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1fpso6
|
During the period of westward expansion, were there any U.S. or European leaders arguing against the appropriation of the land or taking up the cause of indigenous peoples?
|
[
{
"answer": "In the 1832 Supreme Court case Worcester v. Georgia, Chief Justice John Marshall, in the majority opinion, ruled that the Cherokee nation was its own distinct community and not subject to the laws of a particular state. How, Andrew Jackson chose not to enforce that ruling, thus paving the way for the Trail of Tears. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "322383",
"title": "Reparations for slavery debate in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Arguments against reparations.:Relocation of injustice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "In the case of Public Lands, European colonizers forcibly relocated many Southeastern Native American tribes. One argument against reparations is that in assigning public lands to African-Americans for the enslavement of their ancestors, a greater and further wrong would be committed against the Southeastern Native Americans who have ancestral claims and treaty rights to that same land.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3456208",
"title": "History of Wyandotte, Michigan",
"section": "Section::::Early Native American presence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "The government, through a series of treaties, 1789-1808-1812-1842, decided to push them farther west. Walk-in-the-Water petitioned that \"they had peacefully cultivated the land they had lived on from time immemorial. They allege that they have built valuable houses and improvements on the land and have learned the use of the plow, etc., and they pray for a title which shall prevent their being dispossessed at the end of fifty years as provided by the act of Congress.\" In response to this plea, the government, in 1818, negotiated a treaty granting a tract of of land on the Huron River.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "732212",
"title": "Tlayacapan",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th Century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The indigenous lost most of their property rights and most of the land became haciendas, such as the Hacienda of \"San Carlos Borromeo\" and the \"Hacienda of San Nicolás\". Most would not have property rights again until 1874. However, during the rule of Porfirio Díaz in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, many indigenous claims would be thwarted in favor of the haciendas. Total restoration of rights came with the end of the Mexican Revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "391190",
"title": "Right of conquest",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "The completion of colonial conquest of much of the world (see the Scramble for Africa), the devastation of World War I and World War II, and the alignment of both the United States and the Soviet Union with the principle of self-determination led to the abandonment of the right of conquest in formal international law. The 1928 Kellogg–Briand Pact, the post-1945 Nuremberg Trials, the UN Charter, and the UN role in decolonization saw the progressive dismantling of this principle. Simultaneously, the UN Charter's guarantee of the \"territorial integrity\" of member states effectively froze out claims against prior conquests from this process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2381778",
"title": "Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz",
"section": "Section::::Activism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "In her work \"An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States\", Dunbar-Ortiz condemns the Discovery Doctrine and the colonialism that devastated Native American populations in the United States. She compares this form of religious bigotry to the modern-day conquests of al-Qaeda. She states that with much of the current land within the United States was taken by aggression and oppression, \"Native peoples have vast claims to reparations and restitution,\" yet \"[n]o monetary amount can compensate for lands illegally seized, particularly those sacred lands necessary for Indigenous peoples to regain social coherence.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1891445",
"title": "Quechua people",
"section": "Section::::Material culture and social history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Beginning with the colonial era and intensifying after the South American states had gained their independence, large landowners appropriated all or most of the land and forced the native population into bondage (known in Ecuador as \"Huasipungo\", from Kichwa \"wasipunku\", “front door”). Harsh conditions of exploitation repeatedly led to revolts by the indigenous farmers, which were forcibly suppressed. The largest of these revolts occurred 1780–1781 under the leadership of José Gabriel Kunturkanki.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "234989",
"title": "Northwest Territory",
"section": "Section::::History.:Northwest Indian War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "The young United States government, deeply in debt following the Revolutionary War and lacking authority to tax under the Articles of Confederation, planned to raise revenue from the methodical sale of land in the Northwest Territory. This plan necessarily called for the removal of both Native American villages and squatters from lands west of Appalachia, loosely, the territory called \"Ohio Country\" and beyond. Difficulties with Native American tribes and a supporting British military presence presented continuing obstacles for American expansion. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
j3xs3
|
how to buy a house, and what "refinancing a mortgage" is or "taking out a second mortgage".
|
[
{
"answer": "Refinancing a mortgage is when you talk with the bank who loaned you the money to buy your house and make a new deal with them about the money you still owe them. Usually you do this if you can get a lower interest rate (how much extra money you have to pay them for the service of loaning you money) than you had in your original loan agreement (mortgage).\n\nTaking out a second mortgage or a \"reverse mortgage\" is when you borrow money from a bank (usually) with the promise that if you don't pay the money back they will get your house as payment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You find a house that you like and make an offer to buy it. With that offer, you include something called \"earnest money\" that goes directly to the sellers, typically $1000-$2000. This money shows that you are serious about buying the house. If the seller accepts your offer, you will sign a contract to buy with a specific closing date. If you decide to break this contract for any reason other than it fails inspection, you lose the earnest money.\n\nBetween now and the closing date, you will have the house inspected. You'll also line up financing... this is the loan you'll need if you don't have enough for the house in cash. Typically you have to put down 10%, but some lenders will let you put down 3.5%. If you put down less than 20%, you have to pay PMI or private mortgage insurance every month.\n\nOn the closing day, you will go to an attorney's office and they will have drafted all of the paperwork for you, and typically done all of the bureaucratic legwork. Most of this is known as \"closing costs\" and typically runs around $4000. You sign the paperwork and the house is technically ready to move into.\n\nYour lender then begins charging you your monthly payment for the loan. At first, your payments go mostly towards paying interest on the loan. This is bad because you're not paying down much of what you borrowed to buy the house. However, the money you use to pay interest is tax deductible, so a new home owner will see a nice tax credit. You can see how much principle you're paying down on something called an amortization schedule that you'll probably receive from your lender.\n\nPeople refinance their mortgage to change from their existing mortgage to one with different and better terms. Sometimes they will refinance to get a better interest rate, as many people are doing now. There are typical closing costs involved, just like when you bought the house, so you have to weigh if paying those are worth it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I cannot explain about buying a house (I choose to rent a townhome, so maintenance, landscaping, etc, don't fall entirely on my shoulders), and I don't know enough about refinancing to explain it, but I've been through second mortgages with my father, so I can explain that.\n\nThere are actually two things that a \"second mortgage\" can refer to, so I'll explain the more common way first.\n\nThe most common use of \"second mortgage\" is actually an incorrect use of the phrase as far as banking is concerned, but is correct in a literal sense. In this usage, a second mortgage is not unlike selling your house to a bank, with the bank then letting you rent it again (though all normal concerns, such as maintenance and landscaping, are still your own concern).\n\nThis is done by basically taking a large loan out and using your home as a way to guarantee that you will repay the money that you have taken. Put another way, the bank gives you a large sum of money to have first dibs on your home should something happen to you or your ability to repay what the bank has given you.\n\nThe only catch with this is that you have to fully own your home, first. This brings us to the second \"correct\" (but less common) use of the phrase:\n\nThe second type of \"second mortgage\" is actually the \"correct\" use of the phrase. In this case, you have already taken out the first loan from the bank, using your home to guarantee you will repay the money, and once some of that money has been repaid, you decide to take out a second loan using the value of your home MINUS what you still owe the bank.\n\nLet's play with some numbers in that second case to make it clearer:\n\nYou decide to buy a home, and borrow $250,000 from the bank in order to do so. \n\nOver several years, you repay the bank $100,000, meaning you only owe $150,000 to the bank, but your home is worth $250,000. This means that the bank owns 60% of your home ($150,000) while you own 40% ($100,000).\n\nIf you fall on difficult times or find you need money for some reason, you can take out another loan and use your home as a guarantee again, but because you only own $100,000 worth out of your $250,000 home, you can only borrow up to that $100,000 amount.\n\nIf something were to then happen and you could not pay for the rest of your home, the banks would sell your home and take their money back from that.\n\nThere is more to it than this, but it begins to get into the finer points of rights of sale and ownership and fun little things in the banks, so I won't go any further than this, but if you want to learn more, there is plenty left to wrap your mind around.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1543447",
"title": "Second mortgage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "When refinancing, if the homeowner wants to refinance the first mortgage and keep the second mortgage, the homeowner has to request a subordination from the second lender to let the new first lender step into the first lien holder position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8449731",
"title": "Mortgage loan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 976,
"text": "A mortgage loan or, simply, mortgage () is used either by purchasers of real property to raise funds to buy real estate, or alternatively by existing property owners to raise funds for any purpose, while putting a lien on the property being mortgaged. The loan is \"secured\" on the borrower's property through a process known as mortgage origination. This means that a legal mechanism is put into place which allows the lender to take possession and sell the secured property (\"foreclosure\" or \"repossession\") to pay off the loan in the event the borrower defaults on the loan or otherwise fails to abide by its terms. The word \"mortgage\" is derived from a Law French term used in Britain in the Middle Ages meaning \"death pledge\" and refers to the pledge ending (dying) when either the obligation is fulfilled or the property is taken through foreclosure. A mortgage can also be described as \"a borrower giving consideration in the form of a collateral for a benefit (loan)\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49087996",
"title": "Law of obligations (Bulgaria)",
"section": "Section::::Mortgage.:Deletion of the mortgage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "The deletion of a mortgage is only possible with the creditor's consent – in a notarized form, or on the basis of an effective court ruling. The deletion shall be made upon an application with the deed of consent or a copy of the effective court ruling attached thereto. It shall be made through entering a note in the lot of the mortgaged property. The deletion extinguishes the mortgage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5851411",
"title": "Remortgage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "The process of remortgaging does not usually involve moving house or taking out a second mortgage on the property; it is in effect the transfer of a mortgage from one lender to another. Homeowners may choose to remortgage for various reasons, usually to reduce the overall monthly mortgage payment amounts. However, other reasons may include to reduce the size of repayments, to pay off a mortgage earlier, to raise capital, or to consolidate other more expensive short term debts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208852",
"title": "Loan",
"section": "Section::::Types of loans.:Secured.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "A mortgage loan is a very common type of loan, used by many individuals to purchase residential property. The lender, usually a financial institution, is given security a lien on the title to the property until the mortgage is paid off in full. If the borrower defaults on the loan, the bank would have the legal right to repossess the house and sell it, to recover sums owing to it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "256708",
"title": "Mortgage law",
"section": "Section::::Legal aspects.:Mortgage by demise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "In a mortgage by demise, the mortgagee (the lender) becomes the owner of the mortgaged property until the loan is repaid or other mortgage obligation fulfilled in full, a process known as \"redemption\". This kind of mortgage takes the form of a conveyance of the property to the creditor, with a condition that the property will be returned on redemption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2807583",
"title": "Buy to let",
"section": "Section::::Buy-to-let mortgages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "Buy-to-let mortgage is a mortgage arrangement in which an investor borrows money to purchase property in the private rented sector in order to let it out to tenants. Buy-to-let mortgages have been on offer in the UK since 1996.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1qcosr
|
when looking at cell phone coverage maps, why is there always a drastic line that cuts vertically across the us?
