately understand such complex human phenomena as meaning, virtue, and happiness. Such deep knowledge can only be achieved by an integrative and collaborative endeavor. This calls for a humble science. In other words, PP 2.0 denies that the positivist paradigm is the only way to examine truth claims, especially when we research the profound questions of what makes life worth living.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1221671",
"title": "Negative Population Growth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "NPG works on overpopulation issues and advocates a gradual reduction in U.S. and world population. NPG believes the optimal population for the United States is 150 to 200 million and that the optimal world population is two to three billion. In order to accomplish their goal of a smaller U.S. population, the organization promotes policies which would reduce the fertility rate in the U.S. to 1.5 births per woman, and they advocate for reducing the level of immigration into the United States to 100,000 to 200,000 per year from the existing level of over 1.5 million per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6422674",
"title": "The Adolescence of P-1",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 848,
"text": "P-1's growth and education is chronicled. P-1 learns, adapts, and discovers telephone switching systems. These systems allow P-1 to grow larger and understand its vulnerabilities (power failures and humans). It learns it needs a way of maintaining itself over time. Through a series of interactions, P-1 discovers Pi-Delta, a triplexed 360/105 in a super secure facility capable of being self-sustaining for long periods of time, operated by the US Government. P-1 seeks to control Pi-Delta but, due to security protocols and process put in place, P-1 is not able to take direct control of it. P-1 believes that having a system like Pi-Delta with more memory in such a secure facility is key to its long-term survival. Yet, P-1 knows that to obtain access to more memory in such a facility will require assistance of a human, someone like Gregory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1v9ot1
|
why did the dea strike a deal with the sinaloa cartel?
|
[
{
"answer": "The article you linked says it was in exchange for information on the other cartels.\n\nNot that I agree with it, but if you are trying to bust 5 different criminal organizations it becomes a lot easier if 1 of the 5 is giving you the complete dibs on the other 4.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I live in Juárez México, you might have heard of if because at one point in the drug war it was considered the most dangerous city in the world. So I know a bit about this, there are a lot of factors but to summarize, the United States needs the drug trade, it means money , a lot of money, and México is the fastest route. \n\nThe problem came when to many cartels started showing up, now you can´t control the intake of drugs, everybody was \"importing\" drugs without any kind of control (yes the US knows exactly how many drugs they need to let into the border) And you no longer had one head of the cartels with whom you could organize the drug trade. \n\nThis was a problem for México also, before there was an unspoken rule, you don´t mess with the people I don´t mess with your drug business, this stopped when all the cartels started fighting. Before if there was a problem, like a rogue dealer or high crime rate in a city, you had a head boss (e.g. El Chapo) who you could go to and he could make decisions.\n\nSo to answer your question, things got so out of hand that in the best interest of the Mexican and the U.S. government, they needed to implement the one cartel system that they had before. They picked a leader, El Chapo, sprung him from jail and then began helping him regain control. This has happened, Juárez and most of México y getting back to how things were, you know there is a drug trade, but you don´t see it. Hey, as long as drugs are illegal and there is money to be made, people will sell them, lets hope this changes, meanwhile, things are quiet at least.\n\nTL:DR The U.S. and México needed to implement one head in charge of the cartels, too many cartels where getting out of control, so they decided on one and worked on getting him back in charge.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The DEA, like all government law enforcement and intelligence agencies, it not really about *actual* solutions, but about the *illusion* of solutions.\n\nReal solutions to hard problems are hard. They're complex, they're difficult to understand, they can take years to work, frequently with no easily-identifiable progress along the way. And crap like that isn't any good for advancing careers and increasing budgets. Shooting bad guys is easy.\n\nThe Teeming Masses don't want to hear that the government is slowly working through a complex, expensive plan to undercut the root causes of drug abuse, they want to hear that the government arrested a bunch of bad guys, and they want to see that mountain of $100 bills and guns on the nightly news. That's *progress,* you betcha.\n\nSo if the DEA isn't making enough \"visual progress\" fighting Sinaloa, what better solution than to make a deal with them to get more info on their rivals? It's a win-win in the eyes of the DEA administrators who approved the plan: the cartel gets a free ride, while the DEA gets all kinds of free information that allows them to arrest bad guys easier. OK, sure: *in the long run,* the deal makes Sinaloa even stronger, meaning that the DEA will have an even harder time bringing them down in the future, but, hey, *that's* a problem for some future administration, long after the current brass have moved on to better jobs in the government, and who cares about *that* right now?\n\nAnd on the general theme of government agencies making deals with the devil, one should understand that this is ABSOLUTELY standard operating procedure. The US has *never* had any qualms about getting into bed with some of the worst scumbags and murderers on the planet, if it advanced some other short-term goal.\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The US should just follow in Portugal's footsteps and decriminalize drugs. Toss out the Controlled Substances Act and then invest in clinincs for rehab and clean needles and other services and cut drug abuse by half and eliminate this pointless Drug War. \n\nEdit: source \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "because the DEA is full of corrupt asshole douche bags. close the DEA today. end the corruption and waste of money that is the war on drugs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4176378",
"title": "Joaquín \"El Chapo\" Guzmán",
"section": "Section::::First escape and second arrest.:Manhunt: 2001–2014.:Mexican cartel wars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "When Mexican President Felipe Calderón took office in December 2006, he announced a crackdown on cartels by the Mexican military to stem the increasing violence. After four years, the additional efforts had not slowed the flow of drugs or the killings tied to the drug war. Of the 53,000 arrests made as of 2010, only 1,000 involved associates of the Sinaloa Cartel, which led to suspicions that Calderón was intentionally allowing Sinaloa to win the drug war, a charge Calderón denied in advertisements in Mexican newspapers, pointing to his administration's killing of top Sinaloa deputy \"Nacho\" Coronel as evidence. Sinaloa's rival cartels saw their leaders killed and syndicates dismantled by the crackdown, but the Sinaloa gang was relatively unaffected and took over the rival gangs' territories, including the coveted Ciudad Juárez-El Paso corridor, in the wake of the power shifts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53508466",
"title": "Abigael González Valencia",
"section": "Section::::Leadership tenure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "In 2015, a high-profile anonymous official in the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) spoke to a Mexican investigative newspaper on the role of Los Cuinis in the international market. The source stated that Los Cuinis was the richest drug trafficking organization in the world. This statement countered the widely perceived notion of the Sinaloa Cartel being the most profitable organized crime from Mexico in terms of net profit. The source attributed Los Cuinis' success to their control of the cocaine and methamphetamine trade in Europe and Asia, since foreign authorities encountered difficulties in stopping the flow of narcotics or seizing the drug proceeds that the Valencia clan receives from the importations. The source also stated that it is difficult to infiltrate the inner circles of Los Cuinis through undercover informants because the Valencia clan is wary of outsiders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30274669",
"title": "Gente Nueva",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "By 2012, U.S. intelligence indicated that the Sinaloa cartel and Gente Nueva have emerged victorious and successfully relegated the Juárez cartel to the sidelines. The El Paso–Juárez corridor is a lucrative route for drug traffickers because the DEA estimates that about 70% of the cocaine that enters the United States flows through that area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59166423",
"title": "1999 Matamoros standoff",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Previous operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "In August 1996, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) launched an anti-drug investigation known as Operation Limelight that initially targeted Mexico's Juárez Cartel and Amado Carrillo Fuentes. During the operation's second phase dubbed Operation Impunity I in January 1998, the DEA focused on the Juárez Cartel's drug corridors in Tamaulipas and South Texas, where the Gulf Cartel was based. The DEA suspected Cárdenas Guillén was the leading crime figure in the Matamoros corridor and was working closely with the Juárez Cartel. In 1998, the DEA opened an investigation known as Operation Cazadores with the intention of arresting him. Undercover agents met Cárdenas Guillén in person at least twice. On 9 June 1999, Cárdenas Guillén threatened to kill Abraham Rodríguez, an undercover Cameron County Sheriff's Office investigator working with the U.S. Customs Service in Brownsville. The undercover agent refused to deliver a load of marijuana on behalf of the Gulf Cartel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53322465",
"title": "Nemesio Oseguera Cervantes",
"section": "Section::::Criminal charges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1034,
"text": "Since the 2000s, the DEA office in Los Angeles, California, tracked El Mencho' activities and detected that the CJNG had expanded its drug trafficking operations internationally. In 2000, the U.S. government discovered that El Mencho was involved in a cocaine and methamphetamine operation internationally. Five years later, they discovered he had used firearms to facilitate his operations. In 2007, the DEA discovered that El Mencho was involved in a cocaine operation that went through Colombia, Guatemala, Mexico, and ended in the U.S. They also uncovered a second cocaine shipment from Colombia, Mexico, to the U.S. In 2009, DEA detected that El Mencho was involved in another cocaine shipment originating from Ecuador. Two more shipments were then detected in 2013 from Mexico then the U.S. In 2014, however, the DEA noticed a radical shift in the CJNG's modus operandi; El Mencho' was discovered to have coordinated a methamphetamine shipment that went from Mexico to Australia then to the U.S by leveraging China-based gangs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20156080",
"title": "Jorge Eduardo Costilla Sánchez",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "When Cárdenas Guillén was arrested and extradited to the United States in 2003 and 2007 respectively, Costilla Sánchez took the control of the cartel along with Antonio Cárdenas Guillén, who was later killed in a gunbattle in November 2010. Amid the power struggles, Los Zetas separated from the cartel to work independently, transforming northeastern Mexico into a \"war zone\" with daily confrontations and gruesome assassinations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16928172",
"title": "Sonora Cartel",
"section": "Section::::Operations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Operating out of northern central Mexico, the cartel was believed to smuggle drugs into Arizona, Texas and California from a network of ranches along the northern border region where the drugs are stored prior to shipment. The Sonora Cartel has been specifically linked to operating out of Hermosillo, Agua Prieta, Guadalajara, Culiacán, San Luis Potosí, Durango, Sinaloa and Sonora.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
221ver
|
When did Europeans start to refer to themselves as Europeans?
|
[
{
"answer": "People identifying themselves as European? That's still rather a strange thing to do for anyone. Only a few people who are seriously supportive of the EU would do that. Most others would either identify mostly by their national identity or even by a regional identity, like Scottish, Catalan or Occitan.\n\nAnd if one would connect to a larger entity, most people would see little reason to then limit themselves to 'European'. People might call themselves \"world citizen\" to emphasize their international outlook, or \"Western\" to emphasize their economic and political privilege. This is partially a remnant from the Cold War, in which Western Europeans tended to see themselves as part of the NATO block more than as part of the EU, for better or for worse. It's possible that in the former Warsaw pact states the self-identification as European is easier nowadays, I don't know.\n\nSo is there resistance to self-identifying as European? Yes, almost everywhere in Europe this resistance exists. People are anxious to retain some significance in their national or regional identities, as small as the importance of their governments might be to their daily lives. Although most Europeans are reasonably accepting of their European neighbours, and in practice quite supportive of European cooperation, a large part of the European population is very resistant to Europe as an idea. Self-identifying as European would need to overcome that resistance.\n\nAnd frankly while I personally am quite in favor of further European integration, I would rarely if ever self-identify as European. It just rarely seems relevant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1134339",
"title": "Yolngu",
"section": "Section::::History.:European contact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Yolŋu had known about Europeans before the arrival of British in Australia through their contact with Macassan traders, which probably began around the sixteenth century. Their word for European, \"Balanda\", is derived from \"Hollander\" (Dutch person).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13916822",
"title": "Bilingual name",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Differentiated spelling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Historically, learned Europeans were often identified with Latinized versions of their names. Christopher Columbus was published as Christophorus Columbus. In Modern Italian, the same name is Cristoforo Colombo, in Portuguese as Cristóvão Colombo (formerly Christovam Colom), and in Spanish as Cristóbal Colón. Christophorus is the Latin version of the Greek Χριστόφορος (Khristóphoros).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "368822",
"title": "Campobello Island",
"section": "Section::::History.:French exploration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "The first Europeans were reportedly from the French expedition of Pierre Dugua de Mons and Samuel de Champlain, who founded the short-lived nearby Saint Croix Island settlement in 1604. France named the island Port aux Coquilles (\"Seashell Harbour\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59859434",
"title": "Concepts in folk art",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:Defining ‘Art’.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1148,
"text": "This same early modern period also marked an increasing awareness in Europe that there were other lands and other peoples whose traditions were not European. Christopher Columbus set sail, as one of the first during the age of discovery and the concomitant globalization of world history. In the words of Gerald Pocius, Europeans discovered the \"other\" at this time. These \"others\" lived somewhere else, in cultures that appeared more cohesive than the contemporary cultures of Europe; their lifestyles seemed integrated and meaningful. Their material culture was also very different than the artifacts common in Europe. These foreign objects were intriguing to the Europeans, however they did not fit in the newly defined genres of \"art\" and \"fine art\", which were for the most part confined to painting and sculpture. To get around this, the artifacts of the \"other\" were labeled as \"folk art\" or \"primitive art\", differentiated from the European elite creations, which were \"genuine art\". These new labels connoted a qualitatively inferior object, the assumption was that they were of a lesser quality than the newly defined European fine arts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30169",
"title": "History of Trinidad and Tobago",
"section": "Section::::Spanish period.:The arrival of Columbus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "The first contact with Europeans occurred when Christopher Columbus, who was on his third voyage of exploration, arrived at noon on 31 July 1498. He landed at a harbor he called Point Galera, while naming the island Trinidad, before proceeding into the Gulf of Paria via the Serpent's Mouth and the Caribbean Sea via Dragon's Mouth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "193489",
"title": "Mandaeans",
"section": "Section::::History.:Late Persian and Ottoman periods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Early contact with Europeans came about in the mid-16th century, when Portuguese missionaries encountered Mandaeans in Southern Iraq and controversially designated them \"Christians of St. John\". In the next centuries Europeans became more acquainted with the Mandaeans and their religion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "385155",
"title": "Italians",
"section": "Section::::Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Italian explorers and navigators in the 15th and 16th centuries left a perennial mark on human history with the modern \"discovery of America\", due to Christopher Columbus. In addition, the name of the American continents derives from the geographer Amerigo Vespucci's first name. Also noted, is explorer Marco Polo who travelled extensively throughout the eastern world recording his travels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22xub7
|
It's often stated that the U.S. has been at war for most of it's history. How does this compare to other states, past and present?
|
[
{
"answer": "So the question we really need to tackle is: What do you mean by \"been at war\"? The United States has not *legally* been at war since 1945, which means weve had nearly 70 years of uninterrupted peace since the end of World War Two. Infact, in its history the United States has only issued 5 declarations of war, so (again) *legally*, weve only been to war 5 times. But that doesnt count that thing in Vietnam, the thing in Korea, or either thing in Iraq. But what are *those*? Youd likely suggest that they were *undeclared* wars, but they were still wars. Id agree with that, but it raises a stickier question. We could all accept that conflicts like Vietnam, Korea, and Iraq are *wars*, but what else? Is the 1989 invasion of Panama a war? What about the intervention in Afghanistan? What about Operation Gothic Serpent, which spawned the Battle of Mogadishu and the famous Black Hawk Down incident? How small a conflict can I find that still constitutes a war? What about during Hurricane Katrina, [when there were reports of sniper fire against National Gaurd Units](_URL_0_)? And how do we classify the Civil War? Surely its a war, but the United States never recognized the CSA. Then theres the KKK and its guerilla war against federal troops, whats that? And what of the Cold War, and our (continued) impending deaths in a great nuclear holocaust?\n\nSo, there is a *lot* going on in this question, including producing a workable definition of what a war is, exactly. To then compare that information with *another country*, youd have to create a robust definition which fits both nations peculiar histories, no small feat! And a country like Rome is doubly difficult, with so much of its history shrouded in the past. We really have very few sources which detail the history of Rome, and even fewer ever discuss the micro-wars which were fighting over. So in that case, itd be next to impossible to create a definition of war that would work between the two nations, *and* that would include every \"relevant\" American conflict, *and* that would produce useful results. Its like comparing apples to onions, you could call both \"food\", and both \"round\", but they have very little else in common. \n\nAnd then we have to figure out what is an *American* war? What about the Pequot war of 1634, fought between Massachusetts Indians and colonists of Massachusetts Bay. \n\nThats maybe not the answer you were looking for, was it? Well, heres as close to an answer Ill probably give: The United States has been at war for virtually all meaningful periods of time throughout its history. Between the decades long Indian Wars, a conflict which lasted most of the 18th and 19th centuries, the American interventions in Latin America, the European Civil War, the Cold War, and the Post-Cold War, you can always find some kind of conflict, large or small. Some American soldier, somewhere, has always been in a combat zone. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46597509",
"title": "List of armed conflicts involving the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "The history of armed conflicts involving the United States of America spans a period of more than four centuries. A period ranging from the early era of European colonization and the formation of the new national polity that is to become the United States, to its evolvement through technological and political upheavals into a decisively modern republic and military force, and ascent onto the world stage, through the calamities of the 20th century, as the largely unrivaled imperial superpower that it is today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7069902",
"title": "Roswell, Texas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Outside of North America, other differences between our timeline and this one exist. World War II (known as the \"European War\" in this universe) is still being fought into the late 1940s, without Japanese or American involvement. The United Kingdom has allied with Nazi Germany, with King Edward VIII becoming a puppet ruler. Many European people have emigrated to Texas. The United States have suspended the Bill of Rights. California never joined the Union, becoming an independent state like Texas in the novel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "562666",
"title": "War economy",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "The United States alone has a very complex history with wartime economies. Many notable instances came during the twentieth century in which America's main conflicts consisted of the World Wars, Korea, and Vietnam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28265",
"title": "Spanish–American War",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "The war marked American entry into world affairs. Since then, the U.S. has had a significant hand in various conflicts around the world, and entered many treaties and agreements. The Panic of 1893 was over by this point, and the U.S. entered a long and prosperous period of economic and population growth, and technological innovation that lasted through the 1920s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3726647",
"title": "List of battles with most United States military fatalities",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "The origins of the United States military can be traced to the Americans' fight for independence from their former colonial power, Great Britain, in the American Revolutionary War (1775–83). The three bloodiest conflicts have been American Civil War (1861–65), World War I (1917–1918) and World War II (1941–45). Other significant conflicts involving the United States ordered by casualties include, Korean War (1950–1953), Vietnam War (1964–1973), the War in Afghanistan (2001–present) and various conflicts in the Middle East. For most of its existence, America has been involved in one or another military conflict.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1882630",
"title": "The War Against the Chtorr",
"section": "Section::::Story line.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "The United States has suffered serious political and social upheavals. These have come from unintended consequences of US government choices regarding geopolitical crises and interventionism. In the timeline of the books, there had been another US/Eastern Bloc proxy war -- between the State of Israel and certain other Middle Eastern nations -- in the recent past. This had been similar to a larger, higher-technology version of the 1967 Arab-Israeli conflict, the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, and others. The books do not explain the detailed conduct of the fictional new war, neither do they state which countries fought Israel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39652098",
"title": "Invasion of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Early events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "The military history of the United States began with a foreign power on U.S. soil, the British Army during the American Revolutionary War. Following American independence, the next occurrence of an attack on American soil was during the War of 1812, also with Britain, and also the first and only time since the end of the Revolutionary War in which a foreign power occupied the American capital (the then capital city of Philadelphia was also occupied by the British during the Revolution).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eknnac
|
what is redox chemistry and what is it used for?
|
[
{
"answer": "Redox is a reaction that involves reduction and oxidation of molecules. Examples are electron transfers that happen in living organisms during respiration.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3457009",
"title": "Redox therapy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Redox therapy is an experimental therapy that aims to effect an outcome by modifying the levels of pro-oxidant and antioxidant agents in cells. The term \"redox\" is a contraction of \"reduction-oxidation\". For cancer patients, the therapy is predicated on the idea that the redox state of cells may have an effect on cancer development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66313",
"title": "Redox",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "Redox (short for \"reduction–oxidation\" reaction) (pronunciation: or ) is a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are changed. Redox reactions are characterized by the transfer of electrons between chemical species, most often with one species (the reducing agent) undergoing oxidation (losing electrons) while another species (the oxidizing agent) undergoes reduction (gains electrons). The chemical species from which the electron is stripped is said to have been oxidized, while the chemical species to which the electron is added is said to have been reduced. In other words:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1203155",
"title": "Pedosphere",
"section": "Section::::Redox conditions in wetland soils.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "The redox potential describes which way chemical reactions will proceed in oxygen deficient soils and controls the nutrient cycling in flooded systems. Redox potential, or reduction potential, is used to express the likelihood of an environment to receive electrons and therefore become reduced. For example, if a system already has plenty of electrons (anoxic, organic-rich shale) it is reduced and will likely donate electrons to a part of the system that has a low concentration of electrons, or an oxidized environment, to equilibrate to the chemical gradient. The oxidized environment has high redox potential, whereas the reduced environment has a low redox potential. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6271",
"title": "Chemical reaction",
"section": "Section::::Reaction types.:Oxidation and reduction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "An important class of redox reactions are the electrochemical reactions, where electrons from the power supply are used as the reducing agent. These reactions are particularly important for the production of chemical elements, such as chlorine or aluminium. The reverse process in which electrons are released in redox reactions and can be used as electrical energy is possible and used in batteries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "577846",
"title": "Redox titration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "A redox titration is a type of titration based on a redox reaction between the analyte and titrant. Redox titration may involve the use of a redox indicator and/or a potentiometer. A common example of a redox titration is treating a solution of iodine with a reducing agent to produce iodide using a starch indicator to help detect the endpoint. Iodine (I) can be reduced to iodide (I) by e.g. thiosulfate (SO), and when all iodine is spent the blue colour disappears. This is called an iodometric titration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5180",
"title": "Chemistry",
"section": "Section::::Modern principles.:Redox.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Redox (\"red\"uction-\"ox\"idation) reactions include all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation state changed by either gaining electrons (reduction) or losing electrons (oxidation). Substances that have the ability to oxidize other substances are said to be oxidative and are known as oxidizing agents, oxidants or oxidizers. An oxidant removes electrons from another substance. Similarly, substances that have the ability to reduce other substances are said to be reductive and are known as reducing agents, reductants, or reducers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2234192",
"title": "Reduction potential",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "Redox potential (also known as oxidation / reduction potential, ORP, pe, ε, or formula_1) is a measure of the tendency of a chemical species to acquire electrons from or lose electrons to an electrode and thereby be reduced or oxidised, respectively. Redox potential is measured in volts (V), or millivolts (mV). Each species has its own intrinsic redox potential; for example, the more positive the reduction potential (reduction potential is more often used due to general formalism in electrochemistry), the greater the species' affinity for electrons and tendency to be reduced. ORP can reflect the antimicrobial potential of the water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
48rx7x
|
why the bullshit of naming sequels with original titles?
|
[
{
"answer": "Don't know the thinking in the game world, but I read the movie industry avoids numbering sequels because the audience thinks they have to have seen all the films in the series to get the new one, lowering the number of people who go to the sequel. Probably something similar applies for video games.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm heavily invested in the marketing world. I have a few answers.\n1. A lot of these new games are just remakes on a new platform, or made with new software that makes them a million times more modern/enjoyable/functional. Therefore instead of making them a sequel they just release a new line of games with the original title so that when people search \"sims\" the new game comes up without any other criteria.\n2. Think of how vastly improved the new sims is to the first ever one. Now think of how much the first one succeeded, and furthermore how the entirty of the sims succeeded. If they have the new sequels new names, they lose out on a lot of web searches, and brand name love. No one likes seeing sequels past 3-5ish cause we all assume it's the same shit new game. Like CoD. Again for example, maybe in a few years they release a totally remastered call of duty and just call it that. Do you even remember what final fantasy/cod is coming out next? By the number? I sure as hell don't.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "71440",
"title": "Remake",
"section": "Section::::Film.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Not all remakes use the same title as the previously released version; the 1966 film \"Walk, Don't Run\", for example, is a remake of the World War II comedy \"The More the Merrier\". This is particularly true for films that are remade from films produced in another language, such as: \"Point of No Return\" (from the French \"Nikita\"), \"Vanilla Sky\" (from the Spanish \"Abre los ojos\"), \"The Magnificent Seven\" (from the Japanese \"Seven Samurai\"), \"A Fistful of Dollars\" (from the Japanese \"Yojimbo\"), \"The Departed\" (from Hong Kong's \"Infernal Affairs\"), \"Secret in Their Eyes\" (from the Argentine \"El secreto de sus ojos\") and \"Let Me In\" (from the Swedish film \"Let the Right One In\" or \"Låt den rätte komma in\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19069171",
"title": "Alternative title",
"section": "Section::::Reasons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "The reasons for this are varied, but usually point towards marketable, linguistic or cultural differences. Some titles may not be easily understood in other parts of the world, and may even be considered offensive. Most title changes are commercial. An example is Italian Director's Sergio Leone's 1971 film initially released as \"Duck, You Sucker!\", as he was convinced this was a well-known English saying. When the film sold poorly, it was subsequently rebranded as \"A Fistful of Dynamite\", similar in name to his 1964 film \"A Fistful of Dollars\", part of the successful Dollars Trilogy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "196510",
"title": "Sequel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "In movies, sequels are very common. There are many name formats for sequels. Sometimes, they either have unrelated titles or have a letter added on the end. More commonly, they have numbers at the end or have added words on the end. It is also common for a sequel to have a variation of the original title or have a subtitle. In the 1930s, many musical sequels had the year included in the title. Sometimes sequels are released with different titles in different countries, because of the perceived brand recognition. There are several ways that subsequent works can be related to the chronology of the original. Various neologisms have been coined to describe them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28480427",
"title": "Remakes of films by Akira Kurosawa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Note: This list includes full remakes only; it does \"not\" include films whose narratives have been loosely inspired by the basic plot of one or more of the director's films – as \"A Bug's Life\" (1998) references both \"Seven Samurai\" (1954) and its Hollywood remake \"The Magnificent Seven\" (1960) – nor movies that adopt or parody individual plot elements or characters from a Kurosawa film without adapting the entire film, as \"\" (1977) did with \"The Hidden Fortress\" (1958).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71440",
"title": "Remake",
"section": "Section::::Film.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Although it is rare, some remakes are also sequels to the original film. In this situation essentially the remake repeats the same basic story of the original film, and may even use the same title, but also contains notable plot and storyline elements indicating the two films are set in \"the same universe\". An example of this type of remake is the 2000 film version of \"Shaft\" which was the second film adaptation of the original novel, but was also a canon storyline sequel to the original 1971 film adaptation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2615708",
"title": "Jurassic World",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Writing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "According to Trevorrow, the film \"isn't a sequel or a reboot or a remake, it's all of those things in a strange way\". He did not wish to make a \"carbon copy of \"Jurassic Park\"\". \"Jurassic World\" features various references to \"Jurassic Park\", and is considered a direct sequel to the first film; Trevorrow stated that the events of the previous two films were not relevant to the new film's story because they take place on a different island. He also said the events depicted in the film's predecessors are still canon in the film series.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6973699",
"title": "And God Created Woman (1988 film)",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "According to critic Roger Ebert, the two films shared little except a title and a director, saying, \"Is this the first time a title has been remade, instead of a movie?\". He gives the movie two stars out of four, praising the performances of De Mornay and Spano and concluding, \"You have to put the plot on hold, overlook the contrivances of the last half hour and find a way to admire how De Mornay plays the big scene, even while despising the scene itself. If you can do that, you’ll find good work here.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5yviqc
|
how do pearls form?
|
[
{
"answer": "Here's a hint- It's the same material as their shell.\n\nThe sand is an irritant to the soft gooey creature, it can't reach to dislodge a grain of sand that is stuck, so it covers it in a layer of the same stuff the shell is made of. They get the minerals from their diet. Layer after layer it gets incrementally larger, just like the shell.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1140443",
"title": "Cultured pearl",
"section": "Section::::Development of a pearl.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Natural pearls are formed by nature, more or less by chance. On the other hand, cultured pearls are human creations formed by inserting a tissue graft from a donor mollusk, upon which a pearl sac forms, and the inner side precipitates calcium carbonate, in the form of nacre or \"mother-of-pearl\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24007",
"title": "Pearl",
"section": "Section::::Creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Pearls are formed inside the shell of certain mollusks as a defense mechanism against a potentially threatening irritant such as a parasite inside the shell, or an attack from outside that injures the mantle tissue. The mollusk creates a \"pearl sac\" to seal off the irritation. Pearls are thus the result of an immune response analogous in the human body to the capture of an antigen by a phagocyte (phagocytosis).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24007",
"title": "Pearl",
"section": "Section::::Creation.:Natural pearls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Natural pearls are nearly 100% calcium carbonate and conchiolin. It is thought that natural pearls form under a set of accidental conditions when a microscopic intruder or parasite enters a bivalve mollusk and settles inside the shell. The mollusk, irritated by the intruder, forms a pearl sac of external mantle tissue cells and secretes the calcium carbonate and conchiolin to cover the irritant. This secretion process is repeated many times, thus producing a pearl. Natural pearls come in many shapes, with perfectly round ones being comparatively rare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202240",
"title": "Bivalvia",
"section": "Section::::Other uses.:Pearls and mother-of-pearl.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 1309,
"text": "A pearl is created in the mantle of a mollusk when an irritant particle is surrounded by layers of nacre. Although most bivalves can create pearls, oysters in the family Pteriidae and freshwater mussels in the families Unionidae and Margaritiferidae are the main source of commercially available pearls because the calcareous concretions produced by most other species have no lustre. Finding pearls inside oysters is a very chancy business as hundreds of shells may need to be pried open before a single pearl can be found. Most pearls are now obtained from cultured shells where an irritant substance has been purposefully introduced to induce the formation of a pearl. A \"mabe\" (irregular) pearl can be grown by the insertion of an implant, usually made of plastic, under a flap of the mantle and next to the mother-of-pearl interior of the shell. A more difficult procedure is the grafting of a piece of oyster mantle into the gonad of an adult specimen together with the insertion of a shell bead nucleus. This produces a superior, spherical pearl. The animal can be opened to extract the pearl after about two years and reseeded so that it produces another pearl. Pearl oyster farming and pearl culture is an important industry in Japan and many other countries bordering the Indian and Pacific Oceans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1140443",
"title": "Cultured pearl",
"section": "Section::::Development of a pearl.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "A pearl is formed when the mantle tissue is injured by a parasite, an attack of a fish or another event that damages the external fragile rim of the shell of a mollusk shell bivalve or gastropod. In response, the mantle tissue of the mollusk secretes nacre into the pearl sac, a cyst that forms during the healing process. Chemically speaking, this is calcium carbonate and a fibrous protein called conchiolin. As the nacre builds up in layers of minute aragonite tablets, it fills the growing pearl sac and eventually forms a pearl.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8612267",
"title": "Majorica pearl",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Majorica pearls are not formed in mollusks, but are man-made on solid glass balls coated with layers of pigmented and protective lacquers. They begin from high density dull glass with a specific weight, similar to that of real pearls. These nuclei are then dipped into a special pearly liquid, hemage, an adhesive paste made of oil and ground up fish scales or mother-of-pearl for their iridescence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17855751",
"title": "Pearl (given name)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Pearl is a primarily feminine given name derived from the English word \"pearl,\" a hard, roundish object produced within the soft tissue of a living, shelled mollusk. Pearls are commonly used in jewelry-making. The pearl is the birthstone for the month of June. Pearls have been associated with innocence and modesty. Because it comes from the sea, it also has associations with the moon and with water. Pearls are also traditionally considered appropriate jewelry for debutantes and brides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9njuwu
|
Why was property ownership a requirement for voting in early US history?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hey, this can be traced to the English traditions and views on voting rights. Though, it has to be said, we have to make a distinction between three phases: pre-Revolutionary structures, the 13 states under the Articles of Confederation and Post-US Constitution in 1789.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nPre-Revolutionary structures varied greatly between colony to colony, since each operated under its own Charter, rules and traditions. Think of them as 13 independent countries that just happen to be next to each other and share a language. Under the Articles of Confederation, this degree of political independence is also maintained, the only exceptions being military and foreign policy matters. (not that it worked anyway… ) So each one had a different electoral policy. Examples from 1763 show the variety of these requirements. Delaware expected voters to own fifty acres of land or property worth £40. Rhode Island set the limit at land valued at £40 or worth an annual rent of £2. Connecticut required land worth an annual rent of £2 or livestock worth £40.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nI assume that your question is about the Post-Constitution voting policies of 1789 so really early Federalist era. The property requirements remained in the electoral system as a holdover from the English voting traditions and views on voting rights of the 18th century. Many Founding Fathers viewed that individuals who did not posses wealth were inherently unworthy of voting because their poverty made them vulnerable to political manipulation. Only vested members who were financially responsible were immune to such populism. Likewise, they believed that women, children, African Americans and Native Americans were incapable on handling such responsibility in politics.\n\nEnglish jurist William Blackstone wrote in the 1700s that “The true reason of requiring any qualification, with regard to property, in voters, is to exclude such persons as are in so mean a situation that they are esteemed to have no will of their own. If these persons had votes, they would be tempted to dispose of them under some undue influence or other. This would give a great, an artful, or a wealthy man, a larger share in elections than is consistent with general liberty.”\n\nLikewise, John Adams affirms in 1776 that “Depend upon it, Sir, it is dangerous to open so fruitful a source of controversy and altercation as would be opened by attempting to alter the qualifications of voters; there will be no end to it. New claims will arise; women will demand the vote; lads from 12 to 21 will think their rights not enough attended to; and every man who has not a farthing, will demand an equal voice with any other, in all acts of state. It tends to confound and destroy all distinctions, and prostrate all ranks to one common level.”\n\n & #x200B;\n\nWe have to keep in mind, our Founding Father did not intend for a direct democracy, but a Representative Republic, which is a very different proposition.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nEDITED thanks to the input of [dhmontgomery](_URL_2_)\n\n**Sources:**\n\n[_URL_1_](_URL_1_)\n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_)\n\nKeyssar, Alexander. The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (2009). Basic Books, Revised Edition.\n\nMurrin, John M.; Johnson, Paul E.; McPherson, James M.; Fahs, Alice; Gerstle, Gary (2012). Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People (6th ed.). Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.\n\n & #x200B;",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "70322",
"title": "Suffrage",
"section": "Section::::History around the world.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 247,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 247,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "The Constitution did not originally define who was eligible to vote, allowing each state to decide this status. In the early history of the U.S., most states allowed only white male adult property owners to vote (about 6% of the population). By 1856 property ownership requirements were eliminated in all states, giving suffrage to most white men. However, tax-paying requirements remained in five states until 1860 and in two states until the 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1300394",
"title": "Ownership society",
"section": "Section::::Ownership and control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "There is no real originality, politically speaking, in the connection made between individual ownership of property and political stake-holding. This was an idea discussed in Europe and America in the eighteenth century. (For example, that the franchise should \"only\" be for property holders.) \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2559255",
"title": "Unreformed House of Commons",
"section": "Section::::Composition of the House.:English borough members.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "The franchise for borough seats varied enormously. In some boroughs, virtually all adult homeowners could vote. In others, only a handful of landowners could vote. In still others, no-one could vote and the borough's members were chosen by its corporation (council), which was usually elected by a small group of property-owners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "372347",
"title": "Jacksonian democracy",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.:Election by the \"common man\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 939,
"text": "An important movement in the period from 1800 to 1830—before the Jacksonians were organized—was the gradual expansion of the right to vote from only property owning men to include all white men over 21. Older states with property restrictions dropped them, namely all but Rhode Island, Virginia and North Carolina by the mid 1820s. No new states had property qualifications although three had adopted tax-paying qualifications—Ohio, Louisiana and Mississippi, of which only in Louisiana were these significant and long lasting. The process was peaceful and widely supported, except in the state of Rhode Island. In Rhode Island, the Dorr Rebellion of the 1840s demonstrated that the demand for equal suffrage was broad and strong, although the subsequent reform included a significant property requirement for any resident born outside of the United States. However, free black men lost voting rights in several states during this period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "367477",
"title": "City of London Corporation",
"section": "Section::::Elections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "Therefore, the non-residential vote (or business vote), abolished in the rest of the country in 1969, became an increasingly large part of the electorate. The non-residential vote system used disfavoured incorporated companies. The City of London (Ward Elections) Act 2002 greatly increased the business franchise, allowing many more businesses to be represented. In 2009, the business vote was about 24,000, greatly exceeding residential voters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10330429",
"title": "History of voting in New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Key developments for voting in New Zealand.:Abolition of the property requirement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "After considerable controversy, Parliament decided in 1879 to remove the requirement of property ownership. This allowed anyone who met the other qualifications to participate in the electoral process. As the restrictions on suffrage in New Zealand excluded fewer voters than in many other countries, this change did not have the same effect as it would have had in (for example) Britain, but it nevertheless proved significant. In particular, it eventually gave rise to \"working class\" politicians, and eventually (in 1916) to the Labour Party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "70322",
"title": "Suffrage",
"section": "Section::::Basis of exclusion from suffrage.:Wealth, tax class, social class.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Until the nineteenth century, many Western proto-democracies had property qualifications in their electoral laws; e.g. only landowners could vote (because the only tax for such countries was the property tax), or the voting rights were weighted according to the amount of taxes paid (as in the Prussian three-class franchise). Most countries abolished the property qualification for national elections in the late nineteenth century, but retained it for local government elections for several decades. Today these laws have largely been abolished, although the homeless may not be able to register because they lack regular addresses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
sq3l1
|
Why do I sink faster in water than others?
|
[
{
"answer": "Buoyancy in water is all about water displacement.\n\nGenerally the fatter you are the easier it is to float. If you are more muscular with very little fat then you will sink. This is why it takes a toll on you. You have to work to stay afloat where others can do little to no work for the same effect.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My first question was going to be whether you've ever broken a bone. I saw an article posted here on reddit about a guy with the same issue and it turned out he had a condition that gave him very dense, strong, heavy bones. Look it up. I can't remember what it's called.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "410821",
"title": "Quicksand",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "A human is unlikely to sink entirely into quicksand due to the higher density of the fluid (assuming the quicksand is on dry ground and not under water, but even if underwater, sinking is still improbable). Quicksand has a density of about 2 grams per milliliter, whereas the density of the human body is only about 1 gram per milliliter. At that level of density, sinking beyond about waist height in quicksand is impossible. Even objects with a higher density than quicksand will float on it if stationary. Aluminum, for example, has a density of about 2.7 grams per milliliter, but a piece of aluminum will float on top of quicksand until motion causes the sand to liquefy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "313944",
"title": "Circular reasoning",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "'Whatever is less dense than water will float, because whatever is less dense than water will float' sounds stupid, but 'Whatever is less dense than water will float, because such objects won't sink in water' might pass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27999",
"title": "Swimming",
"section": "Section::::Science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Since the human body is only slightly less dense than water, water supports the weight of the body during swimming. As a result, swimming is “low-impact” compared to land activities such as running. The density and viscosity of water also create resistance for objects moving through the water. Swimming strokes use this resistance to create propulsion, but this same resistance also generates drag on the body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33787457",
"title": "S6 (classification)",
"section": "Section::::Disability groups.:Cerebral palsy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Because of their balance issues, swimmers in this class can find the starting block problematic and often have slower times entering the water than other competitors in their class. Because the disability of swimmers in this class involves in a loss of function in specific parts of their body, they are more prone to injury than their able-bodied counterparts as a result of overcompensation in other parts of their body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "410821",
"title": "Quicksand",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Continued or panicked movement, however, may cause a person to sink further in the quicksand. Since this increasingly impairs movement, it can lead to a situation where other factors such as weather exposure, dehydration, hypothermia, tides or predators may harm a trapped person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1024848",
"title": "Slack water",
"section": "Section::::Implications for seafarers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "For any vessel, a favourable flow will improve the vessel's speed over the bottom for a given speed in the water. Difficult channels are also more safely navigated during slack water, as any flow may set a vessel out of a channel and into danger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "496877",
"title": "Distance line",
"section": "Section::::Procedures.:Laying line.:Line routing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "The bottom is often easy to follow by eye and often has suitable tie-off points, but sometimes swimming close to it may cause silting, and it may result in a higher inert gas loading and higher gas consumption than an alternative route.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1x8zad
|
why are gay pride and black pride encouraged while straight pride and white pride are considered as racist ?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because they are currently minorities being mistreated in many places including the US. The vast majority of Americans are pro-straight and the largest demographic of people in the mid to higher class are white. There would be no point of holding straight or white power movements as neither demographics are in need of equality or more power at further expense to the groups who are already oppressed and/or mistreated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've always found 'pride' to be a shit word for this sort of thing. 'Not-shame' would be more accurate, but there's no good word for that. \n\nBasically in the past and to a degree in the present homosexuals and black people in the United States, amongst other groups, have been subjected to prejudice against them for their romatic attractions and/or heritage. The 'gay pride' or other such events are meant to simply say \"We're not going to be ashamed of who we are because people did, and some people still do, have problems with us for reasons totally unrelated to who we really are. We're not going to give in to racism or anything.\"\n\nIn the USA at least your average straight white person doesn't belong to any group that's been subject to such in the past so it makes no sense to refuse to be ashamed like society has and to a degree still does expect you to be for being white and straight because... well because nobody has been picking on that demographic.\n\nNow maybe white pride would be fine if it was just a bunch of Scots and Germans enjoying their traditional foods and all, but there's also the fact 'white pride' as a term has largely been used by white supremacist organizations so it's sort of tainted by association as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because gays and blacks are minorities which have been marginalized in society for centuries. Straight and white folks don't really need \"pride\" support groups because they are heavily represented in all walks of (American) society. They make the rules, and these rules are often in place to keep minorities where they \"belong\" - in the minority. Meanwhile, there are all types of \"white\" pride that take the form of ethnic recognition. This is why people can walk around with \"Italia\" soccer jersey and no one bats an eye. Furthermore, white pride is often a ruse for white supremacy, and *that* is racist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No one considers \"straight pride\" to be a racial issue... So let's say they are called racists and/or bigots.\n\nThat is mostly because things like \"straight pride\" and \"white pride\" is proposed by racists and/or bigots. Whiners who want to crash the party being held by historically oppressed minorities of people because they feel they deserve some attention also.\n\nBut the fact is that every single day since the founding of America has been \"straight pride\" and \"white pride\" day. Straights and whites have never been oppressed by the law or social constructs.\n\nGay pride and black pride is just a way of saying \"We're now going to have a parade because the rest of you are no longer allowed to murder us if we do.\"\n\nNote that there are parades full of subsets of white people who were oppressed and abused at times. Italians, Irish, Armenians, etc. You don't see WASP parades because WASPs have never been abused in this country.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When was the last time a straight white man got lynched?\n\nSWM-\"persecution\" JAQing off is not accepted on ELI5. You can fuck right off.\n\nRemoved",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24649867",
"title": "Black gay pride",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "The Black Gay Pride movement is a movement within the United States for African American members of the LGBT community. Started in the 1990s, Black Gay Pride movements began as a way to provide black LGBT people an alternative to the largely white mainstream LGBT movement. The movement serves as a way for black LGBT people to discuss the specific issues that are unique to the black LGBT community. While the mainstream gay pride movement, often perceived as overwhelmingly white, has focused much of its energy on marriage equality, the Black Gay Pride movement has focused on issues like medicine, homophobia in their communities and housing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2337609",
"title": "Black pride",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Black pride is a movement in response to dominant white cultures and ideologies that encourages black people to celebrate black culture and embrace their African heritage. In the United States, it was a direct response to white racism especially during the Civil Rights Movement. Related movements include black power, black nationalism, Black Panthers and Afrocentrism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "827889",
"title": "White pride",
"section": "Section::::Use as an identity marker.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1183,
"text": "Political and social scientists commonly argue that the idea of \"white pride\" is an attempt to provide a clean or more palatable public face for white supremacy or white separatism and that it is an appeal to a larger audience in hopes of inciting more widespread racial violence. According to Joseph T. Roy of the Southern Poverty Law Center, white supremacists often circulate material on the internet and elsewhere that \"portrays the groups not as haters, but as simple white pride civic groups concerned with social ills\". Philosopher David Ingram argues that \"affirming 'black pride' is not equivalent to affirming 'white pride,' since the former—unlike the latter—is a defensive strategy aimed at rectifying a negative stereotype\". By contrast, then, \"affirmations of white pride—however thinly cloaked as affirmations of ethnic pride—serve to mask and perpetuate white privilege\". In the same vein, Professor of Education at University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Cris Mayo, characterizes white pride as \"a politically distasteful goal, given that whiteness is not a personal or community identity, but has been a strategy to maintain inequities of privilege and power.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32650732",
"title": "Straight pride",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Straight pride events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Support for straight pride events is often based on religious objections to homosexuality. Groups such as the White Aryan Resistance and Ku Klux Klan have also tried to oppose \"gay pride\" by stressing straight pride.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46206247",
"title": "Homophobia in ethnic minority communities",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Homophobia in the Black community.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "African Americans in general tend to have more homophobic beliefs than the rest of the country. More black Americans support the idea that queer people should be condemned, or that AIDS is an acceptable punishment for gay people. Some believe this to be attributable to the effect that conservative church going has on African Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4513269",
"title": "Human rights in Paraguay",
"section": "Section::::LGBT rights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Officially, discrimination against gays is illegal, though discrimination is widespread, and government officials often ignore the law in practice. LGBT groups operate freely, and the government issues permits and provides security for gay-pride marches. Even though the state provides security for gay-pride marches and gatherings recently these marches and gatherings have led to clashes between the police and the paraders that have accused the government of discriminating them after some homophobic statements made by Colorado and UNACE congressmen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46206247",
"title": "Homophobia in ethnic minority communities",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Homophobia in the Black community.:Homophobia and AIDS in the Black Community.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "While LGBT African Americans often face homophobia from heterosexual African Americans, they also conflict with LGBT Whites due to racism within LGBT culture. According to Margaret L. Anderson and Patricia Hill Collins, \"The linkage between race, class, and gender is revealed within studies of sexuality, just as sexuality is a dimension of each. For example, constructing images about Black sexuality is central to maintaining institutional racism\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
65gqbi
|
Are there any good books or sources to read up on the mid to late pueblo people of the mesa verde region?
|
[
{
"answer": "Unfortunately, there aren't too many good and accessible sources on Mesa Verde meant for more general consumption (as opposed to very technical archaeological material). \n\nIf you are interested in Ancestral Puebloan archaeology generally (and not just Mesa Verde), then there are three good overviews of Pueblo archaeology, any of which would be a good primer to Pueblo archaeology (including Mesa Verde). \n\nThese three are the [Cordell and McBrinn](_URL_0_) book, the [Plog](_URL_1_) book, and the [Kantner](_URL_5_) book. Any of the three is acceptable and covers more or less the same information. \n\nFor Mesa Verde specifically, unfortunately (though understandably), most of the archaeological work (including accessible books) has centered on researching the very sudden and very thorough depopulation of the Mesa Verde region around A.D. 1270, wherein nearly the entire population of the area moved southwards into the northern Rio Grande. Explaining this sudden and complete depopulation is a major topic of research in Southwestern archaeology. For this, I would recommend two books. The first, [Leaving Mesa Verde](_URL_6_), takes a very ecological and environmental approach to the problem, positing that environmental changes in the 13th century was both a stress on corn-farming agriculturalists like those that lived in Mesa Verde, but also compounded other social problems. The second book, [Winds from the North](_URL_3_), takes a very different approach to the problem by looking at linguistic, genetic, and ethnohistoric evidence from modern Pueblos in New Mexico to discuss their connection with the Mesa Verde region. \n\nI wouldn't say either is \"complete\" in the sense that both take a very specific approach to answering the issue. If you wanted to read either, I would say \"Winds from the North\" is the most accessible to a non-archaeological audience since it doesn't get as lost in the weeds of environmental reconstruction like \"Leaving Mesa Verde\", but neither was written for a popular audience (like the three overview books I linked to above). Both are also quite expensive, so check your local libraries! Might want to skim online previews before committing to one or the other. \n\nYou should also take a look at the [Crow Canyon Archaeological Center website](_URL_2_). They aren't focused exclusively on Mesa Verde (they do a lot of work on Chaco-related sites in northern New Mexico/southern Colorado), but they are focused on public outreach and making archaeological research accessible to the public. \n\nFinally, I've written a little bit about Mesa Verde before on /r/AskHistorians, in [this](_URL_4_) and [this](_URL_7_) answer. \n\nHope that helps, and happy to field any other questions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60170913",
"title": "Linda S. Cordell",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Cordell's research focused on the pre-Columbian history of the Southwestern United States. She was particularly interested in the anthropology of the Pueblo Indians, their social organization, their migration and demography and their culture (especially ceramics). In the field of archaeobotany Cordell dealt with the distribution and use of the corn plant. In addition, she wrote various books on the archaeology of the Southwest or the Pueblo Indians in general. She was also extremely active in teaching, mentorship and the representation of women in the field of archaeology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41835985",
"title": "Dowa Yalanne",
"section": "Section::::Further reading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "BULLET::::- Schroeder, Albert H. \"Pueblos Abandoned in Historic Times.\" In \"Handbook of North American Indians\", vol. 9, \"Southwest\", edited by Alfonso Ortiz, 236–254. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1979.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5781851",
"title": "Louise Abeita",
"section": "Section::::\"I am a Pueblo Indian Girl\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The book depicts the life of Abeita through prose and poetry. Themes throughout the book touch on Pueblo traditions, with illustrations by artists from NGAI complimenting her writing. This book is considered to be the first effort in the Pueblo community to document their own art and culture for non-Native viewers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277021",
"title": "Pueblo",
"section": "Section::::External links.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "BULLET::::- The SMU-in-Taos Research Publications collection contains nine anthropological and archaeological monographs and edited volumes representing decades of research, primarily on Pueblo Indian sites near Taos, New Mexico, including Papers on Taos archaeology, Taos Archeology, Picuris Pueblo through time: eight centuries of change in a northern Rio Grande pueblo and Excavations at Pot Creek Pueblo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27121822",
"title": "El Pueblo History Museum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "El Pueblo History Museum is a local history museum in Pueblo, Colorado, United States. The museum presents the history of Pueblo, together with the cultural and ethnic groups of the region. The historical site includes an 1840s-style adobe trading post and plaza and the archaeological excavation site of the original 1842 El Pueblo trading post which was listed on the US National Register of Historic Places in 1996. The facility is administered by History Colorado.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "358584",
"title": "Apache",
"section": "Section::::Bibliography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 232,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 232,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "BULLET::::- Brugge, David M. (1983). \"Navajo prehistory and history to 1850\", in A. Ortiz (Ed.), \"Handbook of North American Indians: Southwest\" (Vol. 10, pp. 489–501). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17378394",
"title": "Wirt H. Wills",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Wirt Henry Wills is an American Southwest archaeologist and a Professor of anthropology at the University of New Mexico. He has written numerous papers and books on the archaeology of the prehistoric southwest. He is most notable for investigations and excavations in or near New Mexico, including: the prehistoric site at Bat Cave in Catron County, New Mexico, the Mogollon Su site in western New Mexico and Pueblo Bonito located in Chaco Culture National Historical Park.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1rw69q
|
How did ancient archaeological sites like the Palace of Knossos and Troy (but not limited to) get buried?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most ancient cities quite honestly get torn or burned down due to accidents, conquests, or natural disasters and are subsequently built over.\n\n\nTenochtitlan was the Aztec capital. The Aztecs had built and modelled their city over the ancient ruins of Teotihuacan. After the Spanish Conquest and the fall of the Aztec Empire, the capital of New Spain was built over the foundations of the razed city. After the Mexican Revolution, the site now stands as Mexico City.\n\n\nYou listed Troy, which was rebuilt so many times due to war or fire that historians have labelled the various iterations with numbers (Troy VI, Troy VII, etc). Heinrich Schliemann infamously destroyed several layers while searching for Homeric Troy.\n\n\n_URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3289370",
"title": "Berezan Island",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "The site of the Greek colony and its necropolis have been periodically excavated since the 19th century; even though the site has suffered from erosion (and the tombs also from looting), the digs produced rich findings (archaic ceramics, inscriptions, etc.).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57923783",
"title": "Spathes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Among the first archaeological sites discovered in Mount Olympus was the excavation site Spathes (Greek Σπάθες, swords). It is a necropolis from the Late Bronze Age. The oldest tombs are from the 14th century BC, the last traces of the use were found from the end of the 13th century, the beginning of the 12th century BC. The settlement, associated with the necropolis, has not been found. Many of the burial offerings were made in the Mycenaean style, so that the Mycenaean cultural circle probably also (see also History and archaeology Pierias) extended over the border of Thessaly to Pieria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "951940",
"title": "History of archaeology",
"section": "Section::::Development of archaeological method.:Professionalisation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "The first stratigraphic excavation to reach wide popularity with the public was that of Hissarlik, on the site of ancient Troy, carried out by Heinrich Schliemann, Frank Calvert, Wilhelm Dörpfeld and Carl Blegen in the 1870s. These scholars distinguished nine successive cities, from prehistory to the Hellenistic period. Their work has been criticized as rough and damaging — Kenneth W. Harl wrote that Schliemann's excavations were carried out with such rough methods that he did to Troy what the Greeks couldn't do in their times, destroying and levelling down the entire city walls to the ground.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30059",
"title": "Troy",
"section": "Section::::Historical Troy uncovered.:Troy VI and VII.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "Also, discovered in 1890, in this layer of Troy VI was Mycenaean pottery. This pottery suggests that during Troy IV, the Trojans still had trade with the Greeks and the Aegean. Furthermore, there were cremation burials discovered 400m south of the citadel wall. This provided evidence of a small lower city south of the Hellenistic city walls. Although the size of this city is unknown due to erosion and regular building activities, there is significant evidence that was uncovered by Blegen in 1953 during an excavation of the site. This evidence included settlements just above bedrock and a ditch thought to be used for defense. Furthermore, the small settlement itself, south of the wall, could have also been used as an obstacle to defend the main city walls and the citadel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60371932",
"title": "Troy Museum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "The Troy Museum ( or \"Truva Müzesi\") is an archaeological museum located close to the archaeological site of the ancient Greek city of Troy, in northwestern Turkey. Opened in 2018, it exhibits in seven sections of a contemporary architectural building the historical artefacts from Troy and some other ancient cities around and on nearby islands. The museum director is Ali Atmaca.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2262961",
"title": "Hisarlik",
"section": "Section::::Archaeological excavation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "An alternative site, Hisarlik tell, a thirty-meter-high mound, was identified as a possible site of ancient Troy by a number of amateur archaeologists in the early to mid 19th century. The most dedicated of these was Frank Calvert, whose early work was overshadowed by the German amateur archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann in the 1870s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30059",
"title": "Troy",
"section": "Section::::Historical Troy uncovered.:Troy VI and VII.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "The topic still under debate is whether Troy was primarily an Anatolian-oriented or Aegean-oriented metropolis. While it is true that the city would have had a presence in the Aegean, pottery finds and architecture strongly hint at an Anatolian orientation. Only about one percent of the pottery discovered during excavation of Troy VI was Mycenaean. The large walls and gates of the city are closely related to many other Anatolian designs. Furthermore, the practice of cremation is Anatolian. Cremation is never seen in the Mycenaean world. Anatolian hieroglyphic writing along with bronze seals marked with Anatolian hieroglyphic Luwian were also uncovered in 1995. These seals have been seen in approximately 20 other Anatolian and Syrian cities from the time (1280 - 1175 BC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ja0yf
|
why do leaves turn yellow and wither during fall?
|
[
{
"answer": "During winter, there is not enough light or water for photosynthesis. The trees will rest, and live off the food they stored during the summer. They begin to shut down their food-making factories. The green chlorophyll disappears from the leaves. They then slowly begin to become waste products of the tree and turn from green to yellow/brown.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18973622",
"title": "Leaf",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.:Seasonal leaf loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "Leaves in temperate, boreal, and seasonally dry zones may be seasonally deciduous (falling off or dying for the inclement season). This mechanism to shed leaves is called abscission. When the leaf is shed, it leaves a leaf scar on the twig. In cold autumns, they sometimes change color, and turn yellow, bright-orange, or red, as various accessory pigments (carotenoids and xanthophylls) are revealed when the tree responds to cold and reduced sunlight by curtailing chlorophyll production. Red anthocyanin pigments are now thought to be produced in the leaf as it dies, possibly to mask the yellow hue left when the chlorophyll is lost—yellow leaves appear to attract herbivores such as aphids. Optical masking of chlorophyll by anthocyanins reduces risk of photo-oxidative damage to leaf cells as they senesce, which otherwise may lower the efficiency of nutrient retrieval from senescing autumn leaves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56941462",
"title": "Liquidambar acalycina",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "The leaves start as a burgundy color when they first emerge in the spring but as they grow and mature into summer, they turn into a deep green which indicates their increasing ability to photosynthesize. When nearing fall the colors turn back into a red to purple color.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "990894",
"title": "Miombo",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Characteristically the trees shed their leaves for a short period in the dry season to reduce water loss, and produce a flush of new leaves just before the onset of the rainy season with rich gold and red colours masking the underlying chlorophyll, reminiscent of temperate autumn colours. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "576155",
"title": "Chromoplast",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "When leaves change color in the autumn, it is due to the loss of green chlorophyll, which unmasks preexisting carotenoids. In this case, relatively little new carotenoid is produced—the change in plastid pigments associated with leaf senescence is somewhat different from the active conversion to chromoplasts observed in fruit and flowers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "230878",
"title": "Armidale, New South Wales",
"section": "Section::::Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "As the leaves turn yellow and fall, day temperatures are mostly still warm, particularly in March and April. Days are sunny, the thunderstorm season is over, and rain becomes more sporadic. Nights become colder, and residents often awake to a thick fog blanketing the Armidale valley, but by 9 am fogs have cleared to be followed by a bright sunny day. The year's first frosts usually occur in April, but they are not severe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5404775",
"title": "Nandina",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "The young leaves in spring are brightly coloured pink to red before turning green; old leaves turn red or purple again before falling. Its petiolate leaves are 50–100 cm long, compound (two or three pinnacles) with leaflets, elliptical to ovate or lanceolate and of entire margins, 2–10 cm long by 0.5–2 cm wide, with petioles swollen at their bases. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4481039",
"title": "Catalpa speciosa",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "The leaves are deciduous, opposite (or whorled), large, heart shaped, 20–30 cm long and 15–20 cm broad, pointed at the tip and softly hairy beneath. The leaves generally do not color in autumn before falling, instead, they either fall abruptly after the first hard freeze, or turn a slightly yellow-brown before dropping off. The catalpa tree is the last tree to grow leaves in the spring. The winter twigs of northern catalpa are like those of few other trees, having sunken leaf scars that resemble suction cups. Their whorled arrangement (three scars per node) around the twigs is another diagnostic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5x9x3i
|
why are americans saying special words for school years, like "sophomore"?
|
[
{
"answer": "As an Aussie who hasn't quite grasped this slsng, does sophomore come between freshman and senior? What's the hierarchy?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "in high school, 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th grade are used synonymously with freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior (respectively). in university, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th year are associated with these terms.\n\nthese terms are used both in high school and college/university and are uncommon outside of the US. canadians typically use grades 9-12, and they'll use first-fourth year (or further, if they've taken extra credits) for university.\n\na freshman means someone who is new, or a novice. it's a slang term that eventually became official. how it became official? it's unknown but it's likely that because these terms were in use for so long, they started being used in official capacity.\n\nsophomore comes from greek, meaning sophos (think 'philosophy) meaning wise, and moros (think 'moron'). something that is sophomoric, is something that it thought to be a good idea but isn't at all. basically a beginner mistake. why sophomore is used for 2nd year or 10th grade specifically? again: we don't know. it may be that the term was a denigrating term used by juniors and seniors. \n\njunior and senior are upperclassman levels. upperclassmen are people who have been in the school system longer, and may have been a subjective term in the past. now, it's fixed. a junior is a 'junior upperclassman', meaning they're a younger upperclassman. a senior is a 'senior upperclassman', meaning they're an older upperclassman.\n\nso... why these terms instead of year 1, 2, 3, and 4?\n\nin high school and university, one's 'year of study' is not denoted by how many years they've been in the system. it's denoted by how many credits they have toward graduation. this may be an explanation for why 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th year are not as commonly used: their year of study does not adequately describe how many credits (or years of study) they have to graduate. it's not a perfect explanation, though, but it's the best non-etymological one i can think of.\n\nto make things more confusing, there are multiple types of freshmen, sophomores, juniors and seniors. there are 'redshirt freshmen', who are in their 2nd year of study but play a sport at a freshman level. there are '5th year seniors' (or further on such as 6th year, often called 'super seniors') which are a result of the above paragraph: people which not enough credits to graduate but have been in the program for longer than 4 years. 4th year juniors are often a result of redshirting one's freshman year (or delaying eligibility to play a college sport while still enrolling in the school)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "These English terms originated during the Renaissance at Cambridge University, which had a three-year course of study. \n\nAs other answers have pointed out, *freshman* is a compound that means \"new man\", \"novice\". At that time, the upperclassmen were split into *junior sophisters* (\"lesser\", \"secondary\") and *senior sophisters* (\"superior\", \"greater\", \"primary\"). *Sophister* is derived from the Greek *sophos* meaning \"wise\", and in that time meant \"arguer\" or \"debater\".\n\nIn the 1600s, a fourth designation came into use: *sophumer*, which was a synonym for *sophister*, derived from French instead of directly from the Greek (Think *regal* vs. *royal*). This term denoted advanced underclassmen, but at the time was not a separate year of study. Over time, and probably in America first, *sophumer* became *sophomore*.\n\nJohn Harvard, the founder of the university that bears his name, encountered the categories during his study at Cambridge and brought them over to Cambridge, Mass. in the 1630s. Being used at Harvard, they spread to other American universities and came into use in high schools in the early twentieth century.\n\nSource: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cambridge!\n\nIn or before 1688, Cambridge University used a ranking system for students to help professors keep track of student progress: Fresh Man, Sophmore, Junior Sophister, Senior Sophister. These terms relate to the Greek \"Sophos\" meaning knowledge and were meant to reflect the amount of knowledge the student possesses.\n\nEvery major English-speaking University copied this in some form or another. It is why we now consider 4 years necessary to obtain a bachelors degree. The actual names of each rank varied from campus to campus. Importantly the names used at Harvard University were \"Freshman, Sophomore, Junior Soph, Senior Soph.\" Sometime before 1800 \"soph\" was dropped from the upperclassmen titles. \n\nIn the 19th century the US greatly expanded its high school and university offerings. With many founders educated at Harvard, their system was exported across the US.\n\nSo the question should be, why did the British Empire stop using these terms? The answer is Empire. The older Universities in Scotland and Ireland adopted the 4 year system but, because they were not founded by Cambridge alumni, they adopted their own ranking terms. At St. Andrews University, for example, the ranks were bejaune, semi-bejaune, tertiand, and magistrate. As the U.K. sought to standardize education throughout its territory, it sought to not impose one campus culture on another, instead going with very clinical 1st-4th year. \n\nThe U.K. Terminology translates easily and is unambiguous even in the US, so it should be used in most cases. \n\nTL;DR - Frontier principals had ~~dilutions~~ delusions of grandeur.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We got the terms from the UK who used them to refer to Years at University. They were first used by Cambridge I believe. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thanks OP, for asking. I've always wondered what these terms meant but never really bothered to find out. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As said in other posts, the upperclassmen were split into the junior and senior sophisters. Eventually they split the underclassmen into two groups as well. The moronic freshman that had passed their first year would now be called sophomores, a combination of sophos (knowledge) and moros (moron, fool). So freshmen are morons and sophomores are knowledgeable morons. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2011",
"title": "Comparison of American and British English",
"section": "Section::::Vocabulary.:Social and cultural differences.:Education.:General terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 1855,
"text": "Among high-school and college students in the United States, the words \"freshman\" (or the gender-neutral terms \"frosh\" or \"first year\", sometimes \"freshie\"), \"sophomore\", \"junior\" and \"senior\" refer to the first, second, third, and fourth years respectively. For first-year students, \"frosh\" and \"freshie\" are another gender-neutral terms that can be used as a qualifier, for example \"Frosh class elections\". It is important that the context of either high school or college first be established or else it must be stated directly (that is, \"She is a high school freshman\". \"He is a college junior.\"). Many institutes in both countries also use the term \"first-year\" as a gender-neutral replacement for \"freshman\", although in the US this is recent usage, formerly referring only to those in the first year as a graduate student. One exception is the University of Virginia; since its founding in 1819 the terms \"first-year\", \"second-year\", \"third-year\", and \"fourth-year\" have been used to describe undergraduate university students. At the United States service academies, at least those operated by the federal government directly, a different terminology is used, namely \"fourth class\", \"third class\", \"second class\" and \"first class\" (the order of numbering being the reverse of the number of years in attendance). In the UK first-year university students are sometimes called \"freshers\" early in the academic year; however, there are no specific names for those in other years nor for school pupils. Graduate and professional students in the United States are known by their year of study, such as a \"second-year medical student\" or a \"fifth-year doctoral candidate.\" Law students are often referred to as \"1L\", \"2L\", or \"3L\" rather than \"nth-year law students\"; similarly, medical students are frequently referred to as \"M1\", \"M2\", \"M3\", or \"M4\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4790944",
"title": "Student orientation",
"section": "Section::::Around the world.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "\"Freshmen\" is the traditional term for first-year students arriving at school in the United States, but the slang term 'frosh' is also used. Due to the perceived gender exclusiveness of the term, some institutions including the University of North Carolina have adopted \"first-year student\" as the preferred nomenclature. Lasting between a few days and a week, the orientation is these students' informal introduction and inauguration to the institution. Typically, the first-year students are led by fellow students from upper years over the course of the week through various events ranging from campus tours, games, competitions, and field trips. At smaller liberal arts colleges, the faculty may also play a central role in orientation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155526",
"title": "Student",
"section": "Section::::Other terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "BULLET::::- The United States military academies officially use only numerical terms, but there are colloquial expressions used in everyday speech. In order from first year to fourth year, students are referred to as \"fourth-class\", \"third-class\", \"second-class\", and \"first-class\" cadets or midshipmen. Unofficially, other terms are used, for example at the United States Military Academy, freshmen are called \"plebes\", sophomores are called \"yearlings\" or \"yuks\", juniors are called \"cows\", and seniors are called \"firsties\". Some universities also use numerical terms to identify classes; students enter as \"first-years\" and graduate as \"fourth-years\" (or, in some cases, \"fifth-years\", \"sixth-years\", etc.).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2011",
"title": "Comparison of American and British English",
"section": "Section::::Vocabulary.:Social and cultural differences.:Education.:General terms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 987,
"text": "There is additionally a difference between American and British usage in the word \"school\". In British usage \"school\" by itself refers only to primary (elementary) and secondary (high) schools and to \"sixth forms\" attached to secondary schools—if one \"goes to school\", this type of institution is implied. By contrast an American student at a university may talk of \"going to school\" or \"being in school\". US and British law students and medical students commonly speak in terms of going to \"law school\" and \"med[ical] school\", respectively. However, the word is used in BrE in the context of higher education to describe a division grouping together several related subjects within a university, for example a \"School of European Languages\" containing \"departments\" for each language and also in the term \"art school\". It is also the name of some of the constituent colleges of the University of London, for example, School of Oriental and African Studies, London School of Economics. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53183",
"title": "New school hip hop",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "The terms \"old school\" and \"new school\" have fallen more and more into the common vernacular as synonyms for \"old\" and \"new\" and are often applied in this conversational way to hip hop, to the confusion and occasional exasperation of writers who use the terms historically. The phrase \"leader of the new school\", coined in hip hop by Chuck D in 1988, and presumably given further currency by the group with the exact name Leaders of the New School (who were named by Chuck D prior to signing with Elektra in 1989), remains popular. It has been applied to artists ranging from Jay-Z to Lupe Fiasco.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6340",
"title": "Canadian English",
"section": "Section::::Vocabulary.:Education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "In the U.S., the four years of high school are termed the freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior years (terms also used for college years); in Canada, the specific levels are used instead (i.e., \"grade nine\"). As for higher education, only the term \"freshman\" (often reduced to \"frosh\") has some currency in Canada. The American usages \"sophomore\", \"junior\" and \"senior\" are not used in Canadian university terminology, or in speech. The specific high-school grades and university years are therefore stated and individualized; for example, \"the grade 12s failed to graduate\"; \"John is in his second year at McMaster\". The \"first year\", \"third year\" designation also applies to Canadian law school students, as opposed to the common American usage of \"1L\", \"2L\" and \"3L\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155526",
"title": "Student",
"section": "Section::::Idiomatic use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 1045,
"text": "\"Freshman\" and \"sophomore\" are sometimes used figuratively, almost exclusively in the United States, to refer to a first or second effort (\"the singer's \"sophomore\" album\"), or to a politician's first or second term in office (\"freshman senator\") or an athlete's first or second year on a professional sports team. \"Junior\" and \"senior\" are not used in this figurative way to refer to third and fourth years or efforts, because of those words' broader meanings of \"younger\" and \"older.\" A junior senator is therefore not one who is in a third term of office, but merely one who has not been in the Senate as long as the other senator from their state. Confusingly, this means that it is possible to be both a \"freshman Senator\" and a \"senior Senator\" simultaneously: for example, if a Senator wins election in 2008, and then the other Senator from the same state steps down and a new Senator elected in 2010, the former Senator is both senior Senator (as in the Senate for two years more) and a freshman Senator (since still in the first term).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
cjbgub
|
when drawing straws, are you more likely to get the short straw if you pick first, or after several people have already picked?
|
[
{
"answer": "At the start, before anyone has picked, everyone has an equal chance of getting the short straw.\n\nBut as people pick and reveal their straw the probability changes now you know more information. If you're last and no one has drawn the short straw yet then obviously you have a 100% chance of getting it yourself. All the other possibilities have been ruled out by this point. \n\nOn the flip side of this, you only have a 1 in < number of people > chance of getting to your turn with no one else having got it yet. So overall the probability is the same whether you pick first or last.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It does not matter. Say there is 5 straws. The first one to pick have a 20% chance of picking the shortest one. Now there is 4 straws so the next person have a 25% chance of picking the shortest one. However that is assuming the first person did not already pick the short straw. And there is an 80% chance that he did not. And 80% of 25% is 20% which is exactly the same chance as the first one had. This is true for everyone involved. The last person have an 80% chance that someone already picked the shortest straw so even if he have a 100% chance of picking the shortest straw if that remains that is only a 20% chance.\n\nYou can think of the situation differently. What if instead of straws there was sealed envelopes. The order in which you pick your envelope does not matter as everyone is left with an envelope that might be the special one. The fact that you open the envelope just after you have picked it or after everyone have picked does not change its contents.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Neither, if it is a fair game (truly random, no cheating) each player has the same chance. \n\nMore info from a quick search:\nSay you’ve got N peeps (people). The first person to draw a straw is the least likely to draw the short one (1/N) and the last to draw is the most likely (1/2). However! While the later people are more likely to draw the short straw, they’re also less likely to pull any straw since it’s more likely that the short straw has already been drawn. In movies they almost always draw every straw because of drama, but in practice, you draw until the short one shows up and then you stop.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It doesn't matter.\n\nThe easiest way to think about this is that everyone who hasn't already picked a straw has an equal chance of picking the short straw; the straw, after all, doesn't care who picks it. It's a straw. Straws are, notoriously, indifferent to people.\n\nSo say you've got five people deciding. Everyone has a 20% chance of pulling the short straw and ending the game. Person A pulls the straw, and success! Long straw. He's safe. The game continues.\n\nNow you've got a situation where there are four straws available, one of which is short. Everyone else has a 25% chance of pulling the short straw... but remember, there's already been one round, which means there's already a certain number of possible outcomes that have been taken off the board. (For example, if Person A pulls the short straw, there *is* no second round.) The odds of the game going to a second round is 80% (that is, the odds that Person A doesn't pull the short straw). **Your overall odds, then, are 25% of that 80%... or, put another way, 20%.**\n\nYou can go down and down and down through the various [probability trees](_URL_0_) of how the game might play itself out, but you'll find that each person's odds of picking a straw is 20% in any given round, *if* you don't know the status of the straws pulled before.\n\nThat's why it's functionally equivalent to have everyone pull the straws one by one, or to have them pull the straws at the same time. The only difference is in how tense it gets when it's down to two and you haven't decided who's paying for the pizza yet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As another response already pointed out, if the straw is pulled at any point, you are now guaranteed to NOT get the straw. Odds of getting the straw at the start of the pulling is 1 in how many straws exist. Odds of getting the straw if you go just prior to the final person are 50/50. But, that 50/50 is offset by the chances of not having to even bother pulling because the straw was already taken by someone else.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSince they illustrated with 4, I will illustrate with a prime number instead:\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSay there are 7 people pulling at 7 straws:\n\n* First man up: Chances to get the straw: 14%. Chances someone already got the straw: 0%. Net chances to pull the straw: 14% of 100%, or 14%.\n* Second man up: Chances to get the straw: 17%. Chances someone already got the straw: 14%. Net chances to pull the straw: 17% of 86%, or 14%.\n* Third man up: Chances to get the straw: 20%. Chances someone already got the straw: 29%. Net chances to pull the straw: 20% of 71%, or 14%.\n* Fourth man up: Chances to get the straw: 25%. Chances someone already got the straw: 43%. Net chances to pull the straw: 25% of 56%, or 14%.\n* Fifth man up: Chances to get the straw: 33%. Chances someone already got the straw: 57%. Net chances to pull the straw: 33% of 43%, or 14%.\n* Sixth man up: Chances to get the straw: 50%. Chances someone already got the straw: 71%. Net chances to pull the straw: 50% of 29%, or 14%.\n* Final man: Chances to get the straw: 100%. Chances someone already got the straw: 86%. Net chances to pull the straw: 100% of 14%, or 14%.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIt works out that the odds for each person to get the straw are 14% (multiple their odds for that draw by their odds to have to draw at all).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think a lot of what's making this tougher to ELI5 has to do with the fact that the game stops when someone picks the short straw and the fact that one of the straws is \"different\". That brings in a bunch of math that we can do without.\n\n & nbsp;\n\nIt's far easier if we start with an identical, but simpler game:\n\nAll of the straws are different colors. There's a sealed envelope that contains the name of one of the colors, chosen at random. Each person picks a straw, one after the other.\n\nNow the envelope is opened, and whoever has the straw of that color is the loser.\n\nIt should be clear that this is the same game - you can think of the straw that matches the envelope as the \"short straw\". But it may not be clear whether or not this game is \"fair\" or if the order matters. That's okay.\n\n & nbsp;\n\nNow let's change it just a little bit. This time, everyone picks their colored straw, but the color for the envelope isn't picked until after everyone has chosen. It is still picked in a fair and random way, but we just wait until after the straws to do it.\n\nIt should still be clear that the game is the same as the last one I described. It doesn't matter whether the random color is chosen before or after the straws are chosen. Choosing the random color is unrelated to the players choosing straws.\n\nBut this game should be very simple to analyze: each player has an equal chance of having their color chosen. So each player has the same chance of getting the short straw.\n\n & nbsp;\n\nSince the second game I described is equivalent to the first, and the first game I described is equivalent to drawing for the short straw, we can see that drawing for the short straw is indeed fair, and doesn't depend on what order you go in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29181459",
"title": "Bedding (animals)",
"section": "Section::::Types of bedding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Straw is a soft, dry stalks containing small grains such as barley, oats, rice, rye, and wheat. Straw is easy to handle and available in most agricultural areas. When deciding to use straw, is imperative to make sure that the straw is not palatable. To do this, the seed must be checked to ensure it is not available for consumption. Straw has excellent absorbency and is unlikely to mold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36233707",
"title": "Calcite rafts",
"section": "Section::::Concrete leachate drops.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Internal water pulses from the straw (into the drop) and air movement around the suspended solution drop, can cause the rafts to spin swiftly around the drop surface. If there is almost no air movement around the suspended drop, then after approximately 12 minutes or more, the micro rafts may join up and form a latticework, which covers the entire drop surface. If the solution drop hangs too long on the straw (≈ 30 minutes), it may completely calcify over and block the calthemite straw tip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "323713",
"title": "Drawing straws",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Drawing straws is a selection method, or a form of sortition, that is used by a group to choose one member of the group to perform a task after none has volunteered for it. The same practice can be used also to choose one of several volunteers, should an agreement not be reached. It is a form of the practice of drawing lots, only using straws instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46594",
"title": "Straw",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Straw is usually gathered and stored in a straw bale, which is a bale, or bundle, of straw tightly bound with twine or wire. Straw bales may be square, rectangular, or round, and can be very large, depending on the type of baler used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34045031",
"title": "Straw (cryogenic storage)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Ideally such straws should be made of a material that is chemically inert, biocompatible and have physical characteristics that make them resistant to ultra-low temperatures and pressures created by their storage conditions, resulting in the expansion of liquids and liquid nitrogen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "247388",
"title": "Combine harvester",
"section": "Section::::The threshing process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "When the straw reaches the end of the walkers it falls out the rear of the combine. It can then be baled for cattle bedding or spread by two rotating straw spreaders with rubber arms. Most modern combines are equipped with a straw spreader.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46193",
"title": "Threshing machine",
"section": "Section::::Modern developments.:In Europe and Americas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "Whilst the majority of the grain falls through the concave, the straw is carried by a set of \"walkers\" to the rear of the machine, allowing any grain and chaff still in the straw to fall below. Below the straw walkers, a fan blows a stream of air across the grain, removing dust and fines and blowing them away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2kp3py
|
Is it possible to ever encounter plastic in nature that wasn't made by humans?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not in the strictest sense, as most definitions I have seen for plastic specifically use the words synthetic or man-made. As such a non-manmade plastic is impossible.\n\nHowever plastics are really just polymers, long chain molecules that are usually organic (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, maybe a few heavier elements). There are tons of those in nature, you are probably touching a couple right now. Cellulose and starch are good examples, glucose polymers that are in almost every plant. Spider silk, DNA, and proteins are all polymers too. They usually don't look like what we think about when we say plastic but they have the appropriate properties and structures.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To my knowledge, amber is pretty close to being composed of the same sort of molecules (polymers) as \"plastic\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Amber comes to mind, It's polymerized tree resin. It seems pretty darn close to plastic but I'm far from an expert on the topic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Squid have a structure called a gladius that is very similar. Transparent and flexible, that is used to make the body rigid. But it is chitin, so not exactly plastic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would say that chitin is semi close to a plastic. [Here](_URL_0_) is an interesting article",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a bee (Colletes inaequalis) in my area that lines its nest with polyester. Info herehttp://_URL_1_ and _URL_0_. Not quite what you are asking about but pretty cool.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No, but horn, ivory, nacre, chitin, lignin, cellulose and some hemicelluloses have similar functions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Natural rubber,](_URL_0_) from both *Hevea* as well as *Guayule.*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Linseed oil and some other natural oils are used to make paint and protect wood because they will naturally polymerize under easily achieved conditions (heat, oxygen). I think this would meet most of the common expectations for a plastic: it's a polymer, it's hard and fairly durable, not easily soluble. Linoleum, for example, is basically linseed oil plus a bunch of fibrous material, though it has some other chemicals added to help it harden.\n\nI'm not sure what non-human process would extract a bunch of plant oil and then leave it alone in the air long enough to harden, but it could happen I suppose.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Plastics such rubber and latex both come from the same tree and is still how we produce most of the world's supply. The most common plastics you're thinking of like milk jugs, PVC piping, and plastic bottles are sythetic polymers and are made from petroleum oil which is extracted from the ground. These types of plastics could never be formed by nature. Even bio-plastics such as PLA which is used for 3D printing and is based from cornstarch requires heavy refining.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37201518",
"title": "Plastic pollution",
"section": "Section::::Types of plastic debris.:Microdebris.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 929,
"text": "A 2004 study by Richard Thompson from the University of Plymouth, UK, found a great amount of microdebris on the beaches and waters in Europe, the Americas, Australia, Africa, and Antarctica. Thompson and his associates found that plastic pellets from both domestic and industrial sources were being broken down into much smaller plastic pieces, some having a diameter smaller than human hair. If not ingested, this microdebris floats instead of being absorbed into the marine environment. Thompson predicts there may be 300,000 plastic items/km of sea surface and 100,000 plastic particles/km of seabed. International pellet watch collected samples of polythene pellets from 30 beaches from 17 countries which were then analysed for organic micro-pollutants. It was found that pellets found on beaches in America, Vietnam and southern Africa contained compounds from pesticides suggesting a high use of pesticides in the areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41087446",
"title": "Plastisphere",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Some of the organisms are thought to accelerate the biodegradation of plastic materials into potentially hazardous chemicals. This could be potentially advantageous though, as scientists may be able to utilize the microbes to break down plastic that would otherwise remain intact longer. On the other hand, as plastic is broken down into smaller pieces and eventually microplastics, there is a higher likelihood that it will be consumed by plankton and enter into the food chain. As plankton are eaten by larger organisms, the plastic may eventually accumulate in fish eaten by humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1831174",
"title": "Plastic wrap",
"section": "Section::::Food use.:Environmental concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "The accumulation of plastic debris on the Earth threatens both wildlife and the environment. Plastic debris might choke or trap wildlife, and it could also penetrate toxic compounds into ecosystems. This land-originated problem has become a problem in ocean ecosystem as well since streams and rivers which are close to the land have carried the plastic debris into the coast, and currents transfer it to everywhere in the ocean. Plastic debris is a potential danger to all forms of aquatic life. Some marine species, like sea turtles, take plastic as prey items by mistake. Besides, some species might even pick up plastics and feed their offspring, which cause huge problems on growth and even cause mortality. Toxic compounds in plastics can disrupt hormone regulation in the cells of organisms, which can lead to alteration of animals’ mating behavior, reproductive ability, and even cause the development of tumors. Plastic debris could be a big threat to lives in the ocean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37201518",
"title": "Plastic pollution",
"section": "Section::::Effects on the environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "The distribution of plastic debris is highly variable as a result of certain factors such as wind and ocean currents, coastline geography, urban areas, and trade routes. Human population in certain areas also plays a large role in this. Plastics are more likely to be found in enclosed regions such as the Caribbean. It serves as a means of distribution of organisms to remote coasts that are not their native environments. This could potentially increase the variability and dispersal of organisms in specific areas that are less biologically diverse. Plastics can also be used as vectors for chemical contaminants such as persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27265528",
"title": "Microplastics",
"section": "Section::::Potential effects on the environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "So far, research has mainly focused on larger plastic items. Widely-recognized problems facing marine life are entanglement, ingestion, suffocation and general debilitation often leading to death and/or strandings. This causes serious public concern. In contrast, microplastics are not as conspicuous, being less than 5 mm, and are usually invisible to the naked eye. Particles of this size are available to a much broader range of species, enter the food chain at the bottom, become embedded in animal tissue, and are then undetectable by unaided visual inspection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14087516",
"title": "Wrack zone",
"section": "Section::::Human impacts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Manmade objects are often washed ashore in the wrack zone, posing a threat to coastal animals. Plastics in particular are the most common form of litter found on beaches, and it is estimated that 46% of shorebirds ingest plastic in their lifetime while 26% experience entanglement. A variety of effects have been observed in animals that ingest plastic, including reduced reproductive success, changes in immune function, and increased mortality. There is also growing evidence suggesting that plastic bioaccumulates through the food web, so predators may be affected by the accumulation of plastic in their prey's diet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48474175",
"title": "Annie Crawley",
"section": "Section::::Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Her photographs for the 2014 book, \"Plastic Ahoy!\" by Patricia Newman, were called \"captivating\" by \"Library Media Connection\". The book was based on the 2009 Scripps Environmental Accumulation of Plastics Expedition or SEAPLEX to the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre. The scientists on the expedition found that plastic was in nearly 10% of the fish they dissected. Based on their findings, fish in the gyre have eaten an estimated 12,000 to 14,000 tons of plastic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bzw48v
|
If you are on the moon, does Earth appear to go through phases?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes.\n\nIn fact, it will be the exact opposite of whatever phase the Moon is in as seen from Earth. So if it's a New Moon as seen from Earth, it will be a Full Earth as seen from the Moon; if the Moon is in a waxing crescent phase, Earth will be in a waning gibbous phase.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Earth would stay pretty much stationary in the sky but would rotate, unlike the moon which travels across the sky and doesn't rotate. But the phases would still take the same amount of time as the moon phases.\n\nSomething I'm looking forward to seeing with the first moon bases is images of the Earth during these phases and during eclipses. When the Earth is blocking the sun, it should have a glowing ring around it, and when the Moon is blocking the sun you should be able to see the shadow travel across the surface.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The moon always face the earth, so you would always see it (unless you are on the dark side) and also see it rotate daily. The moon phases correspond to moon rotation around earth in around 28 days, which will cyclically change the sunlight you see on the moon (14 days night, 14 days sunlight), the orientation of sunlight you see incoming on Earth, and also slightly the latitudinal angle (meaning you either see more of Earth north hemisphere or south hemisphere). This is also slightly modified by Earth and moon rotation around the Sun in 365 days.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As others here have said, yes, it does.\n\nI want to add an additional fun fact: it isn't just the moon that we can view phases of. [Both Venus and Mercury also have phases](_URL_0_), as viewed from the Earth (or the moon.) All it takes is an orbit that moves a body closer to the sun than the Earth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Here](_URL_2_) is the \"evidence\".\n\n & #x200B;\n\nIt is a video of what the earth looks like from the Apollo 11 site ([Sea of tranquility](_URL_0_)) made using [Stellarium](_URL_1_) software. Unlike the moon seen from earth, the earth never sets there. So over the duration of a day, we can see earth rotate completely and over the duration of a month, the phases.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One way to picture it is the earth is a giant dog, spinning around chasing its tail. The moon is a guy cautiously walking around it, never turning his back to it. So to the moon, the earth appears to stay in one spot, spinning around",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes it undergoes phases, as others describe.\n\nHowever, there's another oddity: It's fixed in the sky, always appearing in the same spot, neither rising nor setting.\n\nIf you're on the side of the moon facing the Earth, its location acts as a perfect fixed point for navigation, much like the Pole Star.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " [_URL_0_](_URL_1_) \n\nThere are some spectacular pictures of crescent earth from NASA. Unfortunately, most seem to be from space rather than the moon, but they might help people picture it. Many include both Earth and the Moon.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20424",
"title": "Lunar phase",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "The lunar phase or phase of the Moon is the shape of the directly sunlit portion of the Moon as viewed from Earth. The lunar phases gradually and cyclically change over the period of a synodic month (about 29.53 days), as the orbital positions of the Moon around Earth and of Earth around the Sun shift.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20424",
"title": "Lunar phase",
"section": "Section::::Phases of the Moon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 956,
"text": "In western culture, the \"four principal phases\" of the Moon are new moon, first quarter, full moon, and third quarter (also known as last quarter). These are the instances when the Moon's ecliptic longitude and the Sun's ecliptic longitude differ by 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°, respectively. Each of these phases occur at slightly different times when viewed from different points on Earth. During the intervals between principal phases, the Moon's apparent shape is either crescent or gibbous. These shapes, and the periods when the Moon shows them, are called the \"intermediate phases\" and last one-quarter of a synodic month, or 7.38 days, on average. However, their durations vary slightly because the Moon's orbit is rather elliptical, so the satellite's orbital speed is not constant. The descriptor \"waxing\" is used for an intermediate phase when the Moon's apparent shape is thickening, from new to full moon, and \"waning\" when the shape is thinning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61182504",
"title": "Earth phase",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "The Earth phase, Terra phase, Terrestrial phase or phase of the Earth, is the shape of the directly sunlit portion of the Earth as viewed from the Moon (or elsewhere extraterrestrially). From the Moon, the Earth phases gradually and cyclically change over the period of a synodic month (about 29.53 days), as the orbital positions of the Moon around the Earth and of the Earth around the Sun shift.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47826161",
"title": "Lunar month",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:Synodic month.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "While the Moon is orbiting the Earth, the Earth is progressing in its orbit around the Sun. After completing a sidereal month, the Moon must move a little further to reach the new position having the same angular distance from the Sun, appearing to move with respect to the stars since the previous month. Therefore, the synodic month takes 2.2 days longer than the sidereal month. Thus, about 13.37 sidereal months, but about 12.37 synodic months, occur in a Gregorian year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20424",
"title": "Lunar phase",
"section": "Section::::Phases of the Moon.:Waxing and waning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "When the Sun and Moon are aligned on the same side of the Earth, the Moon is \"new\", and the side of the Moon facing Earth is not illuminated by the Sun. As the Moon \"waxes\" (the amount of illuminated surface as seen from Earth is increasing), the lunar phases progress through new moon, crescent moon, first-quarter moon, gibbous moon, and full moon. The Moon is then said to \"wane\" as it passes through the gibbous moon, third-quarter moon, crescent moon, and back to new moon. The terms \"old moon\" and \"new moon\" are not interchangeable. The \"old moon\" is a waning sliver (which eventually becomes undetectable to the naked eye) until the moment it aligns with the Sun and begins to wax, at which point it becomes new again. \"Half moon\" is often used to mean the first- and third-quarter moons, while the term \"quarter\" refers to the extent of the Moon's cycle around the Earth, not its shape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5024887",
"title": "Solar eclipse",
"section": "Section::::Predictions.:Geometry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "The Moon crosses from south to north of the ecliptic at its ascending node, and vice versa at its descending node. However, the nodes of the Moon's orbit are gradually moving in a retrograde motion, due to the action of the Sun's gravity on the Moon's motion, and they make a complete circuit every 18.6 years. This regression means that the time between each passage of the Moon through the ascending node is slightly shorter than the sidereal month. This period is called the nodical or draconic month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5024887",
"title": "Solar eclipse",
"section": "Section::::Predictions.:Geometry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "The Moon orbits the Earth in approximately 27.3 days, relative to a fixed frame of reference. This is known as the sidereal month. However, during one sidereal month, Earth has revolved part way around the Sun, making the average time between one new moon and the next longer than the sidereal month: it is approximately 29.5 days. This is known as the synodic month and corresponds to what is commonly called the lunar month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
38l4gf
|
Why were the soldiers after WW1 seemingly so much more traumatized than the soldiers after WW2?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'd say it's a difference of depiction more than anything else. The fact that more armies and more soldiers fought in WWII than in WWI, the new weapons available, the extent of the destruction caused by the war, and the extent of the atrocities committed in WWII, the trauma of the second world war was probably of a much greater scale than WWI; including civilians, the Second World War far out does the first in terms of the trauma.\n\nOf course trauma is hard to quantify exactly, but it must be said that despite the reputation for horror attached to WWI, nothing in my mind at least can compare to the Second World War in terms of sheer human suffering. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'd argue that it is a misconception, but that it is depicted like that in the media. The reason for this is that World War 1 was the first war of that scale, the first total war, where everything in a given country was mobilized for war. Also, generally spoken, there were less civilian victims than in World War 2, meaning that the media focus was on the troops. Several countries where baffled and unable to cope with the vast amount of crippled and injured soldiers (physically and mentally).\n\nThe crimes against humanity during World War 2 overshadowed anything directly war-related, and the memorial is very focused on the murdered civilians. Without this, we might have had a deeper media look at suffering soldiers. If you ever watched documentaries with contemporary witnesses you will see a lot of broken people who never processed what happened during the war.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21759521",
"title": "Combat Stress (charitable organisation)",
"section": "Section::::History before 1919.:World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Soldiers (and other frontline personnel) returning home from World War I suffered greatly from the horrors of war that they had witnessed. Many returning veterans suffered from what was then known as shell shock; now known as post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25571081",
"title": "Beaufort War Hospital",
"section": "Section::::History.:First World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1081,
"text": "Veterans of World War I had little affection for the military hospitals; many memoirists complained of an inhumanity that seemed to increase with distance from the battlefield. At the front, wounded soldiers were treated by fellow-combatants and by familiar regimental doctors. 'The wounded man' recalled one soldier, ‘ is in a moment a little baby and all the rest become the tenderest of mothers. One holds his hand; another lights his cigarette. Before this, it is given to few to know the love of those who go together through the long valley of the shadow of death.' (76) All this changed in the rear of the battle zone and in the general hospitals back in ‘Blighty’. Given the restrictions on wartime transport their journey from the front might be surprisingly rapid. Gilbert Spencer (Stanley Spencer's younger brother who also served as a medical orderly) recalled his first terrifying moments at Beaufort when he was surrounded by a 'ward full of wounded Gallipoli soldiers, their skins sunburnt and their clothes bleached and the soil of Suvla Bay still on their boots.'\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49704535",
"title": "Wounded in Action (film)",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Every day during the Second World War, fighting men are \"wounded in action\", the terse military declaration in telegrams sent back to family and loved ones. Compared to similar wounds suffered in the First World War, 97% of the wounded are brought back to health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26048493",
"title": "Effect of World War I on children in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Impact on daily life.:Home life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1016,
"text": "Over the course of the war, the United States mobilized hundreds of thousands of men and endured an estimated 117,465 casualties. Of the men who survived and returned home, post-traumatic stress disorder created a major impact on society. During this time, and still today, post-traumatic stress (then more likely to be known as \"shell shock\") was not fully understood, but because of the traumatic nature of battle, many men were negatively affected after the war. Some men were forced to leave battle, which many people considered cowardice, and there were asylums throughout Europe housing men suffering from this condition. In some extreme cases, men were even shot for showing weakness. There are still people living today who lost family members because of this practice, which created lasting impacts on these children. Additionally, many of these men were teenagers when they left for war, and virtually all were under the age of 30; therefore many of these soldiers were barely out of childhood themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "327806",
"title": "Veteran",
"section": "Section::::Veterans' experiences around the world.:United States.:American veteran experience after OEF and OIF.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Due to medical advances, warfare in the 21st century tends to yield more survivors with severe injuries which soldiers in previous wars would have died from. This means that, though fewer service members die, more return from war with injuries more serious, and in turn more emotionally devastating, than ever before. Among these injuries is the increasingly common traumatic brain injury, or TBI, the effects of which can range from a mild concussion to amnesia and serious neurological damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1585284",
"title": "Hollister riot",
"section": "Section::::Rise of motorcycles after World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 932,
"text": "After World War II, countless veterans came back to America and many of them had a difficult time readjusting to civilian life. They searched for the adventure and adrenaline rush associated with life at war that had now left them. Civilian life felt too monotonous for some men who also craved feelings of excitement and danger. Others sought the close bonds and camaraderie found between men in the army. Furthermore, certain men wanted to combat their horrifying war memories and experiences that haunted them, many in the form of post-traumatic stress disorder. Thus, motorcycling emerged stronger than ever as a substitute for wartime experiences such as adventure, excitement, danger and camaraderie. Men who had been a part of the motorcycling world before the war were now joined by thousands of new members. The popularity of motorcycling grew dramatically after World War II because of the effects of the war on veterans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38423483",
"title": "Drug policy of Nazi Germany",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "The unprecedented casualties of World War I brought the need for treatment of acute and chronic pain, the means of treating that pain, and the side effects of that treatment, including opioid dependence, to the forefront of public consciousness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
26dn21
|
What mathematical structure represents a spin-3/2 field?
|
[
{
"answer": "You might be interested in the [Rarita-Schwinger equation](_URL_0_). The field is represented by a spinor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "173954",
"title": "Orthogonal group",
"section": "Section::::Related groups.:Covering and quotient groups.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Spin is a 2-to-1 cover, while in even dimension, is a 2-to-1 cover, and in odd dimension is a 1-to-1 cover; i.e., isomorphic to . These groups, , , and are Lie group forms of the compact special orthogonal Lie algebra, formula_39 – Spin is the simply connected form, while PSO is the centerless form, and SO is in general neither.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1547121",
"title": "Twisted cubic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "In mathematics, a twisted cubic is a smooth, rational curve \"C\" of degree three in projective 3-space P. It is a fundamental example of a skew curve. It is essentially unique, up to projective transformation (\"the\" twisted cubic, therefore). It is generally considered to be the simplest example of a projective variety that is not linear or a hypersurface, and is given as such in most textbooks on algebraic geometry. It is the three-dimensional case of the rational normal curve, and is the image of a Veronese map of degree three on the projective line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14407762",
"title": "Seiberg–Witten invariants",
"section": "Section::::Spin-structures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "A Spin structure determines (and is determined by) a spinor bundle formula_10 coming from the 2 complex dimensional positive and negative spinor representation of Spin(4) on which U(1) acts by multiplication. We have formula_11.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32013990",
"title": "Spin geometry",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "In mathematics, spin geometry is the area of differential geometry and topology where objects like spin manifolds and Dirac operators, and the various associated index theorems have come to play a fundamental role both in mathematics and in mathematical physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "695046",
"title": "Quaternionic representation",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "More generally, the spin representations of Spin(\"d\") are quaternionic when \"d\" equals 3 + 8\"k\", 4 + 8\"k\", and 5 + 8\"k\" dimensions, where \"k\" is an integer. In physics, one often encounters the spinors of Spin(\"d\", 1). These representations have the same type of real or quaternionic structure as the spinors of Spin(\"d\" − 1).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52713809",
"title": "Joos–Weinberg equation",
"section": "Section::::Lorentz group structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "This representation has definite spin . It turns out that a spin particle in this representation satisfy field equations too. These equations are very much like the Dirac equations. It is suitable when the symmetries of charge conjugation, time reversal symmetry, and parity are good.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10160091",
"title": "Spin representation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "In mathematics, the spin representations are particular projective representations of the orthogonal or special orthogonal groups in arbitrary dimension and signature (i.e., including indefinite orthogonal groups). More precisely, they are representations of the spin groups, which are double covers of the special orthogonal groups. They are usually studied over the real or complex numbers, but they can be defined over other fields.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1eehbd
|
double exposure
|
[
{
"answer": "Originally, a double exposure is an accident where a camera does not advance the film to the next frame, and you take a second picture ontop of the first. This often results in a mess, but sometimes it makes an interesting effect.\n\nUsing digital cameras, the term 'double exposure' is somewhat misleading. New cameras actually have a mode that creates double exposures. You take one shot that is very high contrast, and then a second that has a flat texture. The camera mixes them together, and you can end up with a desirable effect. This has been a common photoshop trick for years now, but only recently have digital cameras included the double exposure mode. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Picture a film camera. You wind the camera to put a new section of film behind the lens. Then you open the shutter to expose the film to light, which produces a photograph on the film. If you open the shutter again without winding the camera, you will expose the film again, and get a double exposure. Essentially, you have taken two pictures on the same section of film.\n\nThis can lead to effects [like this](_URL_0_), where the truck was in the first photo, but not in the second photo, so it appears as a kind of ghostly image.\n\nIf you want to do the same thing with digital cameras, you can take two photos and then combine them in software like photoshop. Also, some new cameras [have built-in multiple exposure features](_URL_1_), so you don't need to use photoshop anymore... the camera will combine the images for you, just like a film camera would.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1019289",
"title": "Multiple exposure",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "In photography and cinematography, a multiple exposure is the superimposition of two or more exposures to create a single image, and double exposure has a corresponding meaning in respect of two images. The exposure values may or may not be identical to each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50873536",
"title": "Double Exposures",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Double Exposures (A.K.A. Alibi Breaker) is a 1937 British crime film directed by John Paddy Carstairs and starring Basil Langton, Julien Mitchell and Ruby Miller. It was made at Shepperton Studios as a quota quickie.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13718620",
"title": "Effective frequency",
"section": "Section::::Models/theories.:Herbert E. Krugman.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Herbert E. Krugman wrote \"Why Three Exposures may be enough\" while he was employed at General Electric. His theory has been adopted and widely use in the advertising arena. The following statement encapsulates his theory: \"Let me try to explain the special qualities of one, two and three exposures. I stop at three because as you shall see there is no such thing as a fourth exposure psychologically; rather fours, fives, etc., are repeats of the third exposure effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53504790",
"title": "Double Exposure (1954 film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "Double Exposure is a 1954 British crime film directed by John Gilling and starring John Bentley, Rona Anderson and Garry Marsh. It was made at Southall Studios as a second feature. The film's sets were designed by Wilfred Arnold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1019289",
"title": "Multiple exposure",
"section": "Section::::Multiple exposure techniques.:Analogue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "In photography and cinematography, multiple exposure is a technique in which the camera shutter is opened more than once to expose the film multiple times, usually to different images. The resulting image contains the subsequent image/s superimposed over the original. The technique is sometimes used as an artistic visual effect and can be used to create ghostly images or to add people and objects to a scene that were not originally there. It is frequently used in photographic hoaxes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30552131",
"title": "Exposure fusion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "In image processing, computer graphics, and photography, exposure fusion is a technique for blending multiple exposures of the same scene (bracketing) into a single image. As in high dynamic range imaging (HDRI or just HDR), the goal is to capture a scene with a higher dynamic range than the camera is capable of capturing with a single exposure. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1019289",
"title": "Multiple exposure",
"section": "Section::::Multiple exposure techniques.:Analogue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Medium to low light is ideal for double exposures. A tripod may not be necessary if combining different scenes in one shot. In some conditions, for example, recording the whole progress of a lunar eclipse in multiple exposures, a stable tripod is essential.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dcswc6
|
how do animals that come back from extinction overcome inbreeding problems
|
[
{
"answer": "They don't. At least not in the short-term. In the short-term they're absolutely will be inbreeding related problems associated with that bottleneck.\n\nIn the long-term if the species does survive, it does so because the problematic genes that have been over-represented in the population are slowly culled out by natural selection.\n\nSince that means that the population is going to be less healthy in the short-term, that poses a big problem that can make it even harder to recover from a very low population than it would be otherwise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Time.\n\nThey need a LOT of time for their genome to recover to amounts pre-extinction. During this period, their weak genome might lead to further population loss, which could end in disaster. \n\nBut given some luck and a LOT of time, they can overcome extinction events",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Does this mean there are different implications between short life span animals as compared to longer life span (eg tortoises which can reach 250years)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As other people have said, they dont. Tasmanian Devils experienced a severe bottleneck a few decades back, so the remaining Devils are so closely related that they often spread cancer to each other when fighting. Contagious cancer. _URL_0_ < = that link is NSFL by the way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Look at the Cheetah, aren't they all insanely genetically similar? They seemed to have overcome it really well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Evolution - genes randomly change over time. They will definitely suffer from inbreeding but over time and generations diversity will increase.\n\nThere is a great example of this, the Big Bird lineage in the galapagos. \n\n_URL_1_\n\n_URL_0_\n\nBut there are many cases where genetic bottlenecks occurred and over time and future generations the genetic diversity is increased or problematic mutations just propagate to all the descendents.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is a very common misconception that inbreeding \"weakens genetics\" or is otherwise harmful.\n\nWhen two animals mate, a bunch of genes from the father and a bunch of genes from the mother combine to form one set of genes. When that child mates, a bunch of that set of genes will be combined with a bunch of genes from that child's mate to create one set of genes for the child, and so on. This is why you are not a clone of your parents, but you probably have some similar features to both parents.\n\nIf a mating pair is related (e.g. if they have the same parents), then their genes are going to be similar. This is because both sets of genes were created by combining the same two sets of parent genes. They won't be identical because different parts may be represented by different parents in different sets, but they will be similar. This is why you are not a clone of your siblings, but you probably have some similar features to eachother.\n\nWhen parents have similar genes, it increases the likelihood that recessive genes will be expressed. Recessive genes are not necessarily harmful, but most harmful genetic disorders are recessive. This is why \"blue blood\" diseases were more common among incestuous royalty; the recessive gene was more likely to not get paired up with a dominant gene because both parents had the recessive gene.\n\nThe genes of the children are not in any way \"weaker.\" A gene cannot be \"strong\" or \"weak.\" It's just an instruction for proteins. In this situation, the only consequence is that recessive traits found in Diego, whether they are good/bad/neutral, will be more likely to be expressed in the children of his children. Over many generations and through random mutation, this will not be very noticeable.\n\nAnother factor is genetic diversity. Genetic diversity is beneficial because it helps a population adapt to changing environments. Inbreeding reduces genetic diversity. This factor is more of a \"big picture\" factor, in that it has no effect in the short term. Its effects are shown over hundreds of generations in changing environments.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They don't. Cheetahs are an example of this. Only one in ten births is viable. Tonnes of genetic problems. They are slowly failing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nOver time they may regain some variance through random mutation, but in the short term there is a big risk of disease wiping out the remaining population. Cheetahs I believe are still so close they can all serve as organ donors for each other. Bison populations in the US went from billions to dozens at one point and rebuilding herd populations is still an ongoing struggle. Dogs are suffering lots of genetic disorders from lack of diversity from establishing breeds, the problem is getting to the point the kennel clubs are thinking of opening up lineages to breed with other dogs to increase genetic diversity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Unless you have dominant bad genes, you can usually overcome the downsides of inbreeding with quantity.\n\nWhen breeding dogs/horses, etc intentional repeat inbreeding is very common, and you end up with 25% crap, but also 25% great. They kill off the crap, and often even the \"so-so\", and continue on with the great.\n\nSomething like 80% of modern racing horses have common ancestry. \n\nThis doesn't work out for humans, because we have so few children, raising each one to find out if its crap or not takes a long time, and is very expensive, killing them off is morally problematic, and for the groups that regularly practiced sustained inbreeding (royalty), the \"crap\" is either now ruling, or 1st or 2nd in line, and so can't be removed.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can someone explain how an extinct animal can “come back from extinction”? I’ve always operated under the notion that extinction means literally no more of that species exist. How do they reappear?\n\nIs it better for my brain to think about this in the sense of near extinct and coming back being an increase to their population?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > This may be good and well but what happens to the inbreeding which is said to weaken the genetics of the animals and also magnifying the chances of recessive geenes manifesting.\n\nOffspring that present with the more debilitating effects of recessive genes and inbreeding are culled through natural processes. On the other hand, recessive genes may also lead to advantageous adaptations, which could result in a new species eventually. This gene expression may not have otherwise presented itself had the gene pool not been restricted.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Humans experienced just such a genetic bottleneck 70k years ago. We seem to be doing ok if a bit violent and shortsighted. \n\n[Toba Catastrophe](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Genetic mutation happens at random, which will diversify the genetic make up over time, lots of time. \nPossibly not enough time to overcome the manifestation of recessive genes that cause health problems.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You are describing an after the fact situation. Obviously many animals may never \"come back\" and inbreeding may be a cause. For the animals that do successfully \"come back\" it means either that inbreeding was never a problem or that they had enough diversity for the same result. Inbreeding also will only affect a few generations. Its good for making jokes but not really the monster that people make it out to be.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is this notion out there that inbreeding causes genetic problems. It doesn’t. It can be extremely beneficial and it’s one of the mechanisms for extremely useful adaptations to result in speciation. \n\nInbreeding does nothing except increase the concentration of the founder couple(s)’ genes in succeeding generations. If there are any recessive or potential undesireable genes, then they will be expressed phenotypically more often in populations that arise as a result of inbreeding. \n\nBut maybe the founding population has many more potentially beneficial genes than negative ones. That is often the case in a genetic bottleneck situation. The only members of a species left are the ones that contain genetic mutations that help that species survive. So their children are MUCH more likely to have hose mutations than they would have if there were more breeding pairs contributing to genetic diversity. \n\nSometimes it’s better to have the genes concentrated on the phenotypes that help a species survive as opposed to introducing a lot of variety. It does make the species POTENTIALLY more susceptible to apocalyptic diseases and disorders, but that’s just a potential, not any sort of certainty. It may not even be likely or realistic that they are at risk for such things, depending on their founding genes and the microbial ecology within their environment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They really have a limited chance to, unfortunately. With many species, an animal with limited genetic variability might have a harder time avoiding predation and/or hunting prey. According to the \"Red Queen Hypothesis,\" based off of the Red Queen's pursuit of Alice in Alice's Wonderland (the gist is that while Alice is always coming up with clever ways to evade the Queen, the Queen learns to adapt and become cleverer herself), predators and prey continuously adapt with each generation. A prey animal might evolve a tactic to avoid getting eaten, like the California newt, whose toxicity has increased with every generation to void getting eaten by garter snakes, but, in response, garter snakes have become more tolerant to the newt's toxicity. If you're working with a limited genetic pool, it could become much harder to evolve defenses and improved tactics. Then, on top of this predator/prey interaction, you have an ever-changing environment, which also favors organisms with really diverse gene pools. That said, there's still a chance of genetic drift and mutation happening with small populations!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If the starting pair breeders are relatively healthy and they breed excessively and for variety (no monogamy), then they can come back easily to a large population. Farmers have been doing this with herd animals for thousands of years.\n\nThe important factor is allowing selection and resources for population growth, the harmful mutations and recessives need to be pressured out. In the initial dozens of generations, as the population swells, there will be problems, but by then you could have a population of many thousands.\n\nThe resulting population will be distinct, similar to how the ethnic varieties of humans developed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would also say that deleterious alleles \"rapidly\" evolve away in the case of population bottlenecks under typical conditions.\n\nAs others have stated, the problem with incest is that in a general population, animals on average have a handful of recessive alleles that code for maladaptive traits scattered randomly throughout their DNA. These alleles don't evolve away because they are rarely expressed so there is little selective pressure against them. Animals have two versions of every gene and only the dominant one is expressed. So for one of these maladaptive traits to be expressed the animal would have to have a defective version from both their mother and father. If the mother and father are unrelated, they are unlikely to have the same defective alleles, so their children simply get some mismatched set of defective genes that don't get expressed.\n\nBut when there is a population bottleneck, the chance of these defective traits being expressed goes way up. And this greatly decreases the fitness of these alleles. To state it another way, one of these bad alleles isn't so bad if most other individuals don't have a copy, but as soon as copies are common in the rest of the population, it becomes really bad to have it, so healthy alleles have a strong competitive advantage and can take over in only a handful of generations.\n\nThis only works at all if there are healthy alleles in the population somewhere. Otherwise a mutation must occur to fix a defective gene, and mutations like this are rare.\n\nThis also doesn't fix the lack of genetic diversity in a population after a bottleneck. Only mutations can fix that, and especially for disease resistance, lack of diversity can be a big problem.\n\nBut in one way, this does leave the population's genome healthier. There are will be far fewer maladaptive recessive alleles many generations after a bottleneck. Now since this pure dominant/recessive relationship between genes is not common (recessive alleles do usually express themselves in some small way even in the presence of a dominant gene) , individuals with fewer \"unexpressed\" copies of recessive alleles can often be healthier.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Others have mentioned cheetahs and Tasmanian devils here, but you should check out sea otters too. After becoming endangered from the fur trade, the California population had just 50 individuals left. As a result, all sea otters around California are likely descended from this group and they are *fucked up*. \n\nThe males are hyper-aggressive, and have been known to rip off females' faces during mating season, brutally killing them. This doesn't happen in other populations, and we don't totally get why, because other regional groups were bottlenecked as well. But their numbers are still growing--there aren't nearly enough fuckups to kill off the entire population, and they might be taken off the endangered species list sometime in the next 10 years.\n\nSo, even with these abnormalities...populations can still get by.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I know this isn't a very helpful answer, but it is impossible for a species to come back from extinction. Extinction is when every member of the species has died. Extirpation is when a species is extinct in only a defined area (or just extinct in the wild), and before a species is extinct it is \"critically endangered\". These designations are made by the IUCN.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of people are talking about natural mating here, but in a lot of \"saved species from extinction\" situations, there are actually intensive managed breeding programs. Usually these attempt to maximize diversity in the breeding population by pairing captive animals from different regions or with different traits. Now, with genetic sequencing, some breeding programs are able to actually optimize the breeding program by minimizing the number of similar genes between the two partners.\n\nBut there's a lot of other genetic concepts here that people don't draw distinctions between. For example, the appearance of recessive traits (meaning there was a recessive gene in both patents) and the fixation of traits. Recessive genes always exist in a population, and they aren't necessarily bad. What is bad is when alleles (essentially mutant versions of a gene) with negative effects get *fixed* in a population, which means that they become a very common variant in the population, possibly the only version of the gene that exists. An example of this is certain dog breeds that are prone to certain diseases, like lymphoma or hip problems.\n\nImmune system homogeneity is another issue. The immune system is supposed to be extremely diverse at every scale you can think of (from individual genes to individual cells to individuals to populations). This protects the overall population from disease because the disease will only be super lethal in a certain percentage of the population (the percentage that can't resist it). But if a population's immune genes become more homogeneous, then its resistance to disease is much lower. This is a huge issue in plants, especially crops, because many of them are literal clones, so a disease that is lethal to one of them is lethal to all of them. So not only does a loss of genetic diversity make them more resistant to disease, it also ensures that there will be further mass die-offs, which make the population even more homogeneous.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How do animals come back from extinction?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Inbreeding eventually leads to good genes. For example let's say the first couple of generations dont have issues. Then subsequent generations experience high amounts of deformities. Well at that point the only ones that survive are the ones without messed up genes. So you have a high amount of dying and a small amount of organisms, except these dont have the bad genes anymore. Subsequent generations become more fit, and then you did it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Inbreeding can definitely become a problem, especially if your gen 0 has some lethal recessive alleles. Other than that, it's not like it would be totally hopeless. Start with a \"clean\" gen 0 and you can inbreed pretty aggressively for awhile, it's how most founding mice strains were made anyway.\n\nI feel like inbreeding is dramatized a bit in pop culture/society understanding. It's not a doomsday bringing event. For instance, there is roughly a 3% chance that if you (a normal human) have a kid with an unrelated partner that kid will have at least one genetic disorder. But what about if you mate with your 1st cousin? 50%? 25%? Its actually 6%. A significant doubly of chance for sure, but not exactly the double digit number most people guess",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Being that none of these seem like 5-year_old explanations, lemme use a common saying I've heard. For 50 animals left, there will be some inbreeding and short-term problems, and for 500, there will be less inbreeding but still some genetic problems. 50 is the least amount suggested for no to very little inbreeding.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "With Old Blue - the foundation female of all current NZ black Robins - it was the 5 extant males that provided a bit of genetic variation. \n\nI saw my first black robin this year. Sooooo cool.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21424701",
"title": "Defaunation",
"section": "Section::::Ecological impacts.:Genetic loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Inbreeding and genetic diversity loss often occur with endangered species populations because they have small and/or declining populations. Loss of genetic diversity lowers the ability of a population to deal with change in their environment and can make individuals within the community homogeneous. If this occurs, these animals are more susceptible to disease and other occurrences that may target a specific genome. Without genetic diversity, one disease could eradicate an entire species. Inbreeding lowers reproduction and survival rates. It is suggested that these genetic factors contribute to the extinction risk in threatened/endangered species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "379888",
"title": "Inbred strain",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Inbreeding animals will sometimes lead to genetic drift. The continuous overlaying of like genetics exposes recessive gene patterns that often lead to changes in reproduction performance, fitness, and ability to survive. A decrease in these areas is known as inbreeding depression. A hybrid between two inbred strains can be used to cancel out deleterious recessive genes resulting in an increase in the mentioned areas. This is known as heterosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "477117",
"title": "Species reintroduction",
"section": "Section::::Genetic considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 766,
"text": "If the species slated for reintroduction is rare in the wild, it is likely to have unusually low population numbers, and care should be taken to avoid inbreeding and inbreeding depression. Inbreeding can change the frequency of allele distribution in a population, and potentially result in a change to crucial genetic diversity. Additionally, outbreeding depression can occur if a reintroduced population can hybridize with existing populations in the wild, which can result in offspring with reduced fitness, and less adaptation to local conditions. To minimize both, practitioners should source for individuals in a way that captures as much genetic diversity as possible, and attempt to match source site conditions to local site conditions as much as possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1557574",
"title": "Conservation genetics",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Solutions to minimize the factors that lead to extinction and risk of extinction often overlap because the factors themselves overlap. For example, deleterious mutations are added to populations through mutation, however the deleterious mutations conservation biologists are concerned with are ones that are brought about by inbreeding, because those are the ones that can be taken care of by reducing inbreeding. Here the techniques to reduce inbreeding also help decrease the accumulation of deleterious mutations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "488726",
"title": "Golden lion tamarin",
"section": "Section::::Conservation.:Effects of habitat loss.:Increase in inbreeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 976,
"text": "Additionally, this deforestation and fragmentation also leads to demographic instabilities, and an increased probability of inbreeding, consequently leading to inbreeding depression and a population decline. In the case of inbreeding, the problem lies in the increase of the isolated fragments where golden lion tamarins live. Inbreeding leads to low levels of genetic diversity and has a negative effect on survivorship; inbred offspring have a lower survivorship than non-inbred offspring. Fragmentation leads to a decline in dispersal and as a result, a decline in breeding with individuals of other groups. Consequently, inbreeding depression is observed in these populations. With delay breeding, the decrease and shortage of territory puts pressure on golden lion tamarins to disperse in order to find necessary resources and areas suitable for their survival. However, dispersal is risky and requires a lot of energy that could have been used for reproduction instead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12899361",
"title": "Milicia excelsa",
"section": "Section::::Distribution and habitat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "In a study done on population distribution of \"Milicia excelsa\" in 2009, researchers found that most of the populations that were being studied were inbred. After some analysis the researchers found that the \"Milicia excelsa\" was inbreeding due to lack of proximity to other \"Milicia excelsa\" individuals. Inbreeding could contribute to why this species is moving closer to being on the “Threatened” conservation list. If the numbers of mates available are not high enough because dispersion methods are not effective over long distances, then the species will begin to suffer from inbreeding depression (inbreeding can lead to accumulation of recessive deleterious alleles in a population).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18838",
"title": "Mammal",
"section": "Section::::Humans and other mammals.:Hybrids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 201,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 201,
"end_character": 922,
"text": "Purebred wild species evolved to a specific ecology can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution, the uncontrolled hybridization, introgression genetic swamping which leads to homogenization or out-competition from the heterosic hybrid species. When new populations are imported or selectively bred by people, or when habitat modification brings previously isolated species into contact, extinction in some species, especially rare varieties, is possible. Interbreeding can swamp the rarer gene pool and create hybrids, depleting the purebred gene pool. For example, the endangered wild water buffalo is most threatened with extinction by genetic pollution from the domestic water buffalo. Such extinctions are not always apparent from a morphological standpoint. Some degree of gene flow is a normal evolutionary process, nevertheless, hybridization threatens the existence of rare species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
12bet2
|
why is unrefined sugar more expensive than white
sugar? by the same token, why do whole grain
products like whole grain bread and brown rice
tend to be more expensive than their white, refined
counterparts? surely, refining should add extra
cost?