|
[
{
"answer": "Population density. Notice the vertical line on [this map.](_URL_0_)\n\nIt's not cost effective to provide dense coverage where the population isn't also dense. Typically you'll see coverage over major roadways or cities or pockets of population. \n\nCoverage resumes on the west coast.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here are some examples of what I'm asking about..\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4198568",
"title": "Coverage map",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Often coverage maps show general coverage for large regions and therefore any boundary indicated should not be interpreted as a rigid limit. The biggest cause of uncertainty for a coverage map is the quality (mainly sensitivity) of receiving apparatus used. A coverage map may be produced to indicate the area in which a certain signal strength is delivered. Even if it is 100% accurate (which it never is), a major factor on whether a signal is receivable depends very much on whether the receiving apparatus is sensitive enough to use a signal of that level. Commercial receivers can vary widely in their sensitivity, thus perception of coverage can vary widely. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4198568",
"title": "Coverage map",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "There are limitations inherent to the way in which data collection for coverage maps is carried out. Traditional coverage maps are based on models, constructed from readings taken by dedicated network testers. This often means that coverage maps show the theoretical capacity of the network rather than its real-world performance. In recent years companies such as OpenSignal and Sensorly have emerged that provide coverage maps based on information crowdsourced from consumer applications. The advantage of this approach is that the coverage maps show network reach and performance as it is experienced by its users. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1071379",
"title": "Overlay plan",
"section": "Section::::Methodology.:Popularity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "Telecommunications companies have increasingly favored overlays even in sparsely populated rural areas where ten-digit local numbers are unnecessary, as split plans force cellular providers to reprogram millions of client handsets to reflect changes in existing mobile numbers. Customers also incur costs to publish new letterhead and reprogram stored address book data on individual devices. They have become even more popular as the proliferation of cell phones has caused area codes to exhaust fairly quickly. This is especially the case in area codes that have been pushed back to the brink of exhaustion after being recently split, as carriers want to keep their customers from having to change their numbers for the second time in a decade or less.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17282821",
"title": "Mobile IPTV",
"section": "Section::::Technical obstacles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "Because it is currently not possible to deploy wireless networks to cover all geographical areas with no \"dead spots\", services are restricted in some areas. However, by adopting vertical handovers (hand-overs between different networks), the coverage issue can be mitigated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4198568",
"title": "Coverage map",
"section": "Section::::Definition of coverage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "Typically a coverage map will indicate the area within which the user can expect to obtain good reception of the service in question using standard equipment under normal operating conditions. Additionally, the map may also separately denote supplementary service areas where good reception may be obtained but other stations may be stronger, or where reception may variable but the service may still be usable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4228754",
"title": "United States National Grid",
"section": "Section::::Adoption and current applications.:Gridded maps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "In addition to providing a convenient means to identify and communicate specific locations (points and areas), an overlaid USNG grid also provides an orientation, and—because it is distance based—a scale of distance that is present across the map.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "314409",
"title": "NEXRAD",
"section": "Section::::Coverage gaps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "WSR-88D has coverage gaps below 10,000 feet (or no coverage at all) in many parts of the continental United States, often for terrain or budgetary reasons, or remoteness of the area. Such notable gaps include most of Alaska; several areas of Oregon, including the central and southern coast and much of the area east of the Cascade Mountains; many portions of the Rocky Mountains; Pierre, South Dakota; portions of northern Texas; large portions of the Nebraska panhandle; and areas near the borders of the Oklahoma and Texas Panhandles. Notably, many of these gaps lie in tornado alley. At least one tornado has gone undetected by WSR-88D as a result of such a coverage gap – an EF1 tornado in Lovelady, Texas in April 2014. As a result of the coverage gap, initial reports of tornadic activity were treated with skepticism by the local National Weather Service forecast office.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
35evcf
|
why does using cellular data have such a big hit on battery life?
|
[
{
"answer": "To get more data the radio needs to work harder, which takes more power. The radio is the second largest power consumer in your phone behind the screen, so if you're say streaming netflix you're killing your battery because you're asking the radio to do a ton of work and then using it to watch a movie. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you are using cellular data, your phone is literally converting energy that was inside the battery into messages to send to the internet. If you want that message to go extra far, you in general need more energy. \n\nHow tired would you get if you were shouting out messages all day that were loud enough for people to hear thousands of feet away? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "167079",
"title": "Smartphone",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Battery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "By the end of 2017, smartphone battery life has become generally adequate; however, earlier smartphone battery life was poor due to the weak batteries that could not handle the significant power requirements of the smartphones' computer systems and color screens.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55140572",
"title": "Hurricane Irma",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Florida.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Due mainly to the widespread loss of power, cell phone service was also significantly impacted after battery backup power for cell phone towers ran out and backup generators ran out of fuel. In an impact report by the FCC, as of 11 AM EDT on September 12, 89 of 108 (82%) cell phone towers were non-functioning in Monroe County (Florida Keys), 154 of 212 (73%) were non-functioning in Collier County (Naples), 36 of 46 (78%) were non-functioning in Hendry County, and an additional six counties had 41-60% of cell phone towers not functioning, including Lee County (Fort Myers) and Miami-Dade County.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "455777",
"title": "IEEE 802.15.4",
"section": "Section::::Reliability and security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Because the predicted environment of these devices demands maximization of battery life, the protocols tend to favor the methods which lead to it, implementing periodic checks for pending messages, the frequency of which depends on application needs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33993923",
"title": "Data at rest",
"section": "Section::::Concerns about data at rest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Because of its nature data at rest is of increasing concern to businesses, government agencies and other institutions. Mobile devices are often subject to specific security protocols to protect data at rest from unauthorised access when lost or stolen and there is an increasing recognition that database management systems and file servers should also be considered as at risk; the longer data is left unused in storage, the more likely it might be retrieved by unauthorized individuals outside the network.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2206984",
"title": "Lithium battery",
"section": "Section::::Safety issues and regulation.:Health issues on ingestion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Button cell batteries are attractive to small children and often ingested. In the past 20 years, although there has not been an increase in the total number of button cell batteries ingested in a year, researchers have noted a 6.7-fold increase in the risk that an ingestion would result in a moderate or major complication and 12.5-fold increase in fatalities comparing the last decade to the previous one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27075748",
"title": "COSMOS cohort study",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "Many reviews have concluded that there is no convincing evidence to date that mobile phones are harmful to health. However, the widespread use of mobile phones is a relatively recent phenomenon and it is possible that adverse health effects could emerge after years of prolonged use. Evidence to date suggests that short term (less than ten years) exposure to mobile phone emissions is not associated with an increase in brain and nervous system cancers. However, regarding longer term use, the evidence base necessary to allow firm judgments to be made has not yet been accumulated. There are still significant uncertainties that can only be resolved by monitoring the health of a large cohort of phone users over a long period of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49392568",
"title": "Senet Inc.",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:The Senet Network.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "The Senet Network’s fully enabled two-way architecture provides data communication from sensors over long distances at a lower cost, longer range, and longer battery life than cellular networks. Battery life is determined by how often the devices are set to transmit data and how much data is being transmitted. Transceiver batteries can last as long as 10 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4ipmx5
|
Are there any records of black people in medieval Prussia/Czech Republic? If so, are there any records of how they were treated?
|
[
{
"answer": "[There you go](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37336286",
"title": "Jan Prosper Witkiewicz",
"section": "Section::::Imprisonment and exile.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "The poet Adam Mickiewicz retells in his poem \"Dziady\" how the Black Brothers from Kražiai were the first among the Lithuanian youth to be prosecuted in the Russian Empire. In the poem there is also a scene where Mickiewicz describes how the young adolescents, handcuffed and chained, were bid farewell at the Gate of Dawn in Vilnius.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1003359",
"title": "Redleg",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Many of the Redlegs' ancestors were forcibly transported by Oliver Cromwell consequent to his Conquest of Ireland. Others had originally arrived on Barbados in the early to mid-17th century as indentured servants. Small groups of Germans and Portuguese were also imported as plantation labourers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5578164",
"title": "Black people in Ireland",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "Enslavement of blacks was rare in Ireland during the 18th century, although the legal position remained unclear until a judgement in England in 1772, the Somersett's Case. Others were tradesmen, soldiers, travelling artists or musicians. They were never very numerous, and most were assimilated into the larger population by the second third of the 19th century. They include the rebel Mulatto Jack (fl. 1736), the singer Rachael Baptist (fl. 1750-1775), who were both Irish. Other such as Osmond Tisani (fl. 1905–1914) were born abroad but settled in Ireland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36431",
"title": "1340s",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Political developments.:Northern Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "In 1340, a German law-code was drawn up by the Teutonic Knights for their long-settled Prussian district of Pomesania. The code defined two categories of people: the unfree, who came under peasant law (\"Gebauersrecht\") and were consigned to the jurisdiction of their lords; and the freedmen. The latter group included peasants who had the right to demand trial by the written code and could not be sentenced to death in private courts. However, an appendix to the law-code also made it clear that the Old Prussian peasant converts were discriminated against by the Teutonic Knights, and were allowed remain \"semi-pagan, uncouth and lawless\". Such treatment shocked contemporary commentators such as Saint Bridget of Sweden.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16987896",
"title": "LGBT rights in Africa",
"section": "Section::::History of male homosexuality in Africa.:Modern history.:Southern Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1093,
"text": "Marc Epprecht's review of 250 court cases from 1892 to 1923 found cases from the beginnings of the records. The five 1892 cases all involved black Africans. A defense offered was that \"sodomy\" was part of local \"custom\". In one case a chief was summoned to testify about customary penalties and reported that the penalty was a fine of one cow, which was less than the penalty for adultery. Over the entire period, Epprecht found the balance of black and white defendants proportional to that in the population. He notes, however, only what came to the attention of the courts—most consensual relations in private did not necessarily provoke notice. Some cases were brought by partners who had been dropped or who had not received promised compensation from their former sexual partner. And although the norm was for the younger male to lie supine and not show any enjoyment, let alone expect any sexual mutuality, Epprecht found a case in which a pair of black males had stopped their sexual relationship out of fear of pregnancy, but one wanted to resume taking turns penetrating each other.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4138085",
"title": "Ukrainian Austrian internment",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Over twenty thousand Ukrainian Moscophiles were arrested and imprisoned in the camp and in the fortress of Terezín, Bohemia. The camp housed primarily Russophile individuals and families from Galicia. All were suspected of collaboration with the advancing Imperial Russian Army that had invaded and occupied Galicia at the outset of World War I.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28455365",
"title": "History of slavery in Virginia",
"section": "Section::::Indentured servant to slave.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1403,
"text": "Early cases show differences in treatment between Negro and European indentured servants. In 1640, the General Virginia Court decided the Emmanuel case. Emmanuel was a Negro indentured servant who participated in a plot to escape along with six white servants. Together, they stole corn, powder, and shot guns but were caught before making their escape. The members of the group were each convicted; they were sentenced to a variety of punishments. Christopher Miller, the leader of the group, was sentenced to wear shackles for one year. White servant John Williams was sentenced to serve the colony for an extra seven years. Peter Willcocke was branded, whipped, and was required to serve the colony for an additional seven years. Richard Cookson was required to serve for two additional years. Emmanuel, the Negro, was whipped and branded with an \"R\" on his cheek. All of the white servants had their terms of servitude increased by some extent, but the court did not extend Emmanuel's time of service. Many historians speculate Emmanuel was already a servant for life. While Emmanuel's status is not defined in the records, his being branded shows a difference in how white servants and black servants were treated. Though this case suggests that slavery existed, the distinction of lifetime servitude or slavery associated with Africans or people of African descent was not widespread until later.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1on64f
|
Folk, Baroque, Classical, Rock & Roll... how much have musical genres varied amongst any one culture throughout history?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm only qualified to give a response for european music, so I hope there is someone out there who is learned in asian and african music who can contribute as well. There were definitely different \"genres\" of music as far back as the late medieval period. The split between sacred music and court music is a perfect example. Consider the difference between chant and plainsong (sacred) and early lute based songs. \n\nDoes anyone have expertise in early medieval music? I am aware of the sacred musical tradition in this period, but when did folk music and dance music begin to appear? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "442870",
"title": "Music of Guatemala",
"section": "Section::::Art music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "The field of art music, also known as \"classical music\", includes various musical styles such as Renaissance, baroque, classical, romantic, 20th-century music, and post-modern music. Guatemala was one of the first regions of the New World to be exposed to European music. The Spanish missionaries and clergy introduced Flemish and Spanish liturgical music during the early 16th century as part of the Roman Catholic rite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21337082",