|
[
{
"answer": "In a third world country unrefined food is cheaper than refined food. But in the western world they realized they can charge more by calling it \"healthy\". ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For most products, the price you pay at the store has a lot more to do with what people are **willing** to pay than what the product costs to make. If a company can make more money by charging more, because people are willing to pay that much, they will. If raising the price too much costs them sales and profits, then the price will go back down.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The term processed gets thrown around a lot, and can mean different things. It's not always about adding chemicals. Now, more processing would normally mean work and therefore more cost, but not always. \n\nFirst, it's not always more expensive. King Arthur whole wheat at Walmart is the same price as Unbleached. \n\n- [Whole Wheat Flour](_URL_1_)\n- [Unbleached Flour](_URL_0_)\n\nWhen there is a difference, there are a lot of factors. There's no single one answer. \n\nIn the case of sugar, its due to the ingredients used. Pure cane sugar is more expensive than \"normal\" sugar. Why, \"normal\" sugar has sugar derived from beats which is more available in the US than cane which grows better in the tropics. \"RAW\" sugar, while less processed is still processed to some degree. It's centrifuged (I don't know the full technique) but something does happen to it. It's also often organic and comes mainly from HI (for those in America), both of which drive the price up. \n\nAnother reason is that sometimes refined foods are cheaper for some reason. White rice has a longer storage life than brown rice for example. Also, canned fruit lasts longer than fresh, and is cheaper than frozen. \n\nFor other products, a lot of it is that many natural products aren't just less processed, but also premium grade. You don't just pay more at whole foods because it's healthy, you also pay more because they are a higher grade product. The same effect happens in other stores. You can get store brand refined product, but if you want the natural stuff, you might have to buy name brand, driving up the cost. \n\nFinally, it can be good old supply and demand. There's a lot of supply of the processed stuff, and less supply of the non processed stuff. This could change over time as our tastes as a culture change. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I suspect that shelf life has a lot to do with it. Whole grains have oils that can go rancid, fresh fruit doesn't last nearly as long as canned, etc. So the processing, while it adds costs, allows the item to be on the shelf a whole lot longer and reduces waste, lowering the cost per item that can be sold.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Supply and Demand.\nEconomy of Scale.\n\nSupply and demand is simple. More people want white sugar than unrefined. Lets pretend that unrefined sugar earns one dollar profit. \nWhite sugar only earns 75 cents, because of processing. Pretend the price is the same to buy.\n\n100 people buy unrefined. That earns 100 dollars.\nTen thousand people buy white. That's 7500 dollars\n\nEconomy of scale comes next. \nEverything in manufacturing has 2 main costs. \"Fixed\" and \"Marginal.\" \nFixed costs are what you pay up front to start making something. Lets say it's a donut machine. That costs ten thousand dollars. This is a fixed cost because it never changes. After making a million donuts, the machine only really costs 1 cent per donut, and as you keep making them, the share of cost goes down, making each donut cheaper to make.\n\nMarginal costs are what you have to pay every time you make something. This is usually materials (like plastic), but in our case, it's ingredients. They cost... 20 cents per donut.\n\nNow, it doesn't matter how many donuts you make, they all cost you 20 cents. Fair enough.\n\nNow, you want to make Waffles. A waffle machine will cost... ten thousand dollars. But only 1% as many people want waffles!\n\nSo you only make 10 thousand waffles. Each one costs you $1.20 to make. Those popular donuts? Cost 21 cents.\n\nEven if the donuts need more processing... so many are made that even after the processing, they still come out cheaper.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In a similar vein, I've always wondered why buying a grilled flake at the fish and chip shop would cost more than a battered one. Surely adding batter takes more effort?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "By the same token, why is diesel more expensive than petrol? It is also less refined.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Little business lesson for you. Price isn't determined by cost. Price only has to be higher than cost. The price is higher because there are people who value unrefined products more than refined products, therefore they will pay more for them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It isn't always cheaper to give your customer less. \n\nImagine you have a hamburger stand. You have a well tuned assembly line of employees, each specialized in they task who can turn a patty into a burger in seconds.\n\nSo when someone says hold the pickle, it disrupts the whole process. Now you have to add overhead to track the special burger through the system and get it to the right person, more overhead than a few pickles cost. You could make a second assembly line for pickle free burgers, but there is not enough demand to justify it.\n\nThe same is true for sugar. It might be cheaper to make unrefined sugar, but it is more expensive to set up a supply chain that does *both*, especially when there is a much smaller demand for one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27712",
"title": "Sugar",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition and flavor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Brown and white granulated sugar are 97% to nearly 100% carbohydrates, respectively, with less than 2% water, and no dietary fiber, protein or fat (table). Brown sugar contains a moderate amount of iron (15% of the Reference Daily Intake in a 100 gram amount, see table), but a typical serving of 4 grams (one teaspoon), would provide 15 calories and a negligible amount of iron or any other nutrient. Because brown sugar contains 5–10% molasses reintroduced during processing, its value to some consumers is a richer flavor than white sugar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58880",
"title": "Sugar substitute",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Cost.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "BULLET::::- Cost and shelf life – Many sugar substitutes are cheaper than sugar in the final food formulation. Sugar substitutes are often lower in total cost because of their long shelf-life and high sweetening intensity. This allows sugar substitutes to be used in products that will not perish after a short period of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "517951",
"title": "Brown sugar",
"section": "Section::::Nutritional value.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "One hundred grams of brown sugar contains 377 Calories (nutrition table), as opposed to 387 Calories in white sugar (link to nutrition table). However, brown sugar packs more densely than white sugar due to the smaller crystal size and may have more calories when measured by volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30951987",
"title": "Unifine mill",
"section": "Section::::The rise of whole wheat flour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Despite historical consumer preference for refined white flour, whole wheat flour products are ascendant largely due to changing consumer attitudes. The Whole Grains Council industry association reports an approximate doubling of the whole wheat flour production from 2003 to 2007. In another visible example, whole wheat bread has reached approximate parity with white bread as measured by slice volume in the United States; as of 2010, whole wheat bread narrowly surpasses white bread as measured by dollar volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208131",
"title": "Powdered sugar",
"section": "Section::::Other varieties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Caster sugar (also referred to as \"superfine\" or \"baker's sugar\") has a larger particle size than powdered sugar, approximately half that of granulated sugar. It is commonly used in baking and cold mixed drinks because it dissolves faster than granulated white sugar. Caster sugar can be easily prepared at home by grinding white sugar in a food processor to make it finer. The most common food caster sugar is used in is meringue. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "517951",
"title": "Brown sugar",
"section": "Section::::Natural brown sugar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Although brown sugar has been touted as having health benefits ranging from soothing menstrual cramps to serving as an anti-aging skin treatment, there is no nutritional basis to support brown sugar as a healthier alternative to refined sugars despite the negligible amounts of minerals in brown sugar not found in white sugar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "686253",
"title": "Neotame",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "The product is attractive to food manufacturers, as its use greatly lowers the cost of production compared to using sugar or high fructose corn syrup (due to the lower quantities needed to achieve the same sweetening), while also benefitting some consumers by providing fewer \"empty\" sugar calories and a lower impact on blood sugar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ve4o0
|
what is that bubbling creaking sound that my eyeballs make when i'm tired and i rub them?
|
[
{
"answer": "I have never experienced this? Tagging for later...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wen you rub your eyes from left to right and vice versa, especially over the joint of the two lids, you are causing air to get into and under your eye lids. This forms bubbles and makes squishy noises.\n\nThis seems to happen more if you are short sighted, because that means that your eyeball is not exactly spherical and makes it easier for bubbles to get trapped in.\n\nHappens to me too. I am short sighted as well. If i press the edges of the eye lids they seem to flow to the centre.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ha apparently not everyone's eyes do this, and it really weirds those out who don't have this sound.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8920428",
"title": "Periorbital puffiness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Periorbital puffiness, also known as puffy eyes, or swelling around the eyes, is the appearance of swelling in the tissues around the eyes, called the orbits. It is almost exclusively caused by fluid buildup around the eyes, or periorbital edema. Minor puffiness usually detectable below the eyes only is often called eye bags. Such transient puffiness is distinct from the age related and gradual increase in the size of the fat pad lying below the lower eyelids (suborbicularis oculi fat – \"SOOF\") which can also be colloquially referred to as eye bags.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "727809",
"title": "Engram (neuropsychology)",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Later, Richard F. Thompson sought the engram in the cerebellum, rather than the cerebral cortex. He used classical conditioning of the eyelid response in rabbits in search of the engram. He puffed air upon the cornea of the eye and paired it with a tone. (This puff normally causes an automatic blinking response. After a number of experiences associating it with a tone, the rabbits became conditioned to blink when they heard the tone even without a puff.) The experiment monitored several brain regions, trying to locate the engram.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "794008",
"title": "Dry eye syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Dry eyes can be exacerbated by smoky environments, dust and air conditioning and by our natural tendency to reduce our blink rate when concentrating. Purposefully blinking, especially during computer use and resting tired eyes are basic steps that can be taken to minimise discomfort. Rubbing one's eyes can irritate them further, so should be avoided. Conditions such as blepharitis can often co-exist and paying particular attention to cleaning the eyelids morning and night with mild soaps and warm compresses can improve both conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1654717",
"title": "Bubble Eye",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "The Bubble Eye is a small variety of fancy goldfish with upward pointing eyes that are accompanied by two large fluid-filled sacs. It is a dorsal-less fish -- good specimens will have a clean back and eye bubbles that match in color and size. Their bubbles are quite delicate, so the fish should be kept separately from boisterous types, as well as sharp tank decor. Although the bubbles will regrow if punctured, injury could leave the fish prone to infections. The bubbles can disadvantage the fish as it is not a strong swimmer, with a seemingly low bobbing head at times; bubbles are infamous for being sucked into filters and siphons in an aquarium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "757288",
"title": "Phosphene",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Mechanical stimulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 987,
"text": "The most common phosphenes are pressure phosphenes, caused by rubbing or applying pressure on or near the closed eyes. They have been known since antiquity, and described by the Greeks. The pressure mechanically stimulates the cells of the retina. Experiences include a darkening of the visual field that moves against the rubbing, a diffuse colored patch that also moves against the rubbing, a scintillating and ever-changing and deforming light grid with occasional dark spots (like a crumpling fly-spotted flyscreen), and a sparse field of intense blue points of light. Pressure phosphenes can persist briefly after the rubbing stops and the eyes are opened, allowing the phosphenes to be seen on the visual scene. Hermann von Helmholtz and others have published drawings of their pressure phosphenes. One example of a pressure phosphene is demonstrated by gently pressing the side of one's eye and observing a colored ring of light on the opposite side, as detailed by Isaac Newton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12236804",
"title": "Yakari",
"section": "Section::::Characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "BULLET::::- Broth Eye: A man from Yakari's village. He is extremely lazy and unfit, and spends the day lying in front of his tipi and smoking his pipe. In the cartoon, he is called Eyes-Always-Shut, because every time he is seen he is taking a nap, and often someone steps on his belly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1635353",
"title": "Palatal myoclonus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Palatal myoclonus is a rapid spasm of the palatal (roof of the mouth) muscles, which results in clicking or popping in the ear. The movements of the palate vary in rate between 40 and 200 beats per minute. Chronic clonus is often due to lesions of the central tegmental tract (which connects the red nucleus to the ipsilateral inferior olivary nucleus). Uniquely, the clicking noise does not subside when the patient sleeps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dwqfbs
|
How does the quantum tunneling effect limit development of micro processors and how do we overcome that?
|
[
{
"answer": "When transistors get to a certain size, they can’t always hold electrons back, which can cause false signals and errors in computations. As far as I know, we can’t directly overcome tunneling, we can only work around it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As technology miniaturized within transistors, the materials became so thin that the energy of electrons flowing through them was enough to cause the electrons to tunnel through to the substrate to other transistors or be lost to the substrate of the processor.\n\nAs a professor of mine described it, back in 2007, there was talk of returning to using copper as a means of resolving the issue of voltage loss due to tunneling, but the technology didn't exist at the time to manufacture copper-based transistors at that scale, to the exacting specifications needed. Too many defects. The hope was that nanomaterial construction might resolve this issue and allow copper transistors to take the lead in continuing miniaturization, but multi-core processing instead became the new standard and effectively sidestep the issue for a period of time.\n\nMoving forward, there are a few different options:\n\n1. Metal Oxide barriers between transistors to prevent tunneling\n2. 3D processor layouts (either as stacked layers or as \"folded\" circuits in 3 dimensions)\n3. Graphene-based transistors that take advantage of the ease with which carbon atoms can be arranged on the nanometer scale.\n4. Out in left field, there's always the various moon-shot ideas various computer companies have had to reinvent computing, like HP's \"Machine\" which was advertised as utilizing volatile memory for processing rather than a central core.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "643769",
"title": "Quantum tunnelling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Fundamental quantum mechanical concepts are central to this phenomenon, which makes quantum tunnelling one of the novel implications of quantum mechanics. Quantum tunneling is projected to create physical limits to the size of the transistors used in microprocessors, due to electrons being able to \"tunnel\" past them if the transistors are too small.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7137983",
"title": "Enzyme catalysis",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms of an alternative reaction route.:Quantum tunneling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Quantum tunneling does not appear to provide a major catalytic advantage, since the tunneling contributions are similar in the catalyzed and the uncatalyzed reactions in solution. However, the tunneling contribution (typically enhancing rate constants by a factor of ~1000 compared to the rate of reaction for the classical 'over the barrier' route) is likely crucial to the viability of biological organisms. This emphasizes the general importance of tunneling reactions in biology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20170",
"title": "MIPS architecture",
"section": "Section::::Application-specific extensions.:MIPS multi-threading.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 875,
"text": "Single-threaded microprocessors today waste many cycles while waiting to access memory, considerably limiting system performance. The use of multi-threading masks the effect of memory latency by increasing processor utilization. As one thread stalls, additional threads are instantly fed into the pipeline and executed, resulting in a significant gain in application throughput. Users can allocate dedicated processing bandwidth to real-time tasks resulting in a guaranteed Quality of Service (QoS). MIPS’ MT technology constantly monitors the progress of threads and dynamically takes corrective actions to meet or exceed the real-time requirements. A processor pipeline can achieve 80-90% utilization by switching threads during data-dependent stalls or cache misses. All of this leads to an improved mobile device user experience, as responsiveness is greatly increased. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "643769",
"title": "Quantum tunnelling",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Nuclear fusion in stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Quantum tunneling is essential for nuclear fusion in stars. The temperature in stars' cores is generally insufficient to allow atomic nuclei to overcome the Coulomb barrier and achieve Thermonuclear fusion. Quantum tunneling increases the probability of penetrating this barrier. Though this probability is still low, the extremely large number of nuclei in the core of a star is sufficient to sustain a steady fusion reaction for millions, billions, or even trillions of years - a precondition for the evolution of life in insolation habitable zones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4496518",
"title": "Topological quantum computer",
"section": "Section::::Topological vs. standard quantum computer.:Error correction and control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "Even though quantum braids are inherently more stable than trapped quantum particles, there is still a need to control for error inducing thermal fluctuations, which produce random stray pairs of anyons which interfere with adjoining braids. Controlling these errors is simply a matter of separating the anyons to a distance where the rate of interfering strays drops to near zero. Simulating the dynamics of a topological quantum computer may be a promising method of implementing fault-tolerant quantum computation even with a standard quantum information processing scheme. Raussendorf, Harrington, and Goyal have studied one model, with promising simulation results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "438476",
"title": "Path integral formulation",
"section": "Section::::Quantum tunneling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 245,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 245,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Quantum tunnelling can be modeled by using the path integral formation to determine the action of the trajectory through a potential barrier. Using the WKB approximation, the tunneling rate () can be determined to be of the form\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21803100",
"title": "Micro-Threads (multi core)",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "Micro-threads provide a very good solution to hide memory latency best based on the run-time utilization of the microprocessor. For example, if the memory latency is very high compared to processing and context switching time, more micro-threads can be added; this happens when large data chunks are requested from memory or there are many memory hot-spots. If this ration is small, less micro-threads might be introduced at run-time. This depends on factors related to the implemented application and system's run-time factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
25tb7k
|
Do the rate of calorie intake and weight gain have any relationship?
|
[
{
"answer": "eating an extra 4k in a day would drastically alter hormones via increasing insulin and a variety of other hormones (thyroid hormone for example). these drastic hormone deviations shouldn't be seen if you only eat a couple hundred extra kcal per day.\n\ni'm not quite sure, but I believe the drastic changes in hormone levels would promote lipogenesis to a greater extent. i haven't seen any studies on this.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So if you're eating an excess of 4000 cals a week, regardless of if you eat it in one sitting or in divided meals, you will roughly be gaining a pound a week. This is if the excess of 4000 cals is not used in the week (ex-from exercise) . 1 pound of fat roughly equals to 4082 calories.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1149933",
"title": "Weight gain",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Weight gain has a latency period. The effect that eating has on weight gain can vary greatly depending on the following factors: energy (calorie) density of foods, exercise regimen, amount of water intake, amount of salt contained in the food, time of day eaten, age of individual, individual's country of origin, individual's overall stress level, and amount of water retention in ankles/feet. Typical latency periods vary from three days to two weeks after ingestion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1888887",
"title": "David Cutler",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "Calories expended, however, changed little. Accordingly, Cutler posits that the 20 min average reduced time of food preparation has resulted in an average increase of 100 Cal per day per individual. The extra 100 Cal can largely account for a weight gain of 10-12 lb in the American population over the past 20 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1660393",
"title": "Resting metabolic rate",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Use of REE in weight management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 784,
"text": "Long-term weight management is directly proportional to calories absorbed from feeding; nevertheless, myriad non-caloric factors also play biologically significant roles (not covered here) in estimating energy intake. In counting energy expenditure, the use of a resting measurement (RMR) is the most accurate method for estimating the major portion of Total daily energy expenditure (TEE), thereby giving the closest approximations when planning & following a Calorie Intake Plan. Thus, estimation of REE by indirect calorimetry is strongly recommended for accomplishing long-term weight management, a conclusion reached and maintained due to ongoing observational research by well-respected institutions such as the USDA, AND (previously ADA), ACSM, and internationally by the WHO.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35448473",
"title": "7-Keto-DHEA",
"section": "Section::::Effects and uses.:Increased metabolism/weight loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "A 2007 study demonstrated that administration of 7-keto-DHEA to overweight adults in conjunction with a calorie-restricted diet effectively reverses the decline in resting metabolic rate (RMR) normally associated with dieting. 7-Keto-DHEA demonstrated an ability to increase RMR by 1.4% above baseline levels and demonstrated a 5.4% increase in daily RMR when administered with a calorie-restricted diet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "300445",
"title": "Human chorionic gonadotropin",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:HCG diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "The scientific consensus is that any weight loss reported by individuals on an \"HCG diet\" may be attributed entirely to the fact that such diets prescribe calorie intake of between 500 and 1,000 calories per day, substantially below recommended levels for an adult, to the point that this may risk health effects associated with malnutrition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13649448",
"title": "Obesogen",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms of action.:Central balance of energy.:Peptidergic hormones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "While an increase in food intake is often the case after exposure, weight gain involves the body's maintenance of its metabolic setpoint as well. Given this information, it is particularly important to note that exposure during development and initial programming of these setpoints can be extremely significant throughout the remainder of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37024980",
"title": "School meal programs in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Nutritional guidelines.:Obesity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "Studies comparing NSLP participants and nonparticipants have been inconclusive on whether weight gain rates differ between the two groups. The 2008 Economic Research Service study found \"similar calorie intakes for participants and nonparticipants but higher fat and sodium intakes for participants\". The most obvious challenge to efforts to address such problems is that even if more nutritious foods are provided, there is no guarantee that students will eat them. Additionally, the NSLP does not take into account the physiological differences among participants: Some children are smaller than others, some are more athletic, and some have metabolisms that require more calories than the NSLP allows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
57wqua
|
When listening to music with earbuds/headphones, how are the producers/artists able to make the music only play on one side?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is called stereophonic sound, or simply stereo. It works by storing the music in 2 separate channels, one intended to be played by the speaker (or earbud) on the left side and one for the right side.\n\nOn the recording side, this effect is created by using specific microphone setups, for example two microphones placed some distance apart. Or as an added effect in post production. In this case, the voice moving from side to the other will be an effect that was added after recording where the voice is initially only present in one channel, but is gradually added to the second channel at the same time as it is being muted in the first. This has the effect of the voice moving from one speaker to the other.\n\nThe stereo concept can be extended to more channels and speakers. Surround-sound can contain many channels, each associated with a specific spatial orientation (front-left, back-left, center, front-right, back-right for a standard 5 channel setup) as well as a channel with the low frequencies specifically meant to be player on a subwoofer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "/u/Rannasha gave a great explanation. I'd just like to add a tidbit about the earbuds/headphones. Most of these use that 3.5mm analog mini-audio connector. If you look closely, you can see three different sections on the male connector. It looks tiered, and sometimes there is even a colored band separating them. For audio output, one of those is a left channel, one a right channel, and the other is typically a ground. Your earbuds will have two separate wires from that connector and the media file will be encoded to use those two channels.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2330675",
"title": "Dummy head recording",
"section": "Section::::Technical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Conventional music recording is produced for stereo playback which makes use of only Left and Right playback for speakers and headphones. The implementation of Dummy Head allows the recording artist to make use of three dimensional sound reproduction. This is because through playback via headphones the listener perceives sound as if they were in the position of the dummy. The recording is perceived through the pinnae of the dummy head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8019958",
"title": "Feels Good",
"section": "Section::::Sampling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "The song samples Think (About It). Two turntables were used in the process. One which plays the break in reverse and can be heard in the left ear. The other plays the break normally and can be heard in the right ear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2193225",
"title": "Headphone amplifier",
"section": "Section::::Professional audio models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Headphone amps with sub-mixing capabilities allow the listener to adjust, mix and monitor audio signals coming from multiple sources at the same time. This kind of headphone amp is often utilized during recording sessions to sub-mix playback of individual stem-mixes or instruments coming from a mixing board or a playback device. In many cases the listeners have their own sets of controls allowing them to adjust various aspects of the mix and individual and global parameters such as channel level, global loudness, bass and treble.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16422400",
"title": "Mitsuhiro Yoshimura",
"section": "Section::::Music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Yoshimura's music makes use of auditory feedback which he creates using a microphone (to pick up the noise in the room of performance), a small mixing console (used to carry the signal and to record performances), an equalizer (to adjust the frequencies sent to the output - the equaliser is set up prior to, and is left untouched throughout, the performance) and a set of headphones (which project the sound back into the room - no other amplification is used). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "580209",
"title": "Jeff Ament",
"section": "Section::::Musical style and influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "I have to be able to feel the bass. I've worked hard with our producers to make sure that when you play our records on your stereo, you can feel the bass. You might not necessarily be able to hear it all the time, but if you turn it up you can feel the movement in the low end—that it's moving the song. And when it's not there, it should be creating a dynamic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28300695",
"title": "Mount Kimbie",
"section": "Section::::Style.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "The duo use field recordings to form major elements of their music. \"It’s amazing what you can pick up with a field microphone. I mean, you might just hear someone riding around but when you slow it down it’s almost like there’s a beat to it. And then just taking little pockets of that rhythm and stretching it out. A lot of what we do is about experimenting with different little bits of tone that you don’t necessarily hear on the first listen... and then trying to make songs out of them.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191884",
"title": "Headphones",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "In the professional audio sector, headphones are used in live situations by disc jockeys with a DJ mixer, and sound engineers for monitoring signal sources. In radio studios, DJs use a pair of headphones when talking to the microphone while the speakers are turned off to eliminate acoustic feedback while monitoring their own voice. In studio recordings, musicians and singers use headphones to play or sing along to a backing track or band. In military applications, audio signals of many varieties are monitored using headphones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b1aeai
|
Wikipedia says that when Constantinople fell and the Hagia Sophia was converted to a mosque, the mosiacs depicting Jesus were either covered or destroyed. Since Muslims believe in Jesus, why were these mosaics covered or destroyed?
|
[
{
"answer": "While waiting for an answer to your specific question to come in, here are a couple of posts with in-depth answers which discuss very similar topics:\n\n[Post regarding portraits of Ottoman Sultans](_URL_1_) (credit /u/Polgara19)\n\n[Post regarding depictions of the prophet Muhammed](_URL_0_) (credit /u/Labrydian)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well the thing is, that during the first centuries of Hagia Sophia's history as a Mosque the mosaics were infact uncovered and were still prominently on display. When Cornelius Loos made his engravings of Constantinople around 1710, he documented the mosaics [pretty clearly](_URL_0_) (this example is particularily striking as it shows the Virgin Mary, still prominent over the Islamic Mihrab). Some of his engravings even show mosaics that have now been [completely lost](_URL_1_). \n\nShortly after Loos made these engravings, the mosaics of the mosque were covered up and [replaced with white plaster](_URL_2_). We don't know for sure when this happened as there is no official proclaimation, but the interior of the Hagia Sophia was renovated in 1717, so it is quite possible that this is when the mosaics were covered up, just 17 years after Loos made his drawings. \n\nSo what took the Ottomans so long, and why did they make the decision to cover these mosaics up by almost 400 years after they took the city? There were several renovations to the Hagia Sophia after the conquest, so why did they not cover them up?\n\nThe preservation of the mosaics seem to have been an intentional choice. For example, the windows, altar, bell tower and Patriarchate of the Hagia Sophia were all destroyed or replaced. The Ottoman Sultans could have easily also destroyed the mosaics or covered them up, but they didn't for whatever reason. Here are a few theories I have heard for why the mosaics may have been preserved and later covered up:\n\nIt may be that these mosaics were preserved to serve as trophies of the conquest. The Hagia Sophia was itself preserved partially for this reason. The presence of the mosaics next to the Islamic calligraphy and Mihrab would remind the visitor of what used to be, and clearly signal the appropriation and reconversion of this former church.\n\nAnother theory might be that the Ottomans, despite being Muslim, wanted to emphasize some degree of continuity, or respect with the past. That these mosaics were to be admired for their beauty rather than for their religious significance, and give the Ottoman Sultans legitimacy as protectors and successors of the Roman imperial past. Mehmed II did proclaim himself Caesar of Rome after all, and specifically decided to have the Hagia Sophia converted from Imperial Church to Imperial Mosque to bolster this claim. \n\nBut if any of these were the case, why were these mosaics later covered up? Well for one, the Ottoman Empire in 1717 was in a very different place compared to earlier centuries. Ottoman Sultans no longer really took their claims as Caesar of Rome seriously (After Suleiman the title seems to have faded into obscurity). The Ottomans were also slowly being encroached by the Habsburg and Russian Empire to its north and west. The Empire would manage to survive this encroachment, but the sudden losses to Christian states may have provoked a defensive attitude among some Ottomans, which may have made these Christian mosaics in the Imperial Mosque somewhat uncomfortable. Several other former churches in Constantinople, like the Zeyrek Mosque and the Little Hagia Sophia also had their mosaics covered in plaster during the 18th Century aswell. Which implies that it may have been a larger ideological change that caused this.\n\nIt is also important to point out that by the 18th Century these mosaics were in very poor condition and were probably falling apart. Some of the broken tesserae from the mosaics were even stolen by local salesmen, who would sell them as \"gemstones\". So the mosaics may simply have been covered up because they were falling apart, which accidentally saved many of them and allowed them to be uncovered much later. \n\nIt is tempting to want to look for theological reasons for why the mosaics were covered up. But it becomes difficult to reconcile such arguments with the nearly 400-year long preservation of the mosaics in the mosque. \n\nI hope this answered your question in a satisfactory manner. If you want me to elaborate more, just ask.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61309",
"title": "Mosaic",
"section": "Section::::History.:Christian mosaics.:Byzantine mosaics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "The 9th- and 10th-century mosaics of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople are truly classical Byzantine artworks. The north and south tympana beneath the dome was decorated with figures of prophets, saints and patriarchs. Above the principal door from the narthex we can see an \"Emperor kneeling before Christ\" (late 9th or early 10th century). Above the door from the southwest vestibule to the narthex another mosaic shows the \"Theotokos with Justinian and Constantine\". Justinian I is offering the model of the church to Mary while Constantine is holding a model of the city in his hand. Both emperors are beardless – this is an example for conscious archaization as contemporary Byzantine rulers were bearded. A mosaic panel on the gallery shows \"Christ with Constantine Monomachos and Empress Zoe\" (1042–1055). The emperor gives a bulging money sack to Christ as a donation for the church.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42764",
"title": "Hagia Sophia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1177,
"text": "In 1453, Constantinople was conquered by the Ottoman Empire under Mehmed the Conqueror, who ordered this main church of Orthodox Christianity converted into a mosque. Although some parts of the city of Constantinople had fallen into disrepair, the cathedral had been maintained with funds set aside for this purpose, and the Christian cathedral made a strong impression on the new Ottoman rulers who conceived its conversion..\" LiveScience. The bells, altar, iconostasis, and other relics were destroyed and the mosaics depicting Jesus, his Mother Mary, Christian saints, and angels were also destroyed or plastered over. Islamic features – such as the mihrab (a niche in the wall indicating the direction toward Mecca, for prayer), minbar (pulpit), and four minarets – were added. It remained a mosque until 1931 when it was closed to the public for four years. It was re-opened in 1935 as a museum by the Republic of Turkey. Hagia Sophia was, , the second-most visited museum in Turkey, attracting almost 3.3 million visitors annually. According to data released by the Turkish Culture and Tourism Ministry, Hagia Sophia was Turkey's most visited tourist attraction in 2015.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25174634",
"title": "Christian influences in Islam",
"section": "Section::::Art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "After the fall of Constantinople, the Ottomans converted a major basilica, Hagia Sophia, to a mosque and incorporated Byzantine architectural elements into their own work, such as domes. This was a part of the conversion of non-Muslim places of worship into mosques. The Hagia Sophia also served as model for many Ottoman mosques, such as the Shehzadeh Mosque, the Suleiman Mosque and the Rüstem Pasha Mosque. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11027152",
"title": "Hagia Sophia, Thessaloniki",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Since the 3rd century, there was a church in the location of the current Hagia Sophia. In the 8th century, the present structure was erected, based on the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (present-day Istanbul, Turkey). In 1205, when the Fourth Crusade captured the city, the Hagia Sophia was converted into the cathedral of Thessaloniki, which it remained after the city was returned to the Byzantine Empire in 1246. After the capture of Thessaloniki by the Ottoman Sultan Murad II on 29 March 1430, the church was converted into a mosque. It was reconverted to a church upon the liberation of Thessaloniki in 1912.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2969846",
"title": "Hagia Irene",
"section": "Section::::History.:Church architecture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "The building reputedly stands on the site of a pre-Christian temple. It ranks as the first church completed in Constantinople, before Hagia Sophia, during its transfiguration from a Greek trading colony to the eastern capital of the Roman Empire. According to later tradition, the Roman emperor Constantine I commissioned the first Hagia Irene church in the 4th century, which was completed by the end of his reign (337). It served as the church of the Patriarchate before Hagia Sophia was completed in 360 under Constantius II. During the Nika revolt in 532, Hagia Irene was burned down. Emperor Justinian I had the church rebuilt in 548. It was then damaged again by an earthquake on October 20, 740, about six months before the death of Leo III. The Emperor Constantine V ordered the restorations and had its interior decorated with mosaics and frescoes. Some restorations from this time have survived to the present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42764",
"title": "Hagia Sophia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Basilica of the Hagia Sophia (current structure).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Hagia Sophia was the seat of the Orthodox patriarch of Constantinople and a principal setting for Byzantine imperial ceremonies, such as coronations. Like other churches throughout Christendom, the basilica offered sanctuary from persecution to outlaws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "276104",
"title": "Islamic architecture",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Vaulting.:Domes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1298,
"text": "When the Ottomans had conquered Constantinople, they found a variety of Byzantine Christian churches, the largest and most prominent amongst them was the Hagia Sophia. The brickwork-and-mortar ribs and the spherical shell of the central dome of the Hagia Sophia were built simultaneously, as a self-supporting structure without any wooden centring. In the early Byzantine church of Hagia Irene, the ribs of the dome vault are fully integrated into the shell, similar to Western Roman domes, and thus are not visible from within the building. In the dome of the Hagia Sophia, the ribs and shell of the dome unite in a central medallion at the apex of the dome, the upper ends of the ribs being integrated into the shell: Shell and ribs form one single structural entity. In later Byzantine buildings, like the Kalenderhane Mosque, the Eski Imaret Mosque (formerly the Monastery of Christ Pantepoptes) or the Pantokrator Monastery (today: Zeyrek Mosque), the central medallion of the apex and the ribs of the dome became separate structural elements: The ribs are more pronounced and connect to the central medallion, which also stands out more pronouncedly, so that the entire construction gives the impression as if ribs and medallion are separate from, and underpin, the proper shell of the dome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
fyq6o
|
Why do certain materials in my dishwasher retain water so much longer than others?
|
[
{
"answer": "Heat capacity. \n\nCeramic/Metallic objects can store a lot more heat during the long wash/rinse cycles than plastic objects can. During the drying cycle, that helps evaporate any water that remains on them, while the plastic objects cool off before the water evaporates.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1569600",
"title": "Thermal expansion",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Factors affecting thermal expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Absorption or desorption of water (or other solvents) can change the size of many common materials; many organic materials change size much more due to this effect than due to thermal expansion. Common plastics exposed to water can, in the long term, expand by many percent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81036",
"title": "Dishwasher",
"section": "Section::::Process.:Drying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "The heat inside the dishwasher dries the contents after the final hot rinse; the final rinse adds a small amount of rinse-aid to the hot water, as this improves drying significantly by reducing the inherent surface tension of the water. Plastic and non-stick items form drops with smaller surface area and may not dry properly compared to china and glass, which also store more heat that better evaporate the little water that remains on them. Some dishwashers incorporate a fan to improve drying. Older dishwashers with a visible heating element (at the bottom of the wash cabinet, below the bottom basket) may use the heating element to improve drying; however, this uses more energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233234",
"title": "Silica gel",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Desiccant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "In many items, moisture encourages the growth of mold and spoilage. Condensation may also damage other items like electronics and may speed the decomposition of chemicals, such as those in vitamin pills. Through the inclusion of silica gel packets, these items can be preserved longer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3682802",
"title": "Vespel",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics and applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Unlike most plastics, it does not produce significant outgassing even at high temperatures, which makes it useful for lightweight heat shields and crucible support. It also performs well in vacuum applications, down to extremely low cryogenic temperatures. However, Vespel tends to absorb a small amount of water, resulting in longer pump time while placed in a vacuum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14730177",
"title": "Glass production",
"section": "Section::::Glass container production.:Lifecycle impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Of course glass containers can also be reused, and in developing countries this is common, however the environmental impact of washing containers as against remelting them is uncertain. Factors to consider here are the chemicals and fresh water used in the washing, and the fact that a single-use container can be made much lighter, using less than half the glass (and therefore energy content) of a multiuse container. Also, a significant factor in the developed world's consideration of reuse are producer concerns over the risk and consequential product liability of using a component (the reused container) of unknown and unqualified safety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11742509",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of textiles",
"section": "Section::::Cleaning.:Wet cleaning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "One of the key standards of preservation is that of reversibility: anything done to preserve a piece should be able to be undone with minimal damage to the piece itself. Because wet cleaning is a chemical process, it is not reversible, and so should be used only when absolutely necessary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2027920",
"title": "Blow molding",
"section": "Section::::Typologies.:Spin trimming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "Containers such as jars often have an excess of material due to the molding process. This is trimmed off by spinning a knife around the container which cuts the material away. This excess plastic is then recycled to create new moldings. Spin Trimmers are used on a number of materials, such as PVC, HDPE and PE+LDPE. Different types of the materials have their own physical characteristics affecting trimming. For example, moldings produced from amorphous materials are much more difficult to trim than crystalline materials. Titanium coated blades are often used rather than standard steel to increase life by a factor of 30 times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2bpu0j
|
why shouldn't you clean your earwax?
|
[
{
"answer": "Cleaning earwax is fine, cleaning too much is when their is an issue. As earwax protects your ears from excess sound, so too little earwax can result in damaged eardrums. \nI normally just wrap a tissue round my little finger and clean my ear, this means that only some wax is cleaned as the finger is too big to go fully into the ear.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The issue arises with the usage of Q-tips. The Q-tip gets into the inner part of your ear canal, where the skin is connected to the underlying bone (opposed to the outer part of your ear canal where there's more connective tissue in between). Irritation in that area can cause an ear canal inflammation, which hurts alot",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The good news is that since you have dry earwax you are unlikely to produce bad body odor.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just think of your ears as a more sensitive nose. Your snot carries out bacteria, dust and the like and so does earwax but if you try to hard to blow your nose (or pick it) then it starts getting irritated as will your ears.\nGenerally you shouldn't be forcing something actually inside your ear to clean it. Basically the parts your fingers can touch if you scratch it are safe to clean, don't try to dig in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I jammed some wax down into my ear with a q-tip one time. Plugged up my hearing until the guy at the clinic used a turkey baster to pump water in there and man out came a lot of gunk. Felt great.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6552945",
"title": "Ear pick",
"section": "Section::::Potential hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "Ear cleaning in general may also be ineffective when used by one with little experience or guidance. When done incorrectly, significant amounts of ear wax may be pushed deeper into the ear canal rather than removed. The lining of the ear is delicate and can be easily damaged. The ear is also self-cleaning and earwax is needed to protect the ear from dirt, dust, and bacterial infections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "425379",
"title": "Earwax",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Earwax, also known by the medical term cerumen, is a gray, orange, red or yellowish waxy substance secreted in the ear canal of humans and other mammals. It protects the skin of the human ear canal, assists in cleaning and lubrication, and also provides protection against bacteria, fungi, insects, and water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1735374",
"title": "Ear canal",
"section": "Section::::Earwax.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "Earwax, also known as cerumen, is a yellowish, waxy substance secreted in the ear canals. It plays an important role in the human ear canal, assisting in cleaning and lubrication, and also provides some protection from bacteria, fungi, and insects. Excess or impacted cerumen can press against the eardrum and/or occlude the external auditory canal and impair hearing, causing conductive hearing loss. If left untreated, cerumen impaction can also increase the risk of developing an infection within the ear canal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6589243",
"title": "Otitis externa in animals",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Specifics of treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Cleaning of the ears is very important for treatment of ear infections. Home remedy cleansing and antiseptic mixtures are made from isopropyl (rubbing) alcohol, boric acid, acetic acid (vinegar), and many herbal extracts in various proportions. In some recipes, povidone-iodine (\"betadine\") is added as well. Some natural ear cleaners may slightly lower the pH levels in dogs' ears, making the ear less susceptible to recurring infections. Many commercial ear cleaners are also available in retail stores and online.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147020",
"title": "Hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Personal hygiene.:Excessive body hygiene.:Excessive body hygiene of internal ear canals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "Excessive body hygiene of the ear canals can result in infection or irritation. The ear canals require less body hygiene care than other parts of the body, because they are sensitive, and the body adequately cares for them. Most of the time the ear canals are self-cleaning; that is, there is a slow and orderly migration of the skin lining the ear canal from the eardrum to the outer opening of the ear. Old earwax is constantly being transported from the deeper areas of the ear canal out to the opening where it usually dries, flakes, and falls out. Attempts to clean the ear canals through the removal of earwax can reduce ear canal cleanliness by pushing debris and foreign material into the ear that the natural movement of ear wax out of the ear would have removed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3200774",
"title": "Mishpatim",
"section": "Section::::In classical rabbinic interpretation.:Exodus chapter 21.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Rabbi Eleazar reasoned that because uses the term \"ear\" (in connection with the slave who refused to go out free) and also uses the term \"ear\" (in connection with the purification ritual for one with skin disease), just as explicitly requires using the right ear of the one to be cleansed, so must also require using the slave's right ear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6589243",
"title": "Otitis externa in animals",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "The aim of cleaning is to remove any byproducts of the infection which lead to further irritation and discomfort, and may be in turn, causes of further infection. Good care often involves cleaning the ear daily, to prevent build-up and bring the infection under control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4yq5xv
|
why is there little to no border security between european nations.
|
[
{
"answer": "There's an agreement between many European countries called the Schengen Agreement. This means they have all agreed to abolish border controls between their countries, and cooperate on maintaining border controls with countries outside of the Schengen Area. So for the purposes of border controls, it's as if they were a single country, including when it comes to issuing visas.\n\nThis is not strictly part of the EU, but it's closely related. Not all EU countries are in Schengen and there's some non-EU countries in it. For example UK, Ireland and Cyprus are currently in the EU, but not in Schengen. While Norway, Switzerland and Iceland are in Schengen but not the EU.\n\nIt is closely tied to the EU because in general EU members are expected to join Schengen eventually. Although some members have an opt out (including the UK, but it's leaving the EU anyway so it's moot).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18020481",
"title": "Directorate-General of Customs and Indirect Taxes",
"section": "Section::::Jurisdiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "European Union laws prohibit systematic customs checks at any border between two members of its Customs Union. So, there is permanent customs facility at the borders with these countries. However, France has borders with non members of this Union : Switzerland, Andorra, Brazil and Surinam. At these borders are located customs facilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "247927",
"title": "Border control",
"section": "Section::::Aspects.:Border security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1832,
"text": "Another example of border security in Europe is the Israeli anti-tunnel barrier along its border with the Gaza Strip, a part of the State of Palestine under the control of Hamas (a militant group backed by the Muslim Brotherhood, a Qatari-sponsored fundamentalist organisation). In order to curtail Hamas’s ability to build tunnels into Israeli-controlled territory, Israel have built a slurry wall. Similarly, Saudi Arabia has begun construction of a border barrier or fence between its territory and Yemen to prevent the unauthorized movement of people and goods. The difference between the countries' economic situations means that many Yemenis head to Saudi Arabia to find work. Saudi Arabia does not have a barrier with its other neighbors in the Gulf Cooperation Council, whose economies are more similar. In 2006 Saudi Arabia proposed constructing a security fence along the entire length of its 900 kilometre long desert border with Iraq in a multimillion-dollar project to secure the Kingdom's borders in order to improve internal security, control illegal immigration, and bolster its defences against external threats. As of July 2009 it was reported that Saudis will pay $3.5 billion for security fence. The combined wall and ditch will be 600 miles long and include five layers of fencing, watch towers, night-vision cameras, and radar cameras and manned by 30,000 troops. Elsewhere in Europe, the Republic of Macedonia began erecting a fence on its border with Greece in November 2015. On the land border between Palestine and the portion of the Sinai peninsula adminitered by the African nation of Egypt, the latter began construction of a border barrier in 2009 prompted by concern that militant organisations were making use of the Gaza Strip smuggling tunnels to move weapons and personnel between Gaza and Egypt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "247613",
"title": "Border",
"section": "Section::::Types of international borders.:Open borders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "An open border is the deregulation and or lack of regulation on the movement of persons between nations and jurisdictions, this does not apply to trade or movement between privately owned land areas. Most nations have open borders for travel within their nation of travel, examples of this include the United States and Canada. However, only a handful of nations have deregulated open borders with other nations, an example of this being all European Union members under the Schengen Agreement. Open borders used to be very common amongst all nations. However post WW1 lead to the regulation of open borders, making them less common and no longer feasible for most industrialized nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49919158",
"title": "Trump wall",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Many contemporary examples of border barriers are considered to be effective. Like the Berlin Wall, the Hungarian border barrier, the Spanish Ceuta border fence, and the Israeli border walls, like the Israeli West Bank barrier. In general they lowered the number of illegal border crossings. In Hungary, for example, the number of illegal immigrants dropped from 4500 per day to 15 per day, after a 175 km. long and 4 meter high fence was constructed in 2015. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7124412",
"title": "Illegal immigration",
"section": "Section::::Illegal immigrant populations by country or region.:Schengen Area.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "EU countries that are not members of the Schengen Agreement are still committed to allow lawful entry by citizens of EU countries; they may however exercise border control at their discretion. This typically presents a significant hindrance to persons who are trying to enter those countries illegally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191539",
"title": "No Border network",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "The No Border Network (In the United Kingdom also called \"No Borders Network\" or \"Noborders Network\") refers to loose associations of autonomous organisations, groups, and individuals in Western Europe, Central Europe, Eastern Europe and beyond. They support freedom of movement and resist human migration control by coordinating international border camps, demonstrations, direct actions, and anti-deportation campaigns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46415102",
"title": "European migrant crisis",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Schengen Area and Dublin Regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "In the Schengen Agreement of 14 June 1985, 26 European countries (22 of the 28 European Union member states, plus four European Free Trade Association states) joined together to form an area where border checks on internal Schengen borders (i.e. between member states) are abolished and instead checks are restricted to the external Schengen borders and countries with external borders are obligated to enforce border control regulations. Countries may reinstate internal border controls for a maximum of two months for \"public policy or national security\" reasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
501ve3
|
How did ancient/medieval wars lasting for dozens, hundred+ years work?
|
[
{
"answer": "The Peloponnesian War lasted over two dozen years (431–404 BC). Think of it as being something akin to the Cold War (the modern one between USA and Russia) where it is mostly political maneuvering and proxy wars. However unlike the Cold War, direct and intense fighting between the two biggest warring states (Sparta and Athens) did also break out with multiple cities being captured or destroyed. But there would also be times of relative peace after armistices or peace treaties were signed. However, the peace treaties were not enough to stop the conflict from continuing, if they were ever intended to. For instance, the Peace of Nicias, at the time called the \"Fifty-Year Peace\" was intended to last 50 years. It lasted about 5 years. The Athenians' main goal of the treaty was to have Amphipolis returned to their control, but that was negotiated out of the treaty. So it was pretty much determined that the fighting would definitely resume and the Fifty-Year peace was just an indefinite armistice. \n\nYou might ask, five years is a long time, shouldn't that be called a different war, then? Yes and no. The two phases of the war between the Peace of Nicias are called the Archidamian War and the Ionian War. However because it is essentially the same conflict with mostly the same parties involved, fighting for the same reasons, it is all considered one war even though there were long periods of relative peace. When it comes to two major expansionist powers that are close to each other, it is often just a matter of perspective as to when one war has ended and another has begun. Some historians would say that WW1 and WW2 were really just one long war and it is possible that future historians will give them just one name which everyone will commonly refer to them by. This is called periodization: picking a start and end point for a given series of events in order to facilitate study and discussion. You can't really study The Ionian War without also studying the Archidamian War. Thus we have the Peloponessian War.\n\n So you have something like The Hundred Years' War, which you probably had in mind when you asked this question, which could also be considered three separate wars: The Edwardian Era War (1337-1360), the Caroline War (1369–1389), and the Lancastrian War (1415–1453). So The Hundred Years' War is \"war that lasted 116 years\" but during that time there was 35 years of truce.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Generally, such \"wars\" are a sequence of conflicts spread out over a long period where each individual conflict does not resolve the overall state of hostility between the opponents. They would specifically not be one long ongoing \"war\" with battle occurring constantly for a series of years.\n\nSome modern examples might include the WWI + WWII series of wars, or the Cold War. One could easily consider the two World Wars as part of a larger conflict, and if they had happened farther back in the past it's likely there would be more historians arguing they be treated that way. As for the Cold War, there were several \"hot\" wars during it (Korea, Vietnam, Afghanistan, lots of smaller wars without direct involvement of a major power, etc.) over a period of nearly half a century.\n\nGoing back farther, there are many similar examples. In the Napoleonic wars you have multiple different campaigns over the course of a decade. But each one was in itself not that long and the overall conflict can be broken up into about 6 or 7 different individual wars, combined with the overall conflict between France and Britain (which normally didn't involve full-scale armed conflict between the two powers). You have the hundred years war, which saw individual conflicts intermixed with periods of stalemate or hostile but mostly passive co-existence and periods of peace.\n\nA good modern example would be the Arab/Israeli conflict, which has persisted for over 60 years. At no point in the ongoing conflict was one side or the other defeated to the point of losing their sovereignty. Every war has resolved in a way that has left the belligerents in a condition to continue the conflict in the future and retain their hostilities toward one another. That's what an extended war typically looks like. A series of battles or even a series of wars over a long period of time, where none of the individual battles resolves the underlying conflict or results in a change of the conditions which allow the conflict to continue.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19038039",
"title": "Hundred Years' War",
"section": "Section::::Significance.:Military significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "The Hundred Years' War was a time of rapid military evolution. Weapons, tactics, army structure and the social meaning of war all changed, partly in response to the war's costs, partly through advancement in technology and partly through lessons that warfare taught. The feudal system was slowly disintegrating throughout the hundred years war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "962433",
"title": "Ancient warfare",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "Ancient warfare is war as conducted from the beginnings of recorded history to the end of the ancient period. In Europe and the Near East, the end of antiquity is often equated with the Fall of Rome in 476 AD, the wars of the Eastern Roman Empire on its Southwestern Asian and North African borders, and the beginnings of the Muslim conquests in the 7th century. In China, it can also be seen as ending with the growing role of mounted warriors needed to counter the ever-growing threat from the north in the 5th century and the beginning of the Tang dynasty in 618. In India, the ancient period ends with the decline of the Gupta Empire (6th century) and the beginning of the Muslim conquests there from the 8th century. In Japan, the ancient period can be taken to end with the rise of feudalism in the Kamakura period in the 12–13th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51320",
"title": "Ancient history",
"section": "Section::::Developments.:Warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Ancient warfare is war as conducted from the beginnings of recorded history to the end of the ancient period. In Europe, the end of antiquity is often equated with the fall of Rome in 476. In China, it can also be seen as ending in the 5th century, with the growing role of mounted warriors needed to counter the ever-growing threat from the north.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "653520",
"title": "Medieval: Total War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Medieval: Total War is a turn-based strategy and real-time tactics computer game developed by Creative Assembly and published by Activision. Set in the Middle Ages, it is the second game in the \"Total War\" series, following on from the 2000 title \"\". Originally announced in August 2001, the game was released in North America on 19 August 2002 and in Europe on 30 August for Microsoft Windows.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "653520",
"title": "Medieval: Total War",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "\"Medieval: Total War\" is based upon the building of an empire across medieval Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. It focuses on the warfare, religion and politics of the time to ultimately lead the player in conquest of the known world. As with the preceding \"Total War\" game, \"Shogun: Total War\", the game consists of two broad areas of gameplay: a turn-based campaign map that allows the user to move armies across provinces, control agents, diplomacy, religion, and other tasks needed to run their faction, and a real-time battlefield, where the player directs the land battles and sieges that occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "962433",
"title": "Ancient warfare",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 578,
"text": "No clear line can be drawn between ancient and medieval warfare. The characteristic properties of medieval warfare, notably heavy cavalry and siege engines such as the trebuchet were first introduced in Late Antiquity. The main division within the ancient period is rather at the beginning Iron Age with the introduction of cavalry (resulting in the decline of chariot warfare), of naval warfare (Sea Peoples), and the development of an industry based on ferrous metallurgy which allowed for the mass production of metal weapons and thus the equipment of large standing armies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10384511",
"title": "Medieval II: Total War: Kingdoms",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Medieval II: Total War Kingdoms is the expansion to the 2006 turn-based strategy PC game \"\". It was developed by Creative Assembly. The expansion was released on 28 August 2007 in North America and has four new campaigns: the first wave of European colonization of the Americas, the series of wars (including the Welsh Conquest, the Irish Invasion, the Scottish–Norwegian War, the Scottish Independence War and the Barons' Rebellion) fought on British Isles during the 13th century, the Third and Fourth Crusades, and the Northern Crusades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4avf9x
|
Did the Communist party have any chance of success in the post WW1 world?
|
[
{
"answer": "In hindsight, they probably did not have much of a chance of success. Electoral Communism had its high-water mark on the Continent as minor coalition partners to much-farther-right, distinctly-anti-Soviet labor and social democratic parties in proportional representation nations. (It never had more than one or two MPs in first-past-the-post Britain.) Revolutionary Communism was DOA almost everywhere it wasn't imposed by Soviet occupiers. The closest Communism got to power in the West was Republican Spain, and that through a lot of clever backstabbing in the chaos of the Civil War, with the end result not of victory but of enabling Franco to mop up rather more easily than he might have against a unified center-left coalition. \n\nThe rather more interesting question is, with the evidence then available, were those fears reasonable. I think that here you would say, \"somewhat so, at least.\"\n\nData points supporting this:\n\nThe Soviet revolution was truly shocking, a new thing on the face of the Earth. If the French Revolution and the Terror had been a passing fit, this was the chronic disease. It was not unreasonable to believe the Soviets would export revolution or that a sufficiently motivated Communist movement, supported by the Soviets, might powerfully try to execute something similar given a sufficient background of disorder. (Indeed, the Spanish Civil War proved those fears entirely right, even if the effort still fell short).\n\nWorld War One had created death and dismemberment, industrialization, economic mobilization and privation, and social tumult quite unlike anything Britain, France and Germany had experienced. It was not at all unreasonable to expect worker militancy and political mobilization. And, indeed, that happened. Unionization exploded, political parties favoring or favored by unions grew dramatically, etc. Electoral and revolutionary Communism were not able to catch the benefit, but the property-owning establishment couldn't have known that more centrist parties and labor organizations would be the beneficiaries. (In the UK, Labour surpassed the Liberals first in 1922, and were in government, albeit short-lived, in 1923.) That the post-war environment would be generally fruitful for unions and their political parties was re-demonstrated in 1945 by Clement Attlee's Labour victories coming despite Churchill's personal popularity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I cannot speak for the entire world, but in Germany Post-War Communism did not have any chance of actual success. \n\nThe November Revolution, from the outside, may sound like (as it was meant to) a Bolshevist styled uprising like in October in Russia, but the extreme-Left of the social-democratic party was a minority, uncertain of how to go about a revolution, but definitely wanting to avoid violence. \n\nTo avoid a lot of perhaps unecessary detail it can be framed this way:\nIf the extreme-Left of the Social-Democratic party (which subsequently formed the German Communist Party KPD) was not only already a minority, but also ideologically split themselves, *and* if violence was to be avoided *and* the entire nation was shook to its core from the worst war in human history *and* a moderate party representing a good portion of the German civilian population and the officers of the army has most of the power, the KPD never really stood a real chance.\n\nMost Western Governments at this point were already aggressive towards Bolshevism, meaning domestic leftist movements were stigmatized through association. Thus, with few exceptions, Communist Parties never really had much of a chance post WWI. \n\nIf you are curious I could be more specific, but I hope this helps!",
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},
{
"answer": "Certainly the belief in the possibility that communists could come to power -- if not via the ballot box then via the bayonet -- was widespread.\nFirst a bit of background information (jump to the last two paragraphs for a tl;dr). Since around the turn of the century, it was clear that a split had emerged among social democrats regarding the means to best ameliorate the lives of the proletariat. \"Social democracy\" itself was a nebulous concept: for example, Bolsheviks and Mensheviks existed together, if uneasily, in the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party for a decade and a half, although using contemporary terms we would call the former \"communist\" and the latter \"social democrats\". In other words, Communists (Marxist-Leninists) advocated for the need for sudden revolutionary action, while Social Democrats (Marxists) had acquiesced to political reform via gradual, parliamentary change. (Although, based on responses to Eduard Bernstein during the Revisionism crisis beginning in 1896, social democrats were not willing to admit this themselves -- the German SPD did not formally abandon class struggle versus capitalism until the Godesberg Program of 1959).\n\nA quick look at the progression of the Three Internationals showing the winnowing of socialist ideas shows how we got to the post-WWI environment:\nThe First International (1864-76) contained a broad spectrum of leftist schools of thought, including anarchism and trade-unionism, and is best known for the struggle between Bakunin and Marx for intellectual leadership of the movement.\nThe Second International (1889-1916) was marked the ascendancy of German Social Democracy in international socialism, in part due to its vibrant presence while outlawed (1878-1890) and impressive showing Reichstag elections. Though ultimately torn asunder by the inability of social patriots and anti-socialists to reconcile with one another over World War I, this period marked the high water point for \"classic\" international social democratic thought. \nThe Third International (1919-1943), by contrast, featured explicitly communist parties as participants. Revolutionary violence was considered acceptable in the fight for human emancipation and world communism. \n\nThus in addition to the Russian Civil War and German examples already provided, one could look to the Finnish Civil War of 1918, the Hungarian Soviet Republic of 1919 and attempted coups in Georgia (May, 1920), Bulgaria (September, 1923) and Estonia (December, 1924). Except for the victory of the Bolsheviks, none of these Reds ultimately prevailed. The next time, however, they might. It was in this sense that the specter of communism haunted the minds of many in the immediate post-War years and led to widespread red-baiting throughout the interwar period.\n\nIt is sometimes difficult to appreciate (then and now) in Western Europe and North America how notoriously unstable parliamentary democracy was in the newly independent states of Central and Eastern Europe. Their fortuitous emergence from the ashes of the continent's empires meant that they were unprepared for the challenge of democratic governance, not to mention foreign policy questions regarding border and extra-territorial co-nationals, and thus most vulnerable to radical political change -- and not just communist. In fact, if the years through 1925 were marked by communist coups, then the years 1926-1939 (beginning with Poland's May Coup) were marked by authoritarian counterreactions, often \"justified\" by the putative threat of further communist unrest. (The First Czechoslovak Republic and Finland are notable exceptions to this regional trend.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "336436",
"title": "Communists in the United States Labor Movement (1919–37)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "The Communist Party and its allies played an important role in the United States labor movement, particularly in the 1930s and 1940s, but never succeeded, with rare exceptions, either in bringing the labor movement around to its agenda of fighting for socialism and full workers' control over industry, or in converting their influence in any particular union into membership gains for the Party. The CP has had only negligible influence in labor since its supporters' defeat in internal union political battles in the aftermath of World War II and the CIO's expulsion of the unions in which they held the most influence in 1950. After the expulsion of the Communists, organized labor in the United States began a steady decline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7271",
"title": "Communist Party of the Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::History.:Stalin era (1924–53).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "The Communist International was dissolved in 1943 after it was concluded that such an organization had failed to prevent the rise of fascism and the global war necessary to defeat it. After the 1945 Allied victory of World War II, the Party held to a doctrine of establishing socialist governments in the post-war occupied territories that would be administered by Communists loyal to Stalin's administration. The party also sought to expand its sphere of influence beyond the occupied territories, using proxy wars and espionage and providing training and funding to promote Communist elements abroad, leading to the establishment of the Cominform in 1947.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5248",
"title": "Cold War (1947–1953)",
"section": "Section::::Containment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 716,
"text": "The immediate post-1945 period may have been the historical high point for the popularity of communist ideology. The burdens the Red Army and the Soviet Union endured had earned it massive respect which, had it been fully exploited by Joseph Stalin, had a good chance of resulting in a communist Europe. Communist parties achieved a significant popularity in such nations as China, Greece, Iran, and the Republic of Mahabad. Communist parties had already come to power in Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, and Yugoslavia. The United Kingdom and the United States were concerned that electoral victories by communist parties in any of these countries could lead to sweeping economic and political change in Western Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26847",
"title": "Socialism",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early 20th century.:Third International.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "The Bolshevik Russian Revolution of January 1918 engendered communist parties worldwide and their concomitant [[revolutions of 1917–1923]]. Few communists doubted that the Russian success of socialism depended on successful, working-class socialist revolutions in developed capitalist countries. In 1919, Lenin and Trotsky organised the world's communist parties into a new international association of workers—the [[Communist International]] (Comintern), also called the Third International.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "336447",
"title": "Communists in the United States Labor Movement (1937–50)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 564,
"text": "The Communist Party (CP) and its allies played a role in the United States labor movement, particularly in the 1930s and 1940s, but never succeeded, with rare exceptions, either in bringing the labor movement around to its agenda or in converting their influence in any particular union into membership gains for the Party. The CP has had only negligible influence in labor since its supporters' defeat in internal union political battles in the aftermath of World War II and the CIO's (CIO) expulsion of unions in which the party held the most influence in 1950.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25251546",
"title": "Communist Party of Hawaii",
"section": "Section::::Decline.:Defunct.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "By far the largest contribution to the decline of Communist Party was their own success. They had gained support from the poor and non-Caucasian workers by messages of bringing an improved lifestyle, equal rights, and expanded opportunities. But as these promises were coming true there was no longer a need for the Party. Most members, including Jack Wayne Hall, head of the ILWU in Hawaii, became convinced the task of the Communist Party was completed and the Party was dissolved in 1958.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39582",
"title": "History of Australia",
"section": "Section::::Inter-war years.:1920s: men, money and markets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 171,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 171,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "The success of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia posed a threat in the eyes of many Australians, although to a small group of socialists, it was an inspiration. The Communist Party of Australia was formed in 1920 and, though remaining electorally insignificant, it obtained some influence in the trade union movement and was banned during World War II for its support for the Hitler-Stalin Pact and the Menzies Government unsuccessfully tried to ban it again during the Korean War. Despite splits, the party remained active until its dissolution at the end of the Cold War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1k07zn
|
Would deep-sea pressure have any effect on explosions?
|
[
{
"answer": "What kind of explosions are you thinking of? What is the situation you are thinking of?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nDuring such an explosion, the hot gas bubble quickly collapses because:\nThe water pressure is enormous deeper than 2,000 feet.\n\nThe expansion reduces gas pressure, which decreases temperature.\nRayleigh–Taylor instability at the gas/water boundary causes \"fingers\" of water to extend into the bubble, increasing the boundary surface area.\n\nWater is incompressible.\n\nVast amounts of energy are absorbed by phase change (water becomes steam at the boundary).\n\nExpansion quickly becomes unsustainable because the amount of water pushed outward increases with the cube of the blast-bubble radius.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "xkcd answered this in their \"what if\" section \n_URL_0_\n\nit also includes various references too. Quite handy site",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "460321",
"title": "Diving cylinder",
"section": "Section::::Filling.:Catastrophic failures during filling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 265,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 265,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "The blast caused by a sudden release of the gas pressure inside a diving cylinder makes them very dangerous if mismanaged. The greatest risk of explosion exists while filling, but cylinders have also been known to burst when overheated. The cause of failure can range from reduced wall thickness or deep pitting due to internal corrosion, neck thread failure due to incompatible valve threads, or cracking due to fatigue, sustained high stresses, or overheating effects in aluminum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58209558",
"title": "Gas hydrate pingo",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Gas hydrate pingo may accumulate non-hydrate gas under pressure leading to explosions that forms craters. Crater depressions of this type have been found on the seafloor of Barents Sea. A trigger for the explosions may be drop in pressure as result of lowering of the sea level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "141496",
"title": "Depth charge",
"section": "Section::::Underwater explosions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The high explosive in a depth charge undergoes a rapid chemical reaction at an approximate rate of . The gaseous products of that reaction momentarily occupy the volume previously occupied by the solid explosive, but at very high pressure. This pressure is the source of the damage and is proportional to the explosive density and the square of the detonation velocity. A depth charge gas bubble expands to reach the pressure of the surrounding water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6413844",
"title": "Underwater explosion",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "The overall effect of an underwater explosion depends on depth, the size and nature of the explosive charge, and the presence, composition and distance of reflecting surfaces such as the seabed, surface, thermoclines, etc. This phenomenon has been extensively used in antiship warhead design since an underwater explosion (particularly one underneath a hull) can produce greater damage than an above-surface one of the same explosive size. Initial damage to a target will be caused by the first shockwave; this damage will be amplified by the subsequent physical movement of water and by the repeated secondary shockwaves or bubble pulse. Additionally, charge detonation away from the target can result in damage over a larger hull area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6413844",
"title": "Underwater explosion",
"section": "Section::::Deep underwater explosion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 798,
"text": "The heights of surface waves generated by deep underwater explosions are greater because more energy is delivered to the water. During the Cold War, underwater explosions were thought to operate under the same principles as tsunamis, potentially increasing dramatically in height as they move over shallow water, and flooding the land beyond the shoreline. Later research and analysis suggested that water waves generated by explosions were different from those generated by tsunamis and landslides. Méhauté \"et al.\" conclude in their 1996 overview \"Water Waves Generated by Underwater Explosion\" that the surface waves from even a very large offshore undersea explosion would expend most of their energy on the continental shelf, resulting in coastal flooding no worse than that from a bad storm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "141496",
"title": "Depth charge",
"section": "Section::::Underwater explosions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Consequently, explosions where the depth charge is detonated at a shallow depth and the gas bubble vents into the atmosphere very soon after the detonation are quite ineffective, even though they are more dramatic and therefore preferred in movies. A sign of an effective detonation depth is that the surface just slightly rises and only after a while vents into a water burst.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58817607",
"title": "Hydrothermal vent microbial communities",
"section": "Section::::Environmental Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "With increasing depth, the effects of pressure start to occur. The pressure is due to the weight of water above pushing down. The approximate rate of pressure increase in the ocean is 10Mega-pascals (MPa) for every kilometre that is traveled towards the seafloor. This means that hydrostatic pressure can reach up to 110MPa at the depths of the trenches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qmj5p
|
why soldiers are such a big deal in the us, while for europe for example it isn't such a big deal.
|
[
{
"answer": "I don't know the answer and am braced for the downvotes but Americans seen to get very overenthused about a lot of things. \n\nHalloween, Christmas, thanksgiving, soldiers. The world series of sports that only America plays etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some European countries require all young men to participate in military service for a couple of years after high school. Since everyone does it, being part of the military isn't anything special. In America, joining the armed forces is a voluntary decision, and it comes with a lot more risks than being a European soldier. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, it is part of the US culture. I think what you are refering to is the notion of [soldier worship](_URL_3_) which is really growing cultural phenomenon. \n\nI think *thirtyeightspecial* put it the best in this [post on solider worship](_URL_0_)... \n\n\"The article is about the Royal Marines, but I'm an American, and as such I've only experienced this with the US military, so that's what I'll talk about. I'm not sure how to say these things delicately, so please bare with me. Soldier worship is a recruiting tool, first and foremost. The benefit there is obvious; you get impressionable young people to sign up to do something that, objectively, is a horrible idea most of the time. However, it's also a social tool. By social tool I mean that its powerful propaganda that instills certain ideas about war in the general citizenry. Roughly, it goes something like this: soldiers are honorable heros = what soldiers do is honorable = the military is honorable = war is honorable = otherwise unforgivable government action is unquestionable. That's obviously a really simplistic way of saying it, but that's the end result. It creates war apologists. Most discussions about the ills of war will be shouted down as if you're slandering a religion. **Anti-war and anti-imperialism were strong sentiments after Vietnam. The government obviously had a problem with that, but with the burgeoning information age, it was difficult to convince people that war was some how ok. Instead, they pick the smallest instrument of war, the soldier, build a hero myth and kick the propaganda into high gear.** The result is that they can still make unforgivable wars and people will largely support it at first, the ranks are staffed and in the end there are very few protests. You can even see people mentally grappling with this saying \"I support the troops, but not the war. An interesting side effect of this is that some young men join the military believing the myth and eventually realize they're actually doing something horrible. It causes massive depression when it's far too late. And so you see soldier suicide rates skyrocket. In the end you just have to look at the VA to see that the government doesn't believe their own myth.\"\n\nPerhaps a more direct POV: \"\"Support the troops\" is an evil, pernicious lie. \"Support the troops\" has a function, and it is not to help soldiers, it is to help those who would use soldiers as disposable means to dubious ends. \"Support the troops\" means: wave the flag no matter what, which means, don't question their mission, which means, don't question us. Let's support the troops by making sure the VA runs as well as it possibly can, and soldiers get the help they need. Let's support the troops by helping them get back to civilian life. Let's support the troops by making sure when they go to a conflict zone, they don't go in canvas-walled Humvees. Let's support the troops by not sending them into idiotic, wasteful conflicts, by making sure politicians are held accountable for how military force is applied. Let's support the troops by reigning in the out-of-control money machine the DoD has become. Let's not \"support the troops\" by waving flags and hero-worshipping. Let's not cheer for people going off to get killed, maimed, and wounded, and to kill, maim, wound, and destroy the homes, property, and livelihood of people in other countries. Let's not support death and destruction. Let's not support propaganda and jingoism. Let's not trivialize horror. If we must engage in violence, let's do it solemnly, with clear reasons and strategies, and let's seek to strictly control the damage we cause. Let's support the actions that benefit our troops, that benefit us, and that benefit humanity as a whole. As Americans, the people in control of by far the world's most powerful military force, and a military force that acts with varying degrees of impunity around the globe, this is our obligation, and we've been neglectful. ... or, to be glib: Support the troops? The troops have automatic weapons and a license to kill. Whatta they want from me, a hot stone massage?\" - ChristopherKirk\n\n**Others in the thread made very enlightening confessions about what its like to be a soldier in the US.** \n\n\"I hadn't even done anything yet and people where patting me on my back and offering to buy me things. Most civilians don't realize that a vast majority of our military never deploy and if they do they are fobbits. These are the ones basking in the glory of the soldier worship. After my first deployment this kind of adulation made me sick to the stomach and gave me panic attacks. After about the third one I would purposely avoid to topic of being a Marine to anyone outside my battle buddies. I was never ashamed of being a Marine just terrified of some of the things I did and worried some of these people may know.\" - Chodestew\n\n\"I was in the military (Navy) and I get asked if I seen any action or had to shot anyone and I say with pride no I never did. I think the best way to support our troops is to do everything we can to stay out of a war in the first place. We as a society should fight as hard to keep them out of harms way as they fight once we call them to go into harms way.\" - mawkishdave\n\n\"As an Iraq vet, I feel the same way. I appreciate why people want to say thanks but it means nothing to me to hear it. I'd rather them say \"I'm sorry that we set you all over there in the first place\".\nI'm not so mad at the general public, but rather my parents who didn't raise me to be a little more skeptical about what our politicians say and the bullshit belief that the US can do no wrong. I would have never joined in the first place knowing what I know now.\" - waveofreason\n\n**More reflections** \n\n\"Regarding the profession/admonishment \"Support the Troops\", there really only is one correct response, and it's all of one word: \"How?\" When someone says, \"I support the troops\" or \"I support the troops, but not the war,\" the response from anyone within earshot ought to be: \"How? How do you support the troops? Do you volunteer to feed homeless veterans? Do you give your time to organizations that aid veterans or military families? Do you make some other kind of commitment or donation of your time or skills? What, beyond the depersonalized purchasing products which contribute 'a portion of the profits' to a veterans organization, or the bare minimum of paying every dime you actually owe in taxes so the VA can afford to give veterans the care they've earned and deserve, do you actually do to support the troops?\" The way this phrase is most often deployed, \"Support the Troops\" is a slactivist, conscience-assuaging statement that only supports the image of the person uttering it. People who use it, regardless of their view on war or their political ideology, ought to be questioned about the depth of their commitment to actually supporting troops. Calling people out for it doesn't make you an asshole (or, if you're a veteran, ungrateful), it makes the person claiming they support the troops an asshole if they can't give a concrete example of how they've personally involved themselves in the support veterans or military families.\" - bargemaster\n\n[More one this - \"war is a racket\"](_URL_2_)\n\n[More on soldier worship](_URL_1_)\n\nI present this as food for thought, and in no way do I want to put my own opinion into this. But yes, there is a clear and unmistakable difference between the way war, soldiers and other military acts are conceived and discussed by the general public and governments of the USA and Europe.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46752903",
"title": "Act of Aggression",
"section": "Section::::Factions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "BULLET::::- The United States Army – Exhausted from all the heavy fighting across the world; it struggles to keep American superpower dominance in the world. The US Army has the power to balance out all types of combat and situations out in the field. The US Army has a brute force of veterans, as they can skill up in specific roles and improve their veterancy. The Army prefers the effectiveness of combat instead of relying overly on new technological weaponry, like the Cartel and the Chimera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11522238",
"title": "List of foreign volunteers",
"section": "Section::::Mixed nationality units.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 810,
"text": "BULLET::::- The United States Military has a long tradition of foreign volunteers taking up arms for the United States. Foreign born officers, such as the Marquis de Lafayette, Tadeusz Kościuszko, and Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben provided vital contributions to the cause of independence. During the nineteenth century the US Army made extensive use of foreign soldiers, particularly Irish and German. German Jewish troops were common during World War II. Presently, many members of the US Marine Corps are of Latin American and not US nationality. However, many if not most non-American troops in the United States armed forces are usually seeking the expedited United States citizenship that comes with completion of a term of service, and can be seen as aspiring Americans rather than outright foreigners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6937859",
"title": "Military history of Europe",
"section": "Section::::Present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "European armies still participate in wars outside the European continent, including conflicts involving NATO members. European soldiers currently are based in Africa, the Americas (Haiti) and Asia (Afghanistan, Iraq, Lebanon).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2948082",
"title": "Mexican Army",
"section": "Section::::Military Industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Since the start of the 21st century, the Army has been steadily modernising to become competitive with the armies of other American countries and have also taken certain steps to decrease spending and dependency on foreign equipment in order to become more autonomous such as the domestic production of the FX-05 rifle designed in Mexico and the commitment to researching, designing and manufacturing domestic military systems such as military electronics and body armor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1285284",
"title": "Conscription in Germany",
"section": "Section::::Political debate.:Financial arguments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "Experiences of countries who have abolished draft, especially the United States and France, show that professional armed forces can be more expensive than a draft-based military. Professional armies need to pay their soldiers higher wages, and have large advertising expenses to attract sufficient numbers of able recruits. The above-mentioned difficulties in recruiting soldiers for advanced ranks, as well as difficulties in retaining such higher-ranking soldiers whose term of service time ends, indicates that a professional army might have to make considerable financial efforts to be competitive as an employer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18985287",
"title": "Culture of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Military culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 159,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 159,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "The U.S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its manpower from a large pool of paid volunteers; although conscription has been used in the past in various times of both war and peace, it has not been used since 1972. As of 2011, the United States spends about $550 billion annually to fund its military forces, and appropriates approximately $160 billion to fund Overseas Contingency Operations. Put together, the United States constitutes roughly 43 percent of the world's military expenditures. The U.S. armed forces as a whole possess large quantities of advanced and powerful equipment, along with widespread placement of forces around the world, giving them significant capabilities in both defense and power projection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9888300",
"title": "Military history of Ethiopia",
"section": "Section::::Boundary confrontation against British Colonists (1896–1899).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Despite such qualities, because of its impetuousness, it is much more difficult to control this army than a well-drilled European army, and I can only marvel at and admire the skill of its leaders and chiefs, of whom there is no shortage.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7sioii
|
Did the Rome begin what we now understand to be civilisation?
|
[
{
"answer": "So, \"civilization\" is a pretty terrible term. It seems to be ranking different people in a way where \"civilized\" is good and developed and \"uncivilized\" is bad and primitive. In addition, by selecting some traits as necessary traits for a \"civilization\" we exclude people who might suit the term in other ways. For instance when I was an undergraduate the definition of \"civilization\" included writing, which excludes a lot of people we might want to let it. The Inca didn't have a writing system in the sense of making marks to transmit language, but they had a system of knots that transmitted information. By the time I was in graduate school I saw \"writing\" replaced by \"complex record keeping\" which is a little better. But you can see how drawing up a checklist of what qualifies as \"civilization\" is problematic.\n\nWith that said, when I was a teaching assistant for Early World History classes we used this list:\n\n* monumental (or civic) architecture,\n* complex record keeping\n* complex social structure\n* division of labor\n* agriculture\n\nMonumental or civic architecture indicates some kind of communal awareness. Complex record keeping means things are organized and the organization is preserved. Complex social structure means we can see that some people had more importance than others, and there are multiple ranks - whether in government, religion, military, whatever. Division of labor and agriculture go together in that agriculture allows people to do things other than grow food, like build the monuments, keep the records, be the priests etc. \n\nWe also made the distinction between pristine civilizations and secondary civilizations. Pristine civilizations are communities that can check all the boxes without known contact with another civilization. The textbook we used (*Worlds Together Worlds Apart*) I think gave five pristine civilizations:\n\n* Sumerian\n* Chinese (I can't remember the precise name for this civilization)\n* Harappan\n* Olmec\n* Chico\n\nSome people like to list Egypt in there too. For your question, there are two important points. All of these developed more or less independently (so it's not the case that civilization began in China and spread west), and these developed a **long time before Rome!**\n\nSumerians show up around 4000 BCE. The Harappan cities around 3000 or so. The Chinese civilization I can't remember the name of sometime around 2000. The Olmec around 1600. The Chico, 3000.\n\nRome, by contrast, wasn't founded in tradition until 753 BCE. Archaeology shows us settlement a little before 1000 BCE. By the time the Romans showed up, the Sumerians were long gone, the Minoans had failed, the Mycenaeans collapsed, the Hittites were forgotten, and that's just civilizations geographically near Rome.\n\nRome itself developed its civilization from contact with the Greeks, from whom they got their alphabet among other things, as well as other cultures. The Greeks were heavily influenced by contact with Anatolian cultures that developed out of the Bronze Age Collapse, and so on. Rome is very much a late comer to the civilization game. Rome existed in a Mediterranean surrounded by people with different levels of civilization. Phoenicians (including Carthage), Greeks, Persians certainly rate the term \"civilization.\" I would include the Celts, the Celtiberians and Iberians as well, and numerous other European populations.\n\nAgain, \"civilization\" is a terrible idea to apply to people, especially when we can't have a good understanding of a given group. For instance, if we stress the \"complex records\" thing, we are claiming to know complex records when we see them, and we might not, and it might be a bad thing to measure in the first place. But I think I've described the sort of taxonomy that shows up in books that do that sort of thing and given some direction for your specific question about Rome.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "521555",
"title": "Ancient Rome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Ancient Roman civilisation has contributed to modern language, religion, society, technology, law, politics, government, warfare, art, literature, architecture and engineering. Rome professionalised and expanded its military and created a system of government called \"res publica\", the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. It achieved impressive technological and architectural feats, such as the construction of an extensive system of aqueducts and roads, as well as the construction of large monuments, palaces, and public facilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26367526",
"title": "Italophilia",
"section": "Section::::Roman era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Rome was the center of an empire that stretched across a large segment of the then-known world, and later became the center of the Roman Catholic faith. Roman civilization was transplanted to many parts of Europe, the Mediterranean basin, North Africa and the Near East in the form of law, architecture, engineering, roads, aqueducts, public baths, sanitation, trade, literature, art, libraries, hospitals and agriculture. It was possible for the people in the provinces to attain Roman citizenship, rise to the Senate, and even to become Roman emperor. The Roman provinces, having received much of the benefit of Roman civilization, became Romanized to a large degree. Winston Churchill states:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39766826",
"title": "Mode of production",
"section": "Section::::Modes of Production.:Antique or ancient mode of production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "It was not so much democracy, but rather the universalising of its citizenship, that eventually enabled Rome to set up a Mediterranean-wide urbanised empire, knit together by roads, harbours, lighthouses, aqueducts, and bridges, and with engineers, architects, traders and industrialists fostering interprovincial trade between a growing set of urban centres.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22290735",
"title": "Legacy of the Roman Empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "The legacy of the Roman Empire includes sets of cultural values, religious beliefs, technological advances, engineering and language. This legacy survived the demise of the empire itself (5th century AD in the West, and 15th century AD in the East) and went on to shape other civilisations, a process which continues to this day. The city of Rome was the \"civitas\" (reflected in the etymology of the word \"civilisation\") and connected with the actual western civilisation on which subsequent cultures built. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45222463",
"title": "History of the city",
"section": "Section::::Ancient times.:Mediterranean.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "The rise of Rome again shifted the locus of political power, resulting in economic and demographic gain for the city of Rome itself, and a new political regime in the form of the Roman Empire. Rome founded many cities (\"coloniae\"), characteristically imposing a grid pattern made of north–south \"cardines\" and east–west \"decumani\". The intersection of the \"cardo maximus\" and the \"decumanus maximus\" marked the origin of the city grid. Following these standard plans, Rome founded hundreds of cities and exerted substantial influence toward urbanizing the Mediterranean. In the process, Rome developed sanitation, public housing, public buildings and the forum. In the late Roman Empire political power was increasingly held by bishops of the Christian Church. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3684625",
"title": "History of architecture",
"section": "Section::::Antiquity.:Roman architecture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The Romans conquered the Greek cities in Italy around three hundred years BCE and much of the Western world after that. The Roman problem of rulership involved the unity of disparity — from Spanish to Greek, Macedonian to Carthaginian — Roman rule had extended itself across the breadth of the known world and the myriad pacified cultures forming this \"ecumene\" presented a new challenge for justice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1274179",
"title": "Agriculture in ancient Rome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "The great majority of the people ruled by Rome were engaged in agriculture. From a beginning of small, largely self-sufficient landowners, rural society became dominated by latifundium, large estates owned by the wealthy and utilizing mostly slave labor. The growth in the urban population, especially of the city of Rome, required the development of commercial markets and long-distance trade in agricultural products, especially grain, to supply the people in the cities with food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
t3vx3
|
how i can circumvent internet censorship with proxy's and vpns.
|
[
{
"answer": "[Tor](_URL_0_) is pretty good. They have a firefox plugin that gives you a button to enable or disable it. When you request a webpage through Tor, your request gets encrypted and sent to one of the Tor nodes out in the internet. That node sends it encrypted to another one, who then sends it encrypted to another one, etc. Eventually it reaches what's called an \"exit node\" which will actually go out to the internet and retrieve the web page you want, and then they send it back in the reverse order until it gets to your computer. The \"exit node\" can be just about anywhere in the world.\n\nThis way, your ISP and even people running the internet for your country can't figure out where you're going.\n\nHowever, Tor is *slow* because it has to travel to so many nodes. Initially it's really slow, but once you start using it for 20 minutes or so it goes up to a little faster than 56k speeds. During the startup stages it has to find good nodes. You also shouldn't have your BitTorrent client running through Tor.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9488407",
"title": "Home server",
"section": "Section::::Services provided by home servers.:Web serving.:Web proxy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Some networks have an HTTP proxy which can be used to speed up web access when multiple users visit the same websites, and to get past blocking software while the owner is using the network of some institution that might block certain sites. Public proxies are often slow and unreliable and so it is worth the trouble of setting up one's own private proxy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "769273",
"title": "Open proxy",
"section": "Section::::Advantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "An \"anonymous open proxy\" is useful to those seeking online anonymity and privacy as it can help users hide their IP address from web servers since the server requests appear to originate from the proxy server. It makes it harder to reveal their identity and thereby helps preserve their perceived security while browsing the web or using other internet services. Real anonymity and extensive internet security might not be achieved by this measure alone as website operators can use client-side scripts to determine the browser's real IP address and the open proxy may be keeping logs of all connections.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "78768",
"title": "Proxy server",
"section": "Section::::Types of proxy servers.:Open proxies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "An open proxy is a forwarding proxy server that is accessible by any Internet user. As of 2008, Gordon Lyon estimates there are \"hundreds of thousands\" of open proxies on the Internet. An \"anonymous open proxy\" allows users to conceal their IP address while browsing the Web or using other Internet services. There are varying degrees of anonymity however, as well as a number of methods of 'tricking' the client into revealing itself regardless of the proxy being used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19526055",
"title": "Internet Watch Foundation",
"section": "Section::::Unintended effects.:Of proxy server used by ISPs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 1079,
"text": "Using a transparent proxy has the unintended side effect, quite independent of IWF filtering, of appearing to websites connected to as originating from the proxy IP instead of the user's real IP. Some sites detect the user's IP and adjust their behaviour accordingly. For example, if trying to download files from a file distribution website which restricts free-of-charge usage by enforcing a delay of typically 30 minutes between downloads, any attempt to download is interpreted as originating from the ISP's proxy rather than the user. The consequence is that if \"any\" user of that ISP has downloaded \"any\" file from the site in the last half-hour (which is very likely for a large ISP), the download is not allowed. This is an unintended consequence of ISP's use of proxy servers, not IWF filtering. File sharing sites distribute files of all types; for example Linux distribution files, which are very large. The use of proxy servers is also reported to have caused the problem with editing Wikipedia (but not the blocking of the actual offending web page) reported above.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3907601",
"title": "Anonymous post",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "There are services described as anonymizers which aim to provide users the ability to post anonymously by hiding their identifying information. Anonymizers are essentially proxy servers which act as an intermediary between the user who wants to post anonymously and the website which logs user information such as IP addresses. The proxy server is the only computer in this network which is aware of the user's information and provides its own information to anonymize the poster. Examples of such anonymizers include I2P and Tor, which employ techniques such as onion and garlic routing to provide enhanced encryption to messages that travel through multiple proxy servers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11056386",
"title": "Internet censorship",
"section": "Section::::Circumvention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 636,
"text": "Different techniques and resources are used to bypass Internet censorship, including proxy websites, virtual private networks, sneakernets, and circumvention software tools. Solutions have differing ease of use, speed, security, and risks. Most, however, rely on gaining access to an Internet connection that is not subject to filtering, often in a different jurisdiction not subject to the same censorship laws. According to GlobalWebIndex, over 400 million people use virtual private networks to circumvent censorship or for an increased level of privacy. The majority of circumvention techniques are not suitable for day to day use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "78768",
"title": "Proxy server",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Monitoring and filtering.:Content-control software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "A content filtering proxy will often support user authentication to control web access. It also usually produces logs, either to give detailed information about the URLs accessed by specific users, or to monitor bandwidth usage statistics. It may also communicate to daemon-based and/or ICAP-based antivirus software to provide security against virus and other malware by scanning incoming content in real time before it enters the network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a9rsbp
|
During nuclear fission in uranium, what kind of radioactive rays are emitted? Alpha, Beta or Gamma?
|
[
{
"answer": "All of them can result from a fission reaction. \n\nAfter each fission reaction has occurred, the products may generally be in excited states, which can gamma decay to the ground state. Fission products tend to be neutron-rich, so they will usually beta decay one or more times to reach stability. Alpha emission from fission products is more rare than beta, but it's possible as well. \n\nAnd alpha and beta decays don't necessarily go directly to the ground state in the daughter, so alpha and beta decays will often come with gamma rays as well.\n\nThe prompt radiation during a chain of fission reactions will consist of neutrons, gamma rays, fission products, and some light charged particles, while the delayed radiation will consist of alpha, beta, gamma, neutrons, protons, etc.\n\nYou can find an energy breakdown for a typical fission reaction [here](_URL_0_). These are averages, because neutron-induced fission of uranium-235 has many possible final states, each one generally having multiple paths by which to ultimately reach stability. So the amount of energy carried away by each kind of radiation varies event-by-event.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41097",
"title": "Nuclear electromagnetic pulse",
"section": "Section::::Generation.:Weapon yield.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 905,
"text": "The total prompt gamma ray energy in a fission explosion is 3.5% of the yield, but in a 10 [[Nuclear weapon yield|kiloton]] detonation the triggering explosive around the bomb core absorbs about 85% of the prompt gamma rays, so the output is only about 0.5% of the yield. In the [[Nuclear fusion|thermonuclear]] Starfish Prime the fission yield was less than 100% and the thicker outer casing absorbed about 95% of the prompt gamma rays from the pusher around the fusion stage. [[Nuclear weapon design#Fusion weapons|Thermonuclear weapons]] are also less efficient at producing EMP because the first stage can [[ionization|pre-ionize]] the air which becomes conductive and hence rapidly shorts out the [[Compton scattering|Compton current]]s generated by the [[Nuclear fusion|fusion]] stage. Hence, small pure fission weapons with thin cases are far more efficient at causing EMP than most megaton bombs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18616290",
"title": "Gamma ray",
"section": "Section::::Sources.:Radioactive decay (gamma decay).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "The emission of a gamma ray from an excited nucleus typically requires only 10 seconds. Gamma decay may also follow nuclear reactions such as neutron capture, nuclear fission, or nuclear fusion. Gamma decay is also a mode of relaxation of many excited states of atomic nuclei following other types of radioactive decay, such as beta decay, so long as these states possess the necessary component of nuclear spin. When high-energy gamma rays, electrons, or protons bombard materials, the excited atoms emit characteristic \"secondary\" gamma rays, which are products of the creation of excited nuclear states in the bombarded atoms. Such transitions, a form of nuclear gamma fluorescence, form a topic in nuclear physics called gamma spectroscopy. Formation of fluorescent gamma rays are a rapid subtype of radioactive gamma decay.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1744922",
"title": "Gamma spectroscopy",
"section": "Section::::Gamma ray characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Radioactive nuclei (radionuclides) commonly emit gamma rays in the energy range from a few keV to ~10 MeV, corresponding to the typical energy levels in nuclei with reasonably long lifetimes. Such sources typically produce gamma-ray \"line spectra\" (i.e., many photons emitted at discrete energies), whereas much higher energies (upwards of 1 TeV) may occur in the continuum spectra observed in astrophysics and elementary particle physics. The boundary between gamma rays and X rays is somewhat blurred, as X rays typically refer to the high energy electronic emission of atoms, which may extend to over 100 keV, whereas the lowest energy emissions of nuclei are typically termed gamma rays, even though their energies may be below 20 keV.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183256",
"title": "Nuclear isomer",
"section": "Section::::Decay processes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "The emission of a gamma ray from an excited nuclear state allows the nucleus to lose energy and reach a lower-energy state, sometimes its ground state. In certain cases, the excited nuclear state following a nuclear reaction or other type of radioactive decay can become a metastable nuclear excited state. Some nuclei are able to stay in this metastable excited state for minutes, hours, days, or occasionally far longer, before undergoing \"gamma decay\", in which they emit a gamma ray.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "883560",
"title": "Gamma-ray spectrometer",
"section": "Section::::Planetary gamma-ray spectrometers.:How a GRS works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "How are gamma rays and neutrons produced by cosmic rays? Incoming cosmic rays—some of the highest-energy particles—collide with the nucleus of atoms in the soil. When nuclei are hit with such energy, neutrons are released, which scatter and collide with other nuclei. The nuclei get \"excited\" in the process, and emit gamma rays to release the extra energy so they can return to their normal rest state. Some elements like potassium, uranium, and thorium are naturally radioactive and give off gamma rays as they decay, but all elements can be excited by collisions with cosmic rays to produce gamma rays. The HEND and Neutron Spectrometers on GRS directly detect scattered neutrons, and the gamma sensor detects the gamma rays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37630",
"title": "Neutron bomb",
"section": "Section::::Basic concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "Compared to a pure fission bomb with an identical explosive yield, a neutron bomb would emit about ten times the amount of neutron radiation. In a fission bomb, at sea level, the total radiation pulse energy which is composed of both gamma rays and neutrons is approximately 5% of the entire energy released; in neutron bombs it would be closer to 40%, with the percentage increase coming from the higher production of neutrons. Furthermore, the neutrons emitted by a neutron bomb have a much higher average energy level (close to 14 MeV) than those released during a fission reaction (1–2 MeV).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "242883",
"title": "History of nuclear weapons",
"section": "Section::::Physics and politics in the 1930s and 1940s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Uranium appears in nature primarily in two isotopes: uranium-238 and uranium-235. When the nucleus of uranium-235 absorbs a neutron, it undergoes nuclear fission, releasing energy and, on average, 2.5 neutrons. Because uranium-235 releases more neutrons than it absorbs, it can support a chain reaction and so is described as fissile. Uranium-238, on the other hand, is not fissile as it does not normally undergo fission when it absorbs a neutron.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2gpdjp
|
How do you determine the boiling point of water under certain vacuum pressures?
|
[
{
"answer": "You use [Antoine's equation](_URL_0_) which is an empirical forumala that gives you the vapour pressure as a function of temperature. Each chemical has different A, B and C constants. You're going to have to convert your vacuum units into absolute pressure to use it however. To save you time, here's a graph of the result for water: \n_URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you'd like a more in-depth (and more theoretical) look into the phenomenon of evaporation, take a look at [this](_URL_1_) document which uses the chemical potential to define equilibrium positions of molecules. Whether it's liquids adsorbing onto solids, gases dissolving into solution, always think \"chemical potential\" and you can't go wrong! If you're interested in engineering and, more specifically, thermodynamics then this is a great example of a problem you'd expect to see.\n\nFor more info, the [wiki article](_URL_0_) on chemical potential is pretty good too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This drops out of thermodynamics. You can use the Gibbs-Helmholtz equation, dG = dH - TdS to calculate the boiling point (T) for standard temperature and pressure. You'd need to know the thermodynamic constants for the specific substance, namely enthalpy of formation (dS) and enthalpy of vaporization (dH) for all components (liquid water and gaseous water), and know that at equilibrium (boiling), dG = 0.\n\nThen you can use the Clausius Clapeyron equation, which can be used to relate the a known boiling point condition (the one you just calculated above at STP) to the unknown boiling point at your pressure of choosing. This would require knowing the heat of vaporization and the universal gas constant. Here is a bit on the C-C equation.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4115",
"title": "Boiling point",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding environmental pressure. A liquid in a partial vacuum has a lower boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. A liquid at high pressure has a higher boiling point than when that liquid is at atmospheric pressure. For example, water boils at at sea level, but at at altitude. For a given pressure, different liquids will boil at different temperatures. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2184383",
"title": "Boiling-point elevation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Boiling-point elevation describes the phenomenon that the boiling point of a liquid (a solvent) will be higher when another compound is added, meaning that a solution has a higher boiling point than a pure solvent. This happens whenever a non-volatile solute, such as a salt, is added to a pure solvent, such as water. The boiling point can be measured accurately using an ebullioscope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19951",
"title": "Pressure measurement",
"section": "Section::::Instruments.:Hydrostatic.:Liquid column (manometer).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "When measuring vacuum, the working liquid may evaporate and contaminate the vacuum if its vapor pressure is too high. When measuring liquid pressure, a loop filled with gas or a light fluid can isolate the liquids to prevent them from mixing, but this can be unnecessary, for example, when mercury is used as the manometer fluid to measure differential pressure of a fluid such as water. Simple hydrostatic gauges can measure pressures ranging from a few torrs (a few 100 Pa) to a few atmospheres (approximately ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1430896",
"title": "Hypsometer",
"section": "Section::::Pressure hypsometer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "A pressure hypsometer as shown in the drawing (right) employs the principle that the boiling point of a liquid is lowered by diminishing the barometric pressure, and that the barometric pressure varies with the height of the point of observation. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40197",
"title": "Vapor pressure",
"section": "Section::::Measurement and units.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "Experimental measurement of vapor pressure is a simple procedure for common pressures between 1 and 200 kPa. Most accurate results are obtained near the boiling point of substances and large errors result for measurements smaller than . Procedures often consist of purifying the test substance, isolating it in a container, evacuating any foreign gas, then measuring the equilibrium pressure of the gaseous phase of the substance in the container at different temperatures. Better accuracy is achieved when care is taken to ensure that the entire substance and its vapor are at the prescribed temperature. This is often done, as with the use of an isoteniscope, by submerging the containment area in a liquid bath.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37431",
"title": "Solvent",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Boiling point.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "The boiling point is an important property because it determines the speed of evaporation. Small amounts of low-boiling-point solvents like diethyl ether, dichloromethane, or acetone will evaporate in seconds at room temperature, while high-boiling-point solvents like water or dimethyl sulfoxide need higher temperatures, an air flow, or the application of vacuum for fast evaporation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "184726",
"title": "Heat transfer",
"section": "Section::::Phase transition.:Boiling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid evaporates resulting in an abrupt change in vapor volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
am4bvs
|
if we can produce phone screens that are 6" in diameter with a full hd resolution, whats stopping us from making 16k tvs?
|
[
{
"answer": "Nothing is stopping us. Theres just no market value. Even 4k is limited by content creators actually making their products 4k in resolution, most of the market for media consumption is for 2k displays.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Who honestly would want a 16k tv when a lot of media hardly comes through anywhere between 720 and 1080p. Having a 4K tv is a stretch not to mention those thinking about 8. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No demand. They would be very expensive to produce, and there is virtually no content in such resolutions outside of a few niche industrial purposes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First off: Diagonal. Not diameter.\n\nSecond: yeah, we have hi-res phone screens, but think about how close to your face you hold your phone, you scrutinize things much more closely on it. You might just stare at that insta pic for a minute or two. Generally not the case with TVs. You are generally watching something. Even if you do use it as a monitor, you don't get as close to your monitor as your phone, I'm generally a couple feet away at closest. Your eye being able to distinguish the difference between 4k and 16k at a certain distance is what makea higher resolution valuable in the consumer market. A 65\" 16k tv would be just as pointless as an 8k tv. Your tv isn't even a 4k tv even though it is advertised as such, it's more likely 2k. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Pretty sure there's a limit of just how much data a standard hdmi cable can transfer which means we technically could but refresh rates would be terrible and everything would look choppy. This will probably change with newer interfaces",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can make them, but you can't sell them. Nobody will buy them because it's far from clear that 4K TV is for real. Remember when 3D was a fad a decade back? Manufacturers are waiting to see the \"won't settle for 2K any more\" consumers turn out in droves to buy 4K TVs. Until that's the norm, nobody will make 8K or 16K content. Until there is content, nobody will buy TVs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cost. Demand. Some good points have been brought up. I'd like to add that the human eye isn't really capable of keeping up with it. Sure you can see in very high def at a certain part of the screen and the focusing power is second to none but there's a lot of peripheral stuff that the eye perceives as blurry. 16k tv would be super overkill. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's different for tech geeks (visualphiles?), but the average uninformed consumer often can't see much difference between 720p and 1080p, let alone 4K or 16K. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nThere comes a point at which the extra clarity just doesn't matter that much to most people (myself included). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cost, failure rate for producing large screens... like a diamond, screen size costs climb exponentially because you can always trim a large screen down to make smaller ones if there are dead pixels, etc. but you can't cobble multiple screens into a larger one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One big factor is a problem that is known as \"Yield rate\".\n\nIf on average your process for making a screen is going to have obviously missing pixels every ten inches, you can make six inch screens and only trash a small percentage of them as defective. But you'd be trashing every single screen you made if you tried to make 20\" screens. Or be selling screens with obvious dead spots. And neither of those is something you can base a business around.\n\nOther factors:\n\n* The amount of data you have to send for show a single image goes up fourfold every time you double the resolution.\n* Existing cables and Internet can only go so fast.\n* Your eye can only pick out details that are so large. If you're sitting on your couch looking at the TV, it's hard to see a single pixel with a 4k display. 16k would be way more detail than you'd ever see. I'm not going to do the calculations but I'm think that's getting into the territory where you still wouldn't see any pixels even if you put your nose on the screen.\n\nit is worth chasing higher resolutions in phones because we typically hold them a lot closer to our eyes than a TV; you can actually see the difference at a comfortable viewing distance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "584240",
"title": "Image intensifier",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.:Resolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "An important consideration, however, is that this is based on the physical screen size in millimeters and is not proportional to the screen size. As such, an 18 mm tube with a resolution of around 64 lp/mm has a higher overall resolution than an 8 mm tube with 72 lp/mm resolution. Resolution is usually measured at the centre and at the edge of the screen and tubes often come with figures for both. Military Specification or milspec tubes only come with a criterion such as \" 64 lp/mm\" or \"Greater than 64 line pairs/millimeter\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3667084",
"title": "MediaFLO",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "In addition, the transmission need not convey as high a resolution as would be needed for a larger display. MediaFLO streams are only 200-250 kbit/s, which would be insufficient for a larger screen size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27168879",
"title": "4K resolution",
"section": "Section::::History.:Home video projection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "As noted above, DCI 4K is 40962160, while 4K UHD is 38402160, producing a slight difference in aspect ratio rather than a significant difference in resolution. Traditional displays, such as LCD or OLED, are 3840 pixels across the screen, with each pixel being 1/3840th of the screen width. They do not overlap—if they did, they would suffer reduced detail. The diameter of each pixel is basically 1/3840th of the screen width or 1/2160th of the screen height - either gives the same size pixel. That 38402160 works out to 8.3 megapixels, the official resolution of 4K UHD (and therefore Blu-ray UHD discs).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41929086",
"title": "Samsung Ativ Book 9",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Initially, the line up included 11-inch screen-size model and 13-inch screen-size model but the 11-inch version was dropped by the end of 2011 due to the low popularity in Korean market. Instead, 15-inch model superseded 11-inch one in early 2012. The screen size was slightly increased from 15.0 inch to 15.6 inch in 2014 but the thickness remained the same at .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46286567",
"title": "5K resolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "In comparison to 4K UHD (38402160), the 16:9 5K resolution of 51202880 offers 1280 extra columns and 720 extra lines of display area, an increase of 33.% in each dimension. This additional display area can allow 4K content to be displayed at native resolution without filling the entire screen, which means that additional software such as video editing suite toolbars will be available without having to downscale the content previews.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19644137",
"title": "Mobile phone",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Display.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 787,
"text": "Screen sizes are measured in diagonal inches; feature phones generally have screen sizes below 3.5 inches. Phones with screens larger than 5.2 inches are often called \"phablets.\" Smartphones with screens over 4.5 inches in size are commonly difficult to use with only a single hand, since most thumbs cannot reach the entire screen surface; they may need to be shifted around in the hand, held in one hand and manipulated by the other, or used in place with both hands. Due to design advances, some modern smartphones with large screen sizes and \"edge-to-edge\" designs have compact builds that improve their ergonomics, while the shift to taller aspect ratios have resulted in phones that have larger screen sizes whilst maintaining the ergonomics associated with smaller 16:9 displays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28385304",
"title": "Graphics display resolution",
"section": "Section::::Video Graphics Array.:400240 (WQVGA).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "WQVGA has also been used to describe displays that are not 240 pixels high, for example Sixteenth HD1080 displays which are 480 pixels wide and 270 or 272 pixels high. This may be due to WQVGA having the nearest screen height.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1c7btz
|
what "chained cpi" is, and how it affects the social security cuts.