"title": "Medieval folk rock",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins (1960s).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "Musicologists have noted an attempt to fuse popular music with elements of early classical music from the mid-1960s in Britain and America, which they refer to as baroque rock or baroque pop. An interest in fusing the sounds of medieval and renaissance music with more popular forms was first evident in the British progressive folk movement of the late 1960s. This was particularly clear in the important work of The Incredible String Band from their 1967 album \"The 5000 Spirits or the Layers of the Onion\" (1967), which introduced both medieval and world music elements into their music. These continued in the highly influential \"The Hangman's Beautiful Daughter\" (1968).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1175388",
"title": "American classical music",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "Many of the major classical composers of the 20th century were influenced by folk traditions, none more quintessentially, perhaps, than Charles Ives or Aaron Copland. Other composers adopted features of folk music, from the Appalachians, the plains and elsewhere, including Roy Harris, Elmer Bernstein, David Diamond, Elie Siegmeister, and others. Yet other early to mid-20th-century composers continued in the more experimental traditions, including such figures as Charles Ives, George Antheil, and Henry Cowell. Others, such as Samuel Barber, captured a period of Americana in such pieces as \"Knoxville: Summer of 1915\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32923",
"title": "Western canon",
"section": "Section::::Classical music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "In the 2000s, the standard concert repertoire of professional orchestras, chamber music groups, and choirs tends to focus on works by a relatively small number of mainly 18th- and 19th-century male composers. Many of the works deemed to be part of the musical canon are from genres regarded as the most \"serious\", such as the symphony, concerto, string quartet, and opera. Folk music was already giving art music melodies, and from the late 19th century, in an atmosphere of increasing nationalism, folk music began to influence composers in formal and other ways, before being admitted to some sort of status in the canon itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "633172",
"title": "Neoclassical metal",
"section": "Section::::History of the genre and influences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "A common practice in the genre is to transcribe classical pieces and play them in a rock/metal band format. The Baroque and Classical periods have been particularly influential to the genre because of their unique sound and techniques that blend into a rock setting effectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17383182",
"title": "Discos Qualiton",
"section": "Section::::Early days.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "The following years were mostly dedicated to produce classical music with a particular emphasis in baroque and colonial periods in Latin America. Also worth mentioning are the recordings of ethnographic music harvested in the field and gathered under the label Serie del Conocimiento and the unique recordings of literary works known as Juglaría.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54783",
"title": "Music theory",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "BULLET::::- As Western musical influence spread throughout the world in the 1800s, musicians adopted Western theory as an international standard—but other theoretical traditions in both textual and oral traditions remain in use. For example, the long and rich musical traditions unique to ancient and current cultures of Africa are primarily oral, but describe specific forms, genres, performance practices, tunings, and other aspects of music theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7fmku3
|
why is solar power quite common here in northern england when we have very low solar potential and are one of the windiest places on the planet?
|
[
{
"answer": "There was a time a few years ago the government has heavily subsidising solar power. The subsidy was so high that if you had a large enough roof you could not only get all your electricity for free but earn money by selling the surplus to the grid.\n\nWith house prices being very low in the North it was much easier to buy a large enough house to achieve the threshold production to make a profit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30939458",
"title": "Electricity sector in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Modes of production.:Renewable energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "In 2014, Imperial College predicted that Britain could have 40% of electricity from solar power in sunny days by 2020 in 10 million homes compared to a half a million homes in start of 2014. If a third of households would generate solar energy it could equal 6% of British total electricity consumption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5454569",
"title": "Wind power in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Offshore wind farms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "The United Kingdom has been estimated to have over a third of Europe's total offshore wind resource, which is equivalent to three times the electricity needs of the nation at current rates of electricity consumption (In 2010 peak winter demand was 59.3 GW, in summer it drops to about 45 GW).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49014582",
"title": "Independent power producers in British Columbia",
"section": "Section::::Types of IPPs in BC.:Other projects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Solar power only has one commercial development even though it has a great deal of public support and fits in well with hydroelectric storage, it is less well supported by the wet northern climate in BC. For regions with similar climate like the UK, solar actually produces electricity 11% of the time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "392525",
"title": "Electricity sector in Norway",
"section": "Section::::Mode of production.:Solar power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "This is a hundred times less than in Finland (2 watts per inhabitant), two hundred times less than in Sweden (4 watts per inhabitant) and almost five thousand times less than in Denmark (98 watts per inhabitant). However, use of solar power is growing at an accelerated pace; in 2016, installed panel capacity grew by 366%. Proponents indicate that Norway has a surprisingly high capacity for solar energy capture. For instance, records from the city of Narvik show that the region can receive almost as much sunlight as southern Germany. However, this is still just above a third of the solar energy that an area that receives a high amount of solar energy would receive (based on received radiation from Australia.) Solar companies include Elkem Solar and NorSun. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12593441",
"title": "Renewable energy in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Solar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "At the end of 2011, there were 230,000 solar power projects in the United Kingdom, with a total installed generating capacity of 750 megawatts (MW). By February 2012 the installed capacity had reached 1,000 MW. Solar power use has increased very rapidly in recent years, albeit from a small base, as a result of reductions in the cost of photovoltaic (PV) panels, and the introduction of a Feed-in tariff (FIT) subsidy in April 2010. In 2012, the government said that 4 million homes across the UK will be powered by the sun within eight years, representing 22,000 MW of installed solar power capacity by 2020.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6328047",
"title": "Solar power by country",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "At the end of 2011, there were 230,000 solar power projects in the United Kingdom, with a total installed generating capacity of 750 megawatts (MW). By February 2012 the installed capacity had reached 1,000 MW. Solar power use has increased very rapidly in recent years, albeit from a small base, as a result of reductions in the cost of photovoltaic (PV) panels, and the introduction of a Feed-in tariff (FIT) subsidy in April 2010. In 2012, the government said that 4 million homes across the UK will be powered by the sun within eight years, representing 22,000 MW of installed solar power capacity by 2020. As of April 2015, PV capacity had risen to 6,562 MW across 698,860 installations. The latest government figures indicates UK solar photovoltaic (PV) generation capacity has reached 12,404 MW in December 2017.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5213545",
"title": "Energy in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Energy sources.:Renewable energy.:Solar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "At the end of 2011, there were 230,000 solar power projects in the United Kingdom, with a total installed generating capacity of 750 megawatts (MW). By February 2012 the installed capacity had reached 1,000 MW. Solar power use has increased very rapidly in recent years, albeit from a small base, as a result of reductions in the cost of photovoltaic (PV) panels, and the introduction of a Feed-in tariff (FIT) subsidy in April 2010. In 2012, the government said that 4 million homes across the UK will be powered by the sun within eight years, representing 22,000 MW of installed solar power capacity by 2020.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3d43wk
|
Can the internet be disabled, even temporarily? Does it have a hardware or software vulnerability that would shut it down everywhere?
|
[
{
"answer": "\"it's too distributed\", you have pretty much answered it yourself. The internet, in its simplest form, is just a collection of interconnected computers. A computer can be cut off or like in your article a large group can be cut off but the internet cannot be shut down.\n\nA worldwide power outtage is the only thing i can see bringing it down. No computers, no internet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The internet is composed of a vast number of linked computers. If there was a vulnerability that affected all or a significant portion of those computers, then the web could no longer link together and you wouldn't have access to the *whole* internet, but you'd still have access to the portions that are hosted around you. The \"internet\" wouldn't be able to be shut off unless every computer was disconnected from every computer.\n\nYou might be able to take out the internet by targeting a few specific servers. For example, ISPs have what are called \"backbone\" servers, which, as the name entails, form a backbone to an internet connection. If these go offline, you'd see a large chunk of the internet go offline as well, from your perspective, but not from the perspective of others who don't use that backbone. Sometimes one server manages most or all of the connections going into some local area, and so if that went down then you'd see a service disruption. However, the distributed aspect of the internet inherently has redundancy, and so most likely service would go back up soon.\n\nAnother type of server you could target are called Dynamic Name Servers (DNS), which convert a website name (like _URL_0_) into its IP address. If you were able to bring all of these down, you would not longer be able to access websites using their domain names, but you still could with their IP addresses. For example, type reddit's IP address (198.41.208.141) into your address bar. You can access it there.\n\nYou can see the computers that a request to a website goes through by using the `traceroute` command. If you're on Windows, open the command line, and if you're on a Mac, open terminal. Type `traceroute < web address > ` and you should see the computers that the request routes through. If any of them go down, the network should adapt and find another way through.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The only method I am loosely aware of to kill/shutoff the internet is if a major AS like AT & T or Level 3 were to go rogue and start advertising routes for basically every IP address and send them more or less nowhere. I wish I could tell you that I am a network engineer and I understand this in depth, but I don't.\n\nYou can read up when Pakistan did this to youtube by mistake here: _URL_0_\n\nBasically have a more trusted actor than Pakistan do the same thing, but to a much wider array of addresses.\n\nThis method is not forever but it would shut down most/all of the internet very rapidly.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I forget exactly when it happened, but I remember some few years ago when the / a major fiber cable running off the west coast of N America was cut. Then over the next week or so major fiber cables were cut in the Mediterranean, off of Europe, and I think in Asia also. It sounded like a coordinated attack on the internet to me. However, I believe cut sections were repaired rather quickly and then I never heard anything about it again, which seemed really shady and quite hush hush to me.\n\nBut like you said it's not really centralized or run through a singular hub anywhere. Not to mention satellite internet would be very difficult to cut by any conventional means.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27994372",
"title": "Internet kill switch",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Policy issues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Policy makers have to take into account the cost of shutting down the Internet, if it is even possible. The loss of the network for even a day could cost billions of dollars in lost revenue. The National Cybersecurity Center was set up to deal with these questions, to research threats and design and recommend prophylactic methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20736106",
"title": "Machine-or-transformation test",
"section": "Section::::Outstanding issues.:A \"particular machine\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "In \"CyberSource Corp. v. Retail Decisions, Inc.\", a California federal district court held that limitation of a process to implementation \"over the Internet\" does not satisfy the machine-or-transformation test. First, the Internet is not a \"particular machine.\" The Internet is an intangible abstraction. Second, the limitation to a particular technological environment is a mere field-of-use limitation, which does not suffice under sec. 101. Third, the use of the Internet does not impose meaningful limits on the preemptive scope of the claims. The same court held that a \"\"Beauregard\"\" claim directed to the instructions for performing a method that does not pass the machine-or-transformation test will also fail to pass that test. The court pointed out that the PTO appellate board had similarly interpreted \"Bilski\". The subsequent \"Alice\" decision appears to have substantially resolved these questions in favor of a determination of patent ineligibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4970346",
"title": "K9 Web Protection",
"section": "Section::::Use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "The software operates without downloading a database to the computer and instead looks to an Internet-based database. This means that the computer only needs a very small piece of code and the user can take advantage of the database being updated constantly. On the other hand, if the computer can not connect to this database for any reason (such as a firewall blocking the connection), all web access will be disabled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3770757",
"title": "The World (Internet service provider)",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "Many government and university installations blocked, threatened to block, or attempted to shut-down The World's Internet connection until Software Tool & Die was eventually granted permission by the National Science Foundation to provide public Internet access on \"an experimental basis.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4970346",
"title": "K9 Web Protection",
"section": "Section::::Strengths.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The software is very difficult to disable or remove without an administrator password. The uninstaller requires the administrator password to run, and if the service or process is stopped all web access is disabled. Similarly, attempts to modify the program from the windows registry or file system will also lead to all web access being disabled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42366",
"title": "United States federal government continuity of operations",
"section": "Section::::Hardware and facilities.:Communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "BULLET::::- Internet - The Internet began as the ARPANET, a program funded by the U.S. military. The Internet is designed with the capability to withstand losses of large portions of the underlying networks, but was never designed to withstand a nuclear attack. Due to the huge numbers of people using it, it would likely be jammed and unable to handle communication if it suffered a large amount of damage. During a localized emergency, it is highly useful. However, the loss of electrical power to an area can make accessing the Internet difficult or impossible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14233",
"title": "Hate speech",
"section": "Section::::Hate speech laws.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "The global capacity of the internet makes it extremely difficult to set limits or boundaries to cyberspace. Additionally, the United States' strong commitment to the First Amendment makes it impossible for worldwide internet policies to be put in place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
eaiw57
|
if you punched someone hard enough to knock them out whilst they were sleeping, would they wake up and pass out or stay asleep through your punch?