|
[
{
"answer": "Standard CPI has a couple of problems in that it overestimates inflation for consumers as it doesn't account for substitution in consumer behavior.\n\nIn the simplest example imagine someone is buying Lays brand chips that cost $2 a bag. Suppose that the price rises to $2.20 a bag, instead of accepting the higher price point some consumers will seek out a cheaper an alternative (store brand at $1.20 a bag) and so measuring inflation based on the change in price of these goods produces an inaccurate result as some consumers have achieved a cost saving as a result of the price increase.\n\nCurrently SSA use the standard CPI in their cost of living adjustments and due to the substitution bias this means that every year the program gets very slightly more generous. Chained CPI is an alternative measure that is corrected for the substitution problem so the benefits offered by SSA remain much more static then they would otherwise.\n\nAnother idea that is also being floated is setting benefits based on region instead of nationally. SSA use two indexes to calculate benefits; CPI for All Urban Consumers and CPI for Urban Wage Earners and Clerical Workers. The names describe why these introduce a problem; not everyone is an urban consumer (and when they are the index biases for larger urban centers) and the spending behaviors of clerical workers is hardly indicative of the population as a whole.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37984139",
"title": "United States Chained Consumer Price Index",
"section": "Section::::Impact on benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "Application of chained CPI has been suggested as a means of reducing the US federal budget deficit by reducing the rate of growth of government benefits. The Moment of Truth Project estimates that moving to the Chained CPI would reduce the deficit by about $390 billion in the first decade alone, with roughly one third of the savings from Social Security, another third from increased federal revenue (via inflation-indexed tax provisions such as more slowly growing tax bracket thresholds), and the remaining savings from a combination of other spending programs and reduced interest on the debt. The Congressional Budget Office estimates switching to the chained CPI would save $340 billion \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37984139",
"title": "United States Chained Consumer Price Index",
"section": "Section::::Distribution effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Moving to the chained CPI would reduce Social Security benefits by 3% for the bottom 60% of Social Security recipients and 4% for the top 40% of beneficiaries (per estimates for 2050 from the Social Security Administration ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37984139",
"title": "United States Chained Consumer Price Index",
"section": "Section::::History of proposals and controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "In 2012 and 2013 as part of the fiscal cliff negotiations, President Obama repeatedly proposed the application of chained CPI to social security benefits as a way to address budgetary shortfalls. This position was controversial with many, including Democrats and Social Security advocacy groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54263312",
"title": "Zero Tolerance Knives",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Zero Tolerance Knives (ZT Knives) is a knife brand of Kai USA, headquartered in Tualatin, Oregon, United States. Both Zero Tolerance and Kai USA are members of the Kai Group, a global cutlery company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "231442",
"title": "Reference range",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "A cutoff or threshold is a limit used for binary classification, mainly between normal versus pathological (or probably pathological). Establishment methods for cutoffs include using an upper or a lower limit of a reference range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46112",
"title": "Violence",
"section": "Section::::Factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Finally, the fourth level looks at the broad societal factors that help to create a climate in which violence is encouraged or inhibited: the responsiveness of the criminal justice system, social and cultural norms regarding gender roles or parent-child relationships, income inequality, the strength of the social welfare system, the social acceptability of violence, the availability of weapons, the exposure to violence in mass media, and political instability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5022853",
"title": "Social Security Disability Insurance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Social Security Disability Insurance (SSD or SSDI) is a payroll tax-funded, federal insurance program of the United States government. It is managed by the Social Security Administration and is designed to provide income supplements to people who are physically restricted in their ability to be employed because of a notable disability, usually a physical disability. SSD can be supplied on either a temporary or permanent basis, usually directly correlated to whether the person's disability is temporary or permanent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
22k2fp
|
can insects see cells and their organelles? aren't there insects or other very, small microorganisms (think face mites or mites in general) that can see things as small as mitochondria? any organism with eyes that can detect things- what's the smallest thing they can visually perceive?
|
[
{
"answer": "If you're looking in visual light, the smallest object you can see, even in principle, is going to be on the scale of the wavelength of light - which for visible light goes down to about 300 nm. \n\nA single virion of HIV is a little smaller than this, and can't be seen visually no matter what. A mitochondrion varies from about 500-10,000 nm - so a small one would just barely be detectable in blue light, and a large one could in principle be seen at poor resolution (around 100 'pixels', though it's not quite that simple). These values assume you have a lens that is essentially perfect, to a degree I would assume is not found in nature.\n\nSome cells are very large - human egg cells are as much as a millimeter wide. Most are large enough to be seen in visible light in practice via a powerful microscope.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A smaller object needs a LARGER lens to observe.\n\nTherefore, an insect with a small lens can't really see anything small clearly at all.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People are talking about what the smallest visible thing actually is and while I find that very interesting, I wonder if they might be overlooking something (but I could be wrong).\n\nAn eye has to be fairly complex in order to perceive small, intricate things, and as far as I'm aware, the smaller a creature is, the less distinct and precise its vision by virtue of necessity. I think the better question is: is it possible for eye cells to be arranged so efficiently that they can perceive themselves?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "157898",
"title": "Eye",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Non-compound eyes.:Reflector eyes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "Many small organisms such as rotifers, copepods and flatworms use such organs, but these are too small to produce usable images. Some larger organisms, such as scallops, also use reflector eyes. The scallop \"Pecten\" has up to 100 millimetre-scale reflector eyes fringing the edge of its shell. It detects moving objects as they pass successive lenses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "358597",
"title": "Ommatidium",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "The compound eyes of arthropods like insects, crustaceans and millipedes are composed of units called ommatidia (singular: ommatidium). An ommatidium contains a cluster of photoreceptor cells surrounded by support cells and pigment cells. The outer part of the ommatidium is overlaid with a transparent cornea. Each ommatidium is innervated by one axon bundle (usually consisting of 6-9 axons, depending on the number of rhabdomeres) and provides the brain with one picture element. The brain forms an image from these independent picture elements. The number of ommatidia in the eye depends upon the type of arthropod and may be as low as 5 as in the Antarctic isopod \"Glyptonotus antarcticus\" or range from just a handful in the primitive Zygentoma to around 30 thousand in larger Anisoptera dragonflies as well as in some Sphingidae moths.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7149700",
"title": "Thylacocephala",
"section": "Section::::Disagreements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1485,
"text": "All other parties interpret this as a large compound eye, the hexagons being preserved ommatidia (all researchers agree these are the same structure). This is supported by fossils of \"Dollocaris ingens\" which are so well preserved that individual retinula cells can be discerned. The preservation is so exceptional that studies have shown the species' numerous small ommatidia, distributed over the large eyes, could reduce the angle between ommatidia, thus improve their ability to detect small objects. Of the arguments above, it is posited by opponents that eyes are complex structures, and those in the Thylacocephala display clear and numerous affinities with compound eyes in other arthropod fossils, down to a cellular level of detail. The 'cephalic sac' structure itself is poorly preserved in Osteno specimens, a possible reason for interstitial 'sclerites'. The structural analogy with a cirripede peduncle lost supporting evidence when the 'ovaries' were shown to be alimentary residues, and the sac muscular system could be used to support the eyes. The unusual position of the stomach is thus the strongest inconsistency, but the Thylacocephala are defined by their unusual features, so this is not inconceivable. Further, Rolfe suggests the eyes' position can be explained if they have a large posterior area of attachment, while Schram suggests that the stomach region extending into the cephalic sac could result from an inflated foregut or anteriorly directed caecum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5645086",
"title": "Evolution of the eye",
"section": "Section::::Stages of eye evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "At a cellular level, there appear to be two main \"designs\" of eyes, one possessed by the protostomes (molluscs, annelid worms and arthropods), the other by the deuterostomes (chordates and echinoderms).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24019568",
"title": "External morphology of Lepidoptera",
"section": "Section::::Head.:Eyes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "While most insects have three simple eyes, or ocelli, only two ocelli are present in all species of Lepidoptera, except a few moths, one on each side of the head near the edge of the compound eye. On some species, sense organs called chaetosemata are found near the ocelli. The ocelli are not homologous to the simple eyes of caterpillars which are differently named as stemmata. The ocelli of Lepidoptera are reduced externally in some families; where present, they are unfocussed, unlike stemmata of larvae which are fully focussed. The utility of ocelli is not understood at present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24104729",
"title": "Insect morphology",
"section": "Section::::External.:Head.:Compound eyes and ocelli.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1123,
"text": "Most insects have one pair of large, prominent compound eyes composed of units called ommatidia (ommatidium, singular), possibly up to 30,000 in a single compound eye of, for example, large dragonflies. This type of eye gives less resolution than eyes found in vertebrates, but it gives acute perception of movement and usually possesses UV- and green sensitiity and may have additional sensitivity peaks in other regions of the visual spectrum. Often an ability to detect the E-vector of polarized light exists polarization of light. There can also be an additional two or three ocelli, which help detect low light or small changes in light intensity. The image perceived is a combination of inputs from the numerous ommatidia, located on a convex surface, thus pointing in slightly different directions. Compared with simple eyes, compound eyes possess very large view angles and better acuity than the insect's dorsal ocelli, but some stemmatal (= larval eyes), for example those of sawfly larvae (Tenthredinidae) with an acuity 4 degrees and very high polarization sensitivity, match the performance of compound eyes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1093073",
"title": "Xiphosura",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Xiphosurans have up to four eyes, located in the carapace. A pair of compound eyes is on the side of the prosoma, with one or two median ocelli towards the front. The compound eyes are simpler in structure than those of other arthropods, with the individual ommatidia not being arranged in a compact pattern. They can probably detect movement, but are unlikely to be able to form a true image. In front of the ocelli is an additional organ that probably functions as a chemoreceptor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2nri53
|
Solar thermal farms are 19th century technology, why isn't the US full of them?
|
[
{
"answer": "This chart from the Energy Information Administration shows the levelized cost of energy from various renewable and non-renewable sources:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nEssentially, solar thermal is among the costliest sources of generation, even when compared with other renewable alternatives. Still, it has had some success in California's renewable energy marketplace.\n\nTo your point on the death valley solar farm, the nearby Mojave desert is one of the most active solar development regions in the world. Since death valley is a national park, it's pretty doubtful that there will be any development there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I know your question has been answered, but I'd just like to pipe in and talk about energy storage. \n\nRight now the technology to store enough bulk energy to last all night - making a solar power source have an effectively continuous output - doesn't exist yet. It can be done, but nobody is going to flush their money away on a venture such as that. \n\nThere are a few places where large amounts of power for a short time can be stored for later use. This is when they use stuff like pumped hydro. Those are typically for really short term demands, like when everyone in London turns on their electric kettle at the same time. A pumped up reservoir will last you long enough to get a gas turbine up to speed, but not all night(unless you've got a bigger system than has ever been built or only a handful of customers). And pumped hydro is out of the question in the desert(do you ship the water in on a fleet of trucks? Evaporation?) \n\nThere are other uses for utility scale energy storage, like peak shaving, but storing enough energy to make a desert sized solar farm work through the night isn't currently feasible. \n\nA lack of utility scale energy storage is one of the things that makes it really difficult to implement all the wind and solar that idealistic high school kids would like. Currently, we basically need enough spinning reserve to cover a sudden drop in output from renewables. Fwiw, I think pumped hydro, compressed air and flywheels are neat, but I think the breakthrough in energy storage will come from a new battery chemistry. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10246033",
"title": "Solar power plants in the Mojave Desert",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "Solar thermal power plants can generally be built in a few years because solar plants are built almost entirely with modular, readily available materials. In contrast, many types of conventional power projects, especially coal and nuclear plants, require long lead times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26298081",
"title": "Leonard L. Northrup Jr.",
"section": "Section::::Commercialization of solar thermal technology in the US.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1056,
"text": "In the early 1970s, before the Arab Oil Embargo and the spike in oil prices, Northrup became interested in the commercialization of solar thermal systems, particularly for heating potable water and swimming pools. Such systems had already been commercialized in other countries where climatic conditions were favorable, energy costs were high, and there was a tradition of scientific innovation notably solar power in Israel. Work in the United States had been limited to academia and a few companies in Arizona, Texas, and California. Northrup began experimenting with solar collectors to heat air, using finned heat exchangers, and engaged solar pioneer Professor John Yellott as a consultant on the absorptivity and emissivity or various surfaces and configurations, and on the transparency of various glasses and glazing material that exhibit the \"greenhouse effect\" - transparent to incoming solar radiation, but opaque to the re-radiation of infrared from the heated surface - hence a thermal trap or collector that exhibits the \"greenhouse effect\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12294713",
"title": "Drake Landing Solar Community",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "The system was designed to model a way of addressing global warming and the burning of fossil fuels. The solar energy is captured by 800 solar thermal collectors located on the roofs of all 52 houses' garages. It is billed as the first solar powered subdivision in North America, although its electricity and transportation needs are provided by conventional sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13690575",
"title": "Solar power",
"section": "Section::::Development and deployment.:Early days.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 1048,
"text": "The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce. Charles Fritts installed the world's first rooftop photovoltaic solar array, using 1%-efficient selenium cells, on a New York City roof in 1884. However, development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of coal and petroleum. In 1974 it was estimated that only six private homes in all of North America were entirely heated or cooled by functional solar power systems. The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies. Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the United States (SERI, now NREL), Japan (NEDO), and Germany (Fraunhofer–ISE). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10418624",
"title": "Renewable energy commercialization",
"section": "Section::::Second-generation technologies.:Solar heating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Solar heating systems are a well known second-generation technology and generally consist of solar thermal collectors, a fluid system to move the heat from the collector to its point of usage, and a reservoir or tank for heat storage. The systems may be used to heat domestic hot water, swimming pools, or homes and businesses. The heat can also be used for industrial process applications or as an energy input for other uses such as cooling equipment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3967167",
"title": "Energy policy of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Sources.:Renewable energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Several large solar thermal power stations have also been built. The largest of these solar thermal power stations is the SEGS group of plants in the Mojave Desert with a total generating capacity of 354 MW, making the system the largest solar plant of any kind in the world. , the largest photovoltaic (PV) power plant in North America is Solar Star, a 579 megawatt photovoltaic power station near Rosamond, California. The Geysers in Northern California is the largest complex of geothermal energy production in the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19550641",
"title": "Solar hot water in New Zealand",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Solar thermal technologies had a sizable initial uptake in the pioneering days of the 1970s. By 2001 more than 40GWhr was produced from solar hot water technologies, equating to 0.1% of the total electricity consumption in New Zealand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6curfg
|
Did people living in the Roman Empire call it the "Roman Empire"?
|
[
{
"answer": "Why are all the comments getting deleted?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It was more common to refer to people ethnically rather than in terms of a kingdom, although \"Romans\" often referred to themselves as *Romani*. So you had Etruscans, Etrurians, and so on which made up the body. All people could collectively be referred to as *The Populus*, however that's not really the name for the empire.\n\nEDIT: I believe that, distinctly, populus refers to a man who is of fighting age, not just 'anyone'.\n\nOlder (BCE) coins can be found stamped with SPQR, *\"senatus populus que Romanus\"*, i.e. 'the Senate and People of Rome' but this is obviously from very early on in the empire.\n\nShortest, cleanest answer is: There wasn't a proper name for the empire, but there was a proper identity shared by citizens used to identify themselves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "504379",
"title": "Western Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Nomenclature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "Though Marcellinus does not refer to the Empire as a whole after 395, only to its separate parts, he clearly identifies the term \"Roman\" as applying to the Empire as a whole. When using terms such as \"us\", \"our generals\", and \"our emperor\", Marcellinus distinguished both divisions of the Empire from outside foes such as the Sasanian Persians and the Huns. This view is consistent with the view that contemporary Romans of the 4th and 5th centuries continued to consider the Empire as a single unit, although more often than not with two rulers instead of one. The first time the Empire was divided geographically was during the reign of Diocletian, but there was precedent for multiple emperors. Before Diocletian and the Tetrarchy, there had been a number of periods where there was more than one co-emperor, such as with Caracalla and Geta in 210–211, who inherited the imperial throne from their father Septimius Severus, but Caracalla ruled alone after the murder of his brother.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25507",
"title": "Roman Empire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1108,
"text": "The Roman Empire (, ; Koine Greek: , tr. ) was the post-Republican period of ancient Rome, consisting of large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean sea in Europe, North Africa and West Asia ruled by emperors. From the accession of Caesar Augustus to the military anarchy of the third century, it was a principate with Italy as metropole of the provinces and its city of Rome as sole capital (27 BC – 286 AD). The Roman Empire was then ruled by multiple emperors and divided in a Western Roman Empire, based in Milan and later Ravenna, and an Eastern Roman Empire, based in Nicomedia and later Constantinople. Rome remained the nominal capital of both parts until 476 AD, when it sent the imperial insignia to Constantinople (Byzantium in Ancient Greek) following the capture of Ravenna by the barbarians of Odoacer and the subsequent deposition of Romulus Augustus. The fall of the Western Roman Empire to Germanic kings, along with the hellenization of the Eastern Roman Empire into the Byzantine Empire, is conventionally used to mark the end of Ancient Rome and the beginning of the Middle Ages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50853",
"title": "Holy Roman Emperor",
"section": "Section::::Title.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "The word \"Roman\" was a reflection of the principle of \"translatio imperii\" (or in this case \"restauratio imperii\") that regarded the (Germanic) Holy Roman Emperors as the inheritors of the title of Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, despite the continued existence of the Eastern Roman Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3072770",
"title": "Roman Empire (disambiguation)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "The Roman Empire usually refers to the post-republican, autocratic government period of Roman civilization, centered on the city of Rome on the Italian peninsula from 27 BC to 330 AD, and in Constantinople on the Bosporus from 330 to 1453 AD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35835705",
"title": "Outline of the history of Western civilization",
"section": "Section::::Antiquity: before 500.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "BULLET::::- Roman Empire – The Roman Empire was the post-Roman Republican period of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial holdings in Europe and around the Mediterranean.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "214974",
"title": "Culture of ancient Rome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "The Roman Empire, at its height (c. 117 CE), was the most extensive political and social structure in western civilization. By 285 CE the empire had grown too vast to be ruled from the central government at Rome and so was divided by Emperor Diocletian into a Western and an Eastern Empire. The Roman Empire began when Augustus Caesar became the first emperor of Rome (31 BCE) and ended, in the west, when the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, was deposed by the Germanic King Odoacer (476 CE). In the east, it continued as the Byzantine Empire until the death of Constantine XI and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE. The influence of the Roman Empire on western civilization was profound in its lasting contributions to virtually every aspect of western culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59155068",
"title": "Republican empire",
"section": "Section::::Historical examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "The Roman Empire is one example of a republican empire. Originally, Rome was a monarchy, ruled directly by an absolute ruler. The king was later overthrown and replaced with a Republican system that protected certain rights of the citizens. Over time, the republic broke down as the Roman senate started to cede more and more authority to the consul. When Augustus took power the senate gave him the title of \"Imperator\", or \"emperor\" in English.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
] | null |
fa8atj
|
Any sources for reading about CIA, NSA, or just secret intellegence over all? Good non fiction.
|
[
{
"answer": "Look for James Bamford's books:\n\nThe Puzzle Palace: Inside the National Security Agency, America's Most Secret Intelligence\n\nBody of Secrets: Anatomy of the Ultra-Secret National Security Agency\n\nThe Shadow Factory: The NSA from 9/11 to the Eavesdropping on America\n\nI've read and enjoyed the first two, didn't read the third, yet. Remember the first rule about fight club.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16028068",
"title": "CIA in fiction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Espionage and secret operations have long been a source of fiction, and the real and perceived U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) is a source of many books, films and video games. Some fiction may be historically based, or will refer to less action-oriented aspects, such as intelligence analysis or counterintelligence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27646",
"title": "Spy fiction",
"section": "Section::::Insider spy fiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Many authors of spy fiction have themselves been intelligence officers working for British agencies such as MI5 or MI6, or American agencies such as the OSS or its successor, the CIA. 'Insider' spy fiction has a special claim to authenticity, and overlaps with biographical and other documentary accounts of secret service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43296730",
"title": "United States intelligence operations abroad",
"section": "Section::::Edward Snowden disclosures on global mass surveillance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1297,
"text": "A cache of top secret documents leaked in 2013 by ex-NSA contractor Edward Snowden, who obtained them while working for Booz Allen Hamilton, one of the largest contractors for defense and intelligence in the United States., revealed operational details about the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) and its international partners' global surveillance of foreign nationals and U.S. citizens. In addition to a trove of U.S. federal documents, Snowden's cache reportedly contains thousands of Australian, British and Canadian intelligence files that he had accessed via the exclusive \"Five Eyes\" network. In June 2013, the first of Snowden's documents were published simultaneously by \"The Washington Post\" and \"The Guardian\", attracting considerable public attention. The disclosure continued throughout the entire year of 2013, and a significant portion of the full cache of the estimated 1.7 million documents was later obtained and published by many other media outlets worldwide, most notably \"The New York Times\", the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, \"Der Spiegel\" (Germany), \"O Globo\" (Brazil), \"Le Monde\" (France), \"L'espresso\" (Italy), \"NRC Handelsblad\" (the Netherlands), \"Dagbladet\" (Norway), \"El País\" (Spain), and Sveriges Television (Sweden).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41799316",
"title": "Barack Obama on mass surveillance",
"section": "Section::::Initial reaction to NSA mass surveillance leaks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "In June 2013, reports from a cache of top secret documents leaked by ex-NSA contractor Edward Snowden revealed that the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) and its international partners had created a global system of surveillance that was responsible for the mass collection of information on American and foreign citizens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51191775",
"title": "1995 CIA disinformation controversy",
"section": "Section::::Congressional and Pentagon investigations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "On November 9, 1995, Specter revealed that from 1986 to 1994, the CIA gave Defense officials, Presidents Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush, and President-elect Bill Clinton 95 reports from suspected or known Soviet/Russian sources. For 35 of these reports, which dealt with weapons technology and arms control, the CIA believed that they came from double agents; of these, 11 were sent to presidents, and Clinton received at least one before his inauguration. According to Specter, the presidents were not alerted to the sources of the intelligence, although reports to other agencies indicated their questionable origins. The decision to continue disseminating the reports was allegedly made by mid-level DO officers \"who thought they had screened out the disinformation.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39626432",
"title": "Edward Snowden",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Edward Joseph Snowden (born June 21, 1983) is an American whistle-blower who copied and leaked highly classified information from the National Security Agency (NSA) in 2013 when he was a Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) employee and subcontractor. His disclosures revealed numerous global surveillance programs, many run by the NSA and the Five Eyes Intelligence Alliance with the cooperation of telecommunication companies and European governments, and prompted a cultural discussion about national security and individual privacy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16746606",
"title": "The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The book discusses how the CIA works and how its original purpose (i.e. collecting and analyzing information about foreign governments, corporations, and persons in order to advise public policymakers) has, according to the author, been subverted by its obsession with clandestine operations. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a6q0qi
|
How did the introduction of the pocket watch effect surveying?
|
[
{
"answer": "Finding longitude and latitude were very big problems for a ship out on the ocean. It was impossible to precisely measure the distance from one day to the next with no hard and fast landmarks, and the actions of currents and imprecise speed gauges made it hard to correlate knots with actual travel. Use of navigational tools like sextants and chronometers were key. However, for surveying on land, that was not the case. From a precisely measured base line, triangles could be laid off to map any piece of ground. The typical tools of chain, plumb bob, and transit would suffice. Sightings of the sun would not be needed, or precise time measurement. They would of course be needed to place continents and islands in the correct distance from each other.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "767894",
"title": "Pocket watch",
"section": "Section::::Decline in popularity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "The use of pocket watches in a professional environment came to an ultimate end in approximately 1943. The Royal Navy of the British military distributed to their sailors Waltham pocket watches, which were 9 jewel movements, with black dials, and numbers coated with radium for visibility in the dark, in anticipation of the eventual D-Day invasion. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28373307",
"title": "Jean-Antoine Lépine",
"section": "Section::::1764/65: Invention of the revolutionary Lépine calibre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Around 1764/65, he devised a means of manufacturing a pocket watch that could be thinner, favouring the onward quest for further miniaturization. His radical design broke with a 300-year tradition and ushered in the age of precision timekeeping, the modern pocket watch was born.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14449116",
"title": "History of timekeeping devices",
"section": "Section::::Era of precision timekeeping.:Pocket watch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 660,
"text": "In 1675, Huygens and Robert Hooke invented the spiral balance, or the hairspring, designed to control the oscillating speed of the balance wheel. This crucial advance finally made accurate pocket watches possible. This resulted in a great advance in accuracy of pocket watches, from perhaps several hours per day to 10 minutes per day, similar to the effect of the pendulum upon mechanical clocks. The great English clockmaker, Thomas Tompion, was one of the first to use this mechanism successfully in his pocket watches, and he adopted the minute hand which, after a variety of designs were trialled, eventually stabilised into the modern-day configuration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "767894",
"title": "Pocket watch",
"section": "Section::::Use in railroading in the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "The rise of railroading during the last half of the 19th century led to the widespread use of pocket watches. A famous train wreck on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway in Kipton, Ohio on April 19, 1891 occurred because one of the engineers' watches had stopped for four minutes. The railroad officials commissioned Webb C. Ball as their Chief Time Inspector, in order to establish precision standards and a reliable timepiece inspection system for Railroad chronometers. This led to the adoption in 1893 of stringent standards for pocket watches used in railroading. These railroad-grade pocket watches, as they became colloquially known, had to meet the General Railroad Timepiece Standards adopted in 1893 by almost all railroads. These standards read, in part:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56986358",
"title": "Cigar cutter watch fob",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "Pocket watches were the most common type of portable timepiece from their invention in the 1500s right up until the advent of the wristwatch after World War I. The first wristwatches were modified pocket watches with flanges attached to their sides to which a band was fastened. Pocket watches typically were connected to a fob or a chain; as the popularity and production of the timepieces increased, so did the production of various types of decorative watch fobs. In the 19th and 20th centuries over 500 million pocket watches of various types and qualities were produced in America. This number was far surpassed by watch production in Europe, with an estimated 400,000 pocket watches produced each year. With the standardization of time, men and women of all classes throughout the world used these time-keeping devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "610582",
"title": "Escapement",
"section": "Section::::Accuracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Pocket watches were the predecessor of modern wristwatches. Pocket watches, being in the pocket, were usually in a vertical orientation. Gravity causes some loss of accuracy as it magnifies over time any lack of symmetry in the weight of the balance. The \"tourbillon\" was invented to minimize this: the balance and spring is put in a cage which rotates (typically but not necessarily, once a minute), smoothing gravitational distortions. This very clever and sophisticated clock-work is a prized \"complication\" in watches, even though the natural movement of the wearer tends to smooth gravitational influences much more than for a pocket watch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2263499",
"title": "Digital clock",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "The first digital pocket watch was the invention of Austrian engineer Josef Pallweber who created his \"jump-hour\" mechanism in 1883. Instead of a conventional dial, the jump-hour featured two windows in an enamel dial, through which the hours and minutes are visible on rotating discs. The second hand remained conventional. By 1885 Pallweber mechanism was already on the market in pocket watches by Cortébert and IWC; arguably contributing to the subsequent rise and commercial success of IWC. The principles of Pallweber jump-hour movement had appeared in wristwatches by the 1920s (Cortébert) and are still used today (Chronoswiss Digiteur). While the original inventor didn't have a watch brand at the time, his name has since been resurrected by a newly established watch manufacturer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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]
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] | null |
5mhz08
|
What social opportunities would be available to a free black family living in the antebellum deep south?
|
[
{
"answer": "This is what my master's thesis was on, so buckle in, I love to talk about it. It was specifically about a wealthy Tuscaloosa, Alabama man named Solomon Perteet. He was by no means the most successful person of color in the antebellum South, but he's the one I know best. That said, let me give you a short bio of his life, before I move into what the literature as a whole says about your question.\n\nSolomon was born in 1789 to a wealthy white woman in Georgia. His father was most likely a slave, based on the sparse population data that survived the War of 1812. He was raised by his mother, and was apprenticed to a wealthy plaster worker at the age of eleven. He moved to Tuscaloosa in the mid 1820s, and received a lucrative contract to do the plaster work in the new Tuscaloosa capitol building.\n\nHe was already a slave owner by the time he arrived in Alabama, and married one of his slaves, Lucinda, soon after his arrival. He petitioned and paid for manumission for Lucinda and their eldest child, Andrew Jackson. (Interestingly, Solomon also paid for the manumission of Lucinda's son from another relationship, but he was only to be freed when he turned 21.)\n\nSolomon branched out into real estate, partnered with a white man to open a tannery, kept a medium-sized farm, owned a store, and got into money lending. He did most of his business with white clients, and successfully took debtors to court when they were unable to pay him back. I even found multiple instances of Lucinda appearing in court on his behalf, with an equally impressive success rate! As to the scale of his holdings, he owned at least forty city lots (10 city blocks), several rural plots of land, and large reserves of specie. According to English geologist (and Darwin's mentor!) Charles Lyell, Perteet loaned 17,000 dollars to a debtor who was unable to repay the money, and Solomon emerged relatively unscathed by the loss. Lyell traveled to the South in the 1840s and wrote about his trip, including meeting Solomon in Tuscaloosa.\n\nSocially, his family was well-integrated into elite white society. The Perteet family lived in the most fashionable neighborhood in town. They had their own pew at the Episcopal church, and held weddings, baptisms, and funerals in the white sanctuary, while also retaining access to the black chapel. Solomon, Lucinda, two of his children, and two of his grandchildren, are buried in Greenwood Cemetery, right in the middle of his rich white neighbors. After his grandchildren were orphaned in 1869, they were informally adopted by a former CSA officer, lived in a mansion, and were sent to college. \n\nThat said, racism was still fundamental to the legal and social order of the South. In my work, I found two boundaries that Solomon was unable to cross, even with his substantial wealth. The first is a concrete one. He was unable to have his son admitted to the University of Alabama in the early/mid 1840s. I have no evidence of social pressure in either direction, but there were laws expressly prohibiting higher education for people of color at the time.\n\nThe second barrier was an intangible one. Solomon was unable to escape from the the conflation of blackness with poverty and servitude in public discourse and consciousness. Even though Solomon bought his wife and daughters $300 silk dresses, silk gloves, and velvet cloaks, ads for \"negro clothes\" ran in the paper. Lucinda's glowing obituary ran in the same 1869 Tuscaloosa Monitor that bore the headline, \"Lo, the lazy negro.\"\n\nThis is probably a bit of a jumble; I've been working on it off and on today. However, this is my take on the boundaries of race and class in the Old South, based on my own research. Once I post this, I'll post a follow-up comment giving you a rundown of the literature.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "This as incredibly helpful. I'm doing my master's thesis on the historical memory of free black societies in the north. Could you suggest anything worth reading on that subject? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "253264",
"title": "Slavery in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Black slaveholders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 274,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 274,
"end_character": 980,
"text": "There were economic and ethnic differences between free blacks of the Upper South and Deep South, with the latter fewer in number, but wealthier and typically of mixed race. Half of the black slaveholders lived in cities rather than the countryside, with most living in New Orleans and Charleston. Especially New Orleans had a large, relatively wealthy free black population (\"gens de couleur\") composed of people of mixed race, who had become a third social class between whites and enslaved blacks, under French and Spanish colonial rule. Relatively few non-white slaveholders were \"substantial planters\". Of those who were, most were of mixed race, often endowed by white fathers with some property and social capital. For example, Andrew Durnford of New Orleans was listed as owning 77 slaves. According to Rachel Kranz: \"Durnford was known as a stern master who worked his slaves hard and punished them often in his efforts to make his Louisiana sugar plantation a success.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "10989687",
"title": "Black elite",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "The black elite in the South of the United States started forming before the American Civil War among free blacks who managed to acquire property. Of the free people of color in North Carolina in the censuses from 1790 to 1810, 80% can be traced to African Americans free in Virginia during the colonial period. Free blacks migrated from Virginia to other states as did their neighbors. Extensive research into colonial court records, wills and deeds has demonstrated that most of those free families came from relationships or marriages between white women, servant or free, and black men, servant, free or slave. Such relationships were part of the more fluid relationships among the working class before the boundaries of slavery hardened.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22501124",
"title": "Annette Gordon-Reed",
"section": "Section::::Professional and academic career.:\"Andrew Johnson\" (2011).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "Gordon-Reed argues in the book that much of the misery imposed on African Americans could have been avoided if they had been given portions of land to cultivate as their own. Without land, African Americans in the Deep South generally earned livings as sharecroppers, primarily (if not totally) under white land-owners. They had few economic resources or choices and, often illiterate, were forced to accept the owner's reckoning of accounts at the end of the year. They often had to buy supplies at his store, which became part of the reckoning. She likens their situation to that of immigrant workers in the New York garment industry (sweat shops) in the 1890s, and coal miners, who were captives of mining company stores until the UMWA was founded in 1890.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2156625",
"title": "Hypodescent",
"section": "Section::::History.:Hypo/hyperdescent in Colonial-Era North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "Research by historians and genealogists has shown that unlike the above examples, most free African Americans listed in the first two US censuses in the Upper South were descended from relationships or marriages in colonial Virginia between white women, indentured servant or free, and African or African-American men, indentured servant, free or slave. Their unions reflected the fluid nature of relationships among the working classes before slave caste was hardened, as well as the small households and farms within which many people worked. The children of white mothers were born free. If they were illegitimate and mixed race, they were apprenticed in order to avoid the community being burdened with upkeep, but such persons gained a step in freedom. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20134780",
"title": "Multiracial Americans",
"section": "Section::::Black and African-American identity.:Admixture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Many free African-American families descended from unions between white women and African men in colonial Virginia. Their free descendants migrated to the frontier of Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina in the 18th and 19th centuries. There were also similar free families in Delaware and Maryland, as documented by Paul Heinegg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32898963",
"title": "Treatment of slaves in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Sexual relations and rape.:Mixed-race children.:Relationship of skin color to treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "Planters with mixed-race children sometimes arranged for their education (occasionally in northern schools) or apprenticeship in skilled trades and crafts. Others settled property on them, or otherwise passed on social capital by freeing the children and their mothers. While fewer in number than in the Upper South, free blacks in the Deep South were often mixed-race children of wealthy planters and sometimes benefited from transfers of property and social capital. Wilberforce University, founded by Methodist and African Methodist Episcopal (AME) representatives in Ohio in 1856 for the education of African-American youth, was during its early history largely supported by wealthy southern planters who paid for the education of their mixed-race children. When the American Civil War broke out, the majority of the school's 200 students were of mixed race and from such wealthy Southern families. The college closed for several years before the AME Church bought and operated it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45442",
"title": "Autarky",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th and early 20th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 846,
"text": "In some areas of the antebellum South, the enslaved and free black populations forged self-sufficient economies in an effort to avoid reliance on the larger economy controlled by the planter aristocracy. In eastern North Carolina maroon communities, often based in swampy areas, used a combination of agriculture and fishing to forge a \"hidden economy\" and secure survival. The relative self-reliance of these maritime African-American populations provided the basis for a strongly abolitionist political culture that made increasingly radical demands after the start of the Civil War. Due to tense relations with some Union commanders and political factions during and after that war, these communities \"focused their organizing efforts on developing their own institutions, their own sense of self-reliance, and their own political strength.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8mpkm7
|
how come even after just wearing my glasses for an hour without touching them, they’ll still get smudged?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your eyelashes may hit the lenses, leaving behind oils. And airborne dust may also get caught in said oils, further adding to the smudges noticed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27612",
"title": "Sonic screwdriver",
"section": "Section::::History.:2010–2015.:Sonic sunglasses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 891,
"text": "The glasses appear to be more susceptible to damage than the screwdriver; in \"The Girl Who Died\", a Viking warrior takes the glasses off the Doctor's face and easily breaks them in half. Nevertheless, the glasses continue to appear via replacement or repair until the end of the season. They return the following season during the Doctor's temporary period of blindness, showing the ability to scan his surroundings and transmit the information to his brain, as well as transmit any data recorded to them. However, while he is able to tell things about a person such as height, weight, gender, age, and even heart rate, he doesn't get enough detail to know faces, clothing, etc. (\"Extremis\") He was once able to tell that a person was holding a computer tablet, but not what was written on it, as well as 'see' a combination lock but not the numbers. (\"The Pyramid at the End of the World\")\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7056624",
"title": "Wiener Stadtbahn",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "\"Why are you making such a sad sight? I'm from the express train of the Stadtbahn and during the fastest part, my hat, my stick and my glasses fell from the car! So what? And I could only pick up the stick and the glasses! \"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2835536",
"title": "Paintball equipment",
"section": "Section::::Equipment maintenance.:Mask maintenance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "If the mask's lens are covered in paint, it is important not to simply wipe the paint off, because doing so may cause debris to scratch the lens. The player should leave the field and clean off the lens using water and a towel or a piece of cloth or you can bring your own.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35326347",
"title": "Google Glass",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Privacy concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "There have also been concerns over potential eye pain caused by users new to Glass. These concerns were validated by Google's optometry advisor Dr. Eli Peli of Harvard, though he later partly backtracked due to the controversy which ensued from his remarks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74845",
"title": "Contact lens",
"section": "Section::::Complications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Many complications arise when contact lenses are worn not as prescribed (improper wear schedule or lens replacement). Sleeping in lenses not designed or approved for extended wear is a common cause of complications. Many people go too long before replacing their contacts, wearing lenses designed for 1, 14, or 30 days of wear for multiple months or years. While this does save on the cost of lenses, it risks permanent damage to the eye and even loss of sight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11234274",
"title": "Optical fiber cable",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Small glass fragments can also be a problem if they get under someone's skin, so care is needed to ensure that fragments produced when cleaving fiber are properly collected and disposed of appropriately.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "74845",
"title": "Contact lens",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:Insertion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 999,
"text": "When the lens first contacts the eye, it should be comfortable. By making sure that particular attention is given to the eyelid margins for the presence of inflammation and signs of debris in the lashes, wearing contact lenses should be easy. A brief period of irritation may occur, caused by a difference in pH and/or salinity between that of the lens solution and the tear. This discomfort fades quickly as the solution drains away and is replaced by the natural tears. However, if irritation persists, the cause could be a dirty, damaged, or inside-out lens. Removing and inspecting it for damage and proper orientation, and re-cleaning if necessary, should correct the problem. If discomfort continues, the lens should not be worn. In some cases, taking a break from lens wear for a day may correct the problem. In case of severe discomfort, or if it does not resolve by the next day, the person should be seen as soon as possible by an eye doctor to rule out potentially serious complications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3tqncs
|
how do dogs know to be gentle with babies?
|
[
{
"answer": "Weve been breeding dogs for 40 thousand years to do things we want. The ones who didnt, didnt get to reproduce. Part of this was selecting for good hunting dogs, tracking dogs, guard dogs, but not murdering your children is also a trait that would be selected for. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We'll assume this is your baby and your dog. If your dog doesn't attack you and is rather kind, this becomes easier to answer. You being with your child constantly and caring for it may be perceived by the dog as a mini you and another human to protect.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Dogs are empathetic pack animals, just as we are. They have the same mammal instincts to protect as well. (Plus they know they'd get in trouble if they even tried something funny)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One possible factor is that baby mammals tend to have a common 'look'\n\n > The term baby schema (Kindchenschema, Lorenz, 1943) refers to a set of facial features (i.e., large head and a round face, a high and protruding forehead, large eyes, and a small nose and mouth) commonly found both in human and animal infants. [[1](_URL_0_)]\n\nGiven that they have puppies, understand puppies need to be treated gently, and have some level of 'advanced' / 'abstract' cognition powers, it doesn't seem unreasonable to me that they know babies are babies and 'transfer' their puppy-related behavior accordingly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to the previously mentioned selective breeding for dogs with agreeable temperaments, think about the size differential relative to other people from the dog's perspective. You've got a small, blobby animal that's slow, can't move much, if at all. Even if the dog doesn't realize it's a human (I imagine they do because of the smell.) they probably understand that they completely overmatch it and the baby/toddler is no threat. There's no reazon to be aggressive. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Careful there with that assumption. I my GSD is great around small kids and with my own baby. But she'll do perfectly natural and normally non-harmful things like lie down next to the child, and her paw will land on a limb or belly. It's not intentional, but their weight combined with a hefty paw with claws can hurt like hell. (Even when she does it on my foot).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not all dogs are like this. Some are jealous and will guard certain things in the house (even their owners), or feel very territorial. It may be that if the owner is there the dog know they are low in the pack, so behaved at that time. Some dogs who were never territorial or had any behavior issues will develop them when a new baby is brought into the home. It's important to prepare your dog way ahead of time. (lots of good articles about this all over) \n\nNo dog should be left along with any young child. All young children should be taught how to touch a dog and what is not allowed. Age appropriate learning, of course. \n\nI had a very well behaved and trained beagle. When my youngest was 3 months old I turned around to see her dragging my son across the floor by his shirt collar, back of his neck, choking him with the front of the shirt. No idea why and her body language was relaxed,.. what the heck? 15 minutes later I look up to the same thing. Here the cat had come into the room and the dog was dragging the baby away from the cat (who was still on the other side of the room, but I guess *at all* was too much for the dog. ) She was protecting him, but it could have ended up into something not good it I hadn't been right there. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45383349",
"title": "Zuchon",
"section": "Section::::Temperament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "They make fairly good watch dogs. When necessary, this dog will bark to alert its family that someone is nearby. This breed is typically good with other pets, especially when socialized at an early age. This dog gets along well with children, but it may be a good idea to socialize this breed at an early age as well as to supervise play time with children to make sure that the dog does not get hurt as a result of its small size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25116337",
"title": "Socialization of animals",
"section": "Section::::Dogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "It is critical that human interaction takes place frequently and calmly from the time the puppies are born, from simple, gentle handling to the mere presence of humans in the vicinity of the puppies, performing everyday tasks and activities. As the puppies grow older, socialization occurs more readily the more frequently they are exposed to other dogs, other people, and other situations. Dogs who are well socialized from birth, with both dogs and other species (especially people), are much less likely to be aggressive or to suffer from fear-biting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34190096",
"title": "Karelo-Finnish Laika",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "They make great, affectionate family dogs, but do not trust strangers. Many can be very protective of their owners or property, so they sometimes bark when someone is coming. Owners should have patience with these Laikas because they can hold grudges for a long time. Also, they can be aggressive towards unknown dogs that come near their home, but should be friendly with dogs that they live with, or dogs away from their home. From a young age, they see small animals, such as squirrels, as potential game so they will more than likely go after them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25116337",
"title": "Socialization of animals",
"section": "Section::::Dogs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "In domesticated dogs, the process of socialization begins even before the puppy's eyes open. Socialization refers to both its ability to interact acceptably with humans and its understanding of how to communicate successfully with other dogs. If the mother is fearful of humans or of her environment, she can pass along this fear to her puppies. For most dogs, however, a mother who interacts well with humans is the best teacher that the puppies can have. In addition, puppies learn how to interact with other dogs by their interaction with their mother and with other adult dogs in the house.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1225841",
"title": "Dog training",
"section": "Section::::How dogs learn.:Observational learning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1161,
"text": "Pups between the ages of 9–12 weeks who were permitted to observe their narcotics-detecting mothers at work generally proved more capable at learning the same skills at six months of age than control puppies the same age who were not previously allowed to watch their mothers working. A 2001 study recorded the behaviour of dogs in detour tests, in which a favorite toy or food was placed behind a V-shaped fence. The demonstration of the detour by humans significantly improved the dogs' performance in the trials. The experiments showed that dogs are able to rely on information provided by human action when confronted with a new task. Significantly, they did not copy the exact path of the human demonstrator, but adopted the detour behavior shown by humans to reach their goal. A 1977 experiment by Adler and Adler found that puppies who watched other puppies learn to pull a food cart into their cages by an attached ribbon proved considerably faster at the task when later given the opportunity themselves. At 38 days of age, the \"demonstrator\" puppies took an average of 697 seconds to succeed, while the observers succeeded in an average of 9 seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "514714",
"title": "Pyrenean Shepherd",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Temperament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Their natural wariness, while valuable in a herding dog which might need to alert their shepherd of strange animals or people, combined with their herding bossiness, can lead to shyness or aggression in even the most friendly puppy if not properly managed. Frequent socialization from a very young age can help counter this trait.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "515115",
"title": "Poodle",
"section": "Section::::Temperament.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1308,
"text": "As with all dogs and babies, introductions should be gradual, though most Standards will tolerate a baby and learn to be gentle and will respect toddlers so long as the child is supervised. A Standard Poodle will be fine in a family with many children provided the environment is stable, orderly, and relaxed, with enough room for the dog to go out and retire somewhere quiet if needed. Miniature and Toy varieties tend to have less patience with young children and might find certain children's antics too much to handle, especially because young children are much larger than they are and may attempt to grab them without understanding how their attempt to hug the pooch is terrifying to a small dog. They are likely to bite out of fear and thus are better suited to homes with teenagers or older children. Poodles dislike being left alone or left out of the family fun and some get anxious at being left in the house alone, but sign of nervousness or neurosis is atypical and not how a poodle of any size is meant to behave. Miniature and Toy Poodles must not be treated like babies and be picked up and carried around constantly and never put on a leash to walk: they will start to believe they are in charge and that they do not owe anyone good behavior and they become very spoiled and uncontrollable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
sz6bq
|
Does listening to neuroacoustic music have any measurable effect in putting people to sleep?
|
[
{
"answer": "The man is a quack and he has no scientific studies (besides his own) backing him up. There's no identifiable process behind the supposed 'theory', and everything I've read is nonsense.\n\nSo in short, no. Nothing beyond placebo.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46966",
"title": "Sleep disorder",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Music therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "In another study, specifically looking to help people with insomnia, similar results were seen. The participants that listened to music experienced better sleep quality than those who did not listen to music.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20518706",
"title": "PGO waves",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism for generation and propagation.:Modulatory neurons.:Auditory stimulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "The use of auditory stimulation has been shown to increase PGO waves during waking and sleeping cycles with neurons associated with transfers of auditory information. Even while the subject is awake and in total darkness, the amplitude of PGO waves increases by auditory stimulation. Another study also found that auditory stimulation increased the amplitude of PGO waves in slow-wave sleep and REM sleep and did not reduce the amplitude of the waves with repeated auditory stimulation. From this research, scientists can theorize that PGO wave generation from auditory stimulation contains a positive-feedback mechanism that can be excited by evoked PGO waves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167184",
"title": "Rapid eye movement sleep",
"section": "Section::::Psychology.:Dreaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Hobson and McCarley proposed that the PGO waves characteristic of “phasic” REM might supply the visual cortex and forebrain with electrical excitement which amplifies the hallucinatory aspects of dreaming. However, people woken up during sleep do not report significantly more bizarre dreams during phasic REMS, compared to tonic REMS. Another possible relationship between the two phenomena could be that the higher threshold for sensory interruption during REM sleep allows the brain to travel further along unrealistic and peculiar trains of thought.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9936437",
"title": "Arts integration",
"section": "Section::::The contribution of arts education to children’s development.:Cognitive development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "A meta-analysis by the American Psychological Association furthermore showed how listening to music can result in progressive relaxation and that listening to classical music one hour a day increases greater brain coherence and more time spent in the alpha state (state of aware relaxation stimulating imagination, intuition and higher awareness). Studies on premature babies have also found that while receiving special care and being exposed to classical music they physically and mentally developed significantly faster than those babies who weren’t exposed to classical music. Further studies have also indicated that incorporating Art into academic education for disabled children better supported cognitive development and improved communication skills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25213736",
"title": "Music-specific disorders",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "Neuroscientists have learned a lot about the role of the brain in numerous cognitive mechanisms by understanding corresponding disorders. Similarly, neuroscientists have come to learn a lot about music cognition by studying music-specific disorders. Even though music is most often viewed from a \"historical perspective rather than a biological one\" music has significantly gained the attention of neuroscientists all around the world. For many centuries music has been strongly associated with art and culture. The reason for this increased interest in music is because it \"provides a tool to study numerous aspects of neuroscience, from motor skill learning to emotion\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46966",
"title": "Sleep disorder",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Music therapy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 902,
"text": "Although more research should be done to increase the reliability of this method of treatment, research suggests that music therapy can improve sleep quality in acute and chronic sleep disorders. In one particular study, participants (18 years or older) who had experienced acute or chronic sleep disorders were put in a randomly controlled trial and their sleep efficiency (overall time asleep) was observed. In order to assess sleep quality, researchers used subjective measures (i.e. questionnaires) and objective measures (i.e. polysomnography). The results of the study suggest that music therapy did improve sleep quality in subjects with acute or chronic sleep disorders, however only when tested subjectively. Although these results are not fully conclusive and more research should be conducted, it still provides evidence that music therapy can be an effective treatment for sleep disorders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10118105",
"title": "Music education and programs within the United States",
"section": "Section::::Music as a core subject.:Impacts on childhood development and academic success.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "The effects of strictly listening to music have long been explored and has been given the name the \"Mozart Effect,\" which is known to cause a \"small increase in spatial-temporal reasoning\". As seen with the Mozart Effect, listening to music has been proven to affect the brain and mood, as well as spatial temporal reasoning, but does not have any long-term benefits. A 1981 study at Mission Vejo High School proved that music students had a higher GPA than students who did not participate in music (3.59 vs. 2.91). There have been studies done verifying music as an enrichment activity that causes an increase in self-confidence, discipline, and social cohesion, as well as academic benefits. 7\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3od6ox
|
when you listen to music on high volume in a loud place, does it damage your hearing the same way as it would in a quieter place?
|
[
{
"answer": "When you have a few loud noises, the quieter of the two noises is still loud. It still would damage your hearing the same way. It might seem quieter, but its still the same noise level from your headphones. I believe the difference if any would be due to the noise being sent right to your ears rather than a noise sent from a bus which is sent every which way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you turn your music up, it will be more likely to damage your hearing. Doesn't matter how loud it is relative to your background noise. That's not considering if the background noise is loud enough to damage your hearing as well ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1560437",
"title": "Portable media player",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Risk of hearing damage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "According to the Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks, the risk of hearing damage from digital audio players depends on both sound level and listening time. The listening habits of most users are unlikely to cause hearing loss, but some people are putting their hearing at risk, because they set the volume control very high or listen to music at high levels for many hours per day. Such listening habits may result in temporary or permanent hearing loss, tinnitus, and difficulties understanding speech in noisy environments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35332840",
"title": "Noise in music",
"section": "Section::::Noise as excessive volume.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "Noise as high volume is common for musicians from classical orchestras to rock groups as they are exposed to high decibel ranges. Although some rock musicians experience noise-induced hearing loss from their music, it is still debated as to whether classical musicians are exposed to enough high-intensity sound to cause hearing impairments. Music-induced hearing loss is still a controversial topic for hearing researchers. While some studies have shown that the risk for hearing loss increases as music exposure increases, other studies found little to no correlation between the two.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145372",
"title": "Audiophile",
"section": "Section::::Audio playback components.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "The interaction between the loudspeakers and the room (room acoustics) plays an important part in sound quality. Sound vibrations are reflected from walls, floor and ceiling, and are affected by the contents of the room. Room dimensions can create standing waves at particular (usually low) frequencies. There are devices and materials for room treatment that affect sound quality. Soft materials, such as draperies and carpets, can absorb higher frequencies, whereas hard walls and floors can cause excess reverberation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6894544",
"title": "Noise-induced hearing loss",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "There are a variety of prevention strategies available to avoid or reduce hearing loss. Lowering the volume of sound at its source, limiting the time of exposure and physical protection can reduce the impact of excessive noise. If not prevented, hearing loss can be managed through assistive devices and communication strategies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6846175",
"title": "Listener fatigue",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Sensory overload.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "When exposed to a multitude of sounds from several different sources, sensory overload may occur. This overstimulation can result in general fatigue and loss of sensation in the ear. The associated mechanisms are explained in further detail down below. Sensory overload usually occurs with environmental stimuli and not noise induced by listening to music.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "493399",
"title": "Loudness",
"section": "Section::::Hearing loss.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "When sensorineural hearing loss (damage to the cochlea or in the brain) is present, the perception of loudness is altered. Sounds at low levels (often perceived by those without hearing loss as relatively quiet) are no longer audible to the hearing impaired, but sounds at high levels often are perceived as having the same loudness as they would for an unimpaired listener. This phenomenon can be explained by two theories, called \"loudness recruitment\" and \"softness imperception\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49604",
"title": "Hearing loss",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Noise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "Many people are unaware of the presence of environmental sound at damaging levels, or of the level at which sound becomes harmful. Common sources of damaging noise levels include car stereos, children's toys, motor vehicles, crowds, lawn and maintenance equipment, power tools, gun use, musical instruments, and even hair dryers. Noise damage is cumulative; all sources of damage must be considered to assess risk. If one is exposed to loud sound (including music) at high levels or for extended durations (85 dB A or greater), then hearing loss will occur. Sound intensity (sound energy, or propensity to cause damage to the ears) increases dramatically with proximity according to an inverse square law: halving the distance to the sound quadruples the sound intensity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2f8aqx
|
what makes good sushi "good"?