|
[
{
"answer": "Typically if you hit someone hard enough to knock them out, it’s caused some degree of brain damage. Even if very mild, you definitely gave them a concussion. I’d wager they go into a sort of deeper sleep from their brain being jarred. Unconsciousness in that way is different from sleep.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4243",
"title": "Boxing",
"section": "Section::::Medical concerns.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Knocking a person unconscious or even causing a concussion may cause permanent brain damage. There is no clear division between the force required to knock a person out and the force likely to kill a person. From 1980 to 2007, more than 200 amateur boxers, professional boxers and Toughman fighters died due to ring or training injuries. In 1983, editorials in the \"Journal of the American Medical Association\" called for a ban on boxing. The editor, Dr. George Lundberg, called boxing an \"obscenity\" that \"should not be sanctioned by any civilized society.\" Since then, the British, Canadian and Australian Medical Associations have called for bans on boxing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17163",
"title": "Knockout",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "A fighter who becomes unconscious from a strike with sufficient knockout power is referred to as having been \"knocked out\" or \"KO'd\" (\"kay-ohd\"). Losing balance without losing consciousness is referred to as being \"knocked down\" (\"down but not out\"). Repeated blows to the head, regardless whether they cause loss of consciousness, are known to gradually cause permanent brain damage. In severe cases this may cause strokes or paralysis. This loss of consciousness is commonly known as becoming \"punch drunk\" or \"shot\". Because of this, many physicians advise against sports involving knockouts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "556735",
"title": "Kneeboarding (towsport)",
"section": "Section::::Tricks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "BULLET::::11. Back Roll - Make a hard cut toward the wake. One millisecond before you hit the wake, flatten out. Ride up the wake while resisting it (see wake jump). At the top of the wake, and not before, throw your shoulders sideways in the direction of your roll. At the same time, look back over your shoulder and pull the handle to your waist. Your momentum will take you around and then you just need to land. If you are coming up short, you are most likely throwing the trick too soon, letting your arms out, or not throwing the trick sideways. If you lean forward at all, you will lose your rotation momentum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48614432",
"title": "No to police state",
"section": "Section::::The death.:Timeline.:May 17.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "BULLET::::- 22:11 - Indylo started moving after 20 minutes of laying of the floor with no moves. If he was drunk, as policemen claimed, he would sleep soundly. But if injuries are putting pressure on the brain, such behavior is possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8747663",
"title": "Riddick Bowe Boxing",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:During the fight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "During a fight, each boxer has a healthmeter that decreases whenever the player is hit. When the health meter reaches zero and the player is punched the player suffers a knockdown. Large amounts of punishment to the head also result in visible cuts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11461782",
"title": "Evander Holyfield's Real Deal Boxing",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1085,
"text": "If a boxer has received large amount of damage to either their head or their body, and they continue to be punched in that area, the fight will soon end in a TKO. Large amounts of punishment to the head will also result in visible cuts. A TKO will also result if a boxer is knocked down three times. However, unlike in real-life boxing matches, a boxer can be pummelled for an entire fight without throwing one punch in return, but unless they are knocked down three times, or suffer extreme damage to either their head or body, the fight will be allowed to continue. Similarly, fight judges will not score a round as 10-8 unless a fighter is knocked down. The only exception to this is if the scoring of a round as 10-9 would result in a draw. In such an instance, the round will be scored 10-8 to the fighter who won the round. This system of scoring is unrealistic, because in real boxing matches, a round is sometimes scored 10-8 if one boxer has been badly pummelled. It is also possible for boxers to pause and hurl insults during a fight, such as \"come on and fight you wimp!\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33662180",
"title": "The Ultimate Fighter: United States vs. United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "BULLET::::- Robert Browning, on the first night the fighters are in the house, started causing problems. He began by throwing eggs at a group of fighters on the basketball court, urinating in other people's shower and trying to get people to fight him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5xbg0c
|
the texas bill about wrongful births.
|
[
{
"answer": "In Texas (and maybe other states, I'm not sure) a mother can sue a doctor for failing to properly diagnose problems with a fetus. This started in a 1975 case where a pregnant woman sued her doctor. She got rubella while pregnant and claimed her doctor failed to properly diagnose her or warn her about the effect the illness could have on her baby. She had the baby who had several medical problems. The court held that she could sue the doctor for the baby's medical expenses since the doctor negligently failed to tell her about the possible complications.\n\nThis bill would make it so that a woman cannot sue a doctor for negligently failing to tell her about potential fetal defects before birth. \n\nProponents of the bill argue that every life is worthwhile and people shouldn't be able to sue doctors for failing to tell them their baby isn't worth having. They also think that some doctors might be more likely to recommend abortion in order to avoid a lawsuit.\n\nOpponents of the bill argue that doctors should fully inform their patients of everything they can and that some doctors who oppose abortion might not reveal all the risks of a pregnancy in order to encourage the mother to carry the baby to term if they don't have to worry about being sued for it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29810",
"title": "Texas",
"section": "Section::::Healthcare.:Infant health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 252,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 252,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "Texas has the seventh highest birth rate in the United States, with nearly 400,000 babies born each year. Over half of all Texas births are paid by Medicaid, totaling over $2.2 billion per year in birth and delivery-related services for mothers and infants. Studies have found that infant mortality is usually caused by birth defects, pre-term birth, low birth weight, Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, and pregnancy complications. The average amount spent in the first year of life for a preterm birth with major complications (excluding extreme prematurity) is $19,059, and $4,019 for a preterm birth without major complications compared to $410 for an uncomplicated, term birth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19263253",
"title": "Mike Turzai",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Abortion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "In February 2018, Turzai and State Representative Judy Ward, a nurse, introduced a bill banning the abortion of babies who have been diagnosed with Down syndrome in the womb. Currently, babies can be aborted up to 24 weeks gestation in Pennsylvania, except in cases of sex selection abortion, which are banned. Turzai cited the country of Iceland in remarks about the bill, saying that Iceland has an almost zero rate of babies born with Down syndrome because almost all are aborted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52403562",
"title": "Abortion in Texas",
"section": "Section::::History.:Judicial history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "On August 29, 2014 US District Judge Lee Yeakel struck down as unconstitutional two provisions of Texas' omnibus anti-abortion bill, House Bill 2 that was to come into effect on September 1. The regulation would have closed about a dozen abortion clinics, leaving only eight places in Texas to get a legal abortion, all located in major cities. Judge Lee Yeakel ruled that the state's regulation was unconstitutional and would have placed an undue burden on women, particularly on poor and rural women living in west Texas and the Rio Grande Valley.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51411907",
"title": "Maternal healthcare in Texas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 907,
"text": "The maternal healthcare system in Texas has undergone legislative changes in funding and the provision of family planning and abortion services, in relation to other states in the United States. The system in Texas has also received attention in regards to the state's maternal mortality ratio, currently the highest in the United States. Maternal deaths have steadily increased in Texas from 2010, with more than 30 deaths occurring for every 100,000 live births in 2014. The diverse demography of Texas has been identified as one factor contributing to this mortality rate, with mortality being higher among ethnic minorities such as African-American and Hispanic women. In 2013, Texas legislation established the Maternal Mortality and Morbidity Task Force to begin investigating the causes of the maternal mortality rates in the state as well as suggesting ways in which it could be reduced or averted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "833550",
"title": "Lloyd Doggett",
"section": "Section::::U.S. House of Representatives.:Tenure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "Rep. Doggett passed a bill into law in January 2013 setting up a national commission to examine ways to reduce the number of children who die from abuse and neglect. More children die in Texas from abuse and neglect than in any other state. The tax and spending deal approved that month to avoid a so-called \"fiscal cliff\" included an extension of a higher-education tax credit he had proposed. He also worked with Texas Republican Sam Johnson to pass a bill through the House in December 2012 to authorize the phased removal of Social Security numbers from Medicare cards to crack down on identity theft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "521625",
"title": "Texas House of Representatives",
"section": "Section::::Notable controversies.:Cook committee hearing closure controversy (2013).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "On June 20, 2013 Byron Cook served as chairman of the House State Affairs Committee hearing on Texas State House Bill 60. Cook's stance was for the passing of the bill and during the hearing he interrupted a testimony, saying \"Some of us do (adopt children).\" At 12:00 AM on June 21, Cook decided to close the hearing prematurely. Cook's explanation for breaching Texas State Legislature operating procedures was that the testimonies being heard had become repetitive. Twenty-four minutes later, Cook became personally offended by a testimony, ordering the cameras to be shut off and leaving the room of committee members and witnesses. Approximately 20 minutes afterwards, Cook was persuaded by colleagues to resume the hearing and continued listening to testimonies until he prematurely closed the hearing at 1:30 AM.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22748289",
"title": "Abortion in the United States by state",
"section": "Section::::State regulatory initiatives regarding abortion.:Texas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 902,
"text": "On August 29, 2014 US District Judge Lee Yeakel struck down as unconstitutional two provisions of Texas' omnibus anti-abortion bill, House Bill 2 that was to come into effect on September 1. The regulation would have closed about a dozen abortion clinics, leaving only eight places in Texas to get a legal abortion, all located in major cities. Judge Lee Yeakel ruled that the state's regulation was unconstitutional and would have placed an undue burden on women, particularly on poor and rural women living in west Texas and the Rio Grande Valley. The legal challenge to the law eventually reached the Supreme Court in \"Whole Woman's Health v. Hellerstedt\" (2016) which ruled that the law was unconstitutional, its burden of requiring abortion doctors to have admission privileges at a local hospital within 30 miles of the center to interfere with a woman's right to an abortion from \"Roe v. Wade\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3re73b
|
can dreams actually tell us something or are they just random head-noise
|
[
{
"answer": "Don't listen to some of the ignorant comments here. The only truth we know about dreams is that we don't really know what their exact purpose is. There are many interesting theories about it, but the true purpose of dreaming is not yet understood.\n\nThat being said, you can definitely choose to find meaning behind your dreams through your own interpretations of them. But that's all it would be at this point- interpretations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "During the night your brain does garbage collection. It decides what to save and what to throw away -- essentially, it's copying stuff that it thinks is worth saving to your left side and setting up the right side for another day of sensory overload. As you don't have two brains, the process reuses the bits of brain that you don't need while you're asleep as scratchpad space. Hence, you appear to see and hear stuff. However, the stuff that goes in there isn't organised, so what you get is a patchwork of memories mashed together -- dreams. When you awake, your brain then needs those bits of brain again, so the dreamscape rapidly fades. As to whether they can tell you anything, that's up to you -- sometimes the juxtaposition of two otherwise unrelated memories can give you perspective you wouldn't get otherwise. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Reality: Nobody really has a definite answer.\n\nFacts: Dreams always happen, sometimes you just forget them. \nStages of sleep are mapped in intensity. Basically, more vivid parts of a dream happen at certain stages.\n\nSome stuff points to connections between the real world events and your dreams. But again, we don't know for sure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27834",
"title": "Sleep",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Dreaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "John Allan Hobson and Robert McCarley propose that dreams are caused by the random firing of neurons in the cerebral cortex during the REM period. Neatly, this theory helps explain the irrationality of the mind during REM periods, as, according to this theory, the forebrain then creates a story in an attempt to reconcile and make sense of the nonsensical sensory information presented to it. This would explain the odd nature of many dreams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15358229",
"title": "List of dreams",