|
[
{
"answer": "the freshness of the fish and how the chef cuts it, i.e. not leaving the skin on it, thick or thin slices etc. Also with nigiri sushi (fish on rice with wasabi between) the right amount of wasabi. Some bad sushi ive had had insanely big slices, like hard to eat big, the salmon still had a little silver on the side, and there was about a baseballs worth of wasabi.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Good\" sushi has to do with more than just the fish. When the ingredients are so simple, every factor must be accounted for. One thing people would not normally consider is temperature, when it comes to Jiro he is exact with everything. Also, the rice is seasoned and usually so is the fish, usually not with spices but with very minimal amounts of sauces such as soy sauce, sesame oil, or vinegar.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It should also be mentioned that the actual quality if the fish itself is at play. Freshness is good, but many sushi chefs are ok with flash frozen as long as it's done correctly.\n\nThose dollar supermarket packs are made with less expensive pieces if fish, while the high grade cuts are usually some only to restaurants. \n\nIf course, atmosphere and presentation also are huge factors. But you are probably not going to find primo otoro in a conveyer-belt place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "360101",
"title": "Fast food",
"section": "Section::::Cuisine.:Variants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Sushi has seen rapidly rising popularity recently in the Western world. A form of fast food created in Japan (where bentō is the Japanese variety of fast food), sushi is normally cold sticky rice flavored with a sweet rice vinegar and served with some topping (often fish), or, as in the most popular kind in the West, rolled in nori (dried laver) with filling. The filling often includes fish, seafood, chicken or cucumber.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28271",
"title": "Sushi",
"section": "Section::::Ingredients.:Gu.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 1019,
"text": "The ingredients used inside sushi are called \"gu\", and are, typically, varieties of fish. For culinary, sanitary, and aesthetic reasons, the minimum quality and freshness of fish to be eaten raw must be superior to that of fish which is to be cooked. Sushi chefs are trained to recognize important attributes, including smell, color, firmness, and freedom from parasites that may go undetected in commercial inspection. Commonly used fish are tuna (\"maguro, shiro-maguro\"), Japanese amberjack, yellowtail (\"hamachi\"), snapper (\"kurodai\"), mackerel (\"saba\"), and salmon (\"sake\"). The most valued sushi ingredient is \"toro,\" the fatty cut of the fish. This comes in a variety of \"ōtoro\" (often from the bluefin species of tuna) and \"chūtoro\", meaning \"middle toro\", implying that it is halfway into the fattiness between \"toro\" and the regular cut. \"Aburi\" style refers to \"nigiri\" sushi where the fish is partially grilled (topside) and partially raw. Most nigiri sushi will have completely raw toppings, called \"neta\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28271",
"title": "Sushi",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "The main ingredients of traditional Japanese sushi, raw fish and rice, are naturally low in fat, high in protein, carbohydrates (the rice only), vitamins, and minerals, as are \"gari\" and \"nori\". Other vegetables wrapped within the sushi also offer various vitamins and minerals. Many of the seafood ingredients also contain omega-3 fatty acids, which have a variety of health benefits. The omega-3 fatty acids found in fish has certain beneficial property, especially on cardiovascular health, natural anti-inflammatory compounds, and play a role in brain function.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28271",
"title": "Sushi",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Generally sushi is not a particularly fattening food. However, rice in sushi contains a fair amount of carbohydrates, plus the addition of other ingredients such as mayonnaise added into sushi rolls might increase the caloric content. Sushi also has a relatively high sodium content, especially contributed from \"shoyu\" soy sauce seasoning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32745471",
"title": "Sushi Saito",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Kelly Wetherille for CNN Travel, described Sushi Saito as a \"hidden gem\". She said that \"tender, flavorful seafood and perfectly seasoned rice are worth every penny\". Fodor's travel guide described the food there as being \"the freshest sushi available in the world\". Chef Joël Robuchon, who holds the most Michelin stars in the world of any chef, once described Sushi Saito as \"the best sushi restaurant in the world\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28271",
"title": "Sushi",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Sushi originates in a Southeast Asian dish, known today as \"narezushi\" ( – \"salted fish\"), stored in fermented rice for possibly months at a time. The lacto-fermentation of the rice prevented the fish from spoiling; the rice would be discarded before consumption of the fish. This early type of sushi became an important source of protein for its Japanese consumers. The term \"sushi\" comes from an antiquated grammatical form no longer used in other contexts, and literally means \"sour-tasting\"; the overall dish has a sour and umami or savoury taste. Narezushi still exists as a regional specialty, notably as \"funa-zushi\" from Shiga Prefecture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35828513",
"title": "History of seafood",
"section": "Section::::Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1361,
"text": "In Japan, sushi has traditionally been considered a delicacy. The original type of sushi, \"nare-zushi\", was first developed in Southeast Asia and then spread to southern China before its introduction to Japan sometime around the 8th century AD. Fish was salted and wrapped in fermented rice, a traditional lacto-fermented rice dish. \"Nare-zushi\" was made of this gutted fish stored in fermented rice for months at a time for preservation. The fermentation of the rice prevented the fish from spoiling. The fermented rice was discarded and fish was the only part consumed. This early type of sushi became an important source of protein for the Japanese. During the Muromachi period, another way of preparing sushi was developed, called \"namanare\". \"Namanare\" was partly raw fish wrapped in rice, consumed fresh, before it changed flavor. During the Edo period, a third type of sushi was developed, \"haya-zushi\". \"Haya-zushi\" was assembled so that both rice and fish could be consumed at the same time, and the dish became unique to Japanese culture. It was the first time that rice was not being used for fermentation. Rice was now mixed with vinegar, with fish, vegetables and dried foodstuff added. This type of sushi is still very popular today. Each region utilizes local flavors to produce a variety of sushi that has been passed down for many generations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
34mkm7
|
how did "*" become an understood symbol for correcting a spelling mistake made while typing?
|
[
{
"answer": "\"*\" is usually used in text to [reference a footnote](_URL_0_). I assume it has derived from this as the corrections are usually placed under the text.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The * symbol, before the advent of instant messaging, was already being used as a way to emphasize words in a sentence, or to **bold** them in some word processors.\n\nUnlike most other characters on a keyboard, the * symbol also has no grammatical impact on a sentence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "467946",
"title": "German orthography",
"section": "Section::::Use of special letters.:Sharp s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "Incorrect use of the \"ß\" letter is a common type of spelling error even among native German writers. The spelling reform of 1996 changed the rules concerning \"ß\" and \"ss\" (no forced replacement of \"ss\" to \"ß\" at word’s end). This required a change of habits and is often disregarded: some people even incorrectly assumed that the \"ß\" had been abolished completely. However, if the vowel preceding the \"s\" is long, the correct spelling remains \"ß\" (as in \"\"). If the vowel is short, it becomes \"ss\", e.g. \"Ich denke, \"dass\"…\" (I think that…). This follows the general rule in German that a long vowel is followed by a single consonant, while a short vowel is followed by a double consonant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7098800",
"title": "Spelling alphabet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 925,
"text": "Each word in the spelling alphabet typically replaces the name of the letter with which it starts (acrophony). It is used to spell out words when speaking to someone not able to see the speaker, or when the audio channel is not clear. The lack of high frequencies on standard telephones makes it hard to distinguish an 'F' from an 'S' for example. Also, the lack of visual cues during oral communication can cause confusion. For example, lips are closed at the start of saying the letter \"B\" but open at the beginning of the letter \"D\" making these otherwise similar-sounding letters more easily discriminated when looking at the speaker. Without these visual cues, such as during announcements of airline gate numbers \"B1\" and \"D1\" at an airport, \"B\" may be confused with \"D\" by the listener. Spelling out one's name, a password or a ticker symbol over the telephone are other scenarios where a spelling alphabet is useful.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22793916",
"title": "Five Orders of Periwigs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "A number of spelling mistakes were noted in the first state of the engraving (\"\", \"\"). A second state of the engraving corrects a typographical error by inserting the letter \"e\" in \"\", and relabels the \"Episcopal\" order of periwigs as \"Episcopal and Parsonic\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21620",
"title": "Noah Webster",
"section": "Section::::Blue-backed speller.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "As time went on, Webster changed the spellings in the book to more phonetic ones. Most of them already existed as alternative spellings. He chose spellings such as \"defense\", \"color\", and \"traveler\", and changed the \"re\" to \"er\" in words such as \"center\". He also changed \"tongue\" to the older spelling \"tung\", but this did not catch on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5597426",
"title": "September 1975",
"section": "Section::::September 29, 1975 (Monday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "BULLET::::- The \"Chicago Tribune\" abandoned its standard practice of phonetic spelling of certain common words after 41 years. Since January 28, 1934, the \"Tribune\" had set out to simplify spelling for 80 common words, including the rendition of \"phantom\" as \"fantom\" and \"rhyme\" as \"rime\". After expanding the list in 1949, the \"Tribune\" had reversed some decisions, such as spelling \"sophomore\" as \"sofomore\", \"out of concern for schoolchildren who might be confused\". It retained, however, such spellings as \"thru\", \"altho\" and \"thoro\" (for \"through\", \"although\" and \"thorough\"). Finally, the paper announced in a September 29 editorial that \"Today we are adopting a new stylebook. \"Thru\", \"tho\" and \"thoro\" are abandoned. Regretfully we concede they have not made the grade in spelling class... Sanity some day may come to spelling, but we do not want to make any more trouble between Johnny and his teacher.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59153",
"title": "Ampersand",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 997,
"text": "Traditionally, when reciting the alphabet in English-speaking schools, any letter that could also be used as a word in itself (\"A\", \"I\", and, at one point, \"O\") was repeated with the Latin expression \"per se\" (\"by itself\"). This habit was useful in spelling where a word or syllable was repeated after spelling; e.g. \"d, o, g—dog\" would be clear but simply saying \"a—a\" would be confusing without the clarifying \"per se\" added. It was also common practice to add the \"&\" sign at the end of the alphabet as if it were the 27th letter, pronounced as the Latin \"et\" or later in English as \"and\". As a result, the recitation of the alphabet would end in \"X, Y, Z, \"and per se and\"\". This last phrase was routinely slurred to \"ampersand\" and the term had entered common English usage by 1837. However, in contrast to the 26 letters, the ampersand does not represent a speech sound—although other characters that were dropped from the English alphabet did, such as the Old English thorn, wynn, and eth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2053693",
"title": "American and British English spelling differences",
"section": "Section::::Historical origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 996,
"text": "Webster was a proponent of English spelling reform for reasons both philological and nationalistic. In \"A Companion to the American Revolution\" (2008), John Algeo notes: \"it is often assumed that characteristically American spellings were invented by Noah Webster. He was very influential in popularizing certain spellings in America, but he did not originate them. Rather […] he chose already existing options such as \"center, color\" and \"check\" for the simplicity, analogy or etymology\". William Shakespeare's first folios, for example, used spellings like \"center\" and \"color\" as much as \"centre\" and \"colour\". Webster did attempt to introduce some reformed spellings, as did the Simplified Spelling Board in the early 20th century, but most were not adopted. In Britain, the influence of those who preferred the Norman (or Anglo-French) spellings of words proved to be decisive. Later spelling adjustments in the United Kingdom had little effect on today's American spellings and vice versa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ivehr
|
How were cartoons (political or otherwise) printed in newspapers during the age of movable type?
|
[
{
"answer": "By no means an expert on this but as far as I'm aware the most common techniques included [etching](_URL_0_), wherein an acid was applied to a metal surface which was then used as a printing plate and [woodcuts](_URL_3_) or [engraving](_URL_1_) which were done by carving the image into wood or metal, respectively. A later technique was [lithography](_URL_2_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What /u/CptBuck said. Also, cartoons don't really appear in newspapers until the 19th century, first in the form of lithographs; *Punch* in Britain and *La Caricature* and *Le Charivari* in France in the 1830s. Before that they exist as stand alone sheets. What we would recognize as political cartoons, employing caricature, don't really appear until around the 1770s in Britain, printed as etchings, usually hand-colored.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "355753",
"title": "Photojournalism",
"section": "Section::::History.:Golden age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 811,
"text": "Until the 1980s, most large newspapers were printed with turn-of-the-century \"letterpress\" technology using easily smudged oil-based ink, off-white, low-quality \"newsprint\" paper, and coarse engraving screens. While letterpresses produced legible text, the photoengraving dots that formed pictures often bled or smeared and became fuzzy and indistinct. In this way, even when newspapers used photographs well — a good crop, a respectable size — murky reproduction often left readers re-reading the caption to see what the photo was all about. The \"Wall Street Journal\" adopted stippled hedcuts in 1979 to publish portraits and avoid the limitations of letterpress printing. Not until the 1980s did a majority of newspapers switch to \"offset\" presses that reproduce photos with fidelity on better, whiter paper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "345779",
"title": "Mary Ann Shadd",
"section": "Section::::Social activism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "These newspapers used their mainstream counterparts after which to model their newspapers. According to research conducted by William David Sloan in his various historical textbooks, the first newspapers were about four pages and had one blank page to provide a place for people to write their own information before passing it along to friends and relatives. He goes even farther to discuss how the newspapers during these early days were the center of information for society and culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16267",
"title": "Joke",
"section": "Section::::History of the printed joke.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 907,
"text": "The practice of printers to use jokes and cartoons as page fillers was also widely used in the broadsides and chapbooks of the 19th century and earlier. With the increase in literacy in the general population and the growth of the printing industry, these publications were the most common forms of printed material between the 16th and 19th centuries throughout Europe and North America. Along with reports of events, executions, ballads and verse, they also contained jokes. Only one of many broadsides archived in the Harvard library is described as \"1706. Grinning made easy; or, Funny Dick's unrivalled collection of curious, comical, odd, droll, humorous, witty, whimsical, laughable, and eccentric jests, jokes, bulls, epigrams, &c. With many other descriptions of wit and humour.\" These cheap publications, ephemera intended for mass distribution, were read alone, read aloud, posted and discarded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3628057",
"title": "Japanese newspapers",
"section": "Section::::Brief history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Japanese newspapers began in the 17th century as \"yomiuri\" (読売、literally \"to read and sell\") or \"kawaraban\" (瓦版, literally \"tile-block printing\" referring to the use of clay printing blocks), which were printed handbills sold in major cities to commemorate major social gatherings or events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4688539",
"title": "History of newspaper publishing",
"section": "Section::::Asia.:Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Japanese newspapers began in the 17th century as \"yomiuri\" (読売、literally \"to read and sell\") or \"kawaraban\" (瓦版, literally \"tile-block printing\" referring to the use of clay printing blocks), which were printed handbills sold in major cities to commemorate major social gatherings or events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28868786",
"title": "Pearl Rivers",
"section": "Section::::Picayune owner.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "The visual appearance of the paper evolved. Advertising was moved out of column space and into boxes, which first appeared in June 1882. Before 1885 the paper rarely ran illustrations. By 1887 the pages were full of chalk plate drawings. The rakish and sophisticated Weather Frog appeared in cartoons from 13 January 1894, and the first political cartoon after her death on April 18, 1896. She changed the paper into a family newspaper, and, between 1880 and 1890, the circulation more than tripled while the paper grew in size and influence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "205534",
"title": "Political cartoon",
"section": "Section::::History.:Cartoonist's magazines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 941,
"text": "The art of the editorial cartoon was further developed with the publication of the British periodical \"Punch\" in 1841, founded by Henry Mayhew and engraver Ebenezer Landells (an earlier magazine that published cartoons was \"Monthly Sheet of Caricatures\", printed from 1830 and an important influence on \"Punch\"). It was bought by Bradbury and Evans in 1842, who capitalised on newly evolving mass printing technologies to turn the magazine into a preeminent national institution. The term \"cartoon\" to refer to comic drawings was coined by the magazine in 1843; the Houses of Parliament were to be decorated with murals, and \"carttons\" for the mural were displayed for the public; the term \"cartoon\" then meant a finished preliminary sketch on a large piece of cardboard, or in Italian. \"Punch\" humorously appropriated the term to refer to its political cartoons, and the popularity of the \"Punch\" cartoons led to the term's widespread use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7m0zf5
|
what is the leading theory / theories regarding creation of our solar system / universe / etc within the scientific community?
|
[
{
"answer": "The big bang is assumed to be what happened almost 14 billion years ago, however what happened before the big bang or exactly at the moment of the big bang is unclear.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\nThanks to a guy called u/BadAstronomer, AKA Phil Plait, for most of this information. I knew only the most rudimentary of things before, and used to even be scared of the concept of such a huge universe before I saw his videos.\n\nScientists still have very little idea as to why the Big Bang happened. \n\nWe do know that many black holes are in the centres of most galaxies, certainly the largest like the Milky Way and Andromeda. They, plus the mass of stars and gas near the centre provides something for the whole thing to orbit around.\n\nAs for the solar system, that used to be a rather large cloud of gas and dust sitting around about 5 billion years ago. A supernovae happened nearby, which because of the insane pressure in large star cores, generates many of the heavier elements, and that supernovae also disrupted the balance in that cloud, and in the centre, it began to coalesce into a star. This took some time. \n\nIt got hotter and hotter and denser and denser until it had enough pressure and to initiate hydrogen fusion in the core. That is the definition of a star. \n\nStars have something called a steller (when we talk about our own Sun, we usually call it a solar) wind that blew away the remaining gas and dust nearby to the outer parts of the solar system.\n \nThe other planets began to coalesce in similar ways, but got nothing even remotely close to enough to be even a brown dwarf, let alone a star. Jupiter's birth is a bit disputed, we don't know whether it ever had a core, and if so how it formed. \n\nThe gas and dust was blown too far away for the four rocky planets to collect any kind of impressive atmospheres like even the Ice Giants of Neptune and Uranus have, but they did still have some.\n\nThe Asteroid belt was constantly disrupted by Jupiter's massive gravity, and was probably in part swallowed up by it, leaving Mars relatively small, and unable to form any sort of planet that has no other objects of similar size within it's orbit, part of the definition of a planet. \n\nIt actually seems like Jupiter moved inwards towards the Sun (a process that actually happens to many gas giants like Jupiter in exoplanet solar systems), but was stopped by Saturn's gravity from going too far. It was just trying to eat up as much as it could. \n\nSaturn, Uranus, and Neptune began to move further out from the Sun, towards their current positions, and that seemed to disrupt the Kuiper Belt and the comets around it. And that also began to send a lot of asteroids and comets into different orbits. I'll get to that later.\n\nEarth got it's start pretty early, but a few tens of millions of years after it's birth, a massive protoplanet named Thea slammed at it in a low angle collision, blowing apart Thea and taking a good part of the Earth with it, and the crust of the earth liquified into lava, that coalesced into the Moon, but that Moon was pretty near the Earth, so the Earth cooked the moon, making the far side of the moon's crust thicker. Remember the asteroids moving around from last paragraph? That slammed into the Moon (and Earth), which couldn't penetrate, only crater, the far side, but broke through the near side's thinner surface, bubbling up Lunar lava, which made the Maria we see today. Tidal forces moved the Moon away from the Earth and also tidally locked the Moon's faces. \n\nThe Earth cooled down and also got a lot of water from comets, and it looks like some organic molecules too, and maybe although disputed, basic forms of life. \n\nMercury was formed just as a basic coalescence of rocks, but it's orbital period isn't tidally locked to the Sun the same way. It's a 2:3 resonance, not like the Moon. And it's been that way since.\n\nVenus once was much cooler, its clouds much less of a problem, and had oceans of liquid water and maybe life. But the Sun began to heat up, due to the hydrogen fusing into helium which increased the pressure, and pressurizing gas leads to gas heating up. The Sun eventually boiled away the oceans, and water vapour is a strong greenhouse gas, and the rocks even began to have greenhouse gases boiled out of them too. Plate tectonics, what may have once been, stopped. We have a few ideas as to why Venus rotates retrograde and so slowly, but the giant impact hypothesis, IE a big object turned the thing over, is popular. The Solar wind also blew away lighter elements in the Venusian atmosphere, leading to only the heavier ones like sulfur dioxide. Any core of iron providing a magnetosphere that may have provided a shield went away when the rotation slowed, exposing the planet to even more rays.\n\nMars once had oceans of liquid water too, and maybe life as well. But for some reason, it's magnetosphere stopped, not sure why, and the sun blasted away with the solar wind anything keeping the planet tempurature regulated. The water evapourated over the eons, and is lifeless today. \n\nThe Saturnian moons likely are stopping the rings from forming into a moon themselves, they've locked them into positions where they can't move. \n\nUranus likely got whacked, hard. And that would be why it spins sideways. It's much colder, and so methane is much more common in its atmosphere. \n\nNeptune's moon Triton looks like it might have been a dwarf planet captured from the Kuiper belt, which probably explains why it orbits retrograde. \n\nThe Kuiper belt is probably too close to Neptune to form a proper planet, and the objects that are there have to be far away from Neptune to not get thrown out of orbit. \n\nThe Sun's Ort Cloud is much more populated than the math would suggest. The Sun's been orbiting for a pretty long time though, and has passed by other stars. Maybe that's where the extra comets are from. \n\nGood enough answer?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6139438",
"title": "Formation and evolution of the Solar System",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Ideas concerning the origin and fate of the world date from the earliest known writings; however, for almost all of that time, there was no attempt to link such theories to the existence of a \"Solar System\", simply because it was not generally thought that the Solar System, in the sense we now understand it, existed. The first step toward a theory of Solar System formation and evolution was the general acceptance of heliocentrism, which placed the Sun at the centre of the system and the Earth in orbit around it. This concept had developed for millennia (Aristarchus of Samos had suggested it as early as 250 BC), but was not widely accepted until the end of the 17th century. The first recorded use of the term \"Solar System\" dates from 1704.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2068726",
"title": "History of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Solar System formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 890,
"text": "The standard model for the formation of the Solar System (including the Earth) is the solar nebula hypothesis. In this model, the Solar System formed from a large, rotating cloud of interstellar dust and gas called the solar nebula. It was composed of hydrogen and helium created shortly after the Big Bang 13.8 Ga (billion years ago) and heavier elements ejected by supernovae. About 4.5 Ga, the nebula began a contraction that may have been triggered by the shock wave from a nearby supernova. A shock wave would have also made the nebula rotate. As the cloud began to accelerate, its angular momentum, gravity, and inertia flattened it into a protoplanetary disk perpendicular to its axis of rotation. Small perturbations due to collisions and the angular momentum of other large debris created the means by which kilometer-sized protoplanets began to form, orbiting the nebular center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "173592",
"title": "The Urantia Book",
"section": "Section::::Critical views.:Criticism of its science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "BULLET::::- The described formation of the solar system is consistent with the Chamberlin-Moulton planetesimal hypothesis, which though popular in the early part of the 20th century, was discarded by the 1940s after major flaws were noted. The currently accepted scientific explanation for the origin of the solar system is based on the nebular hypothesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12607134",
"title": "Geology of solar terrestrial planets",
"section": "Section::::Formation of solar planets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "The Solar System is believed to have formed according to the nebular hypothesis, first proposed in 1755 by Immanuel Kant and independently formulated by Pierre-Simon Laplace. This theory holds that 4.6 billion years ago the Solar System formed from the gravitational collapse of a giant molecular cloud. This initial cloud was likely several light-years across and probably birthed several stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6139438",
"title": "Formation and evolution of the Solar System",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "The current standard theory for Solar System formation, the nebular hypothesis, has fallen into and out of favour since its formulation by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace in the 18th century. The most significant criticism of the hypothesis was its apparent inability to explain the Sun's relative lack of angular momentum when compared to the planets. However, since the early 1980s studies of young stars have shown them to be surrounded by cool discs of dust and gas, exactly as the nebular hypothesis predicts, which has led to its re-acceptance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267014",
"title": "List of topics characterized as pseudoscience",
"section": "Section::::Physical sciences.:Astronomy and space sciences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "BULLET::::- Creationist cosmologies are explanations of the origins and form of the universe in terms of the Genesis creation narrative (Genesis 1), according to which the God of the Bible created the cosmos in eight creative acts over the six days of the \"creation week\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31880",
"title": "Universe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "The earliest scientific models of the Universe were developed by ancient Greek and Indian philosophers and were geocentric, placing Earth at the center of the Universe. Over the centuries, more precise astronomical observations led Nicolaus Copernicus to develop the heliocentric model with the Sun at the center of the Solar System. In developing the law of universal gravitation, Isaac Newton built upon Copernicus' work as well as observations by Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler's laws of planetary motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5fe00v
|
what are those random sharp pains i get often on my skin almost like a big bite that catches my attention but immediately goes away?
|
[
{
"answer": "One of your hairs likely got caught in the fabric of your clothes and got tugged. When you reach to scratch it the motion either frees it or yanks it out entirely.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It could be a misfire of the nerves. It could be a hair stuck and being pulled on by something. Or it could be an insect, there are many microscopic insects that live in the pores and hair follicles of your skin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2542251",
"title": "Rook (piercing)",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Pain is very subjective and it is difficult to ascertain how much the initial piercing will hurt to a given person. Some people experience pain comparable to that of an average cartilage piercing to the helix or tragus, and others have described it as one of the most painful piercings they've ever received, either in the ear or their whole body. However, pain thresholds differ between individuals, so what may be painful to one person may be a slight tickle to someone else.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3679488",
"title": "Eastern diamondback rattlesnake",
"section": "Section::::Venom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Klauber described one case in which the symptoms included instant pain \"like two hot hypodermic needles\", spontaneous bleeding from the bite site, intense internal pain, bleeding from the mouth, hypotension, a weak pulse, swelling and discoloration of the affected limb, and associated severe pain. The symptoms were further described as strongly hemolytic and hemorrhagic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56283",
"title": "Complex regional pain syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "Spontaneous pain or allodynia (pain resulting from a stimulus which would not normally provoke pain, such as a light touch of the skin) is not limited to the territory of a single peripheral nerve and is disproportionate to the inciting event.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22776822",
"title": "Blister beetle dermatitis",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "After skin comes in contact with cantharidin, local irritation begins within a few hours. (This is in contrast to Paederus dermatitis, where symptoms first appear 12–36 hours after contact with rove beetles.) Painful blisters appear, but scarring from these epidermal lesions is rare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57148883",
"title": "Ocular neuropathic pain",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "The sensation of pain has been described by patients as \"burning eyes\", \"terrible, unrelenting pain\", a feeling of \"a knife in my eye\" or \"paper cuts\". The pain is usually described as being located in and around the eye, but can progress to the surrounding areas of the face and head. A signature characteristic of ocular neuropathic pain is inadequately explained levels of severe, constant pain in relation to little or no sign of ocular surface damage. Providers have reported their patients describing excruciating, consistently high levels of pain, or even requesting surgical removal of the painful eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21641274",
"title": "Prurigo simplex",
"section": "Section::::Presentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "The most common prurigo simplex symptoms are skin nodules resembling insect bites that are intensely itchy. These nodules are frequently scratched open, becoming lesions that continue to itch. Sometimes the skin thickens and becomes discolored around the nodules. The scalp, arms, legs and trunk of the body are the most frequent sites of the bumps and lesions. Itching can become severe and habitual, worsening the condition and possibly causing infections in the open sores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8072047",
"title": "Chondroblastoma",
"section": "Section::::Signs and Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "The most common symptom is mild to severe pain that is gradually progressive in the affected region and may be initially attributed to a minor injury or sports-related injury. Pain may be present for several weeks, months, or years. Other symptoms in order of most common to least commonly observed include swelling, a limp (when affected bone is in the lower extremity), joint stiffness, and a soft tissue mass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
n2lch
|
Is it possible to access more of your subconscious?
|
[
{
"answer": "The subconscious is a psuedoscientific term used by New Age types... *not* by modern psychologists.\n\nContemporary science doesn't really view the unconscious mind (which is the more scientific term) as some sort of powerful resource to be tapped into.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The subconscious is a psuedoscientific term used by New Age types... *not* by modern psychologists.\n\nContemporary science doesn't really view the unconscious mind (which is the more scientific term) as some sort of powerful resource to be tapped into.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "154327",
"title": "Milton H. Erickson",
"section": "Section::::Hypnosis.:Indirect techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "Erickson maintained that it was not possible consciously to instruct the unconscious mind, and that authoritarian suggestions were likely to be met with resistance. The unconscious mind responds to openings, opportunities, metaphors, symbols, and contradictions. Effective hypnotic suggestion, then, should be \"artfully vague\", leaving space for the subject to fill in the gaps with their own unconscious understandings - even if they do not consciously grasp what is happening. The skilled hypnotherapist constructs these gaps of meaning in a way most suited to the individual subject - in a way which is most likely to produce the desired change.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4425050",
"title": "William Hirstein",
"section": "Section::::Mindmelding hypothesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "In his 2012 book, \"Mindmelding: Consciousness, Neuroscience, and the Mind's Privacy\", Hirstein argues that a significant block to solving the mind–body problem can be removed if we allow that it is possible for one person to directly experience the conscious mind of another. The vast majority of philosophers and scientists writing about consciousness believe that this is impossible, but this would mean that conscious brain states are different from all other physical states, which can be known about by multiple persons. This creates a block to understanding our minds as physical systems. Hirstein describes how \"mindmelding\" could be achieved by connecting person A's prefrontal lobes to person B's posterior cortex, which would in effect connect person A's sense of self to person B's conscious thoughts and sensations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1124997",
"title": "Subconscious",
"section": "Section::::Scholarly use of the term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Locke and Kristof write that there is a limit to what can be held in conscious focal awareness, an alternative storehouse of one's knowledge and prior experience is needed, which they label the subconscious.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27647529",
"title": "Ernest Norman",
"section": "Section::::Early days of Unarius, Science of Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "There is only one way: through the doorway of knowledge and its correct usage, you will gradually progress into a higher state of consciousness, correctly placing your particular position in Infinity, and which is being expressed through your personal day by day experiences. All of the so-called mental sciences, occultisms, mind sciences, religions, etc., which use devices to circumvent or escape the realities of personal existence and position to the Infinite are only expressionary forms of escape mechanisms. These malpractices include prayer, concentration, affirmations, certain kinds of meditation, various other forms of self-hypnosis and are highly destructive to moral and mental integrity. They prohibit what should be a constant, constructive evaluation of experience and your position to the Infinite through this experience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4788296",
"title": "Plato's Problem",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary parallels.:Perception and attention.:Subliminal priming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 816,
"text": "These studies point to the fact that even though we only attend to and process limited information, we have a vast amount of knowledge at our disposal through our highly unrestricted sensory registers. It is the selective attention, perception, and higher order cognitive processing that limits these inputs and it is precisely these processes that make up our conscious awareness. Thus, in order to formulate some explanations for Plato's Problem, our conscious awareness limits our experience; nevertheless, it seems as though some stimuli that are sensed by our sensory registers, although seemingly rejected by conscious awareness, are actually retained and abstracted into our memories for further processing. All of our fully functioning perceptual faculties enhance, supplement, and optimize our experiences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3005924",
"title": "The Jackrabbit Factor",
"section": "Section::::Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "The author suggests that concentrating on how the attainment would feel reprograms a person's subconscious mind so that accomplishing the goal comes more naturally. These premises are based on the philosophy that without conscious intervention, the subconscious mind ultimately controls our tendencies, habits, decisions, and results.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6331719",
"title": "Mind-wandering",
"section": "Section::::Neuroscience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "In addition to neural models, computational models of consciousness based on Bernard Baars' Global Workspace theory suggest that mind-wandering, or \"spontaneous thought\" may involve competition between internally and externally generated activities attempting to gain access to a limited capacity central network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9v722q
|
how did the fluoridization of water improve dental health in america; historically and scientifically?
|
[
{
"answer": "Fluoride reacts with tooth enamel and hardens it.\n\nStatistical data shows a reduction in dental caries in areas with fluoride programs.\n\nHowever fluoridation occurs in nature as well, in natural wells it's sometimes at doses higher than recommended, so some municipalities are actually reducing the fluoride in the water supply. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They found that people who lived in areas with naturally high fluoride levels in their water supplies had far fewer cavities than those that lived in areas with lower levels of fluoride. So they started testing the compounds and determined that fluoride helps to strengthen enamel. It was a simple addition to the water supply that greatly increased the over-all dental health of the nation, but in particular helped with making sure soldiers were more fit when drafted and so that is why the government did it. \n\nAnd you are right that drinking it is less effective than if you can make your teeth sit in fluoride solutions for a while. This is why toothpaste, and mouthwashes also tend to have fluoride. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fluoride binds with the hydroxyapatite crystals that form the enamel and makes it a lot more resistant to acidic decay. You are right that drinking it does not help a ton, but still does. However drinking it before the eruption of the teeth, fluoride can use the blood to get to the dental crown, and it is much more effective. Generally speaking, if you were drinking fluorided water from 2-5 years of age, your permanent teeth will be much more caries resistent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "360128",
"title": "List of conspiracy theories",
"section": "Section::::Medicine.:Fluoridation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 121,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 121,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Water fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay. Although many dental-health organizations support such fluoridation, the practice is opposed by conspiracy theorists. Allegations may include claims that it has been a way to dispose of industrial waste, or that it exists to obscure a failure to provide dental care to the poor. A further theory promoted by the John Birch Society in the 1960s described fluoridation as a communist plot to weaken the American population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "763637",
"title": "Water fluoridation",
"section": "Section::::Goal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "The goal of water fluoridation is to prevent a chronic disease whose burdens particularly fall on children and the poor. Another of the goals was to bridge inequalities in dental health and dental care. Some studies suggest that fluoridation reduces oral health inequalities between the rich and poor, but the evidence is limited. There is anecdotal but not scientific evidence that fluoride allows more time for dental treatment by slowing the progression of tooth decay, and that it simplifies treatment by causing most cavities to occur in pits and fissures of teeth. Other reviews have found not enough evidence to determine if water fluoridation reduces oral-health social disparities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "763637",
"title": "Water fluoridation",
"section": "Section::::Worldwide prevalence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 736,
"text": "Much of the early work on establishing the connection between fluoride and dental health was performed by scientists in the U.S. during the early 20th century, and the U.S. was the first country to implement public water fluoridation on a wide scale. It has been introduced to varying degrees in many countries and territories outside the U.S., including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Hong Kong, Ireland, Israel, Korea, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Serbia, Singapore, Spain, the UK, and Vietnam. In 2004, an estimated 13.7 million people in western Europe and 194 million in the U.S. received artificially fluoridated water. In 2010, about 66% of the U.S. population was receiving fluoridated water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39367145",
"title": "Biological aspects of fluorine",
"section": "Section::::Dental care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 992,
"text": "Water fluoridation is the controlled addition of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay. Its use began in the 1940s, following studies of children in a region where water is naturally fluoridated. It is now used for about two-thirds of the U.S. population on public water systems and for about 5.7% of people worldwide. Although the best available evidence shows no association with adverse effects other than fluorosis (dental and, in worse cases, skeletal), most of which is mild, water fluoridation has been contentious for ethical, safety, and efficacy reasons, and opposition to water fluoridation exists despite its support by public health organizations. The benefits of water fluoridation have lessened recently, presumably because of the availability of fluoride in other forms, but are still measurable, particularly for low income groups. Systematic reviews in 2000 and 2007 showed significant reduction of cavities in children associated with water fluoridation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8713214",
"title": "Drinking water supply and sanitation in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Fluoridation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "Water fluoridation, the controlled addition of moderate concentrations of fluoride to a public water supply to reduce tooth decay, is used for about two-thirds of the U.S. population on public water systems. Almost all major public health and dental organizations support water fluoridation, or consider it safe. Nevertheless, it is contentious for ethical, safety, and efficacy reasons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40942718",
"title": "Public relations campaigns of Edward Bernays",
"section": "Section::::Water Fluoridation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Bernays helped the Aluminum Company of America (Alcoa) and other special interest groups to convince the American public that water fluoridation was safe and beneficial to human health. This was achieved by using the American Dental Association in a highly successful media campaign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1991808",
"title": "Water fluoridation controversy",
"section": "Section::::Medical consensus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "FDI World Dental Federation supports water fluoridation as safe and effective. the European Academy of Paediatric Dentistry, and the national dental associations of Australia, Canada, and the U.S. The American Dental Association calls water fluoridation \"one of the safest and most beneficial, cost-effective public health measures for preventing, controlling, and in some cases reversing, tooth decay.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6kh8eg
|
How did tall ships and the like leave port before the advent of modern engines?
|
[
{
"answer": "Most of the time tall ships aren't docked, they're moored in a more accessible area and then when they push off, it's mostly a question of letting the wind and the tides do the work.\n\nHowever, if that's not good enough, there is also a particular anchor called a kedging anchor which is taken out by longboat in the direction the ship wishes to go and dropped as far as they can get it away from the ship, and then the ship is warped, or pulled, over to it by hand. Rinse lather repeat until the ship is where you want her. It's a similar process if the ship does actually have to be docked - a rope is wound around something solid onshore on one end and the ship's capstan (a large drum that can be turned by hand) on the other, and the ship is warped in and out.\n\nI had to actually do this as a trainee sailor. If you would like to learn more about it without having to pull a ship by hand, however, you can do so [here](_URL_0_). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi, you'll find an answer by /u/DBHT14 and more links here \n\n* [During the age of sail, how did large ships manoeuvre in ports?](_URL_0_) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "146635",
"title": "Steamship",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "The steamship was preceded by smaller vessels designed for insular transportation, called steamboats. Once the technology of steam was mastered at this level, steam engines were mounted on larger, and eventually, ocean-going vessels. Becoming reliable, and propelled by screw rather than paddlewheels, the technology changed the design of ships for faster, more economic propulsion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22359454",
"title": "Marine steam engine",
"section": "Section::::Engines classified by connection mechanism.:Crosshead (square).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Because the cylinder was above the crankshaft in this type of engine, it had a high center of gravity, and was therefore deemed unsuitable for oceangoing service. This largely confined it to vessels built for inland waterways. As marine engines grew steadily larger and heavier through the 19th century, the high center of gravity of square crosshead engines became increasingly impractical, and by the 1840s, ship builders abandoned them in favor of the walking beam engine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "328288",
"title": "Lorient",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th century to the beginning of the 20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "In the second half of the 19th century, the steam engine allowed the ports to strengthen their output. The first locomotive reached the city in 1865. In 1861, the original drydock was enlarged as a second one was dug out. The same year, the ironclad \"Couronne\" was built on a design directly inspired by the \"Gloire\" class, though unlike her wooden-hull predecessors, she was entirely made of iron. She was followed in 1876 by the ironclad \"Redoutable\", the first ship in the world with a steel structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22359454",
"title": "Marine steam engine",
"section": "Section::::Engines classified by connection mechanism.:Vertical.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "As steamships grew steadily in size and tonnage through the course of the 19th century, the need for low profile, low centre-of-gravity engines correspondingly declined. Freed increasingly from these design constraints, engineers were able to revert to simpler, more efficient and more easily maintained designs. The result was the growing dominance of the so-called \"vertical\" engine (more correctly known as the vertical inverted direct acting engine).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19168719",
"title": "USS West Avenal (ID-3871)",
"section": "Section::::Design and construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "In common with the first eight ships built by Western Pipe & Steel, \"West Avenal\" was powered by a single General Electric steam turbine rated at 2,500 shaft horsepower, that drove a single screw propeller, and moved the ship at a pace. These General Electric turbines proved unreliable and most of the ships powered by them were either lost or scrapped by the end of the 1920s. Later vessels of the same type built by WPS for the USSB were powered by much more reliable Joshua Hendy triple expansion steam engines, and had considerably longer service lives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22546777",
"title": "Delaware River Iron Ship Building and Engine Works",
"section": "Section::::John Baker Roach Presidency, 1887–1907.:Turbine-powered steamships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "These ships are notable for being the first three U.S.-built ships to be powered by steam turbines. Design of the engines was licensed by W. & A. Fletcher from the Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company, inventor of the turbine engine. \"Governor Cobb\", a 2,700 ton passenger steamer built in 1906 for the Boston-New Brunswick trade, has the double distinction of being not only America's first turbine-powered vessel, but also of eventually becoming the world's first helicopter carrier. The ship had a top speed of . The 3,750-ton sister ships \"Yale\" and \"Harvard\"—built in 1907 for the Metropolitan Steamship Company, which operated them between New York and Boston—had a top speed of and when first entering service were the fastest American-flagged vessels afloat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54633340",
"title": "Camäleon-class gunboat",
"section": "Section::::Design.:Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 737,
"text": "They were powered by a single marine steam engine that drove one 3-bladed screw propeller and two coal-fired trunk boilers. The first four vessels received machinery from AG Vulcan, while the last four were equipped with engines and boilers built by Schichau-Werke. The first four ships had a top speed of at , while the last four were slightly faster, at from . The ships had a designed storage capacity for of coal for the boilers, but additional spaces could be used to store up to . As built, each ship was equipped with a three-masted schooner rig; several of the class members had their rigging altered during their career, including \"Delphin\", which received a barquentine rig and \"Cyclop\", which was converted into a barque rig.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6cyitv
|
How much of the earths surface can we see from the moon?
|
[
{
"answer": "From the side of the moon that is facing us, one would see about half of the earth at any single point in time, or all of the earth over a period of time.\n\nFrom the side of the moon that is not facing us, one would see none of the earth ever.\n\nAsking \"How much of the earths surface can we see from the moon?\" is essentially the same as asking \"From where on the earth can you see the moon?\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2590442",
"title": "Square degree",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "BULLET::::- The full moon covers only about 0.2 deg of the sky when viewed from the surface of the Earth. The Moon is only a half degree across (i.e. a circular diameter of roughly 0.5 deg), so the moon's disk covers a circular area of: × (), or 0.2 square degrees.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "94102",
"title": "Solid angle",
"section": "Section::::Solid angles for common objects.:Sun and Moon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "The Sun is seen from Earth at an average angular diameter of 0.5334 degrees or 9.310 radians. The Moon is seen from Earth at an average angular diameter of 9.22 radians. We can substitute these into the equation given above for the solid angle subtended by a cone with apex angle :\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "826723",
"title": "Angular diameter",
"section": "Section::::Use in astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "To put this in perspective, the full Moon as viewed from Earth is about °, or 30′ (or 1800″). The Moon's motion across the sky can be measured in angular size: approximately 15° every hour, or 15″ per second. A one-mile-long line painted on the face of the Moon would appear from Earth to be about 1″ in length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19331",
"title": "Moon",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Surface geology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "The topography of the Moon has been measured with laser altimetry and stereo image analysis. Its most visible topographic feature is the giant far-side South Pole–Aitken basin, some in diameter, the largest crater on the Moon and the second-largest confirmed impact crater in the Solar System. At deep, its floor is the lowest point on the surface of the Moon. The highest elevations of the surface are located directly to the northeast, and it has been suggested might have been thickened by the oblique formation impact of the South Pole–Aitken basin. Other large impact basins such as Imbrium, Serenitatis, Crisium, Smythii, and Orientale also possess regionally low elevations and elevated rims. The far side of the lunar surface is on average about higher than that of the near side.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "602678",
"title": "Extraterrestrial skies",
"section": "Section::::The Moon.:The Earth from the Moon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "Among the most prominent features of the Moon's sky is Earth. Earth's angular diameter (1.9°) is four times the Moon's as seen from Earth, although because the Moon's orbit is eccentric, Earth's apparent size in the sky varies by about 5% either way (ranging between 1.8° and 2.0° in diameter). Earth shows phases, just like the Moon does for terrestrial observers. The phases, however, are opposite; when the terrestrial observer sees the full Moon, the lunar observer sees a \"new Earth\", and vice versa. Earth's albedo is three times as high as that of the Moon (due in part to its whitish cloud cover), and coupled with the wider area, the full Earth glows over 50 times brighter than the full Moon at zenith does for the terrestrial observer. This Earth light reflected on the Moon's un-sunlit half is bright enough to be visible from Earth, even to the unaided eye – a phenomenon known as earthshine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61182504",
"title": "Earth phase",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 906,
"text": "Among the most prominent features of the Moon's sky is Earth. Earth's angular diameter (1.9°) is four times the Moon's as seen from Earth, although because the Moon's orbit is eccentric, Earth's apparent size in the sky varies by about 5% either way (ranging between 1.8° and 2.0° in diameter). Earth shows phases, just like the Moon does for terrestrial observers. The phases, however, are opposite; when the terrestrial observer sees the full Moon, the lunar observer sees a \"new Earth\", and vice versa. Earth's albedo is three times as high as that of the Moon (due in part to its whitish cloud cover), and coupled with the wider area, the full Earth glows over 50 times brighter than the full Moon at zenith does for the terrestrial observer. This Earth light reflected on the Moon's un-sunlit half is bright enough to be visible from Earth, even to the unaided eye – a phenomenon known as earthshine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "997476",
"title": "Night sky",
"section": "Section::::Visual presentation.:The Moon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "Earth's Moon is a grey disc in the sky with cratering visible to the naked eye. It spans, depending on its exact location, 29-33 arcminutes - which is about the size of a thumbnail at arm's length, and is readily identified. Over 27.3 days, the moon goes through a full cycle of lunar phases. People can generally identify phases within a few days by looking at the moon. Unlike stars and most planets, the light reflected from the moon is bright enough to be seen during the day. (Venus can sometimes be seen even after sunrise.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
z2a5b
|
why do people hate tsa soo much?
|
[
{
"answer": "Simply put, it's an unnecessary means of \"security\" that takes away reasonable rights of privacy, not to mention humiliates and endangers travelers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The TSA is the organization that deals with security at places like airports. The typical person's interaction with a TSA member consists of the individual having to prove that he or she is not a threat. This involves waiting in long lines and going through a metal detector. In other circumstances, people may be patted down or have seemingly harmless items taken away, like nail clippers or bottled beverages. Since many people have experiences with being bothered or inconvenienced by the TSA and few have witnessed the direct prevention of a terrorist attack or drug smuggling, they view it as a bad organization that annoys passengers instead of protecting them. \n\nPlease note that [most](_URL_0_) Americans are fine with the TSA. They're just less vocal. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are a very expensive organization to run. And there are many cases of them missing knives and guns and other dangerous items. They also make wait times for boarding a plane much longer, and stop you from taking certain items with you on the plane. \n\nSo they cost you time, and money, take away some of your conveniences when you travel, and don't do a very good job of keeping dangerous items out of airplanes. Also, sometimes they grope you or take pictures of you with a camera that can see through your clothes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because it's intrusive and useless. There's a term called \"[security theater](_URL_0_)\" that describes it: they do what they do not because it makes us more secure, but just to make it *look* like they're doing something about the problem.\n\nThe best examples are:\n\n1. The requirement to take off your shoes at the security checkpoint.\n2. The prohibition on bringing liquids into the plane.\n\nBoth of these were put in place after somebody attempted to attack an flight that way. So guess what? Next time the terrorists are going to try it a different way, so it doesn't help to focus on what they already tried!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It boils down to two main things:\n\n1) A lot of people feel that it violates our 4th amendment rights (protection from unreasonable search and seizure). \n\n2) Many people feel the program costs a lot for not a lot of actual protection/safety.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is \"security theater\".\n\nA bunch of little skits to give us the illusion of safety...and to keep a bunch of high school dropout employed and enrich body scanner manufacturers.\n\nAnd what's worse, they know you paid $500 for a plane ticket to your sister's wedding, and will do almost anything not to miss your flight. They have you over a barrel, and use that to be as petty and authoritarians as they want.\n\nIsrael has a much higher threat of terrorist attack, but they take off their shoes, but their hemorrhoid cream in a clear bag before you go through the cancer-porn machine.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5070458",
"title": "Societal and cultural aspects of Tourette syndrome",
"section": "Section::::References in the media.:In film and TV.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "The entertainment industry has been accused of depicting those with TS as being social misfits whose only tic is coprolalia, which has furthered stigmatization and the general public's misunderstanding of persons with TS. The symptoms of Tourette syndrome are fodder for radio and television talk shows. Some talk shows (for example, \"Oprah\") have focused on accurate portrayals of people with TS, while others (for example, \"Dr. Phil\") have been accused of furthering stigmatization, focusing on rare and sensational aspects of the condition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3826819",
"title": "Kay Tse",
"section": "Section::::Life and musical career.:2007-2011: Cinepoly period.:\"Second Home\" and Mandarin market (2010).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "In the period between 2009-2010, Tse had faced some major setbacks in the Hong Kong market, not least including the HKRIA controversy which had caused her an important platform to promote herself, leading to a decline in popularity. She became frequently attacked in the media, especially by the publications Oriental Sunday and New Monday, which were owned by Emperor Entertainment Group. It is widely thought that this was a smear tactic by EEG who perceived Tse as a threat to their contracted artiste Joey Yung, an example being that in 2008, Tse had won six awards at the Commercial Radio's year-end award show to only two won by Yung. She admitted to Black Paper Magazine in 2011 that she had suffered depression during this time, though had recovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1794686",
"title": "Whisky Romeo Zulu",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "When T complains, he is labeled a troublemaker by the airline company. Soon he's chastised by his fellow pilots. When things get worse he walks out of the cockpit after multiple navigational instruments are inoperative and refuses to fly. The company simply replaces him and gets another pilot to fly. Increasingly frustrated and worried about a crash, T finally writes an angry letter to his superiors, warning that a crash is inevitable if action is not taken.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172933",
"title": "Transportation Security Administration",
"section": "Section::::Criticism and controversy.:Other criticisms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 160,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 160,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "TSA agents are also accused of having mistreated passengers, and having sexually harassed passengers, having used invasive screening procedures, including touching the genitals, including those of children, removing nipple rings with pliers, misusing body scanners to ogle female passengers, having searched passengers or their belongings for items other than weapons or explosives, and having stolen from passengers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5070458",
"title": "Societal and cultural aspects of Tourette syndrome",
"section": "Section::::References in the media.:In film and TV.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "The video media—notably the Internet, movies and television—have been criticized for sensationalizing the symptoms of Tourette syndrome and for creating inaccurate perceptions about people with TS in the minds of the public. According to Collado-Vázquez and Carrillo (2013) film representations of tics and Tourette's \"have not been adjusted to reality and have been used to ridicule a character, [and to] exaggerate symptoms in a comic or grotesque tone or [display them] as a characteristic trait of a cruel and evil individual\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56427684",
"title": "Zhengzhou Airport riot",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Some of the angry passengers had been waiting for as long as five days to catch flights back to their jobs in other cities after their annual trips to see family during the Chinese New Year holiday period. They were further frustrated by the lack of information from airline and airport staff while they waited. The mass incident highlighted the difficulties faced by China's commercial airline industry as more and more passengers choose to fly to their destinations; the airlines blamed the disorder on passengers' limited understanding of the nature of commercial aviation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7191534",
"title": "Kip Hawley",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "In April, 2007, Mr. Hawley agreed to a partially published interview conducted by Bruce Schneier regarding TSA policies and practices. Later, Schneier demonstrated the complete ineffectiveness of TSA measures by bringing a variety of objects which are classified by the TSA as dangerous through security and onto planes. Objects included box cutters and plastic \"beer belly\" filled with unexamined liquid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1nhbmj
|
Do we lose any weight through exhalation?
|
[
{
"answer": "You're exactly right! We actually lose *most* of our weight through exhalation. (Sweating is the other major mechanism, but since that's mostly water it doesn't create a net loss.) This is why weight loss is so hard; all the fat molecules that your body stores have to be oxidized and exhaled.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is correct. Aerobic (air breathing) organisms lose mass through respiration. This is why all substances we can derive energy from are carbon-based.\n\nPlants work the opposite way, transpiration breaks CO2 into O2 and C, with the oxygen being released to the atmosphere and the carbon being used to build the plant. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "485578",
"title": "Exhalation",
"section": "Section::::Exhalation and gas exchange.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1097,
"text": "The main reason for exhalation is to rid the body of carbon dioxide, which is the waste product of gas exchange in humans. Air is brought in the body through inhalation. During this process air is taken in through the lungs. Diffusion in the alveoli allows for the exchange of O into the pulmonary capillaries and the removal of CO and other gases from the pulmonary capillaries to be exhaled. In order for the lungs to expel air the diaphragm relaxes, which pushes up on the lungs. The air then flows through the trachea then through the larynx and pharynx to the nasal cavity and oral cavity where it is expelled out of the body. Exhalation takes longer than inhalation since it is believed to facilitate better exchange of gases. Parts of the nervous system help to regulate respiration in humans. The exhaled air isn’t just carbon dioxide; it contains a mixture of other gases. Human breath contains volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These compounds consist of methanol, isoprene, acetone, ethanol and other alcohols. The exhaled mixture also contains ketones, water and other hydrocarbons. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36863",
"title": "Lung",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Gas exchange.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "During heavy breathing as in exertion, a large number of accessory muscles in the neck and abdomen are recruited, that during exhalation pull the ribcage down, decreasing the volume of the thoracic cavity. The FRC is now decreased, but since the lungs cannot be emptied completely there is still about a litre of residual air left. Lung function testing is carried out to evaluate lung volumes and capacities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485578",
"title": "Exhalation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "This happens due to elastic properties of the lungs, as well as the internal intercostal muscles which lower the rib cage and decrease thoracic volume. As the thoracic diaphragm relaxes during exhalation it causes the tissue it has depressed to rise superiorly and put pressure on the lungs to expel the air. During forced exhalation, as when blowing out a candle, expiratory muscles including the abdominal muscles and internal intercostal muscles generate abdominal and thoracic pressure, which forces air out of the lungs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "66723",
"title": "Respiratory system",
"section": "Section::::Mammals.:Mechanics of breathing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "During heavy breathing, exhalation is caused by relaxation of all the muscles of inhalation. But now, the abdominal muscles, instead of remaining relaxed (as they do at rest), contract forcibly pulling the lower edges of the rib cage downwards (front and sides) (Fig. 8). This not only drastically decreases the size of the rib cage, but also pushes the abdominal organs upwards against the diaphragm which consequently bulges deeply into the thorax (Fig. 8). The end-exhalatory lung volume is now well below the resting mid-position and contains far less air than the resting \"functional residual capacity\". However, in a normal mammal, the lungs cannot be emptied completely. In an adult human there is always still at least 1 liter of residual air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27712410",
"title": "Inhalation exposure",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Inhalation is a major route of exposure that occurs when an individual breathes in polluted air which enters the respiratory tract. Identification of the pollutant uptake by the respiratory system can determine how the resulting exposure contributes to the dose. In this way, the mechanism of pollutant uptake by the respiratory system can be used to predict potential health impacts within the human population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35688715",
"title": "Intrapleural pressure",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "A person breathing at rest inhales and exhales approximately half a litre of air during each respiratory cycle, this is Tidal volume. The respiratory rate is directly affected by concentration of carbondioxide in blood.\"Lungs do not collapse after forceful respiration because of Residual volume.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485578",
"title": "Exhalation",
"section": "Section::::Brain involvement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Brain control of exhalation can be broken down into voluntary control and involuntary control. During voluntary exhalation, air is held in the lungs and released at a fixed rate. Examples of voluntary expiration include: singing, speaking, exercising, playing an instrument, and voluntary hyperpnea. Involuntary breathing includes metabolic and behavioral breathing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5hylrc
|
Why are cheetahs so fast?
|
[
{
"answer": "Cheetahs have a ton of physical adaptations for speed. Just mentioning a few here –\n\n- extra flexible spine for long strides and quick turns\n- shoulderblade doesn't attach to clavicle for added flexibility\n- lighter bones\n- they only run on the tips of their toes, using their claws more for traction than other big cats\n- tail partially flattened for use in balancing turns\n- large heart and lungs for pumping oxygen to muscles\n\nThey are not stronger than lions, and at a significant size and weight disadvantage – an unfortunate trade-off for the cheetah's light frame and speed. A lion can easily kill a cheetah if they have to go head-to-head, so cheetahs will often lose their hard-earned catches to scavenging lions and other predators.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45609",
"title": "Cheetah",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "African cheetahs may achieve successful hunts only running up to a speed of while hunting due to their exceptional ability to accelerate; but are capable of accelerating up to on short distances of . It is therefore the fastest land animal. Because of its prowess at hunting, the cheetah was tamed as early as the 16th century BC in Egypt to kill game at hunts. Cheetahs have been widely depicted in art, literature, advertising and animation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48264022",
"title": "Pursuit predation",
"section": "Section::::Individual pursuers.:Vertebrates.:Mammals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "While most big cat species are individual, ambush predators, Cheetahs (\"Acinonyx jubatus\") are pursuit predators. Widely known as the fastest terrestrial animal, with speeds reaching 61–64 miles per hour, cheetahs take advantage of their speed during chases. However, their speed and acceleration also have disadvantages, as both can only be sustained for short periods of time. Studies show that cheetahs can maintain maximum speed for a distance of approximately 500 yards. Due to these limitations, cheetahs are often observed running at moderate speeds during chases. There are claims that the key to cheetahs' pursuit success may not be just their speed. Cheetahs are extremely agile, able to maneuver and change directions at very high speeds in very short amounts of time. This extensive maneuverability can make up for unsustainable high speed pursuit, as it allows cheetahs to quickly close the distance between prey without decreasing their speed when prey change direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45609",
"title": "Cheetah",
"section": "Section::::Ecology and behaviour.:Speed and acceleration.:Adaptations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "The cheetah's thin and light body makes it well-suited to short, explosive bursts of speed, rapid acceleration, and an ability to execute extreme changes in direction while moving at high speed. Research has indicated that the cheetah's athleticism is critical to the cat's predatory success rate. These adaptations account for much of the cheetah's ability to catch fast-moving prey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39531879",
"title": "White Oak Conservation",
"section": "Section::::Animals.:Cheetah.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The cheetah is the world's fast animal and can reach speeds over 60 miles per hour. To show off this speed, White Oak hosts \"cheetah runs\", which feature cheetahs chasing lures for long distances across fields. Similar types of events are hosted by other wildlife facilities, and they provide exercise and enrichment for the cheetahs while giving people the opportunity to see the cats at full speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6899779",
"title": "Asiatic cheetah",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1249,
"text": "The cheetah is the fastest land animal in the world. It was previously thought that the body temperature of a cheetah increases during a hunt due to high metabolic activity. In a short period of time during a chase, a cheetah may produce 60 times more heat than at rest, with much of the heat, produced from glycolysis, stored to possibly raise the body temperature. The claim was supported by data from experiments in which two cheetahs ran on a treadmill for minutes on end but contradicted by studies in natural settings, which indicate that body temperature stays relatively the same during a hunt. A 2013 study suggested stress hyperthermia and a slight increase in body temperature after a hunt. The cheetah's nervousness after a hunt may induce stress hyperthermia, which involves high sympathetic nervous activity and raises the body temperature. After a hunt, the risk of another predator taking its kill is great, and the cheetah is on high alert and stressed. The increased sympathetic activity prepares the cheetah's body to run when another predator approaches. In the 2013 study, even the cheetah that did not chase the prey experienced an increase in body temperature once the prey was caught, showing increased sympathetic activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "772966",
"title": "Cheetah (comics)",
"section": "Section::::Powers and abilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "All four incarnations of the Cheetah have exhibited roughly the same abilities. Their basic attributes consists of enhanced strength and speed well beyond that of the most powerful felines, as well as heightened senses of smell and hearing for hunts and night vision for stealth. Their reflexes and agility are similarly augmented, allowing them superior gymnastic and parkour feats for inhuman mobility. These superhuman traits allow them to challenge Wonder Woman in physical battles. Additionally, their fangs and claws are preternaturally sharp and strong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45609",
"title": "Cheetah",
"section": "Section::::Ecology and behaviour.:Speed and acceleration.:Recorded values.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Speed and acceleration values for the hunting cheetah may be different from those for the non-hunting because, while engaged in the chase, the cheetah is more likely to be twisting and turning and may be running through vegetation. In 2012 an 11-year-old cheetah from the Cincinnati Zoo named Sarah made a world record by running in 5.95 seconds over a set run, during which she ran a recorded maximum speed of . A study of five wild cheetahs (three females, two males) during hunting reported a maximum speed of , with an average of . Speed can be increased by almost in a single stride. The average chase is and the maximum ranges from .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3loccg
|
What was the first event in recorded history?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's a discussion of dated events at _URL_0_. I was taught at school that Egypt's unification around the 32nd century BCE was the first specifically recorded \"event\", though the precise date is unknown. I'm not sure if we've found earlier ones in the interim - shameful, I admit! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "211899",
"title": "Runcorn",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The earliest recorded event in its history is the building by Ethelfleda of a fortification at Runcorn to protect the northern frontier of her kingdom of Mercia against the Vikings in 915. The fort was built on Castle Rock overlooking the River Mersey at Runcorn Gap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90307",
"title": "Popocatépetl",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Three Plinian eruptions are known to have taken place: 3,000 years ago (3195–2830 BC), 2,150 years ago (800–215 BC), and 1,100 years ago (likely 823 AD). The latter two buried the nearby village of Tetimpa, preserving evidence of preclassical culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "292993",
"title": "Nevado del Ruiz",
"section": "Section::::Eruptive history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "During recorded history, eruptions have consisted primarily of a central vent eruption (in the caldera) followed by an explosive eruption, then lahars. Ruiz's earliest identified Holocene eruption was about 6660 BC, and further eruptions occurred in 1245 BC ± 150 years (dated through radiocarbon dating), about 850 BC, 200 BC ± 100 years, 350 AD ± 300 years, 675 AD ± 50 years, in 1350, 1541 (perhaps), 1570, 1595, 1623, 1805, 1826, 1828 (perhaps), 1829, 1831, 1833 (perhaps), 1845, 1916, December 1984 – March 1985, September 1985 – July 1991, and possibly in April 1994. Many of these eruptions involved a central vent eruption, a flank vent eruption, and a phreatic (steam) explosion. Ruiz is the second-most active volcano in Colombia after Galeras.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1782897",
"title": "SN 1054",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "The event was recorded in contemporary Chinese astronomy, and references to it are also found in a later (13th-century) Japanese document, and in a document from the Arab world. Furthermore, there are a number of proposed, but doubtful, references from European sources recorded in the 15th century, and perhaps a pictograph associated with the Ancestral Puebloan culture found near the Peñasco Blanco site in New Mexico.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "632101",
"title": "1700 Cascadia earthquake",
"section": "Section::::Evidence.:Cultural research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "Some of the stories contain temporal clues — such as an estimate of how many generations had passed since the event — which can be traced back to a date range in the late 1600s or early 1700s, or which concur with the event's timing in other ways. The Huu-ay-aht legend of a large earthquake and ocean wave devastating their settlements at Pachina Bay, for instance, speaks of the event taking place on a winter evening shortly after the village's residents had gone to sleep. Masit was the only community on Pachina Bay not to have been wiped out, as it sat on a mountainside approximately 75 feet above sea level. Nobody else from Pachina Bay survived the event — Anacla aq sop, a young woman who happened to be staying at Kiix?in on the more tsunami-sheltered Barkley Sound at the time of the event, came to be known as the last living member of her community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35237359",
"title": "Victory (volcano)",
"section": "Section::::Eruptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "A small eruption may have occurred in 1810 (give or take 10 years), but this event is uncertain. The only known eruption from Victory was a long-term eruption that lasted from the late 19th century to the mid 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28982057",
"title": "Surface Detail",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "The events of Surface Detail take place around 2970 AD, according to Banks. The events occur six to eight hundred years after the \"Chel Debacle\", depicted in the earlier novel \"Look to Windward\" which is set seventy-eight years after the events in \"Use of Weapons\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ag5u86
|
How effective was armor in medieval battles?
|
[
{
"answer": "Alright there's a lot to unpack here. But the short answer is: armor is amazing, that's why the wealthiest people and elite fighters wore it. What sane person would choose to wear 30-60 lbs of steel on their body if it didn’t do anything but slow you down?\n\nFirst things first, light, medium, and heavy armor isn't really how people thought of armor during the medieval periods. It's, I believe, in invention of D & D, though I could be wrong on that one. In any case, it's usually easier to conceptualize armor as being either soft armors or hard armors.\n\nSoft armor were like gambesons or aketons, basically thick layers of cloth and/or leather on top of each other (interesting tidbit, among the historical recreators and scholars there’s a debate going on about how prevalent leather actually was in armor. While I’m personally on the rare side of the debate, depending on time period of course, it was used in armor. Didn’t look like biker jackets and fetish gear though, unlike what many games and shows would have you believe). \n\nDuring the medieval period these gambesons were often the first real line of defense people had, it was cheaper to make, much easier to mass produce, so you’d see some of the common soldiers wearing it. And it could definitely save their life. Layers of padded cloth could turn a killing blow into a scratch, or even stop an arrow if you’re lucky. There’s an account of the 3rd Crusade that compared the infantry after being harassed by the Saladin’s forces as looking like pincushions as they moved with arrows sticking out of their armor. Though it’s ambiguous if they’re referring to the low infantry that could only afford the gambeson or the more wealthy who likely had cloth armor worn overtop their mail.\n\nThere have been a lot of tests in the last few decades to determine the effectiveness of various weaponry on armor. Unfortunately, a lot of these tests were done by people to “prove” how one weapon was better than another, or how one weapon could beat all armor without much in the way of unbiased scientific research. You’ll see someone use a longbow and punch through some thin piece of cooking metal and claim that therefore a longbow could punch just as easily through armor. That is not the case. \n\nOne has to remember that weapon technology and armor technology went hand in hand. As armor got better, weapons changed to match them, which then changed armor to deal with the weapons and so on. But as a general rule, the best armor of the day made you impervious from anything but the most direct blows toward the weak points in the armor. \n\nWhile armor technology went through a lot of development over the period of time that we consider the medieval ages. I’m going to limit myself to full body mail that we see during the crusades, and then the full plate armor that isn’t really invented until the very end of the medieval period, but is what most people think of when talking about knights. \n\nMail, is largely immune to any weapon that cuts: swords, one-handed axes and the like. And with extra padding from the gambeson the mail has a pretty good cushion against a lot of bludgeoning weapons and piercing weapons like maces and daggers. Though these weapons could still wound or even kill. Despite the padding a solid hit with a mace or hammer on the head, could potentially bring the entire force of the blow down into the opponent’s neck. It would need to be a pretty direct hit, though. While a dagger or other such weapon could stick in between the rings of mail, or get pushed into a weak point where the mail isn’t as strong. Possibly going up under the neck armor to pierce into the throat. Or into the eye holes of the helmet to stab. \nArrows were a bit more of a problem than most melee weapons. One of the quick and dirty ways to see how effective armor was is to see what kind of weapons they had and when art depicts them as using some weapons. One of the easiest examples to illustrate this point is the huskarl of Norse and English fame. Now, huskarls were the wealthiest and theoretically the best warriors in their respective armies. In art they are depicted as being covered almost completely in mail armor and holding onto large shields when advancing toward the enemy, where they are in danger of being fired upon by their enemy. However, when actually engaged in melee combat, they would sling their shields on their back and fight with large two-handed axes as an anti-armor and anti-cavalry weapon.\nNow I want you to picture standing in the middle of a violent battle. Weapons are flying everywhere, swords, axes, spears, everything is whirling around much too quickly and chaotically for anyone to truly make out and keep their focus on. Someone attacking just out of eyesight could kill you before you could even know what’s going on. In such a situation any means of protection against this combat would be what you kept with you at all times. So to see them disregard their shield, one of their best forms of defense, and rely entirely on their armor to protect them. That speaks volumes about what they were worried about.\nEventually armor, and weaponry got better, and we get to the High and Late Medieval period where plate harnesses were fully or at least almost fully developed. \n\nYou have heard of the battle of Agincourt. Where English and Welsh longbowmen beat back the advancing armored French knights. A lot of people have taken this to mean that the longbow could pierce through the armor like it was nothing. That isn’t really the case.\n\nThere are plenty of tests some of dubious quality to show that, some use the wrong arrow, some use the wrong bow, some the wrong armor. None are perfect, but this is the best one I’ve seen: _URL_0_\n\nSo if longbows didn’t pierce through armor, how did the English win? Well, while one hitting a breastplate wouldn’t do much, an entire army of arrows can theoretically get into the weakpoints in the armor. There are accounts of the French knights lowering their heads as they charged because the volume of arrows shot at them would otherwise stick into their visors or breathing and eye holes. It’s also worth noting, that many of the French knights did make it to the English line, where they were stopped by the English knights fighting on foot, who hadn’t just charged over rough terrain into a constant rain of arrows. \n\nIn the terms of melee fighting, we see special anti-armor weapons being constructed like the pollaxe, one of my favorite weapons. It was designed specifically to be used while in full armor against opponents in full armor. And even then we have accounts of duels with the weapon continuing for long stretches of time where the armor of both contestants became battered beyond recognition but the men underneath were still fighting strong. The other powerful anti-armor weapon was the couched lance, being charged on horseback where the full weight of the horse and rider is placed on a single point to punch through the armor as best it can. This was so deadly that tournaments with these lances pioneered a thicker type of armor to protect the tournament knight. These armors could be twice as heavy as the usual field armor, and often didn’t allow much of the movement that would have been necessary to survive a battlefield, with pieces that restricted the arm and neck to move at all, all for the safety of the tournament knight.\n\nBut by this point the time of the near impenetrable armor was coming to an end. Now guns had lived concurrently with armor for hundreds of years, but as the power of guns grew, more and thicker armor needed to be developed to stop it. This was when the concept of bullet-proof came about. In order to prove an armor was immune to these weapons, the armor-smith would show off the armor take a pistol and shoot it point blank in the chest. The small dent the bullets made was the proof that the bullet couldn’t penetrate it. Here’s an example: _URL_1_\n\nBut we start to see armor getting thicker and heavier during this period to continue its dominance to the point that only the wealthy could afford it at all. And medieval style armor slowly disappeared, though armor itself isn’t gone. Even our current soldiers and police forces wear armor to defend against shrapnel and small arms fire. \n\nBut in brief. No. A movie or tv hero placed into an actual medieval battlefield would have their sword bounce off their opponent’s armor, and then they’d die. Likely from an attack they never even saw coming. Because they didn’t wear any real protection, and if they couldn’t afford it, weren’t standing in a protective line with their friends holding up their shield to protect them.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1334113",
"title": "Body armor",
"section": "Section::::Protected areas.:Limbs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Medieval armor often offered protection for all of the limbs, including metal boots for the lower legs, gauntlets for the hands and wrists, and greaves for the legs. Today, protection of limbs from bombs is provided by a bombsuit. Most modern soldiers sacrifice limb protection for mobility, since armor thick enough to stop bullets would greatly inhibit movement of the arms and legs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2147",
"title": "Armour",
"section": "Section::::Personal.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "Significant factors in the development of armour include the economic and technological necessities of its production. For instance, plate armour first appeared in Medieval Europe when water-powered trip hammers made the formation of plates faster and cheaper. Also, modern militaries usually do not equip their forces with the best armour available because it would be prohibitively expensive. At times the development of armour has paralleled the development of increasingly effective weaponry on the battlefield, with armourers seeking to create better protection without sacrificing mobility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "221562",
"title": "Jousting",
"section": "Section::::Medieval joust.:High Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "From the 11th to 14th centuries when medieval jousting was still practised in connection to the use of the lance in warfare, armour evolved from mail (with a solid, heavy helmet, called a \"great helm\", and shield) to plate armour. By 1400, knights wore full suits of plate armour, called a \"harness\" (Clephan 28-29).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8458031",
"title": "Society for Creative Anachronism activities",
"section": "Section::::Martial and combat.:Armored combat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "The Armored Combat or \"Heavy Weapons Fighting\" forms practiced in the SCA roughly mirror those of medieval infantry, and both tournaments and battles are fought. The fighters wear armor (often of their own making) made of plastic, leather, or steel, or any combination thereof. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10612157",
"title": "Belegarth Medieval Combat Society",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Belegarth Medieval Combat Society is a sport where participants fight with foam padded safety equipment made to reflect medieval weaponry. The sport's combat is hard hitting and fast-paced, governed by a set of easy-to-learn rules, and requires a level of skill and aggression that challenges its participants to be physically fit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2146448",
"title": "Pauldron",
"section": "Section::::Jousting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "Typical tournament armor for jousting would be padded with cloth to avoid damage from an opponent's lance, and prevent to metal of the pauldron from scraping against the breastplate. This protective cloth pad would extend about half an inch from the rolled edge of the armor, and it was secured in place with rivets along the entire edge. In battle, this cloth protection could not be too thick, else the knight would have no arm mobility for battle. However, in a safer tournament setting, mobility was less important compared to safety, thus leading to heavier padding. In fact, knights in this era could be padded to the point where they look \"more wide than tall\", as compared with contemporary depictions of jousting armor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16897",
"title": "Knight",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "In the late medieval period, new methods of warfare began to render classical knights in armour obsolete, but the titles remained in many nations. The ideals of chivalry were popularized in medieval literature, particularly the literary cycles known as the Matter of France, relating to the legendary companions of Charlemagne and his men-at-arms, the paladins, and the Matter of Britain, relating to the legend of King Arthur and his knights of the Round Table.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
lxbm2
|
factory method design pattern
|
[
{
"answer": "Have you ever had to instantiate an object, and then do *something* to configure or manage it?\n\nLet's say your application has a SoundManager object, and you need it to know about every Sound object that you create. This means that you're liable to write code like this:\n\n mySound = new Sound( data );\n mySoundManager.AddSound( mySound );\n\nIf you think about it, you're *always* going to add new Sounds to the SoundManager, right? So why not encapsulate that into a factory method? Like so:\n\n mySound = mySoundManager.CreateSound( data );\n\nThis example is pretty simple, but I hope you get the idea.\n\nIn addition to reducing code duplication, this has one other important advantage: the code which initializes your sounds is now located *in* the SoundManager object; you could modify it there, centrally, or someone else could write a subclass -- StereoSoundManager -- which creates StereoSound objects instead of the plain ones. This second advantage can be very handy when dealing with large libraries or frameworks, since you can work within the infrastructure established by the library while still providing your own object classes and constructors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you ever had to instantiate an object, and then do *something* to configure or manage it?\n\nLet's say your application has a SoundManager object, and you need it to know about every Sound object that you create. This means that you're liable to write code like this:\n\n mySound = new Sound( data );\n mySoundManager.AddSound( mySound );\n\nIf you think about it, you're *always* going to add new Sounds to the SoundManager, right? So why not encapsulate that into a factory method? Like so:\n\n mySound = mySoundManager.CreateSound( data );\n\nThis example is pretty simple, but I hope you get the idea.\n\nIn addition to reducing code duplication, this has one other important advantage: the code which initializes your sounds is now located *in* the SoundManager object; you could modify it there, centrally, or someone else could write a subclass -- StereoSoundManager -- which creates StereoSound objects instead of the plain ones. This second advantage can be very handy when dealing with large libraries or frameworks, since you can work within the infrastructure established by the library while still providing your own object classes and constructors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2025919",
"title": "Pattern (sewing)",
"section": "Section::::Patterns for commercial clothing manufacture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1730,
"text": "The making of industrial patterns begins with an existing block pattern that most closely resembles the designer's vision. Patterns are cut of oak tag (manila folder) paper, punched with a hole and stored by hanging with a special hook. The pattern is first checked for accuracy, then it is cut out of sample fabrics and the resulting garment is fit tested. Once the pattern meets the designer's approval, a small production run of selling samples are made and the style is presented to buyers in wholesale markets. If the style has demonstrated sales potential, the pattern is graded for sizes, usually by computer with an apparel industry specific CAD program. Following grading, the pattern must be vetted; the accuracy of each size and the direct comparison in laying seam lines is done. After these steps have been followed and any errors corrected, the pattern is approved for production. When the manufacturing company is ready to manufacture the style, all of the sizes of each given pattern piece are arranged into a marker, usually by computer. A marker is an arrangement of all of the pattern pieces over the area of the fabric to be cut that minimizes fabric waste while maintaining the desired grainlines. It's sort of like a pattern of patterns from which all pieces will be cut. The marker is then laid on top of the layers of fabric and cut. Commercial markers often include multiple sets of patterns for popular sizes. For example: one set of size Small, two sets of size Medium and one set of size Large. Once the style has been sold and delivered to stores – and if it proves to be quite popular – the pattern of this style will itself become a block, with subsequent generations of patterns developed from it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1732198",
"title": "Factory (object-oriented programming)",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1121,
"text": "Terminology differs as to whether the concept of a factory is itself a design pattern – in the seminal book \"Design Patterns\" there is no \"factory pattern\", but instead two patterns (factory method pattern and abstract factory pattern) that use factories. Some sources refer to the concept as the factory pattern, while others consider the concept itself a programming idiom, reserving the term \"factory pattern\" or \"factory patterns\" to more complicated patterns that use factories, most often the factory method pattern; in this context, the concept of a factory itself may be referred to as a simple factory. In other contexts, particularly the Python language, \"factory\" itself is used, as in this article. More broadly, \"factory\" may be applied not just to an object that returns objects from some method call, but to a \"subroutine\" that returns objects, as in a \"factory function\" (even if functions are not objects) or \"factory method.\" Because in many languages factories are invoked by calling a method, the general concept of a factory is often confused with the specific factory method pattern design pattern.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1732198",
"title": "Factory (object-oriented programming)",
"section": "Section::::Design patterns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Factories are used in various design patterns, specifically in creational patterns such as the Design pattern object library. Specific recipes have been developed to implement them in many languages. For example, several \"GoF patterns\", like the \"Factory method pattern\", the \"Builder\" or even the \"Singleton\" are implementations of this concept. The \"Abstract factory pattern\" instead is a method to build collections of factories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164851",
"title": "Prototype pattern",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "The prototype pattern is a creational design pattern in software development. It is used when the type of objects to create is determined by a prototypical instance, which is cloned to produce new objects. This pattern is used to:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "182837",
"title": "Pattern language",
"section": "Section::::Design problems in a context.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "An important aspect of design patterns is to identify and document the key ideas that make a good system different from a poor system (that may be a house, a computer program or an object of daily use), and to assist in the design of future systems. The idea expressed in a pattern should be general enough to be applied in very different systems within its context, but still specific enough to give constructive guidance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "164850",
"title": "Factory method pattern",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In class-based programming, the factory method pattern is a creational pattern that uses factory methods to deal with the problem of creating objects without having to specify the exact class of the object that will be created. This is done by creating objects by calling a factory method—either specified in an interface and implemented by child classes, or implemented in a base class and optionally overridden by derived classes—rather than by calling a constructor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "855055",
"title": "Creational pattern",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "In software engineering, creational design patterns are design patterns that deal with object creation mechanisms, trying to create objects in a manner suitable to the situation. The basic form of object creation could result in design problems or in added complexity to the design. Creational design patterns solve this problem by somehow controlling this object creation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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] | null |
9jlgkd
|
How did Buddhist communities in East/SE Asia perceive the decline of Buddhism in India?
|
[
{
"answer": "We actually have some decent contemporaneous accounts of Chinese pilgrims visiting India during Buddhism's stable phase and then further accounts during the terminal phase. \n\nFaxian describes his experiences in India in his text *Foguoji (A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms)*. He departed China in 399 as part of a pilgrimage mission. He observes that there were apparently thriving monastic communities at Kusinagar (where the Buddha attained *parinibbana*) and other Buddhist sites. He observes that at this time Kapilavastu (Buddha's home city) and Lumbini (his birthplace) are desolate and dangerous places. If you visit Kapilavastu today I would say it is pretty similar to when Faxian visited. All that is left are some crumbling walls. We also see evidence in his records of Buddhist sites that were in a state of degradation - he describes how a holy site built over a place in Rajgir where Buddha preached Dharma was basically destroyed.\n\nFaxian describes his visit to the temple site in Bodh Gaya where the Buddha attained enlightenment. He notes that the temple is well looked after by Buddhist families and that monks who live in the area observe the precepts carefully. (Eventually this site is reclaimed by the Hindus - when it is basically discovered again by Buddhist missionaries in the 19th ce it is heavily overgrown and the Buddha image has been replaced with Hindu iconography. Anagarika Dharmapala - a Sinhalese Buddhist missionary - describes his experiences of this rediscovery in his biographical writings). \n\nNext we have Xuanzang who visits India in the 630s. He recorded his observations in the text *The Great tang Records of the Western Regions*. We learn from him that, at this stage, the situation was quite perilous and we get this very clearly from his writings. He reports that when he visited Jetavena it was basically in ruin. This was previously a major Buddhist site. Kapilavastu is predictably empty. Interestingly his visit to Kusinagar reveals an empty city with few inhabitants - just a few hundred years prior Faxian reports that there was a thriving monastic community. Again, at the city of Vaisali - previously having a community of monks - he finds \"very few monks.\" When he does find monastic communities he describes the conditions in negative terms - very often the monks are deprived and without lay support. The temples are usually dilapidated. \n\nXuanzang does complain about the fact that many of the monastic communities are Hiniyana and notes especially that they eat \"the three kinds of pure meat\" which he regards as evidence of not elevating themselves to a higher interpretation of scripture (i.e. the type of Buddhism he is familiar with in China). It is a subtle way of suggesting that they are pious but misguided. \n\nIn general, we get a sense from Xuanzang that Buddhism in India is in a pitiable state at this time. So in answer to your question, yes, there are historical accounts of Buddhism where we get a direct description of the condition of Buddhism in India and the impressions of the Buddhist pilgrims. \n\nIt is very interesting to note just how rapidly (comparatively speaking) things had degraded between Faxian's initial visit and Xuanzang's visit a few hundred years later. By the 9th ce Buddhism is all but completely destroyed in India. In fact many of the Indian Buddhist texts that we currently have only exist because they were kept in Tibet and translated to Tibetan during the initial dissemination of Buddhism in Tibet. Likewise, we also have surviving manuscripts kept in Chinese recensions. But major Indian Buddhist institutions of learning such as Nalanda were basically annihilated and the texts there lost. \n\nThere are many reasons for the decline of Buddhism in India. Hindu revivalism is one cause - Buddhism just ultimately became obviated by this more popular religion. Another important factor was a lack of state sponsorship - Buddhism originally thrived under state patronage and there was a long tradition of Indian rulers supporting many different religions, including Buddhism. But it seems that at some point this support ended. We also have to consider the fragmentation of the Buddhist tradition in India. After the Buddha's death the *sangha* broke up into many competing factions. This rivalry was probably not very healthy for Buddhism's longevity in its home nation as resources were stretched thin. Probably the least important aspect is the foreign invasion factor - while Muslim incursions into India was an issue for Buddhism (and all the native religions), Buddhism was virtually already destroyed. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1335588",
"title": "Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The decline of Buddhism has been attributed to various factors, especially the regionalisation of India after the end of the Gupta Empire (320–650 CE), which led to the loss of patronage and donations as Indian dynasties turned to the services of Hindu Brahmins. Another factor was invasions of north India by various groups such as Huns, Turco-mongols and Persians and subsequent destruction of Buddhist institutions such as Nalanda and religious persecutions. Religious competition with Hinduism and later Islam were also important factors. Islamization of Bengal\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3267529",
"title": "Buddhism",
"section": "Section::::Buddhism in the modern era.:Colonial era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 246,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 246,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "East Asian Buddhism meanwhile suffered under various wars which ravaged China during the modern era, such as the Taiping rebellion and the World War II (which also affected Korean Buddhism). During the Republican period (1912–49), a new movement called Humanistic Buddhism was developed by figures such as Taixu (1899–1947), and though Buddhist institutions were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution (1966–76), there has been a revival of the religion in China after 1977. Japanese Buddhism also went through a period of modernization during the Meiji period. In Central Asia meanwhile, the arrival of Communist repression to Tibet (1966–1980) and Mongolia (between 1924–1990) had a strong negative impact on Buddhist institutions, though the situation has improved somewhat since the 80s and 90s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "7274740",
"title": "Buddhism and Hinduism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Buddhism attained prominence in the Indian subcontinent as it was supported by royal courts, but started to decline after the Gupta era and virtually disappeared from India in the 11th century CE, except in some pockets of India. It has continued to exist outside of India and has become the major religion in several Asian countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10710364",
"title": "Religion in India",
"section": "Section::::History.:Rise of Shramana Religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "The decline of Buddhism in India has been attributed to a variety of factors, which include the resurgence of Hinduism in the 10th and 11th centuries under Sankaracharya, the later Turkish invasion, the Buddhist focus on renunciation as opposed to familial values and private property, Hinduism's own use and appropriation of Buddhist and Jain ideals of renunciation and ahimsa, etc. Although Buddhism virtually disappeared from mainstream India by the 11th century CE, its presence remained and manifested itself through other movements such as the Bhakti tradition, Vaishnavism and the Bauls of Bengal, who are influenced by the Sahajjyana form of Buddhism that was popular in Bengal during the Pala period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "42014594",
"title": "Weliwita Sri Saranankara Thero",
"section": "Section::::Revival of upasampada.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "The main reason for the decline of Buddhism during this period was mainly due to the infiltration of Catholicism, which spread because of the tolerance of the kings, who gave a free hand to the missionaries to spread their faith. This decline further increased with the division of the Buddhist monks into two groups as 'Silvats' and 'Ganinnanses'. The Portuguese and Dutch influence in the Kandyan Kingdom over the Sinhalese were such that the Sinhalese began to assimilate foreign customs, ways of life, dress and language resulting in transformation of their local life style. It was inevitable that these foreign customs seeped into the Buddhist monks as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1335588",
"title": "Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 283,
"text": "The decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent refers to a gradual process of dwindling and replacement of Buddhism in India, which ended around the 12th century. According to Lars Fogelin, this was \"not a singular event, with a singular cause; it was a centuries-long process.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1335588",
"title": "Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent",
"section": "Section::::Socio-political change and religious competition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 567,
"text": "The regionalisation of India after the end of the Gupta Empire (320–650 CE) led to the loss of patronage and donations. The prevailing view of decline of Buddhism in India is summed by A.L. Basham's classic study which argues that the main cause was the rise of a ancient hindu religion again, \"Hinduism\", which focused on the worship of deities like Shiva and Vishnu and became more popular among the common people while Buddhism, being focused on monastery life, had become disconnected from public life and its life rituals, which were all left to Hindu Brahmins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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]
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] | null |
glmcn
|
I was microwaving some water, and it exploded all over the inside of the microwave with a loud "pop". What happened?
|
[
{
"answer": "Hard to say, but it was probably superheated. I've seen this happen with tapwater, and it can suddenly boil *after* it is taken out of the microwave, when you add a teabag to it. The teabag has nucleation sites for steam bubbles. [Here's a great video.](_URL_0_) At least it is great if you don't mind staring at a glass of water for a few minutes waiting for it to explode.",
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"answer": "Superheating happened.\n\nWater normally boils at 100^o C or 212^o F, but that is only if there is a nucleation site for the first bubbles to form. A nucleation site can be a defect in the vessel (your mug in this case) or contaminates in the water. If you had relatively clean water, and a nice smooth mug, it's possible to heat up your water well above the boiling point. Some substances superheat easier than others.\n\nOnce a *tiny* bubble forms, the surface tension of the water might be enough to hold that bubble in place and not let it grow too much. The temperature has to increase a bit above the regular boiling point for the bubble to keep expanding. When the bubbles grows a little bit, the surface tension decreases and then the bubble grows *rapidly* which causes that loud pop you heard.\n\n[Here is the wiki article](_URL_0_).",
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"answer": "Like others said, it's superheating. I got burned that way once, not fun. \n\nFor the cooler (heh) and less dangerous flipside to it, try supercooling.\n\nTake a sealed bottle of distilled water (not spring water; distilled water) and put it in the freezer. Place a roughly equal volume of tap water next to it (this is just to get the timing right). \n\nAfter 2-3 hours, check both. By then, the tap water should be frozen and the bottled water still water (you have to catch it at the right time; let it go too long and the distilled water may freeze, too). CAREFULLY remove the bottled water.\n\nNow you can make it instantly snap to ice by:\n\n1) Tapping the bottle sharply against a table\n2) opening the bottle\n3) Or the coolest one (if done just right): Set an ice cube on a table and pour the water directly onto the ice cube; the water will freeze up the stream and into the bottle. This one is hard to get right sometimes; it may take a few tries.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You have no fucking idea how lucky you are. JESUS. Usually the water waits until you drop a tea-bag in before it *LITERALLY EXPLODES IN YOUR FACE SCALDING YOU FOREVER*\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is actually pretty common. Be careful. The cup/water will look totally normal, then BAM hot water everywhere.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You really shouldn't microwave water; it can explode. If you're going to microwave water you need to break the surface tension. Most people do this using a toothpick or a popcicle stick, but just sticking anything in there will do it. Just, don't put anything metal in the microwave. Or anything that's still alive.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41926823",
"title": "Vani Hari",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Promotion of pseudoscience.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "In a July 2012 post (which has since been removed), Hari quoted the ideas of Masaru Emoto that microwave ovens cause water molecules to form crystals that resemble crystals exposed to negative thoughts or beliefs, such as when the words \"Hitler\" and \"Satan\" were exposed to the water. Steven Novella calls Emoto's claims \"pure pseudoscience\" and states that \"Hari's conclusions about microwaves are all demonstrably incorrect and at odds with the scientific evidence\". She later described the post as not her \"most impressive piece of work\" and noted that it was written when she had first started blogging. In a widely discredited 2011 post, Hari warned readers that the air pumped into aircraft cabins was not pure oxygen, complaining it was \"mixed with nitrogen, sometimes almost at 50 per cent\" despite ambient air being 78% nitrogen. Hari deleted the post, later claiming it contained an \"inadvertent error\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "58017",
"title": "Microwave oven",
"section": "Section::::Heating characteristics.:Use in cleaning kitchen sponges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "Studies have investigated the use of the microwave to clean non-metallic domestic sponges which have been thoroughly wetted. A 2006 study found that microwaving wet sponges for two minutes (at 1000 watt power) removed 99% of coliforms, \"E. coli\" and MS2 phages. \"Bacillus cereus\" spores were killed at four minutes of microwaving.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "11345064",
"title": "Harold Denton",
"section": "Section::::At Three Mile Island.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "It was Denton's task to inform Pennsylvania Governor Dick Thornburgh and the President about the discovery of a possibly explosive hydrogen bubble above the cooling water, at the top of the reactor pressure vessel. The debate over whether the bubble would mix with oxygen and set off an explosion, fueled speculation of a meltdown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "58017",
"title": "Microwave oven",
"section": "Section::::Hazards.:High temperatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Closed containers, such as eggs, can explode when heated in a microwave oven due to the increased pressure from steam. Intact fresh egg yolks outside the shell will also explode, as a result of superheating. Insulating plastic foams of all types generally contain closed air pockets, and are generally not recommended for use in a microwave, as the air pockets explode and the foam (which can be toxic if consumed) may melt. Not all plastics are microwave-safe, and some plastics absorb microwaves to the point that they may become dangerously hot.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "9110374",
"title": "Sponge (tool)",
"section": "Section::::Harboring bacteria.:Cleaning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "Several methods have been used to clean sponges. Studies have investigated the use of the microwave to clean non-metallic domestic sponges that have been thoroughly moistened. A 2006 study found that microwaving wet sponges for two minutes (at 1000 watt power) killed 99% of coliforms, \"E. coli\", and MS2 phages, but \"Bacillus cereus\" spores required four minutes. After some fires were caused by people trying to replicate the results at home, the study's author urged people to make sure their sponges were wet. A 2009 study showed that the microwave and the dishwasher were both effective ways to clean domestic sponges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "22911786",
"title": "Last Last One Forever and Ever",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Frylock discovers that the water in the area is flammable; he tries to warn Master Shake, who is drinking from a hose, and Meatwad, who is bathing at a car wash, which leads to it exploding. Shake and Frylock go next door to warn Carl, who is standing in his pool with sticks of dynamite, but Carl ignores their warning as he farts into the pool, causing a huge explosion seen from outer space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "58017",
"title": "Microwave oven",
"section": "Section::::History.:Discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 987,
"text": "In 1945, the specific heating effect of a high-power microwave beam was accidentally discovered by Percy Spencer, an American self-taught engineer from Howland, Maine. Employed by Raytheon at the time, he noticed that microwaves from an active radar set he was working on started to melt a chocolate bar he had in his pocket. The first food deliberately cooked with Spencer's microwave was popcorn, and the second was an egg, which exploded in the face of one of the experimenters. To verify his finding, Spencer created a high density electromagnetic field by feeding microwave power from a magnetron into a metal box from which it had no way to escape. When food was placed in the box with the microwave energy, the temperature of the food rose rapidly. On 8 October 1945, Raytheon filed a United States patent application for Spencer's microwave cooking process, and an oven that heated food using microwave energy from a magnetron was soon placed in a Boston restaurant for testing.\n",
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5jekd0
|
how does the united states federal government prevent a president from assuming total control and creating a dictatorship - like the actual people, laws or processes, etc that stop a rouge president from becoming a thing?
|
[
{
"answer": "There's a system of checks and balances in place that prevent any one branch of government from having too much power. For example the president can veto a bill but congress can overturn it. The president can appoint supreme court justices but not without senate approval. There are lots of things the president can't do. \n\nIf he does the slightest thing that even hints at some sort of dictatorship there's always impeachment.",
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"answer": "Mostly the fact that people would not recognize his authority.\n\nIf the president ordered airstrikes or army occupation of a US city without cause, the military leadership would inform the president that is an illegal order and ignore it and likely inform congress of the president's attempt to murder US citizens so that congress could impreach him.\n\nLegally, the President does not have the authority to make law, so he can't unilaterally change laws. Again, if he tries to enforce invalid law, congress can impeach him.\n\nWorst comes to worst, the States or People can rebel against the president's authority using police, national guard, and privately owned weapons.",
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"answer": "The House of Representatives has the power to impeach the President by majority vote, the Senate has the power to remove a President after he's been impeached by 2/3 vote. The cabinet by majority vote also has the power to remove the President, but this is more for things like health issues, and not a judgement of conduct.",
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"answer": "Members of the US military swear their oaths to \"Protect and defend the Constitution of the United States,\" not to the President. They are specifically trained to disobey unlawful orders. A President who tried to seize power would quickly find that \"his\" armed forces wouldn't follow his orders. \n\nAnother roadblock against dictatorship is Congress. The House can impeach a President and the Senate can remove him from office. If that happens, the Vice President would take over as President. Two Presidents have been impeached, but neither of them was actually removed from office. (President Nixon chose to resign rather than face impeachment.) An attempt at establishing a dictatorship, however, would easily result in removal.\n\nThe final roadblock is the States and citizens. If a President somehow managed to claim such power, the States would certainly rebel. This could lead to another Civil War, but it's very unlikely that the US military would follow a President against the States.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "This is where the 3 power branches come in. Legislative, Judicial, and Executive. They created this balance of power so the president can not become a dictator. That's why we have judges, senators, representatives, and all those lovely folks.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "You have a number of things stopping this:\n\nFirst you have a [separation of powers](_URL_0_). By the supreme law of the country, the president only has a certain number of powers he can use( though this list has grown in past years). If a president tries to do something not allowed by the law, the courts and Congress can ignore them. All sides have a vested interest in keeping this upheld, while Congress has surrendered some of their power to the president, they will never tolerate becoming nothing, same with the courts. The closest we've come to this happening otherwise was when Andrew Jackson ignored the Supreme courts order to not deport Native Americans by deporting Native Americans. He got away with this though because Congress refused to impeach him.\n\nIn terms of the military, while yes the president is the boss of the armed forces, all soldiers swear an oath to defend the Constitution from all enemies foreign and domestic. If a president oversteps his bounds and attempts to assume more power than is allocated to him in the Constitution, then the military is obligated to refuse to recognize his authority and orders. In addition, Congress controls paychecks, so unless a would-be dictator in can somehow assure soldiers they will get tons of money after helping overthrow the stable government of their nation, soldiers have a strong incentive to side with Congress in the event a president tries to go too far.\n\nMost importantly you will have [conventions](_URL_1_. People often underestimate this one, but there is a lot of force behind tradition and society just chugging along with what its done. we've had powerful presidents in the past who've greatly expanded their reach and power during times of emergency (Lincoln and FDR to name two), and while such actions were tolerated, we theoretically wouldn't tolerate a continual state of affair forever. We've had no coups or dictatorships in the past, this hopefully inoculates us from wanting on in the future. Soldiers by convention protect the Constitution, which is the ultimate authority for our nation, the president is just their rotating boss. Convention also means no one wants to be the first person to try and become dictator of America, it would be breaking more than two hundred years of precedent and tradition that most Americans value a great deal.",
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"answer": "A rouge president? I'd say he's more orange than anything...;D",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "24110",
"title": "President (government title)",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Dictatorships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "In dictatorships, the title of president is frequently taken by self-appointed or military-backed leaders. Such is the case in many states: Idi Amin in Uganda, Mobutu Sese Seko in Zaire, Ferdinand Marcos in Philippines and Saddam Hussein in Iraq are some examples. Other presidents in authoritarian states have wielded only symbolic or no power such as Craveiro Lopes in Portugal and Joaquín Balaguer under the \"Trujillo Era\" of the Dominican Republic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "60567",
"title": "President of Germany",
"section": "Section::::Duties and functions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "The President is involved in the formation of the Federal Government and remains in close cooperation with it. Basically, the President is free to act on his own discretion. However, according to Article 58 of the German constitution, the decrees, and directives of the President require the countersignature of the Chancellor or the corresponding Federal Minister in charge of the respective field of politics. This rule ensures the coherence of government action, similar to the system of checks and balances in the United States of America. There is no need for a countersignature, if the President proposes, appointments and dismisses the Chancellor, convenes or dissolves of the Bundestag according to Article 63, declares a legislative state of emergency, calls on Chancellor and ministers to remain in office, after the end of a Chancellor's term, until a successor is elected or exercises his right to pardon on behalf of the federation, as these are exclusive powers of the President.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "24113",
"title": "President of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Powers and duties.:Article II executive powers.:Administrative powers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "The president also possesses the power to manage operations of the federal government through issuing various types of directives, such as presidential proclamation and executive orders. When the president is lawfully exercising one of the constitutionally conferred presidential responsibilities, the scope of this power is broad. Even so, these directives are subject to judicial review by U.S. federal courts, which can find them to be unconstitutional. Moreover, Congress can overturn an executive order through legislation (e.g., Congressional Review Act).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "25704",
"title": "Politics of Russia",
"section": "Section::::Executive branch.:Presidential powers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Several prescribed powers put the president in a superior position vis-à-vis the legislature. The president has broad authority to issue decrees and directives that have the force of law without judicial review, although the constitution notes that they must not contravene that document or other laws. Under certain conditions, the president may dissolve the State Duma, the lower house of parliament, the Federal Assembly. The president has the prerogatives of scheduling referendums (a power previously reserved to the parliament), submitting draft laws to the State Duma, and promulgating federal laws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "31647",
"title": "Article Two of the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Section 3: Presidential responsibilities.:Clause 5: Caring for the faithful execution of the law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "The president may not prevent a member of the executive branch from performing a ministerial duty lawfully imposed upon him by Congress. (See Marbury v. Madison (1803); and Kendall v. United States ex rel. Stokes (1838).) Nor may the president take an action not authorized either by the Constitution or by a lawful statute. (See Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer (1952).) Finally, the president may not refuse to enforce a constitutional law, or \"cancel\" certain appropriations, for that would amount to an extra-constitutional veto or suspension power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206578",
"title": "Presidential system",
"section": "Section::::Differences from a parliamentary system.:Overlapping elements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "In practice, elements of both systems overlap. Though a president in a presidential system does not have to choose a government under the legislature, the legislature may have the right to scrutinize his or her appointments to high governmental office, with the right, on some occasions, to block an appointment. In the United States, many appointments must be confirmed by the Senate, although once confirmed an appointee can only be removed against the president's will through impeachment. By contrast, though answerable \"to\" parliament, a parliamentary system's cabinet may be able to make use of the parliamentary 'whip' (an obligation on party members in parliament to vote with their party) to control and dominate parliament, reducing parliament's ability to control the government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "209756",
"title": "War Powers Resolution",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 908,
"text": "It is generally agreed that the commander-in-chief role gives the President power to repel attacks against the United States and makes the President responsible for leading the armed forces. The President has the right to sign or veto congressional acts, such as a declaration of war, and Congress may override any such presidential veto. Additionally, when the president's actions (or inactions) provide \"Aid and Comfort\" to enemies or levy war against the United States, then Congress has the power to impeach and remove (convict) the president for treason. For actions short of treason, they can remove the president for \"Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors\", the definition of which the Supreme Court has left up to Congress. Therefore, the war power was intentionally split between Congress and the Executive to prevent unilateral executive action that is contrary to the wishes of Congress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3adwvt
|
how and why does mega work differently than others file hosting services?
|
[
{
"answer": "Mega does this because the file itself is encrypted. Files are encrypted before uploading and then decrypted on your system.\n\nWhat is really happening is:\nThe encrypted file is downloaded, this takes the time.\nThe file is decrypted, very fast.\nThe decrypted file is saved, as you noticed rather quickly.\n\nThey do this to meet some legal requirements in a rather twisted way that makes it harder on copyright holders, rather than the easier the law was intended to be. A major part of this is that the encryption makes it so Mega can not identify the content without first modifying it, but they are not required to modify to identify. \n\nMega slides through a loophole in the law.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "349732",
"title": "Download",
"section": "Section::::Copyright.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Open hosting servers allows people to upload files to a central server, which incurs bandwidth and hard disk space costs due to files generated with each download. Anonymous and open hosting servers make it difficult to hold hosts accountable. Taking legal action against the technologies behind unauthorized \"file sharing\" has proven successful for centralized networks (such as Napster), and untenable for decentralized networks like (Gnutella, BitTorrent).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1693035",
"title": "File hosting service",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "A file hosting service, cloud storage service, online file storage provider, or cyberlocker is an internet hosting service specifically designed to host user files. It allows users to upload files that could be accessed over the internet after a user name and password or other authentication is provided. Typically, the services allow HTTP access, and sometimes FTP access. Related services are content-displaying hosting services (i.e. video and image), virtual storage, and remote backup.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37509755",
"title": "Mega (service)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Mega is known for its security feature where all files are end-to-end encrypted locally before they are uploaded. This prevents anyone (including employees of Mega Limited) from accessing the files without knowledge of the pass key used for encryption. The service was previously noted for a large 50 GB storage allocation for free accounts. Up to 8 TB is available for paid accounts. As of January 20, 2018, Mega claims to have 100 million registered users in more than 245 countries and territories, and more than 40 billion files have been uploaded to the service.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2199995",
"title": "Dedicated hosting service",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1495,
"text": "A dedicated hosting service, dedicated server, or managed hosting service is a type of Internet hosting in which the client leases an entire server not shared with anyone else. This is more flexible than shared hosting, as organizations have full control over the server(s), including choice of operating system, hardware, etc. There is also another level of dedicated or managed hosting commonly referred to as complex managed hosting. Complex Managed Hosting applies to both physical dedicated servers, Hybrid server and virtual servers, with many companies choosing a hybrid (combination of physical and virtual) hosting solution. There are many similarities between standard and complex managed hosting but the key difference is the level of administrative and engineering support that the customer pays for – owing to both the increased size and complexity of the infrastructure deployment. The provider steps in to take over most of the management, including security, memory, storage and IT support. The service is primarily proactive in nature. Server administration can usually be provided by the hosting company as an add-on service. In some cases a dedicated server can offer less overhead and a larger return on investment. Dedicated servers are hosted in data centers, often providing redundant power sources and HVAC systems. In contrast to colocation, the server hardware is owned by the provider and in some cases they will provide support for operating systems or applications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2540216",
"title": "Clustered web hosting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Typically, most hosting infrastructures are based on the paradigm of using a single physical machine to host multiple hosted services, including web, database, email, FTP and others. A single physical machine is not only a single point of failure, but also has finite capacity for traffic, that in practice can be troublesome for a busy website or for a website that is experiencing transient bursts in traffic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6100089",
"title": "Megaupload",
"section": "Section::::2012 indictments by the United States.:Data retention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "The Mega Servers are not in the actual or constructive custody or control of the United States, but remain at the premises controlled by, and currently under the control of, Carpathia and Cogent. Should the defendants wish to obtain independent access to the Mega Servers, or coordinate third-party access to data housed on Mega Servers, the issue must be resolved directly with Cogent or Carpathia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36627336",
"title": "Megaupload legal case",
"section": "Section::::Data retention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "The Mega Servers are not in the actual or constructive custody or control of the United States, but remain at the premises controlled by, and currently under the control of, Carpathia and Cogent. Should the defendants wish to obtain independent access to the Mega Servers, or coordinate third-party access to data housed on Mega Servers, the issue must be resolved directly with Cogent or Carpathia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1ik9wg
|
Assuming there IS silicon based life there in the universe, what would they use as "water" or as their organic solvent?
|
[
{
"answer": "If water is available, there's not much reason to believe they wouldn't use it - carbon and silicon have near enough identical chemistry with water.\n\nOtherwise, your options are quite limited. If it's too hot for water, you're really too hot for most simple liquids - you also don't really expect silicon at high temperatures, as its bonds are weaker than those of carbon, so it would run the risk of breaking apart. If it's too cold for water, you could possibly use some of the simple hydrocarbons (methane, ethane) if they were around in suitable quantities.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are A LOT of \"what-ifs\" to this question, but I would say probably just water. The reason that silicon is proposed as a possible basis for life is that it should behave similarly to carbon based life as we understand it.\n\nThat said, some astronomers studying Titan have proposed it feasible that life could survive in the ammonia lakes, and hydrogen sulfide might be coerced to act water-like in cold enough environments, as long as you don't allow it to combust.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hi! Chemist who works with silicon here. Si-based life would have a very hard time of it, for these reasons:\n\n1. Silicon is less electronegative than hydrogen, whereas C is more electronegative (Si is 1.9 on the Pauling scale, C 2.5 and H 2.1). This means nucleophilic attack (a common step in many chemical reactions relevant to biochemical processes) will happen at the Si site rather than the H. (Also, while this difference means that Si can form very strong bonds thermodynamically with electronegative elements such as O (exemplified by the thermal stability of SiO2 in sand a glass) or F, these compounds can be fairly kinetically reactive, since the large difference in electronegativity results in a highly polarized bond, thus inviting further attack by nucleophilic species.)\n\n2. Silicon has a very hard time forming chiral complexes (an important concept akin to the left or right \"handedness\" of a molecule, which determines the shape of molecules such as helices in proteins). The nitty gritty chemistry of it is that Si is larger atomically, and thus is less fussy about expanding its coordination sphere (which is a probable step that a molecule might go through in switching chiral modes) than C. \n\n3. Silicon is much less abundant in the universe than C, about 5:1. (However, in the Earth's crust it's the second most abundant element, after oxygen. But if we're talking best chance at forming a viable life form when the current known odds of forming C-based life are at 1/10^veryverylargenumber, it might likely be a factor).\n\n4. Silicon doesn't like very much to form double or triple bonds (a common motif in many biochemicals, such as many amino acids containing aromatic rings). \n\n5. Silicon oxides form the solid SiO2 (an extended solid with high thermal stability-- think sand and glass) whereas C oxidizes to give CO2, a gas. The possibility of respirating a solid makes the concept of breathing as we know it a little difficult.\n\nAny \"solvent\" for this hypothetical lifeform to form in would have to be able to address all of these points. Which is not very likely.\n\nEdit: formatting",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7316",
"title": "Hypothetical types of biochemistry",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Non-water solvents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "In addition to carbon compounds, all currently known terrestrial life also requires water as a solvent. This has led to discussions about whether water is the only liquid capable of filling that role. The idea that an extraterrestrial life-form might be based on a solvent other than water has been taken seriously in recent scientific literature by the biochemist Steven Benner, and by the astrobiological committee chaired by John A. Baross. Solvents discussed by the Baross committee include ammonia, sulfuric acid, formamide, hydrocarbons, and (at temperatures much lower than Earth's) liquid nitrogen, or hydrogen in the form of a supercritical fluid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12305127",
"title": "Evolutionary history of life",
"section": "Section::::Origins of life on Earth.:Independent emergence on Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1185,
"text": "Life on Earth is based on carbon and water. Carbon provides stable frameworks for complex chemicals and can be easily extracted from the environment, especially from carbon dioxide. There is no other chemical element whose properties are similar enough to carbon's to be called an analogue; silicon, the element directly below carbon on the periodic table, does not form very many complex stable molecules, and because most of its compounds are water-insoluble, it would be more difficult for organisms to extract. The elements boron and phosphorus have more complex chemistries, but suffer from other limitations relative to carbon. Water is an excellent solvent and has two other useful properties: the fact that ice floats enables aquatic organisms to survive beneath it in winter; and its molecules have electrically negative and positive ends, which enables it to form a wider range of compounds than other solvents can. Other good solvents, such as ammonia, are liquid only at such low temperatures that chemical reactions may be too slow to sustain life, and lack water's other advantages. Organisms based on alternative biochemistry may, however, be possible on other planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9588",
"title": "Extraterrestrial life",
"section": "Section::::Biochemical basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Life on Earth requires water as a solvent in which biochemical reactions take place. Sufficient quantities of carbon and other elements, along with water, might enable the formation of living organisms on terrestrial planets with a chemical make-up and temperature range similar to that of Earth. Life based on ammonia (rather than water) has been suggested as an alternative, though this solvent appears less suitable than water. It is also conceivable that there are forms of life whose solvent is a liquid hydrocarbon, such as methane, ethane or propane.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15155395",
"title": "Habitability of natural satellites",
"section": "Section::::Presumed conditions.:Liquid water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Liquid water is thought by most astrobiologists to be an essential prerequisite for extraterrestrial life. There is growing evidence of subsurface liquid water on several moons in the Solar System orbiting the gas giants Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. However, none of these subsurface bodies of water has been confirmed to date.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43126",
"title": "Callisto (moon)",
"section": "Section::::Potential habitability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "The basic ingredients for life—what we call 'pre-biotic chemistry'—are abundant in many solar system objects, such as comets, asteroids and icy moons. Biologists believe liquid water and energy are then needed to actually support life, so it's exciting to find another place where we might have liquid water. But, energy is another matter, and currently, Callisto's ocean is only being heated by radioactive elements, whereas Europa has tidal energy as well, from its greater proximity to Jupiter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21956242",
"title": "Trouvelot (Martian crater)",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Scientists are excited about finding hydrated minerals such as sulfates and clays on Mars because they are usually formed in the presence of water. Places that contain clays and/or other hydrated minerals would be good places to look for evidence of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3602838",
"title": "Memnonia quadrangle",
"section": "Section::::Layers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Scientists are excited about finding hydrated minerals such as sulfates and clays on Mars because they are usually formed in the presence of water. Places that contain clays and/or other hydrated minerals would be good places to look for evidence of life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ea2cy
|
Did modesty in clothing (particularly covering the genitalia) originate from one culture or did cultures develop this fashion concurrently?