"section": "Section::::Explanations.:As coincidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Dream researcher Ernest Hartman comments on current dream theories proposed by biologists. One such theory suggests that dreams are basically random nonsense and are the product of a poorly functioning brain during sleep. If there is any meaning to dreams, it is added on later as our brains try to make the best of a bad job.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46262",
"title": "Nightmare",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Lucid-dreaming advocate Stephen LaBerge has outlined a possible reason for how dreams are formulated and why nightmares occur with a high frequency. To LaBerge, a dream starts with an individual thought or scene, such as walking down a dimly lit street. Since dreams are not predetermined, the brain responds to the situation by either thinking a good thought or a bad thought, and the dream framework follows from there. Since the prominence of bad thoughts in dreams is higher than good, the dream will proceed to be a nightmare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13773716",
"title": "Michael Katz (psychologist)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "The lucid dream experience, which may arise as a by-product of Rigpa awareness or spontaneously due to karmic causes, assists in understanding the unreality of phenomena, which otherwise, during dream or the death experience, might be overwhelming. In the same way, we believe a nightmare to be real, but if we were to watch a similar scene within a movie, we would not necessarily be frightened.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15358229",
"title": "List of dreams",
"section": "Section::::Explanations.:As coincidence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Another way to describe this phenomenon is to claim that dreams are random, but the individuals have been lucky enough to interpret their dreams in an allegorical way relevant to a problem they need to solve.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4897231",
"title": "Dream argument",
"section": "Section::::Critical discussion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "Norman Malcolm in his monograph \"Dreaming\" (published in 1959) elaborated on Wittgenstein's question as to whether it really mattered if people who tell dreams \"really had these images while they slept, or whether it merely seems so to them on waking\". He argues that the sentence \"I am asleep\" is a senseless form of words; that dreams cannot exist independently of the waking impression; and that scepticism based on dreaming \"comes from confusing the historical and dream telling senses...[of]...the past tense\". (page 120). In the chapter: \"Do I Know I Am Awake ?\" he argues that we do not have to say: \"I know that I am awake\" simply because it would be absurd to deny that one is awake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1605494",
"title": "Auditory imagery",
"section": "Section::::Image perception.:Dreaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "There have been a few studies conducted concerning auditory imagery generated in subjects during dreaming. There are different kinds of auditory imagery people experience in their dreams when waking up from rapid eye movement sleep. Auditory imagery is generally fairly common in rapid eye movement sleep with the majority of it being verbal auditory imagery. Studies found that the last auditory images in a dream are usually words spoken by the self-character in the dream. Some findings concerning the dream auditory imagery in patients with brain lesions and children’s dreams have been done as well but are more speculative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a6xngd
|
how do lice see?
|
[
{
"answer": "They see with their eyes.\n\nUmm... I'm not sure what you really expected. They usually have two little eyes on their head which they use to look around, but they may also just navigate from the dead, cold bird towards the warm flesh of the girl who just picked it up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16462415",
"title": "Use of DNA in forensic entomology",
"section": "Section::::Haematophagous insects of forensic importance.:Order Phthiraptera.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "Lice can be indicators of contact with another person. Many species closely associated with humans can be easily transferred between individuals. DNA identification of multiple individuals using blood meals from body and head lice has been demonstrated in laboratory settings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22481529",
"title": "Pseudoexfoliation syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1320,
"text": "PEX is characterized by tiny microscopic white or grey granular flakes which are clumps of proteins within the eye which look somewhat like dandruff when seen through a microscope and which are released by cells. The abnormal flakes, sometimes compared to amyloid-like material, are visible during an examination of the lens of an eye by an ophthalmologist or optometrist, which is the usual diagnosis. The white fluffy material is seen in many tissues both ocular and extraocular, such as in the anterior chamber structures, trabecular meshwork, central disc, zonular fibres, anterior hyaloid membrane, pupillary and anterior iris, trabecula, and occasionally the cornea. The flakes are widespread. One report suggested that the granular flakes were from abnormalities of the basement membrane in epithelial cells, and that they were distributed widely throughout the body and not just within structures of the eye. There is some research suggesting that the material may be produced in the iris pigment epithelium, ciliary epithelium, or the peripheral anterior lens epithelium. A similar report suggests that the proteins come from the lens, iris, and other parts of the eye. A report in 2010 found indications of an abnormal ocular surface in PEX patients, discovered by an eye staining method known as rose bengal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43226271",
"title": "Ocellus (disambiguation)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "An ocellus is a simple eye found in invertebrates, in which pigment is distributed randomly and for which there are no additional structures. It is not to be confused with the ocelloid, a light-sensitive structure found in some dinoflagellates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58288",
"title": "Louse",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.:Phylogeny.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 977,
"text": "Lice have been the subject of significant DNA research in the 2000s that led to discoveries on human evolution. The three species of sucking lice that parasitize human beings belong to two genera, \"Pediculus\" and \"Pthirus\": head lice (\"Pediculus humanus capitis\"), body lice (\"Pediculus humanus humanus\"), and pubic lice (\"Pthirus pubis\"). Human head and body lice (genus \"Pediculus\") share a common ancestor with chimpanzee lice, while pubic lice (genus \"Pthirus\") share a common ancestor with gorilla lice. Using phylogenetic and cophylogenetic analysis, Reed et al. hypothesized that \"Pediculus\" and \"Pthirus\" are sister taxa and monophyletic. In other words, the two genera descended from the same common ancestor. The age of divergence between \"Pediculus\" and its common ancestor is estimated to be 6-7 million years ago, which matches the age predicted by chimpanzee-hominid divergence. Because parasites rely on their hosts, hostparasite cospeciation events are likely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58288",
"title": "Louse",
"section": "Section::::Morphology and diversity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "Lice are divided into two groups: sucking lice, which obtain their nourishment from feeding on the sebaceous secretions and body fluids of their host; and chewing lice, which are scavengers, feeding on skin, fragments of feathers or hair, and debris found on the host's body. Most are found on only specific types of animals, and, in some cases, on only a particular part of the body; some animals are known to host up to fifteen different species, although one to three is typical for mammals, and two to six for birds. For example, in humans, different species of louse inhabit the scalp and pubic hair. Lice generally cannot survive for long if removed from their host. Some species of chewing lice house symbiotic bacteria in bacteriocytes in their bodies. These may assist in digestion because if the insect is deprived of them, it will die. If their host dies, lice can opportunistically use phoresis to hitch a ride on a fly and attempt to find a new host.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "331951",
"title": "Fish anatomy",
"section": "Section::::External organs.:Photophores.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Photophores are light-emitting organs which appears as luminous spots on some fishes. The light can be produced from compounds during the digestion of prey, from specialized mitochondrial cells in the organism called photocytes, or associated with symbiotic bacteria, and are used for attracting food or confusing predators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "172318",
"title": "Pediculosis",
"section": "Section::::Head lice.:Presentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Head lice are spread through direct head-to-head contact with an infested person. From each egg or \"nit\" may hatch one nymph that will grow and develop to the adult louse. Lice feed on blood once or more often each day by piercing the skin with their tiny needle-like mouthparts. While feeding they excrete saliva, which irritates the skin and causes itching. Lice cannot burrow into the skin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dwooy2
|
- what is a solar/steller wind?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ok\n\nMost stars are basically giant fusion reactor which constantly spits out radiation and charged particles, \n\nAnd think there are trillions of them around the galaxy and universe doing that exactly, depending on the type of star they spit out different ranges of radiation and at different strength, \n\nthose radiations cause currents of matter, particles and energy which are called \"solar or stellar winds\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Solar wind is the stream of charged particles moving away from a star. The upper atmosphere of stars is called the corona. It's an extremely hot, high energy plasma consisting of mostly electrons, protons and helium nuclei. They get blasted away from the star in all directions at extremely high speeds (hundreds of kilometers per second) and flow outwards into space. It's not like wind here on Earth in the sense that you can feel it, but it can produce very small amounts of pressure to move over objects.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37845",
"title": "Magnetic sail",
"section": "Section::::Principles of operation and design.:Solar wind example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The solar wind is a continuous stream of plasma that flows outwards from the Sun: near the Earth's orbit, it contains several million protons and electrons per cubic meter and flows at . The magnetic sail introduces a magnetic field into this plasma flow which can deflect the particles from their original trajectory: the momentum of the particles is then transferred to the sail, leading to a thrust on the sail. One advantage of magnetic or solar sails over (chemical or ion) reaction thrusters is that no reaction mass is depleted or carried in the craft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28538",
"title": "Solar wind",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 589,
"text": "The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun, called the corona. This plasma mostly consists of electrons, protons and alpha particles with kinetic energy between 0.5 and 10 keV. Embedded within the solar-wind plasma is the interplanetary magnetic field. The solar wind varies in density, temperature and speed over time and over solar latitude and longitude. Its particles can escape the Sun's gravity because of their high energy resulting from the high temperature of the corona, which in turn is a result of the coronal magnetic field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "255297",
"title": "Coronal mass ejection",
"section": "Section::::Related solar observation missions.:NASA mission \"Wind\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "On 1 November 1994, NASA launched the \"Wind\" spacecraft as a solar wind monitor to orbit Earth's Lagrange point as the interplanetary component of the Global Geospace Science (GGS) Program within the International Solar Terrestrial Physics (ISTP) program. The spacecraft is a spin axis-stabilized satellite that carries eight instruments measuring solar wind particles from thermal to MeV energies, electromagnetic radiation from DC to 13 MHz radio waves, and gamma-rays. Though the \"Wind\" spacecraft is over two decades old, it still provides the highest time, angular, and energy resolution of any of the solar wind monitors. It continues to produce relevant research as its data has contributed to over 150 publications since 2008 alone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10031328",
"title": "Electric sail",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "An electric sail (also known as an electric solar wind sail or an E-sail) is a proposed form of spacecraft propulsion using the dynamic pressure of the solar wind as a source of thrust. It creates a \"virtual\" sail by using small wires to form an electric field that deflects solar wind protons and extracts their momentum. The idea was first conceptualised by Pekka Janhunen in 2006 at the Finnish Meteorological Institute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1131151",
"title": "Heliosphere",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Solar wind.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "The solar wind consists of particles (ionized atoms from the solar corona) and fields like the magnetic field that are produced from the Sun and stream out into space. Because the Sun rotates once approximately every 25 days, the magnetic field transported by the solar wind gets wrapped into a spiral. The Solar wind affects many other systems in the Solar System; for example, variations in the Sun's own magnetic field are carried outward by the solar wind, producing geomagnetic storms in the Earth's magnetosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47490358",
"title": "Solar phenomena",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Wind.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "The solar wind is a stream of plasma released from the Sun's upper atmosphere. It consists of mostly electrons and protons with energies usually between 1.5 and 10 keV. The stream of particles varies in density, temperature and speed over time and over solar longitude. These particles can escape the Sun's gravity because of their high energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54648",
"title": "Solar flare",
"section": "Section::::Observations.:Space telescopes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "BULLET::::- WIND – The Wind spacecraft is devoted to the study of the interplanetary medium. Since the Solar Wind is its main driver, solar flares effects can be traced with the instruments aboard Wind. Some of the WIND experiments are: a very low frequency spectrometer, (WAVES), particles detectors (EPACT, SWE) and a magnetometer (MFI).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
ega6yp
|
why does our brain stop us from biting down too hard on a finger, but will allow us to willingly kill ourselves?
|
[
{
"answer": "The brain does not allow us to willingly kill ourselves, on an instinctive level. If you jump headfirst out of a window, you'll be forced to try to save yourself during the fall. You will raise your arms to try and break the fall. This is analogous to preventing us from biting our fingers off.\n\nHowever, both can be overcome with planning. If you put your finger on your mouth and have your friend uppercut your jaw, you can take a finger off. Similarly, all common methods of suicide rely on putting oneself in a position where your body doesn't realize you're going to die until it's too late to prevent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your body isn't designed to react uncontrollably to pulling a trigger or jumping out a window or not. Your central nervous system doesn't know that your finger pull may lead to you dying or your stepping off something will lead to a 40' fall. \n\nYour body does have uncontrollable reactions to pain and poison and suffocation. Milliseconds after these events, your body will start to try and stop or fix things without your help.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "188800",
"title": "The finger",
"section": "Section::::Cultural impact.:Politics and military incidents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Giving the finger has resulted in negative consequences. A Malaysian man was bludgeoned to death after giving the finger to a motorist following a car chase. A Pakistani man was deported by the United Arab Emirates for the gesture, which violates indecency codes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1356473",
"title": "Nail biting",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "Nail biting usually leads to harmful effects to the fingers, like infections. These consequences are directly derived from the physical damage of biting or from the hands becoming an infection vector. Moreover, it can also have a social impact. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2439717",
"title": "Kinamotay",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "One key principle is uninterrupted biting, this means that you place yourself in such position that you can continue biting as long as you want, disabling your opponent from escaping your bites. It can be used to inflict pain and can be used to cut arteries which can cause severe bleeding.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3193759",
"title": "Self-cannibalism",
"section": "Section::::Among humans.:As a disorder or symptom thereof.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Fingernail-biting that develops into fingernail-eating is a form of pica, although many do not consider nail biting as a true form of cannibalism. Other forms of pica include the compulsion of eating one's own hair, which can form a hairball in the stomach. Left untreated, this can cause death due to excessive hair buildup.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11787190",
"title": "Dermatophagia",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "Skin chewing can be bolstered by times of apprehension and other unpleasant events. Blisters in particular can cause a feeling of desire to pull or bite off the affected skin and nails (since the skin is dead, thus easily pulled off), which could be detrimental, causing infection. Another disorder, known as excoriation disorder, the repetitive action of uncontrollably picking at one's skin, can sometimes accompany dermatophagia. Dermatophagia differs from excoriation disorder in that the repetitive motion affected persons partake in is the biting of the skin. People who have dermatophagia can also be prone to infection as when they bite their fingers so frequently, they make themselves vulnerable to bacteria seeping in and causing infection. Dermatophagia can be considered a \"sister\" disorder to trichophagia, which involves compulsively biting and eating one's hair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155131",
"title": "Bruxism",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Occlusal factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 1482,
"text": "Historically, many believed that problems with the bite were the sole cause for bruxism. It was often claimed that a person would grind at the interfering area in a subconscious, instinctive attempt to wear this down and \"self equiliberate\" their occlusion. However, occlusal interferences are extremely common and usually do not cause any problems. It is unclear whether people with bruxism tend to notice problems with the bite because of their clenching and grinding habit, or whether these act as a causative factor in the development of the condition. In sleep bruxism especially, there is no evidence that removal of occlusal interferences has any impact on the condition. People with no teeth at all who wear dentures can still suffer from bruxism, although dentures also often change the original bite. Most modern sources state that there is no relationship, or at most a minimal relationship, between bruxism and occlusal factors. The findings of one study, which used self-reported tooth grinding rather than clinical examination to detect bruxism, suggested that there may be more of a relationship between occlusal factors and bruxism in children. However, the role of occlusal factors in bruxism cannot be completely discounted due to insufficient evidence and problems with the design of studies. A minority of researchers continue to claim that various adjustments to the mechanics of the bite are capable of curing bruxism (see Occlusal adjustment/reorganization).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25897574",
"title": "Hand injury",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "Nerve injuries occur as a result of trauma, compression or over-stretching. Nerves send impulses to the brain about sensation and also play an important role in finger movement. When nerves are injured, one can lose ability to move fingers, lose sensation and develop a contracture. Any nerve injury of the hand can be disabling and results in loss of hand function. Thus it is vital to seek medical help as soon as possible after any hand injury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
h0joq
|
Do we have the technology to "rewrite" someone's DNA?
|
[
{
"answer": "Allow me to parse your question into a few different ones (I'm going to interpret \"rewrite\" loosely, to include getting a cell or cells to express a single new gene. More complicated \"rewrites\" are possible using similar techniques, but may be disproportionately more complicated to carry out.):\n\n > Do we have the technology to \"rewrite\" the DNA of every cell of an individual organism?\n\nYes. Consider bacteria: We can introduce new genes into bacteria through [transfection](_URL_4_), [transduction](_URL_13_), and other methods. On top of that, there's the recent big steps *towards* synthesizing bacteria from scratch (I say \"towards\" because it depends on what you mean by \"from scratch\"). Here's a [layman friendly (pdf)](_URL_7_) article from Science, as well as the [actual report](_URL_8_).\n\n > OK, what about multicellular organisms?\n\nYes. Some techniques involve altering the DNA over a couple generations, or, to \"rewrite\" at the very start of an individual's life i.e. a one-cell stage. For instance, see the procedures for making knockout mice ([wikipedia](_URL_9_)), and the use of [nuclear transfer](_URL_2_) to make [Dolly](_URL_12_).\n\n > What about a multicellular organisms that are here, now? (This starts to get to your question.)\n\nYes. Though don't count on getting every cell, oh, and it may or may not be permanent, depending on the technique and the cells you're targeting. One technique is biolistics (here's [wikipedia](_URL_0_), and here's an example from [PNAS](_URL_5_)). \n\n > What about something big and complicated, like a human?\n\nYou won't get every cell, or even most of the cells. But, you *can* do a \"rewrite\" in a specific set of cells. ...see, another technique involves using a virus, loaded with custom DNA, to infect a cell. Viruses are picky about the cell type they infect. Also, some cells in your body replicate and are shed very quickly (e.g. most of the cells that make up your skin, or those lining your digestive tract), so doing a \"rewrite\" in only those cells isn't very interesting ... the effects would be as temporary as those cells' lives. On the other hand, you could infect cells that stay with an animal for most/all of its life. For instance, you can infect neurons with this technique. \n\nThis is used in optogenetics (here's [wikipedia](_URL_3_) ... Deisseroth lab is a big player in this, so [here's their website](_URL_6_) which has links to several research articles). \n\nThat technique has also been used, in humans, to treat a type of blindness called *Leber's Congenital Amaurosis*. Here's a [ScienceDaily article](_URL_10_) if you want a brief overview, and here's a journal article ([NEJM](_URL_11_)) on the topic.\n\nFor a bit more info, here's a [technical review of gene therapies at the retina.](_URL_1_)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "173905",
"title": "David Baltimore",
"section": "Section::::Career and research.:Public policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Baltimore recently joined with other scientists to call for a worldwide moratorium on use of a new genome-editing technique to alter inheritable human DNA. A key step enabling researchers to slice up any DNA sequence they choose was developed by Emmanuelle Charpentier, then at Umea University in Sweden, and Jennifer A. Doudna of the University of California, Berkeley. Reminiscent of the Asilomar conference on recombinant DNA in 1975, those involved want both scientists and the public to be more aware of the ethical issues and risks involved with new techniques for genome modification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "841429",
"title": "Synthetic biology",
"section": "Section::::Perspectives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "On the other hand, \"re-writers\" are synthetic biologists interested in testing the irreducibility of biological systems. Due to the complexity of natural biological systems, it would be simpler to rebuild the natural systems of interest from the ground up; In order to provide engineered surrogates that are easier to comprehend, control and manipulate. Re-writers draw inspiration from refactoring, a process sometimes used to improve computer software.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13653181",
"title": "Rewrite (programming)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "A rewrite in computer programming is the act or result of re-implementing a large portion of existing functionality without re-use of its source code or writing inscription. When the rewrite is not using existing code at all, it is common to speak of a rewrite from scratch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183290",
"title": "Life extension",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Genetic editing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "Genome editing, in which nucleic acid polymers are delivered as a drug and are either expressed as proteins, interfere with the expression of proteins, or correct genetic mutations, has been proposed as a future strategy to prevent aging.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4081099",
"title": "Identity transform",
"section": "Section::::Examples of recursive transforms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "The \"copy with recursion\" permits, changing little portions of code, produce entire new and different output, filtering or updating the input. Understanding the \"identity by recursion\" we can understand the filters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3464219",
"title": "Medical genetics",
"section": "Section::::Ethical, legal and social implications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "On 19 March 2015, scientists urged a worldwide ban on clinical use of methods, particularly the use of CRISPR and zinc finger, to edit the human genome in a way that can be inherited. In April 2015 and April 2016, Chinese researchers reported results of basic research to edit the DNA of non-viable human embryos using CRISPR. In February 2016, British scientists were given permission by regulators to genetically modify human embryos by using CRISPR and related techniques on condition that the embryos were destroyed within seven days. In June 2016 the Dutch government was reported to be planning to follow suit with similar regulations which would specify a 14-day limit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12985283",
"title": "Applera",
"section": "Section::::History.:PE Biosystems Division.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 763,
"text": "While planning the next new generation of machines, PE Biosystems' president, Michael W. Hunkapiller, calculated that it would be possible for their own private industry to decode the human genome before the academic consortium could complete it. The company would decode all of the 3.5 billion chemical letters in the human DNA by 2001, at a cost of only US$200 million, about 1/10 of the consortium projected cost of US$3 billion. However, it would mean starting from scratch, eight years already into the consortium's program. It was a bold prediction, given that the consortium target date set by Watson back in 1990 had been the forward year of 2005, only seven years away, and with the consortium already half the way to the completion target date by then.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2wjyy0
|
military redditors: what is the point of announcing ahead of time where and when we will be mounting an attack against isis? doesn't this just help the other side prepare a defense?