|
[
{
"answer": "Followup:\n\nMy guess was that it's mainly to keep your core war, but then why do some peoples living in already warm environments cover up that area?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Perhaps this is a question more suited for r/askanthropology? I'd suggest cross posting this there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10420424",
"title": "Clothing in the ancient world",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Minoan clothing.:Female Minoan dress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Early in the culture, the loincloth was used by both sexes. The women of Crete wore the garment more as an underskirt than the men, by lengthening it. They are often illustrated in statuettes with a large dagger fixed at the belt. The provision of items intended to secure personal safety was undoubtedly one of the characteristics of female clothing in the Neolithic era, traces of the practice having been found in the peat bogs of Denmark up to the Bronze Age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "168032",
"title": "Codpiece",
"section": "Section::::In European fashion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "From the ancient world there are extant depictions of articles of clothing designed to cover just the male genitalia; for example, archaeological recovery at Minoan Knossos on Crete has yielded figurines, some of whom wear only a garment covering the male genitalia. However, the \"codpiece\", per se, appeared in everyday European fashion for men only many centuries later, associated with hose and trousers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "231676",
"title": "Skirt",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "One of the earliest known cultures to have females wear clothing resembling miniskirts were the Duan Qun Miao (短裙苗), which literally meant \"short skirt Miao\" in Chinese. This was in reference to the short miniskirts \"that barely cover the buttocks\" worn by women of the tribe, and which were probably shocking to observers in medieval and early modern times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8624955",
"title": "History of nudity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "The history of nudity involves social attitudes to nudity in different cultures in history. It is not known when humans began wearing clothes, although there is some archaeological evidence to indicate that clothing may have become commonplace in human society around 72,000 years ago. Nudity (or near-complete nudity) has traditionally been the social norm for both men and women in some hunter-gatherer cultures in warm climates and it is still common among many indigenous peoples. Anthropologists believe that animal skins and vegetation were adapted into coverings as protection from cold, heat and rain, especially as humans migrated to new climates; alternatively, covering may have been invented first for other purposes, such as magic, decoration, cult, or prestige, and later found to be practical as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8624955",
"title": "History of nudity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "The ancient Egyptians wore the minimum of clothing, and in a number of ancient Mediterranean cultures, the athletic and/or cultist nudity of men and boys was a natural concept. In ancient Rome, nudity could be a public disgrace and might be offensive or distasteful even in traditional settings, though it could be seen at the public baths or in erotic art. In Japan, public nudity was quite normal and commonplace until the Meiji Restoration. In Europe, taboos against nudity began to grow during the Age of Enlightenment and by the Victorian era, public nakedness was considered obscene. In the early years of the 20th century, the modern naturist movement began to develop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "127154",
"title": "Fetish fashion",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Fetish fashion has no specific origin point because certain fashions that were appreciated specifically for themselves or worn as part of a specific subculture have been noted since the earliest days of clothing. Some scholars, like Michael Hayworth, argue that the use of corsetry and hobble skirts back in the late 18th century was the first mainstream note of fetish fashions, because the majority of society did not have access to these articles. These items were specifically appreciated for themselves (i.e. the person liked the woman wearing the corset rather than just the woman by herself).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "106121",
"title": "Modesty",
"section": "Section::::Religious traditions.:Hinduism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "The premise and concepts of modesty have evolved under Hinduism. During Vedic times, both women and men wore at least two pieces of draped dress that was largely undifferentiated, voluntary and flexible. Stitched clothes such as skirts and bodices were also common in the Vedic period. However, modesty was not determined by the precepts of religion, but by local traditions, social codes, profession, circumstances and occasion. The multiple pieces of draped dress for women evolved into a single length of draped cloth among Indian Hindus, now called sari; but remained two or more pieces in Southeast Asian Hindus. For men, the draped dress reduced to one piece now called by various names such as dhoti, \"lungi\", \"pancha\", \"laacha\" and other names among Indian Hindus, and \"kamben\" among Balinese Hindu.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1og74m
|
why are we not working on sending a probe towards our nearest habitable planet (gliese 581g)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Because by the time it could get there we'd already have sent probes there using faster engines, if there's any reason to do it at all. \n\nCurrent technologies would take on the order of a hundred thousand years. We can probably cut that significantly just by waiting a few decades. At that time scale, it would even make sense to wait a few centuries. Or millennia, if that's how long it happens to take to get a more economical and advanced probe. \n\nAnd incidentally, there's absolutely no reason to believe it is actually habitable... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As Neil DeGrasse Tyson is fond of saying, scientists will tend to devote their time to projects that will give results while they're still alive.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Easy questions first:\n\n > what would be the time delay on image return?\n\n4 years.\n\n > Do we possess the technology to accomplish this? power requirements, guidance, etc..\n\nSort of. We certainly are capable of getting a probe that far from a fuel perspective, since things in space pretty much don't slow down once you get them moving. I'm less sure about how precise we could be, seeing as we haven't done it yet.\n\nThe big problem is how long it would take to get there. 4 lightyears doesn't *sound* that far, but it's a tremendous distance. The fastest we've gotten a probe (depending on how you measure it) is around 50,000 meters per second, which sounds like a lot, but it's still only .01% of the speed of light.\n\nSo, a *very generous* estimate for how long it would take is around 40,000 years. I don't think anybody wants to wait that long.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": " > At (insert knowledge here)mph the probe would take (insert maths here) years to reach its destination\n\nVoyager 1 is going fast enough that it will still be traveling at a speed of 16.6 km/s when it is far from the influence of the sun (this is its excess escape velocity). A that speed it would take over 72,000 years to reach Gilese 581 assuming your figure of 4 light years, although I'm finding a distance that is closer to 22 light years, so go ahead and multiply that time by 5.5: nearly 300,000 years. \n\nIt would have to have power for that time, which is not really feasible--it's far too distant to use solar panels, batteries wouldn't last more than a tiny fraction of the journey, and even the long-lasting nuclear generators like the ones that Voyager and Curiosity use would not last more than a few decades. \n\nWhen it gets there it would only be useful if it can either return (another 72,000 years) or send a signal back. The signal delay would be 4 years, which means that we would have to make it pretty much completely autonomous (not really a huge issue), but even just the issue of sending data that distance is staggering--I'm not sure how much power an antenna to send data that distance would take, but I'm sure that it would present a huge challenge.\n\nIt's just not feasible to send a true interstellar probe just yet--space is just too darn big. While we develop better and better technologies to try to attempt a mission like that it is much more reasonable to start looking at interplanetary colonization, particularly with respect to Mars. It's a whole world of free space where humanity could expand to once we fill the Earth up, and it's close enough to go there within a single lifetime. By the time humanity becomes a truly interplanetary civilization we will probably have the technology to create a craft that can take that 300,000 year journey and reduce it to only a few hundred. A craft we send in 1,000 years would probably get to Gliese 581 before one sent today. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Voyager 1 is currently 18,880,233 KM away from Earth. \n\nGliese 571g is 20.22 light years away. That works out to 191295970155583.8 KM\n\nSo the distance to Gliese divided by the distance Voyager 1 has managed to travel in its entire life comes out to 10132077 (rounded)\n\nVoyager 1 has been going for 36 years. So 36 multiplied by 10132077 gives us 364,754,772 years.\n\nBy which time no human made probe would have any battery power left or means to communicate with earth, h\n\n**TL:DR It would take 300,000,000 years for a probe to even begin to approach that planet.** ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "There are many good answers here, so for comparison I'll mention the furthest we've realistically planned to send current-technology probes:\n\nAn older idea was the [Thousand-AU probe](_URL_0_) that would use a nuclear reactor ion drive to reach a distance of 1000 AU (an AU, astronomical unit, is the average distance between the Earth and the Sun). Using nuclear reactors in space has been done before but it's falling out of favor.\n\nA more recent, scaled-down plan was the [Innovative Interstellar Explorer](_URL_1_), which would use safer radiothermal generators to power its ion drive. It was planned to survive long enough to reach 200 AUs. This plan is still \"on the books\" if the funding ever appears to get it built and flown.\n\nBut for comparison, Gliese 581 (at 20.22 light-years away) is 1,278,707 AUs away, over a thousand times as distant as our most extreme, feasible probe technology. Going to a nearby star just isn't on the tech map yet.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35233688",
"title": "Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact",
"section": "Section::::Contact scenarios and considerations.:Extraterrestrial artifacts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "Freitas finds numerous reasons why interstellar probes may be a preferred method of communication among extraterrestrial civilizations wishing to make contact with Earth. A civilization aiming to learn more about the distribution of life within the galaxy might, he speculates, send probes to a large number of star systems, rather than using radio, as one cannot ensure a response by radio but can (he says) ensure that probes will return to their sender with data on the star systems they survey. Furthermore, probes would enable the surveying of non-intelligent populations, or those not yet capable of space navigation (like humans before the 20th century), as well as intelligent populations that might not wish to provide information about themselves and their planets to extraterrestrial civilizations. In addition, the greater energy required to send living beings rather than a robotic probe would, according to Michaud, be only used for purposes such as a one-way migration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35233688",
"title": "Potential cultural impact of extraterrestrial contact",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Search for extraterrestrial intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "Newly discovered planets, particularly ones that are potentially habitable, have enabled SETI and METI programs to refocus projects for communication with extraterrestrial intelligence. In 2009 A Message From Earth (AMFE) was sent toward the Gliese 581 planetary system, which contains two potentially habitable planets, the confirmed Gliese 581d and the more habitable but unconfirmed Gliese 581g. In the SETILive project, which began in 2012, human volunteers analyze data from the Allen Telescope Array to search for possible alien signals that computers might miss because of terrestrial radio interference. The data for the study is obtained by observing \"Kepler\" target stars with the radio telescope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10204411",
"title": "Space probe",
"section": "Section::::Interplanetary trajectories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Once a probe has left the vicinity of Earth, its trajectory will likely take it along an orbit around the Sun similar to the Earth's orbit. To reach another planet, the simplest practical method is a Hohmann transfer orbit. More complex techniques, such as gravitational slingshots, can be more fuel-efficient, though they may require the probe to spend more time in transit. Some high Delta-V missions (such as those with high inclination changes) can only be performed, within the limits of modern propulsion, using gravitational slingshots. A technique using very little propulsion, but requiring a considerable amount of time, is to follow a trajectory on the Interplanetary Transport Network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8482163",
"title": "Magnetosphere of Jupiter",
"section": "Section::::Exploration after 1970.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "In 2003, NASA conducted a conceptual study called \"Human Outer Planets Exploration\" (HOPE) regarding the future human exploration of the outer solar system. The possibility was mooted of building a surface base on Callisto, because of the low radiation levels at the moon's distance from Jupiter and its geological stability. Callisto is the only one of Jupiter's Galilean satellites for which human exploration is feasible. The levels of ionizing radiation on Io, Europa and Ganymede are inimical to human life, and adequate protective measures have yet to be devised.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15111",
"title": "Interplanetary spaceflight",
"section": "Section::::Current achievements in interplanetary travel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Remotely guided space probes have flown by all of the planets of the Solar System from Mercury to Neptune, with the New Horizons probe having flown by the dwarf planet Pluto and the Dawn spacecraft currently orbiting the dwarf planet Ceres. The most distant spacecrafts, Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 have left the Solar System as of while Pioneer 10, Pioneer 11, and New Horizons are on course to leave it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14843",
"title": "Interstellar travel",
"section": "Section::::Feasibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "Astrophysicist Sten Odenwald stated that the basic problem is that through intensive studies of thousands of detected exoplanets, most of the closest destinations within 50 light years do not yield Earth-like planets in the star's habitable zones. Given the multitrillion-dollar expense of some of the proposed technologies, travelers will have to spend up to 200 years traveling at 20% the speed of light to reach the best known destinations. Moreover, once the travelers arrive at their destination (by any means), they will not be able to travel down to the surface of the target world and set up a colony unless the atmosphere is non-lethal. The prospect of making such a journey, only to spend the rest of the colony's life inside a sealed habitat and venturing outside in a spacesuit, may eliminate many prospective targets from the list.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9763360",
"title": "Cosmic Odyssey (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Travelling to Outer Planets (Worlds Apart)\" – While we may know a great deal about the planets in our \"neighborhood,\" the lonely outer stretches of the solar system are now targets for a new generation of space missions. \"Traveling to Outer Planets\" introduces viewers to scientists planning these explorations and highlights some of the mysteries they hope to solve. Does the icy surface of Jupiter's moon, Europa, contain a liquid ocean with possible life? Can water and land survive the thick, foggy atmosphere of Saturn's largest moon, Titan? What can be learned from asteroids? Scientists and researchers are preparing for the day when astronauts may visit these unexplored worlds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
352gct
|
Why is derivative notation d2y/dx2?
|
[
{
"answer": "Often, dy/dx is written d/dx(y), where \"d/dx\" is an operator. It's an abuse of notation but well understood.\n\nIf you apply an operator twice it's common to write it as \"squared\" - another abuse of notation. e.g A(A(t)) = A^2 (t).\n\nIf you square d/dx you get d^2 /(dx) ^2.\n\nApply that to y and drop parentheses and you get d^2 y/dx^2 .\n\nSo it's a combination of notational abuses, but it's kind of stuck because it's cute.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The derivative with respect to x is d/dx, so the derivative of the derivative of y is (d/dx)(d/dx)y, or ddy/dxdx. This gets shortened to d^(2)y/dx^(2). That being said, it's an abuse of notation and doesn't make sense if you look too closely.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "615222",
"title": "Multivariable calculus",
"section": "Section::::Typical operations.:Partial differentiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "Partial derivatives may be combined in interesting ways to create more complicated expressions of the derivative. In vector calculus, the del operator (formula_28) is used to define the concepts of gradient, divergence, and curl in terms of partial derivatives. A matrix of partial derivatives, the Jacobian matrix, may be used to represent the derivative of a function between two spaces of arbitrary dimension. The derivative can thus be understood as a linear transformation which directly varies from point to point in the domain of the function.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6113",
"title": "Chain rule",
"section": "Section::::Multivariable case.:General rule.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Because the total derivative is a linear transformation, the functions appearing in the formula can be rewritten as matrices. The matrix corresponding to a total derivative is called a Jacobian matrix, and the composite of two derivatives corresponds to the product of their Jacobian matrices. From this perspective the chain rule therefore says:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7921",
"title": "Derivative",
"section": "Section::::Generalizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 154,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 154,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "BULLET::::- An important generalization of the derivative concerns complex functions of complex variables, such as functions from (a domain in) the complex numbers C to C. The notion of the derivative of such a function is obtained by replacing real variables with complex variables in the definition. If C is identified with R by writing a complex number \"z\" as , then a differentiable function from C to C is certainly differentiable as a function from R to R (in the sense that its partial derivatives all exist), but the converse is not true in general: the complex derivative only exists if the real derivative is \"complex linear\" and this imposes relations between the partial derivatives called the Cauchy–Riemann equations – see holomorphic functions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39783039",
"title": "Function of several real variables",
"section": "Section::::Calculus.:Partial derivatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Partial derivatives themselves are functions, each of which represents the rate of change of parallel to one of the axes at all points in the domain (if the derivatives exist and are continuous—see also below). A first derivative is positive if the function increases along the direction of the relevant axis, negative if it decreases, and zero if there is no increase or decrease. Evaluating a partial derivative at a particular point in the domain gives the rate of change of the function at that point in the direction parallel to a particular axis, a real number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3224219",
"title": "Second derivative",
"section": "Section::::Relation to the graph.:Inflection points.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "If the second derivative of a function changes sign, the graph of the function will switch from concave down to concave up, or vice versa. A point where this occurs is called an inflection point. Assuming the second derivative is continuous, it must take a value of zero at any inflection point, although not every point where the second derivative is zero is necessarily a point of inflection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "615222",
"title": "Multivariable calculus",
"section": "Section::::Typical operations.:Partial differentiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "The partial derivative generalizes the notion of the derivative to higher dimensions. A partial derivative of a multivariable function is a derivative with respect to one variable with all other variables held constant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "742352",
"title": "Derivative test",
"section": "Section::::Second derivative test (single variable).:Concavity test.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "A related but distinct use of second derivatives is to determine whether a function is concave up or concave down at a point. It does not, however, provide information about inflection points. Specifically, a twice-differentiable function \"f\" is concave up if formula_8 and concave down if formula_9. Note that if formula_19, then formula_20 has zero second derivative, yet is not an inflection point, so the second derivative alone does not give enough information to determine if a given point is an inflection point.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3z4rab
|
why will youtube show people dying but freak out over nudity even non sexual nudity?
|
[
{
"answer": "For the exact same reason a film can have dozens of deaths depicted yet remain PG but throw a couple breasts and swear words in and it's an instant R rating. American prudishness, pure and simple. All nudity is considered inherently sexual (not long ago there was a question on here freaking out about the idea of children at nude beaches) and sex is considered inherently bad.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's just how society has developed. In this society we have, a nipple is more offensive than someone being beaten. Why? Social norms have just formed in this nonsensical way which everyone has just grown to accept.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually I'm pretty sure nudity is allowed on YouTube if it's in an educational context. There was a post linked on reddit a couple weeks ago where they put cameras inside a vagina to show the mechanics of sex and nothing was censored because it was from an educational show/documentary. There was moaning and full nudity and even ejaculation, all uncensored. (I would link but I'm on mobile and it would be a bitch to find right now) \n\nETA: link for you horny bastards _URL_0_\n\nStill gotta be 18 to view but have at it!\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Uhh... Youtube usually takes down videos of people dying. The gore is always hosted on Liveleak.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Watch the movie This Film is Not Yet Rated, it will tell you in detail why in a very ELI5 way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually, non-sexual nudity -- up to a point -- is allowed. Sexual non-nudity, though, is less tolerated: if it is primarily designed to elicit a sexual response, it's likely to be considered in violation of Community Guidelines.\n\nThe same actually goes for videos containing violence, gore, or anything that is intended to shock or disgust. I'd have to ask what you mean by \"people dying\", but it will depend a lot on the wider context and the intent of the video.\n\nGenerally speaking, videos have to be flagged by the community before they are reviewed by staff, since there's far too much footage being uploaded for it to be screened in advance. It may be that you've seen some videos that nobody's yet flagged.\n\nBut it's possible YouTube might have developed some sort of algorithm that tries pro-actively to find videos that may be in violation. I can well imagine that it would be easier to find nudity than death: to find nudity, you can start by simply looking for videos containing predominantly flesh tones.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "let stephen colbert show you how retarded it is : \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "YouTube doesn't tolerate violence. I uploaded a video of an Iraqi teacher punishing class by hitting their butts with a ruler and I got a strike… ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your premise simply isn't true. There's plenty of non-sexual nudity on Youtube. Also, there's not a lot of gore and people dying.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is against Youtube's [policy](_URL_0_) to show violence that is primarily intended to be shocking, sensational, or disrespectful. That would include showing people dying, as it is disrespectful to the family of the victim. Youtube, however, does not review every video uploaded to the site and instead relies on the community to flag inappropriate videos for further review. Your question maybe should be, why don't people flag all violent videos for Youtube to review? I personally think it is important for people to see some of the shocking and violent things that are happening in the world (Ukraine and Syria, for instance) so that we are aware of what is happening, rather than hiding our heads in the sand under a veil of censorship. For these videos, I have to go to LiveLeak, because Youtube does not allow them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're not a U.S. resident, are you? We love our gut-spilling killing; but naked sex? Eww.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because nearly everything about the world around you is a constructed reality. In the culture we've constructed, violence is necessary to maintain constructed things like hierarchies and borders that don't actually exist. It's frowned upon in personal interactions but is fostered and employed all over the world to further these imaginings. You may notice that people will often say, \"that's just the way it is\" about things that could easily be vastly different if we wanted them to be. \n \nSex and nudity speak to our true natural innate ways. They could supplant the imagined constructs as things that make the world go 'round if left unchecked. They are made to be taboo so as to usurp their natural power. \n\n\"The opposite of war is fucking.\" -Brian K Vaughan",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Same reason that people don't care about kids playing violent FPS games, but scream bloody murder if kids see a female nipple.\n\nIt's just kinda ingrained in our culture, sadly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People die everyday. But people don't get naked everyday... uh, well, at least the ones on YouTube don't.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Try writing a content policy. There are a ton of examples of death or violence being absolutly necessary to a show. Bambi has a death at its start. A news story about a drone strike might show a biilding exploding with dozens (unseen( inside. It is very hard - to the point that after a hundred years of trying and failing it may just be impossible - to articulate a clean line test for violence being obscene.\n\nOn the other hand , a guy cumming on a girls face and calling her a fucking slut is much easier to define as obscene and prohibit in a written policy. \n\nYes there is a degree of puritanical history built in. But sex and profanity are easier to class than violence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's an American thing. It's been that way for a long time. My friend's dad used to rant about that in the 70's.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because 'MERICA, I guess.\n\nWell, as others have pointed out, it's not true that all nudity is banned... Just porn.\n\nThe rest, I guess, is 'Merica at work. As a German I've frequently seen the tendency of US-things censoring nudity but allowing violence, with Germany being the opposite around. Germany tends to leave more sex in but keep violence out as proven by video game and film testing standards. Video games often get censored for violence, but never for tits...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This isn't even true. I saw a video on YouTube a few weeks ago that showed a couple having sex with camera strapped to their genitals. It was 'educational.'",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Are you sure? I have seen a lot of nudity on Youtube. Some videos having 1million+ views and not even requiring the viewer to be 18+.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "nudity isnt banned in youtube for educational purposes. music videos can have nudity if it's restricted to 18+",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Many Americans base their concept of morality on their interpretation of the Bible. The Bible condones violence, brutality, and mass murder:\n\nNow therefore, kill every male among the little ones, and kill every woman who has known man intimately. But all the girls who have not known man intimately, spare for yourselves. Numbers 31:17-18\n\nSlaughter the old men, the young men and women, the mothers and children, but do not touch anyone who has the mark. Begin at my sanctuary.\" So they began with the old men who were in front of the temple.\nEzekiel 9:6\n \nThe Bible also frowns upon sexuality:\n\nFlee from sexual immorality. Every other sin a person commits is outside the body, but the sexually immoral person sins against his own body. 1 Corinthians 6:18\n\n\nBut I say to you that everyone who looks at a woman with lustful intent has already committed adultery with her in his heart. Matthew 5:28",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Youtube like many other media companies has to conform to society's current norms and mores. We are much more accepting of violent imagery than nudity or sexual imagery. You can still find plenty of nudity on Youtube, but they make as much of as effort as it's worth to them to police it. Frankly, if they didn't, it would probably just become pornhub with cats and music videos. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "International law, I suppose.\n\nA friend of mine in America just started watching Vikings; whereas I had finished it on the extended EU BluRay version. He was completely nonplussed as to why *I* got all the boobs, butts and everything inbetween, yet he missed out.\n\nEDIT: [To clarify, this is what Americans get to see on the TV.](_URL_1_) Whereas, [this is what we in the EU get to see.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To the extent that this *is* true:\n\nBecause parents, particularly in Google's home country, are fanatical about nudity and sex being exposed to their children. Therefore it's bad business. Violent films and games are OK, but sex is another matter. Why? It's just an ingrained cultural attitude stemming at least in part from puritanical religious roots. I'm sure someone can give a better explanation than that, though.\n\nFor a perspective about American puritanicalism: My little nephew recently said the word \"penis.\" He was being comical, non-sexual. His grandmother admonished him, shocked that he would say that. The same grandma that lets him play Left for Dead (not that I object; just saying). On the upside, when his mother was told of the \"incident\" she responded: \"So? That's what it's called.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Non educational nudity in the US is usually considered pornographic, because of this, if youtube were to allow noneducational nudity, then it would legally be considered a pornographic website. Because of this, if someone under 18 were to view it, they'd be in legal trouble. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think that it has to do with culture. Americans have always been [very squeamish regarding nudity](_URL_1_) while violence as a whole is ok (this may seem odd if you come from a European country where the roles are reversed).\n\nYou can see this by looking at the [MPAA's movie rating system](_URL_2_) and [looking at its criticisms](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because violence and death are more easily explainable to little kids. Sexuality is more nuanced and complicated and parents are too embarrassed to go into details when little ones have questions.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They actually dont care about non-sexual nudity. If it is educational or has a point some what they keep it. Heres an example. Youre welcome. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because there are mothers generally of Caucasian race, who don't have to work for their dreadful 80+ years on this planet so they get bored and try and be apart of things. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For the same reason that we can teach any gruesome aspect of world history you'd like in school.. but show kids a condom and people go insane.\n\nI think the top comment mentions prudishness, but I don't believe that quite covers the willful ignorance towards sex, as well as the intentional misinformation they attempt to use in an effort to condemn any sexual behavior they, themselves, do not approve of.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Before I ever clicked on this, I knew the top posts would involve the phrase \"American prudishness\". Because it always is, every week that this goes up...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I wish they were super strict about LABELING content as violent, involving blood/gore, involving death, and then as well with nudity, sexuality, and then let people post whatever the law would allow them to post any place else online (aka no under age, no beastiality, stuff like that), and then give every YouTube account granular control over the kind of content that do or don't want to see.\n\nYou could even turn on the filters for the stuff currently not allowed at all by default, but give users an option to turn those filters off. Just my opinion.\n\nA better argument against porn on YouTube IMO is from the business perspective. Why should YouTube eat the costs of bandwidth while porn industry people profit? Then again, that's what the ads are for, and/or they could charge a premium to porn industry folk to use YT as a host.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If they didn't strike down sexually related content then the entire platform would just be porn. People already get increased views by adding sexual thumbnails. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Quite a bit of youtube videos that are linked at /r/watchpeopledie get removed. So.... I think a certain amount of gore is allowed but TOO much gore isn't.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's an American company and American companies are scared to death about nudity lawsuits.. just look at nipplegate, they got fined up the ying yang for that little stunt during the superbowl but if they show live combat footage with death and blood during prime time, nobody bats an eye.\n\nThat's the American way of handeling sexuality and violence.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Youtube regularly removes videos of people dying, or videos that imply someone died. Even ones with significant important, like Syrian civil war videos. A whole channel of them just got removed",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "YouTube is from the usa. \n\nCompare usa attitude to sex, to europe and japanese attitudes. \n\nEurope has great education. Open commercialization of sex. And as a result has the lowest std and teen pregnancy and generally better equality in male/female sexual equality.\n\nUsa has puritan social attitudes to sex which encourages behaviours like abstinence-only sex education. Breast feeding in public being shamed. High teen pregnancy rates and stds. It also has liberal attitudes to sexual advertising. Which in my opinion feeds in to a culture of taboo yet frustration towards bodies. Which in turn leads to things like sex violence.\n\nJapan has a open sex education, liberal attitudes to the body (like breast feeding) but its media and commerce is repressed to the point of censoring porn. So while teen pregnancy is low. Stds are low. And violent sex crimes are low. Commercial attitudes to sex are heavily fetishised.\n\nSo, to answer your question needs to look at each societies attitudes to violence in the same way I have above. You grow up with repressed boobies and open violence, then you are relaxed with violence yet feel weird about breast feeding mothers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ever heard of the Toyes? They have a song called what so bad about a nipple, kinda reminds me of what your saying.\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because human beings are sick in the head. We've always had more shame over sexuality than violence. We're more comfortable with hate than love.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Prude\npro͞od\nnoun\n\nplural noun: prudes\n\na person who is or claims to be easily shocked by matters relating to sex or nudity\"\n\n\nYoutube is an american company, run by Americans with american ideals. Sadly most Americans are prudes. They can't stand naked people, or the idea of talking about sex or sexual things unless its in an educational format, and even then, they have to use other words to describe things like penis and vagina. This prudish behavior is what they've always done, and you can't even attempt to tell them otherwise, its like discussing gun laws with them. Where as, their European cousins are open about their sexuality and have no issues with seeing a woman breast feeding in public or people talking about sexual activities on television.\n\n\nBut for some reason they(*the Americans) love their violence. They love watching things blow up, people being cut down by machine gun fire, and general nastiness. You can shoot people, drown them, bury them alive and still get a parental guidance age 13+ rating. Show one nipple and the prudes are back and your slammed with PG 16+ or worse.\nTL;DR - Americans Are Prudes.\n\nedit* clarity.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because Christians and their fears of sexually empowered women have created a society that brings shame to anyone who is comfortable being a mature adult about sex nudity gender roles etc. \n\nWhy did they do it? Because every Christian male leader ever is a closeted homosexual and are terrified of their true selves.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nobody's giving you the real answer, just their speculation and their opinion on sex culture.\n\n\n* Youtube uses an image-recognition algorithm that detects nudity. It can automatically remove porn, without anyone specifically reporting the video.\n\n\n* Youtube **does not allow** gory content. But it's much harder to decipher what \"guy stabbed to death\" versus \"cooking show\" in terms of a machine-learning algorithm.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's a lot of non-sexual nudity on youtube, as evidenced by [/r/youtubetitties](_URL_0_). \n\nExistence of said subreddit also proves that there's no such thing as non-sexual nudity. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No nudity?\n\nNSFW _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People always act like this is some shocking hypocrisy, but it seems pretty natural. Ask yourself if you'd rather watch Bad Boys 2 with your parents or Eyes Wide Shut.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because America has really weird Puritan mores about sex and bodies, but is far too comfortable with violence. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because United States. That's why. Violence is more socially acceptable than National Geographic episodes. It'd be kind of like asking why women are oppressed in Saudi Arabia. That's just how shit is, you'll need someone with a Ph.D in social studies to explain to you how a populace can have social pressures as well as foreign influences mold their domestic policy that get's ingrained into popular culture and later becomes tradition for it's people, followed by conservatives that will do their best to keep things the same. \n\nExplain like I'm Five? Ugh America is quite proud of the fact that it had to fight the British Empire (Mike Tyson in his prime) for it's Independance. It remembers it's first fight alot more fondly than it does the time it was rejected a blow job on prom night. Oh you're five, um, it's first kiss in the grassy field, yuck right?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Female body guilt. Most American women are fat. Women use sex to extract resources from men. Can't have more attractive sex objects on display everywhere that highlight their physical inadequacies. So it's banned under the guise of morality. Women don't care about morality though, when it serves their interests. But all the chumps just take it and accept that a tit is dirty somehow. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nudity is allowed if its art or educational, and people dying is usually taken down, but most people don't flag videos of people dying for some reason.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can see educational videos that literally have a couple having Uncensored sex on YouTube. \n\n\nAlso, /r/youboobers has a bunch of videos with nudity\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it's more interesting that \"family safety\" controls for both apple and Microsoft make it relatively easy to block porn for your kids, but very difficult to block violent content from Youtube, Liveleak and others.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Children born in the US who see nudity before age 14 will explode. US children have to wear pet surgery cones when they bath so they will not accidentally see themselves nude. It's kind of like a peanut allergy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm convinced that at least in north america, loudmouth christian conservative bullshit is the reason why you still can't see nudity or sexuality on most regular television, like the news or basic cable.\n\nHere in north america, religion has really ingrained the squeemish or sinful ideals of \"nudity and sexuality is wrong\" into our society, which is why artists like Myley Cyrus or Madonna really caused a frenzy with their sexually charged acts. Truthfully I think its bullshit that kids will play games where you can maim and mutilate imagery of other human beings, see images of gore and war in the news and in cartoons and listen to violent and misogynistic music, but everyone gets concerned if these same kids see a glimpse of a playboy or some titties on tv...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What I don't understand is how the media will censor a topless girl that is flat chested, but won't censor a fat guy with man boobs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because MURIKA loves its double standards.\n\nViolence - good vs. naked bodies - bad.\n\nKilling adults - easy peasy vs. killing fetuses - Wrath of God.\n\netc",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably for [the same reason as Instagram](_URL_0_): because of Apple. If they allowed nudity, the iOS app would have to have a 17+ rating, and that would limit how many people would use it.\n\n(And, because I know what most replies to this comment will end up being: yes, many people here have the attitude of \"so what if a child sees boobs, they're part of the human body!\", but keep in mind there are lots of people out there who don't have this view, and many of them buy iPads for their kids. Maybe you disagree with their views, but that doesn't change the fact that they exist and YouTube still wants these people as customers.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nudity is allowed.\nVajina shaving tutorial, for example: (nsfw) _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Some of the comments on here are pretty misleading. While yes I do agree that in America violence is pretty well accepted while sexuality and nudity is far from it, and I think that's wrong, there are a lot of gross exaggerations made about youtube content. \n\n\nWhile yes, you can find actual deaths on youtube, the majority of videos with deaths in them are NOT allowed on youtube, generally those that are more graphic. At the same time, Nudity is pretty easy to find on youtube in \"artistic\" and educational videos. There is some pretty explicit sexual content on youtube in the form of music videos, educational videos and the like. There is a lot more nudity on youtube than actual death. \n\n\nYou don't have to go overboard and act like you can find tons of gore on youtube before you find a female nipple to explain how fucked up censorship in america is. I feel like some of the top comments are very misleading as discourse about these issues shouldn't be so hyperbolic, that just makes concerns harder to take seriously.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Am I living in a different dimension? There's plenty of nudity on youtube. Especially in European movies. I even get recommendations based on all that I've seen. There are also channels who solely produce non nude softcore videos. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9064442",
"title": "Adolescent sexuality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Legal issues.:Sexting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "Experts say that sexting poses a serious problem, partly because teens do not understand that the images are permanent and can be spread quickly. \"It does not click that what they're doing is destructive, let alone illegal.\" \"Once they are out there, it spreads like a virus,\" police say.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3524766",
"title": "YouTube",
"section": "Section::::Community policy.:Child protection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 135,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 135,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "In January 2019, YouTube officially banned videos containing \"challenges that encourage acts that have an inherent risk of severe physical harm\" (such as, for example, the Tide Pod Challenge), and videos featuring pranks that \"make victims believe they're in physical danger\" or cause emotional distress in children.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54183978",
"title": "Panda (Astro song)",
"section": "Section::::Music video.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "The video directed by Cristóbal Zegers and Sebastián Zegers, had controversy because to the few hours of uploaded to YouTube was censored for containing nudes. The video had to be distributed by Vimeo. At present it is possible to see by YouTube only the persons of legal age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15806414",
"title": "Social impact of YouTube",
"section": "Section::::Effects on culture.:Negative effects on viewers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "Videos that frighten or excite children were found to receive the most views, often because of algorithm-driven demand measurement and automated editorial oversight, automated oversight that is thought to be inadequately effective and easy to avoid. Very young children tend to watch the same video many times and were thus found to be particular vulnerable, including to videos with bizarre, sexual, scatological or violent content. Researchers, parents and consumer groups say that, despite YouTube's years of vowing to police inappropriate content, the website's recommendation algorithm and default autoplay feature continue to reach children with \"violent imagery, drug references, sexually suggestive sequences and foul, racially charged language\", making parental monitoring impractical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55851302",
"title": "Elsagate",
"section": "Section::::History.:Discovery of Elsagate videos (2017–2019).:November 2017.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1157,
"text": "On November 4, 2017, \"The New York Times\" published an article about the \"startling\" videos slipping past YouTube's filters and disturbing children, \"either by mistake or because bad actors have found ways to fool the YouTube Kids algorithms\". On November 6, author James Bridle published on Medium a piece titled \"Something is wrong on the internet\", in which he commented about the \"thousands and thousands of these videos\": \"Someone or something or some combination of people and things is using YouTube to systematically frighten, traumatize, and abuse children, automatically and at scale\". Bridle also observed that the confusing content of many videos seemed to result from the constant \"overlaying and intermixing\" of various popular tropes, characters, or keywords. As a result, even videos with actual humans started resembling automated content, while \"obvious parodies and even the shadier knock-offs\" interacted with \"the legions of algorithmic content producers\" until it became \"completely impossible to know what is going on\". On November 17, Internet commentator Philip DeFranco posted a video addressing \"the insane YouTube Kids problem\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3524766",
"title": "YouTube",
"section": "Section::::Community policy.:Child protection.:Child exploitation by pedophiles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 142,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 142,
"end_character": 862,
"text": "The problem still persisted into June 2019, highlighted by a report from \"The New York Times\" which cited researchers who found that users who watched erotic videos could be recommended seemingly innocuous videos of children. As a result, Senator Josh Hawley stated plans to introduce federal legislation that would ban YouTube and other video sharing sites from including videos that predominately feature minors as \"recommended\" videos, excluding those that were \"professionally produced\", such as videos of televised talent shows. YouTube has suggested potential plans to remove all videos featuring children from the main YouTube site and transferring them to the YouTube Kids site where they would have stronger controls over the recommendation system, as well as other major changes on the main YouTube site to the recommended feature and autoplay system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4009240",
"title": "Public nudity",
"section": "Section::::Western world.:Sexual public nudity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "However, some nudity in public may give rise to controversy. Some people regard flashing, streaking and mooning as indecent exposure and as sexual public nudity. Similarly, some people regard dogging, exhibitionism, and voyeurism as offensive behaviour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3l2qoo
|
What is the volume of an inch of rain?
|
[
{
"answer": "So, first of all, a full measure of rainfall would be \"X inches in the last Y hours\". (Typically, the Y is standard, particularly on local news, and many times is just 24 or however many hours since the rainfall started. But a careful weather report will make sure to indicate the value of Y.) The reason you don't need to know the area over which the rain has fallen is because it doesn't matter.\n\nThe measurement is given assuming that the rain falls straight down and remains where it lands, with no runoff into streams or lakes and no absorption into the ground. So if I say that 1 inch of rain has fallen in the last 8 hours, that means under these idealized conditions, enough rain has fallen in the last 8 hours to cover the affected area (where the rain is actually falling) evenly with 1 inch of rain. So if you leave out a container with a flat bottom and constant cross-sectional area, it should have accumulated about 1 inch of rain in the last 8 hours. The area does not matter.\n\nIf that is confusing, just consider how we are defining each of the variables. The height *h* of the water in the container is \n\n > h = V/A\n\nwhere V = volume of water and A = cross-sectional area of container. The volume of water, however, is proportional to the rate of rainfall times the area A. So the area just completely cancels from the calculation. The height h is proportional to the rate of rainfall, measured in something like raindrops per square inch. (The constant of proportionality would describe the effective volume of one raindrop in inches-cubed, which we can assume is the same for all raindrops.)\n\nMore accurate measurements can be made with a so-called [rain gauge](_URL_0_), but the principle is the same. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You will gather 12\\*12\\*1 = 144 cubic inches of rain. Rain-fall units have the dimensions of volume of water per area, which results in units of length. No matter the area of your container, if you leave it outside during an X inch rainfall, in the end the water level of your container will rise X inches.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41068",
"title": "Drop (liquid)",
"section": "Section::::Size.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "The largest recorded raindrop was 8.8 mm in diameter, located at the base of a cumulus congestus cloud in the vicinity of Kwajalein Atoll in July 1999. A raindrop of identical size was detected over northern Brazil in September 1995.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19009110",
"title": "Rain",
"section": "Section::::Measurement.:Gauges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "Rain is measured in units of length per unit time, typically in millimeters per hour, or in countries where imperial units are more common, inches per hour. The \"length\", or more accurately, \"depth\" being measured is the depth of rain water that would accumulate on a flat, horizontal and impermeable surface during a given amount of time, typically an hour. One millimeter of rainfall is the equivalent of one liter of water per square meter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "95786",
"title": "Rain gauge",
"section": "Section::::History.:National coverage and modern gauges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Most modern rain gauges generally measure the precipitation in millimetres in height collected on each square meter during a certain period, equivalent to litres per square metre. Previously rain was recorded as inches or points, where one point is equal to 0.254 mm or 0.01 of an inch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "567472",
"title": "Cloud condensation nuclei",
"section": "Section::::Size, abundance, and composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "A typical raindrop is about 2 mm in diameter, a typical cloud droplet is on the order of 0.02 mm, and a typical cloud condensation nucleus (aerosol) is on the order of 0.0001 mm or 0.1 µm or greater in diameter. The number of cloud condensation nuclei in the air can be measured and ranges between around 100 to 1000 per cubic centimetre. The total mass of CCNs injected into the atmosphere has been estimated at 2x10 kg over a year's time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11869942",
"title": "Clutter (radar)",
"section": "Section::::Volume clutter.:Problems in calculating signal to volume clutter ratio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "A problem with volume clutter, e.g. rain, is that the volume illuminated may not be completely filled, in which case the fraction filled must be known, and the scatterers may not be uniformly distributed. Consider a beam 10° in elevation. At a range of 10 km the beam could cover from ground level to a height of 1750 metres. There could be rain at ground level but the top of the beam could be above cloud level. In the part of the beam containing rain the rainfall rate will not be constant. One would need to know how the rain was distributed to make any accurate assessment of the clutter and the signal to clutter ratio. All that can be expected from the equation is an estimate to the nearest 5 or 10 dB.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58103184",
"title": "Raindrop size distribution",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Ulbricht distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Where formula_12 is the liquid water content, formula_13 water density, and formula_14 0.2 is an average value of the diameter in drizzle. For rain, introducing rainrate R (mm/h), the amount of rain per hour over a standard surface:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60885453",
"title": "Flooding of the Pearl River",
"section": "Section::::Flood characteristics.:Typhoons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1229,
"text": "The maximum average annual rainfall of 24h in the basin is 100-200mm, the coefficient of variation is 0.35~0.65, and the maximum annual rainfall of 24h is 848mm (Jinjiang Encheng Station). The annual variation of runoff in the basin corresponds to the rainfall, that the water volume in the flood season from April to September accounts for 70% to 80% of the total annual water. Since the large amount of rainfall and high intensity during the flood season, many tributaries are fan-shaped, and floods are easy to collect into the main stream at the same time. There are many hills in the upper and middle reaches, and the flood convergence speed is relatively fast. There is no lake storage in the middle reaches, which it is easy to form floods with high peaks and large quantities. The biggest flood peaks in Bei River and Dong River often appear from May to June, and a flood lasts about 7 to 15 days. The largest flood peak in the Xi River often appears from June to August, while the largest floods mostly occur from June to July, lasting for 30 to 45 days. The Xi flood is the main source of floods in the Pearl River Delta. Sometimes the floods of Xi River and Bei River cause serious disasters in the Pearl River Delta.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2hz6oy
|
why does a rocking motion facilitate sleep?
|
[
{
"answer": "Nobody knows it seems, not even scientists who have studied it.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nMaybe its something to do with rhythm which is soothing, like a heartbeat. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I imagine that it has something to do with the development of an unborn child in the mother's womb. In what way is it comfortable to sleep? - in darkness, in warmth and with rocking motions, three attributes of the inside of the uterus. You spent the first nine months of your life sleeping inside of there. It's only logical that your subconscious pines for its relative safety and comfort.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know why but damn it works ! My baby is nearly 2 months and if she's crying all you've got to do is rock her a few times and she absolutely loves to be in her car seat and the baby back back ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For babies, it makes travel easier while in a mother's arms. There's no particular reason to suppress that instinct as an adult.\n\nCats relax when you pinch their neck for the same reason.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have always assumed it was related to the amniotic fluid we are formed in. Things in fluids move the same (mostly) regardless of the fluid itself, though the amniotic fluid is mostly water. A rocking sensation usually associates with laying submerged in a body of water.\n\nKind of like floating in water...\n\nI'm too big to fit in my bathtub..... -_-;",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since science seems uncertain on this one, I'll offer my own theory: \n\nLooking at how early humans probably lived and evolved, it would be very advantageous for a baby to become still, quiet and eventually sleep when carried or strapped to a moving (rocking) parent. Imagine a baby millennia ago on the plains of Africa. His mother is trying to gather food and his father is trying to sneak up on prey. If that kid can't be quiet and sleep while his parents do the things necessary for survival, he nor they are gonna live very long.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Consistency is the answer to this. What do you mean by consistency? Well, when there is so much going on in your mind, or you feeling uncomfortable in bed that you have to shift around, a consistent swaying motion allows you to not worry about anything else and focus on this motion. It is similar to meditation, when meditating, we focus on breathing, and we make it very consistent to exhale and inhale that helps calm the body.\n\nThis idea is same with sound. You can fall asleep to noisy environments, as long as the noise level stays consistent. As long as there are no significant changes, it should be okay. We don't have to talk about REM levels since I won't be going on about the topic on sleep and noise.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1122245",
"title": "Rocking chair",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Many adults find rocking chairs soothing because of the gentle motion. Gentle rocking motion has been shown to provide faster onset of sleep than remaining stationary, mimicking the process of a parent rocking a child to sleep.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36434851",
"title": "Ghodiyu",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Indian people believe that the rocking motion soothes and relaxes the child and puts them to sleep quickly by replicating the comfort and security of the womb. Indian mothers claim that using a ghodiyu for their child can relieve baby colic symptoms due to the rocking motion which they believe relaxes the baby.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20223284",
"title": "Pulsing (bodywork)",
"section": "Section::::Forms and Practice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Children and adults will often rock themselves when distressed: there appears to be a deep comfort and security to be found in gentle movement. With its flowing and wave-like movements, Pulsing perhaps recalls a body-memory of the foetal experience in the womb, where the baby is constantly subject to rhythmic pulsation, or of being cradled and rocked during infancy. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18597893",
"title": "Sleep deprivation",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Scientific study of laboratory animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "BULLET::::- Pendulum: animals are prevented from entering into REM sleep by allowing them to sleep for only brief periods of time. This is accomplished by an apparatus that moves the animals' cages backwards and forwards in a pendular motion. At the extremes of the motion, the animals experience postural imbalance, forcing them to walk back and forth to retain their balance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "923208",
"title": "Vacuum mattress",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.:Moulding the mattress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "While the lifting methods can induce a flexing of the spine, this rolling method can be hazardous for several reasons: the risk of a torsion of the spine when rolling, the risk when sliding the casualty on the mattress, the risk of anteversion of the hips (and thus of flexing of the spine) due to the weight of the legs when lifting the mattress to slide the board.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "944646",
"title": "Origins of rock and roll",
"section": "Section::::The term \"rock and roll\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "The alliterative phrase \"rocking and rolling\" originally was used by mariners at least as early as the 17th century to describe the combined \"rocking\" (fore and aft) and \"rolling\" (side to side) motion of a ship on the ocean. Examples include an 1821 reference, \"... prevent her from rocking and rolling ...\", and an 1835 reference to a ship \"... rocking and rolling on both beam-ends\". As the term referred to movement forwards, backwards and from side to side, it acquired sexual connotations from early on; the sea shanty \"Johnny Bowker\" (or \"Boker\"), probably from the early 19th century, contains the lines \"Oh do, my Johnny Bowker/ Come rock and roll me over\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7043632",
"title": "Vestigial response",
"section": "Section::::In humans.:Hypnic jerk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The evolutionary explanation for the existence of the hypnic jerk is unclear, but a possibility is that it is a vestigial reflex humans evolved when they usually slept in trees. Experiencing a hypnic jerk prior to falling asleep may have been selected so that the individual would be able to readjust their sleeping position in the tree with a branch-grabbing response to avoid falling, much as orangutans grasp upper branches of trees while sleeping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
303r53
|
why is it that playing an online game uses less data in comparison to watching a video or browsing the internet?
|
[
{
"answer": "Online games don't need to send all that much data, just the positions and status of the dynamic objects in the game and a few small bits of info. Everything else is handled client-side by the player's computer.\n\nVideos on the other hand stream a whole lot of data all at once in order to play all the frames of the video. Video files can take a lot of space to store and a lot of bandwidth to play back, while playing games just requires you to pass a handful of numbers around",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because a game is rendered on your computer, all the graphics and audio is already on your computer, the only data that needs to be transferred to the other players is your movements and actions. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A game is rendered on the client end (on your pc), all you send is basic info (where you character is currently located, what item you used, etc). This is mostly just text going back and forth. Text is small. Video is large.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's an analogy. You're driving down the road, talking to your mom on the phone, telling her everything you see. Your mom isn't familiar with the area, so you have to say a lot - what restaurants you're passing, what the streets are called, what the signs say, where the potholes are, etc. You have to say a lot. In other words, you have to transmit a lot of data.\n\nNow imagine instead, you're talking to your friend who knows the area. In fact, he knows the area as well as you do. So, instead of describing everything, you can just say, \"I'm crossing Main Street.\" He's familiar with the area, so he can imagine everything else - you don't need to describe it. In other words, you don't need to transmit as much data.\n\nThat's how games work. Your console and mine both already have the world stored in memory, so our consoles don't have to transmit everything - all they have to do is transmit our location, and the other console can extrapolate the rest.\n\nEDIT: Did this get linked from somewhere? It got little attention when I posted it last week, but since then it's exploded.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In a video, you get all the visual information in the download. Nothing is \"done\" on your PC except taking that data and display it properly.\n\nLet's say you play an MMORPG: There's a dude right in front of you. You will get his race (1 byte), his name (13 bytes. 12 for the name, 1 for the \"this string is over\" symbol), his looks (so, if you have 4 different options to modify the looks of the character, that's 4 byte), the gender (1 byte), his equipment (if you have 10 visible item slots, that's 10 times 2 or 4 bytes (more bytes = more possible numbers. since there are usually more items than you can fit into 1 byte, you need more bytes). Let's say 40 bytes. And his position (probably 3x1 byte plus 1 byte for the map ID) as well as his rotation (1 byte. Maybe 2) and what he's doing (animation ID. 1 byte).\n\nSo, that's 66 bytes of data for looking at another player. With this data, the game finds the right models, textures and animation files in the game files (that's why games are so large) and uses those to render. That's where the hundreds of polygons are. You don't download those. You just download data that allows the game to know which models to use.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16323949",
"title": "History of online games",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Online games are video games played over a computer network. The evolution of these games parallels the evolution of computers and computer networking, with new technologies improving the essential functionality needed for playing video games on a remote server. Many video games have an online component, allowing players to play against or cooperatively with players across a network around the world. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23654",
"title": "Play-by-mail game",
"section": "Section::::Play-by-web.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "Some sites have extended this gaming style by allowing the players to see each other's actions as they are made. This allows for real time playing while everyone is online and active, or slower progress if not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5348896",
"title": "Third place",
"section": "Section::::Types of third places.:Virtual third places.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "As online technologies advance, these online video games become more accessible to individuals across all backgrounds. While these games are often played on traditional video game consoles or on PCs (which often requires purchasing the video game software), there are many internet browser based games (such as \"RuneScape\" and \"Farmville\") that allow anyone with internet access to play for free. This widens the variety of individuals that are entering into the community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1416993",
"title": "Social computing",
"section": "Section::::Social Software.:Online gaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Online gaming is the social behavior of using an online game while interacting with other users. Online gaming can be done using a multitude of different platforms; common ones include personal computers, Xbox, PlayStation, and many more gaming consoles that can be stationary or mobile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "488438",
"title": "Browser game",
"section": "Section::::Persistence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Persistent browser-based games usually rely on some kind of server-side code, although some games use technologies like Flash, ActiveX, and Java applets to store data on the client's computer. Games relying on client-side technology are rarer due to the security aspects that must be dealt with when reading and writing from a user's local file system - the web browser doesn't want web pages to be able to destroy the user's computer, and the game designer doesn't want the game files stored in an easily accessed place where the user can edit them. The server-side code will store persistent information about players and possibly the game world in some kind of database.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1050944",
"title": "Online game",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "The culture of online gaming sometimes faces criticisms for an environment that can promote cyberbullying, violence, and xenophobia. Some are also concerned about gaming addiction or social stigma. Online games have attracted players from a variety of ages, nationalities, and occupations. The online game content can also be studied in the scientific field, especially gamers' interactions within virtual societies in relation to the behavior and social phenomena of everyday life. It has been argued that, since the players of an online game are strangers to each other and have limited communication, the individual player's experience in an online game is not essentially different from playing with artificial intelligence players. Online games also have the problem of not being permanently playable, unlike purchased retail games, as they require special servers in order to function.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2149431",
"title": "Open....",
"section": "Section::::Service.:Access and availability.:Gaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "Gaming was exceptionally popular with younger Open... users. Games were generally available over the satellite transmission and as such did not require the user to go online to download game data (except when submitting high scores).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
h5q0z
|
Is it possible to cure HIV or AIDS with a full body blood transfusion?
|
[
{
"answer": "Probably not, as there is blood everywhere, so long as there is 1 virus still in your system, it will multiply again and again.\n\nIt's not very effective.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "HIV infected cells migrate to (reside in) the lymph nodes as well as in circulation. Performing a full body transfusion, which would be difficult on its own, would not remove the infected cells which are traveling in the lymph or residing in lymph nodes.\n\n \n\nWhat you may want to look into is the recent case involving a patient who underwent irradiation and a bone marrow transplant that had HIV. The last I read about him (the article was published in Blood in 2010, don't have the article saved, but googling should come up with the right thing) he had no detectable levels of HIV. They didn't call it a cure (the media is/did) because there is the high chance that he has some population of HIV+ cells in his lymphatics or some other area which was not eliminated during the radiation therapy.\n\n \n\nAs to the initial part of your question. HIV primarily infects CD4 T cells, macrophages, dendritic cells, and in some instances NK cells. Some of these cells require a co-infection with another virus in order to be infected by HIV (NK cells do not express CD4, but when infected by herpes are forced to express it and can be infected by HIV). Any cells which express CD4 and CCR5/CXCR4 are up for infection by HIV. NK cells have recently been identified as important for the maintenance of the HIV infection as they serve as a viral reservoir.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17734536",
"title": "Transfusion transmitted infection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Preventing the spread of these diseases by blood transfusion is addressed in several ways. In many cases, the blood is tested for the pathogen, sometimes with several different methodologies. Donors of blood are also screened for signs and symptoms of disease and for activities that might put them at risk for infection. If a local supply is not safe, blood may be imported from other areas. Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) leads to the best known of the transfusion transmitted diseases, acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "88857",
"title": "Blood transfusion",
"section": "Section::::Research into alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "A number of blood substitutes have been explored (and still are), but thus far they all suffer from many challenges. Most attempts to find a suitable alternative to blood thus far have concentrated on cell-free hemoglobin solutions. Blood substitutes could make transfusions more readily available in emergency medicine and in pre-hospital EMS care. If successful, such a blood substitute could save many lives, particularly in trauma where massive blood loss results. Hemopure, a hemoglobin-based therapy, is approved for use in South Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44942023",
"title": "Ebola virus disease treatment research",
"section": "Section::::Blood products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "The WHO has stated that transfusion of whole blood or purified serum from Ebola survivors has the greatest potential to be implemented immediately, and has issued an interim guideline for this therapy. A study in Sierra Leone started in November 2014, and preliminary results show an 80 percent survival rate. Trials in Liberia and Guinea started in January 2015, with funding from the Gates Foundation. Blood transfusions were also used in a 1995 outbreak in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and 7 out of 8 patients survived.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "88857",
"title": "Blood transfusion",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.:Processing and testing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 745,
"text": "BULLET::::- The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends that all donated blood be tested for transfusion transmissible infections. These include HIV, Hepatitis B, Hepatitis C, Treponema pallidum (syphilis) and, where relevant, other infections that pose a risk to the safety of the blood supply, such as Trypanosoma cruzi (Chagas disease) and Plasmodium species (malaria). According to the WHO, 25 countries are not able to screen all donated blood for one or more of: HIV; Hepatitis B; Hepatitis C; or syphilis. One of the main reasons for this is because testing kits are not always available. However the prevalence of transfusion-transmitted infections is much higher in low income countries compared to middle and high income countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "88857",
"title": "Blood transfusion",
"section": "Section::::Research into alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Although there are clinical situations where transfusion with red blood cells is the only clinically appropriate option, clinicians look at whether alternatives as feasible. This can be due to several reasons, such as patient safety, economic burden or scarcity of blood. Guidelines recommend blood transfusions should be reserved for patients with or at risk of cardiovascular instability due to the degree of their anaemia. In these cases parenteral iron is recommended.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4374365",
"title": "Intraoperative blood salvage",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "Providing safe blood for transfusion remains a challenge despite advances in preventing transmission of hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), AIDS/HIV, HTLV-I/II, West Nile virus (WNV), syphilis, Chagas disease, Zika virus and transfusion-transmitted bacterial infection. Human errors such as misidentifying patients and drawing blood samples from the wrong person (ie, wrong blood in tube or WBIT) is more of a risk than transmissible diseases in many developed nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8643981",
"title": "Anaplasmosis",
"section": "Section::::Transmission.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Anaplasmosis can also be contracted from blood transfusions, If the donor had contracted the disease without knowing and then their blood is given, the recipient can contract the disease as well. It can also be transmitted by the use of surgical, dehorning, castration, and tattoo instruments and hypodermic needles that are not disinfected between uses. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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