|
[
{
"answer": "The announcement was more than likely made for political, not military reasons. There is obviously no military reason, other than misdirection, to announce plans in such an obvious way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The warning is given so that civilians have an opportunity to get out of the area. \n\nThis type of warning is given in this situation because, even if they have all of the time in the world to prepare a defense, they can not win. If this were a war between equals, or an existential war, warning would not be given.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A couple of reasons. First as others mentioned, to give civilians a chance to get out of the way before the attack. Second, if the military knows that a certain location is where bombs and weapons are hidden, or where low level leaders are hiding, and the military announces they intend to attack that building.\n\nMaybe ISIS will try and relocate those people and weapons. If we monitor their attempts to relocate, perhaps get hints as to the locations of other weapons caches or higher level commanders in ISIS.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43517689",
"title": "International military intervention against ISIL",
"section": "Section::::Intervention in Libya.:U.S. airstrikes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 172,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 172,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "On 4 November 2016, Fox News reported that the U.S. military ended its bombing campaign against ISIS in Sirte after three months of round-the-clock airstrikes the U.S. military conducted a total of 367 airstrikes since 1 August 2016, according to officials, no American airstrikes took place since 31 October; units taking part in the operation received orders on 1 November from AFRICOM to end offensive and collective self-defence airstrikes. A senior defense official said the U.S. military would \"continue to provide military support to the GNA ... ISIL-held territory in Sirte is down to a few hundred square meters. We'll continue to discuss with the GNA leadership what additional support they may need moving forward including air strikes.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56109500",
"title": "American intervention in Libya (2015–present)",
"section": "Section::::Military action against ISIL.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "On 4 November 2016, Fox News reported that the U.S. military ended its bombing campaign against ISIL in Sirte after three months of round-the-clock airstrikes the U.S. military conducted a total of 367 airstrikes since 1 August 2016. Qccording to officials, no American airstrikes took place since 31 October; units taking part in the operation received orders on 1 November from AFRICOM to end offensive and collective self-defense airstrikes. A senior defense official said the U.S. military would \"continue to provide military support to the GNA...ISIL-held territory in Sirte is down to a few hundred square meters. We'll continue to discuss with the GNA leadership what additional support they may need moving forward including air strikes.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44699536",
"title": "Portrayal of ISIL in American media",
"section": "Section::::News media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "American newspapers have also reported on the justifications that the United States government has for ordering the airstrikes targeting ISIL members. As the Associated Press reported, \"A U.S.-led coalition has been launching airstrikes on Islamic State militants and facilities in Iraq and Syria for months, as part of an effort to give Iraqi forces the time and space to mount a more effective offensive.\" By stating what problems that ISIS has created, the American media is portraying ISIS as deserving of the actions that the U.S. military is taking against them. This reasoning also justifies why President Barack Obama ordered another 1,500 troops to Iraq in order to stop the progress of ISIL, as CNN reported. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44923818",
"title": "2015 in aviation",
"section": "Section::::Events.:May.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 343,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 343,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "BULLET::::- On American television, United States Senator John McCain says that 75 percent of U.S. air combat missions against the Islamic State over Iraq and Syria return to base without firing their weapons or dropping any bombs because of a lack of U.S. special operations forces on the ground to provide targeting information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41427083",
"title": "2014 in aviation",
"section": "Section::::Events.:October.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 548,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 548,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "BULLET::::- Strikes during the day bring the total of American airstrikes against Islamic State targets in Iraq and Syria combined to 533. General Lloyd J. Austin III, the commander of U.S. Central Command, tells the press that the airstrikes on headquarters, communications equipment, and ground vehicles have disrupted Islamic State operations by forcing the groups forces to travel in smaller groups in civilian vehicles and interfering with its communications and planning capabilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41222249",
"title": "2014 in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Events.:August.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 182,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 182,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "BULLET::::- August 8 – The US begins conducting targeted airstrikes on ISIS militants in Iraq to prevent an invasion of the Kurdistan Region capital city of Erbil. President Obama warns the airstrike campaign could last for several months, but that no actual troops will be sent to Iraq.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41427083",
"title": "2014 in aviation",
"section": "Section::::Events.:August.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 424,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 424,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Government of Syria warns the United States not to conduct airstrikes against Islamic State forces inside Syria unilaterally, adding that such strikes would have to be coordinated with the Syrian government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a861cy
|
Can we learn things while we sleep?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is pretty unlikely that you have the capability to learn while sleeping like that. It has been theorized that your brain spends your time sleeping to unpack the information from the day and store it, so it may not be able to learn additional information because it is already at capacity.\n\nHowever, this is a subject of study and there are many of us that would like to be able to retain, process and internalize knowledge both faster and during periods of sleep.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can't learn if you input information into your brain while sleeping. There have been various companies sellkng products like this and they have yet to prove any of their claims. \n\nYou can however learn by reading something before bed. Your subconscious will puzzle over it during sleeping hours and this can help you memorize stuff you already kinda know. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1197808",
"title": "Sleep-learning",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Since the electroencephalography studies by Charles W. Simon and William H. Emmons in 1956, learning by sleep has not been taken seriously. The researchers concluded that learning during sleep was \"impractical and probably impossible\". They reported that stimulus material presented during sleep was not recalled later when the subject awoke unless alpha wave activity occurred at the same time the stimulus material was given.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27811",
"title": "Sleep and learning",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Multiple hypotheses explain the possible connections between sleep and learning in humans. Research indicates that sleep does more than allow the brain to rest. It may also aid the consolidation of long-term memories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1197808",
"title": "Sleep-learning",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Sleep-learning (also known as hypnopædia, or hypnopedia) is an attempt to convey information to a sleeping person, typically by playing a sound recording to them while they sleep. Although often used in pop culture as a way to introduce new information (see 'In Fiction'), sleep is considered an important period for memory consolidation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2741068",
"title": "Declarative learning",
"section": "Section::::Empirical evidence.:Adults.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1291,
"text": "Sleep benefits declarative learning across a range of tasks for children and young adults, however little is known of the role that sleep plays for adults when it comes to declarative learning. A study conducted by Wilson, Baran, Schott, Ivry and Spencer sought to see if sleep plays an important role in declarative learning and motor skill learning in adults. Participants were given two tasks to assess motor skill learning and another to assess declarative learning. The participants learned a motor sequence and list of word pairs during either the morning or evening. Memory tests were given to the participants twice, at twelve and twenty-four hours after training. This gap allowed for a period of sleep, a recall test, a period of normal wake, and a recall test. The study results showed that motor skills were not dependent on sleep. However, declarative learning tasks and recall increased when the participants slept before the recall test. The study also showed that a change in sleep patterns and networks activated during sleep may contribute to age related decline in motor sequences but does not affect declarative learning. This study shows that even though the role of sleep may change throughout age it is still very important to declarative learning regardless of age. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2741068",
"title": "Declarative learning",
"section": "Section::::Empirical evidence.:Children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1079,
"text": "Research focusing on children has also looked at different ways of utilizing declarative learning when it comes to memorizing tasks. Backhaus, Hoeckesfeld, Born, Hohagen, and Junghanns conducted a study to see if sleeping after a task enhances declarative learning in children. Children between the ages of nine and twelve were given a word association task consisting of forty related word pairs. The lists of words were repeated continuously until the child participating could recall at least twenty words out of the forty given. The child was allowed to go to sleep for the night and was tested for recall right after they had woken up. The child was then asked to go about their day and was tested for recall later during the day. The study showed that declarative learning, memory and retention significantly increased only after an interval of sleep that immediately followed learning. This research provides evidence of sleep in the role of declarative learning, sleep consolidation, as well as stresses the importance of sleep for declarative learning during childhood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25335695",
"title": "Perceptual learning",
"section": "Section::::The impact of training protocol and the dynamics of learning.:Consolidation and sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "Several studies asked whether learning takes place during practice sessions or in between, for example, during subsequent sleep. The dynamics of learning are hard to evaluate since the directly measured parameter is performance, which is affected by both learning, inducing improvement, and fatigue, which hampers performance. Current studies suggest that sleep contributes to improved and durable learning effects, by further strengthening connections in the absence of continued practice. Both slow-wave and REM (rapid eye movement) stages of sleep may contribute to this process, via not-yet-understood mechanisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31217535",
"title": "Memory",
"section": "Section::::Sleep.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "One of the primary functions of sleep is thought to be the improvement of the consolidation of information, as several studies have demonstrated that memory depends on getting sufficient sleep between training and test. Additionally, data obtained from neuroimaging studies have shown activation patterns in the sleeping brain that mirror those recorded during the learning of tasks from the previous day, suggesting that new memories may be solidified through such rehearsal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21f877
|
why do i get shivers when i take a shot of cheap whiskey?
|
[
{
"answer": "Please tell me you are not doing shots with single malt scotch?\n\nCheaper blended whiskys are mixed with grain alcohol (basically vodka), more expensive whisky will be just made with malt barley and pure spring water",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it is because it is cheap whiskey--they called that stuff \"rot gut\" for a reason. You get more of the alcohol and none of the delicate and varied undertones from whiskey produced with loving care in Scotland, because they don't use as many ingredients or age it in barrels that will add to the taste. You should taste the whiskey, not the alcohol.\nAlso, consider aging: you can drink moonshine right as it drips out--and your stomach and brain will hate you for it! So the processes are different, the ingredients are different. You can test this by having a shot of grain alcohol. It's your body's way of saying YUCK. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You're putting some nasty shit into your body, it is going to react in that way. I once drank a pint of 5 o'clock spiced rum (I know, it's shameful) and I ended up puking my guts up for several hours. It's garbage!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18936112",
"title": "Ethylene glycol poisoning",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "BULLET::::- Stage 1 (30 minutes to 12 hours) consists of neurological and gastrointestinal symptoms and looks similar to alcohol poisoning. Poisoned individuals may appear to be intoxicated, dizzy, lacking coordination of muscle movements, drooling, depressed, and have slurred speech, seizuring, abnormal eye movements, headaches, and confusion. Irritation to the stomach may cause nausea and vomiting. Also seen are excessive thirst and urination. Over time, the body metabolizes ethylene glycol into other toxins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33153",
"title": "Whisky",
"section": "Section::::Chemistry.:Chill filtration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Whisky is often \"chill filtered\": chilled to precipitate out fatty acid esters and then filtered to remove them. Most whiskies are bottled this way, unless specified as \"unchillfiltered\" or \"non chill filtered\". This is done primarily for cosmetic reasons. Unchillfiltered whiskies often turn cloudy when stored at cool temperatures or when cool water is added to them, and this is perfectly normal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18588020",
"title": "Chill filtering",
"section": "Section::::Method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Chill filtering prevents the whisky from becoming hazy when in the bottle, when served, when chilled, or when water or ice is added, as well as precluding sedimentation from occurring in the bottles. It works by reducing the temperature sufficiently so that some fatty acids, proteins and esters (created during the distillation process) precipitate out and are caught on the filter. Single malt whiskeys are usually chilled down to 0°C, while the temperature for blended whiskey tends to be lower because they have lower levels of fatty acid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80169",
"title": "Buckwheat",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition.:Negative reactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Buckwheat contains fluorescent phototoxic fagopyrins. Seeds, flour, and teas are generally safe when consumed in normal amounts, but fagopyrism can appear in people with diets based on high consumption of buckwheat sprouts, and particularly flowers or fagopyrin-rich buckwheat extracts. Symptoms of fagopyrism in humans may include skin inflammation in sunlight-exposed areas, cold sensitivity, and tingling or numbness in the hands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1498550",
"title": "Eilistraee",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Manifestations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "However, the Dark Dancer can also let her displeasure be known, and does so by making a cold breeze rise, by making the disfavored ones feel a chill in their hands or feet, through a sudden lack of inspiration or talent in any form of art, or through the failure to catch anything while hunting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8331759",
"title": "Human body temperature",
"section": "Section::::Temperature variation.:Hot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "BULLET::::- – (Classed as hyperthermia if not caused by a fever) – Feeling hot, sweating, feeling thirsty, feeling very uncomfortable, slightly hungry. If this is caused by fever, there may also be chills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18588020",
"title": "Chill filtering",
"section": "Section::::Method.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Factors affecting the chill filtering process include the temperature, number of filters used, and speed at which the whiskey is passed through the filters. The slower the process and the more filters used, the more impurities will be collected, but at increasing cost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
28vts8
|
why is judge an elected position?
|
[
{
"answer": "Perhaps to help avoid overt corruption? If they were appointed or nominated by the justice system, it could look shady. Allowing citizens to vote for their own judges lends more legitimacy to the position.\n\nThis is just my guess. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Perhaps not the answer you're looking for, but electing judges (and a few other legal professions, such as district attorney) is an almost uniquely American habit. Much of the rest of the world (certainly that which is based on the British legal system) performs judicial appointments via the legislature or executive, or from within the judiciary itself. Seems to be working out fine for us so far.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Judges are elected in the States (California at least)?\n\nIn the Republic of Ireland they are appointed by the executive. I can see flaws in both systems however.\n\nHow is the public to know who makes a better judge? Many people don't even care what politicians represent them never mind what judges are picked.\n\nOn the flip-side it appears there could be a lot of backscratching if they are appointed by the politicians. Sliding brown envelopes over the table and such things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's not a universal rule. Some states allow election, some require appointment, some have a hybrid system where the judges are appointed but must go through periodic retention elections (just a vote saying keep them or don't keep them). It's sporadic because each State is allowed to choose their own method of choosing judges. Federal judges are appointed by the President after first being approved by the legislature. Generally speaking, they don't campaign like normal politicians because they also have ethics requirements enforced by the BAR Association, and doing so would violate them. Essentially, the BAR Association won't allow them to make campaign promises, because then they might have to keep them, and that's not justice, its politics. (In a nutshell). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Federal judges are not elected, but are appointed by the president and confirmed by the US Senate for life terms.\n\nState judges are either elected by the public or appointed (typically by the governor). They can generally only campaign to the extent allowed by their state's code of judicial conduct. This varies by state.\n\nAs others have described, there are both good and bad reasons to allow judges to campaign. But giving a particular stance on a specific issue can make a candidate judge run afoul of those rules of conduct. At best they will cast a specter of bias on proceedings regarding that issue (defeating the purposes of justice).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The bigger question for me is why do we elect the county coroner? At least that's what happens in my state.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it comes down to checks and balances. We vote for the executive and legislative branches, so if the judicial branch (even at low levels) was appointed by one of the other two it would create an imbalance of power on whichever side had the power to appoint the judges.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The founding fathers were very skeptical of direct democracy. They intentionally limited the power of the electorate, creating things like the Electoral College, or non-direct election of Senators. They also established a federal judiciary with appointed judges.\n\n50 years later, the pendulum had swung. There was a strong movement to return power to the people. This view was typified by Andrew Jackson, who proposed all sorts of changes to the Constitution to give power to the electorate (including elected judges). This approach resonated with people. And, while the Constitution was not amended to allow for elected federal judges, most of the states that joined the union during this era or later used elected, rather than appointed judges.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11404",
"title": "United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Appointment process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1125,
"text": "The court's judges are appointed solely by the Chief Justice of the United States without confirmation or oversight by the U.S. Congress. This gives the chief justice the ability to appoint like-minded judges and create a court without diversity. \"The judges are hand-picked by someone who, through his votes on the Supreme Court, we have come to learn has a particular view on civil liberties and law enforcement\", Theodore Ruger, a professor at the University of Pennsylvania Law School, said with respect to Chief Justice John Roberts. \"The way the FISA is set up, it gives him unchecked authority to put judges on the court who feel the same way he does.\" And Stephen Vladeck, a law professor at the University of Texas School of Law, added, \"Since FISA was enacted in 1978, we've had three chief justices, and they have all been conservative Republicans, so I think one can worry that there is insufficient diversity.\" Since May 2014, however, four of the five judges appointed by Chief Justice Roberts to the FISA Court were appointed to their prior federal court positions by Presidents Bill Clinton and Barack Obama.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45006554",
"title": "Court of Justice of the Andean Community",
"section": "Section::::Judges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "Judges are selected thorough a process involving the four member states where \"each member state presents a list of three candidates and the judges are selected from those lists by unanimous decision of the member states\". Qualified \"candidates must possess a good moral reputation and be competent to exercise the highest judicial roles in their respective countries or be highly competent jurists\". The judges are appointed for a six-year term, which is renewable once. The function of the Court's president rotates annually and a provision is made for the creation of an advocate-general.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41422695",
"title": "Judiciary of New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Judges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain independence from the executive government. Judges are appointed according to their qualifications, personal qualities, and relevant experience. A judge may not be removed from office except by the Attorney-General upon an address of the House of Representatives (Parliament) for proved misbehaviour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2709449",
"title": "Government of Alabama",
"section": "Section::::Judicial branch.:Court of the Judiciary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 873,
"text": "A \"Court of the Judiciary\" is created under Alabama law, consisting of one judge of an appellate court (other than the Supreme Court), who shall be selected by the Supreme Court and shall serve as Chief Judge of the Court of the Judiciary. In addition, two judges of the circuit court are to be appointed to this body, who shall be selected by the Circuit Judges' Association; together with one district judge, who shall be selected by the District Judges' Association. Other members of the Court of the Judiciary are: two members of the state bar, who shall be selected by the governing body of the Alabama State Bar; three persons (as of 2005) who are not lawyers who shall be appointed by the Governor; and one person appointed by the Lieutenant Governor. Members appointed by the Governor and Lieutenant Governor shall be subject to Senate confirmation before serving.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21326",
"title": "Politics of Nepal",
"section": "Section::::Judicial branch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "The judiciary is composed of the Supreme Court (सर्बोच्च अदालत), Appellate courts, and various District courts. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court was appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Constitutional Council; the other judges were appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Judicial Council.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49622149",
"title": "Judiciary of Cyprus",
"section": "Section::::Judges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Judges are members of the Judicial Service of the Republic. All judges, except those of the Supreme Court, are appointed by the Supreme Council of Judicature, a body composed of the judges of the Supreme Court, which is responsible for their appointment, promotion, transfer and discipline. Supreme Court Judges are appointed by the President of the Republic on the recommendation of the Supreme Court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2069311",
"title": "Judicial appointment history for United States federal courts",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "The appointment of federal judges for United States federal courts has become viewed as a political process in the last several decades. The tables below provide the composition of the Supreme and the Courts of Appeals at the end of each four year presidential term, as well as the District Courts at the current time, categorizing the judges by the presidential term during which they were nominated for their seat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2f29ib
|
What would a battle during World War II really be like? Do any video games actually simulate this?
|
[
{
"answer": " > there is a huge emphasis on the significance of infantry combat with troops engaging in combat only occasionally receiving support from armor, air, or artillery\n\nArtillery is in a completely different category from armor and air here and rare would be the battle in which neither side drew on artillery support. WW2 armies were equipped with mortars at the company or even platoon level, so even if a unit were completely isolated they'd have *something*. And in normal circumstances, \"real\" artillery pieces would be firing on both sides. Particularly in the attack, going in without artillery support against a prepared position is just suicidal.\n\nWhile I'm sure that the absence of armor and air support is more a function of technical limitations or design choices in the video games you're thinking of, it *is* true that the importance of armor and air on the WW2 battle is easy to exaggerate. Keegan's *Face of Battle* has some good remarks on this in the concluding sections. Most of the fighting men of most \"armored\" divisions, especially in the later war, were actually foot-slogging infantrymen, and \"tank\" battles were \"heavily intermingled with confused infantry combats of a kind little different from those with which soldiers of the First World War had experienced in many of the great offensives.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think one thing which many downplay was just how static the soldier's experience of WWII could be. It was not all, or even mostly, aggressive attack and counterattack like popular culture implies. German offensive successes in 1940-42 (what most people call Blitzkrieg, although the Germans never called it that) and the Allied breakout from Normandy have both given the impression that such sweeping moves were routine, but attacks were almost always slow and grinding. In fact combat in WWII in my opinion bears much more resemblance to the stereotypical view of WWI than the view espoused by films and games set in WWII. It's inarguable that the belligerents of WWII went into the war with methods that had been developed in the latter stages of WWI--in particular WWII re-emphasized the necessity of tremendous amounts of supporting artillery fire to neutralise enemy defences and 'shoot' the attacking troops into enemy defences. What's more, the pattern of fighting became more slow and grinding as the war went on--the Germans abandoned anything resembling Blitzkrieg and began to build their tanks as mobile bunkers and emphasize flexible defence by groups of heavily-armed infantry; the Allies relied more and more upon the brute fire-power that their industrial superiority could supply. British troops eventually became so reliant on this support that the routine reaction to coming under fire was to go to ground and wait for fire support. The same kind of tactics used in Normandy, with any attack supported by tons of shelling and any enemy counter-attack smashed by artillery as soon as it began, resemble closely those developed on the Somme, where artillery was used in just this manner--the effect on the landscape was similarly destructive. In WWII soldiers fought in basically the same way their fathers had fought in 1918, with the addition of more mobile tanks (of which there were always relatively few compared to infantry), portable radios, reliable motor vehicles (though the only fully mechanised army at the beginning of the war was the British Army), and larger firepower.\n\nThis continuity is summed up really well by John Ellis in *The Sharp End of War*, which is a great book on the soldier's experience which I'd recommend you read if you can.\n\n > Above all, perhaps, the two world war have in common the shovel and the entrenching tool. From 1914 onwards the paramount fact in war was firepower of such intensity that only in holes in the ground could the front-line soldier even begin to feel relatively secure. Armoured vehicles briefly robbed defensive tactics of their supremacy, but by 1941 at the latest anti-tank gun, the mine, and a little later the bazooka/PIAT/Panzerfaust, had done much to restore the balance. Attacking remained a hazardous and slow procedure, only to be undertaken when necessary and with the maximum amount of fire support...though World War II never had trench systems as static or elaborate as those on the Western Front, the individual soldier nevertheless spent much of his time burrowing into the ground...if defensive firepower was no longer sufficiently predominant as to make only the most trivial gains possible, it was still quite enough to make progress agonisingly slow and to necessitate constant retrenchment after each desperate bound. Even when troops were not themselves on the defensive, actual advances across the battlefield were sporadic and slow, each attack a frenetic spasm in the troglodyte routine. In the front line at least 90 per cent of the infantryman's time was spent under cover either on the defensive, often under bombardment, awaiting an enemy attack, or nerving himself to the prospect of going forward.\n\nI'd also recommend *Time to Kill: The Soldier's Experience of War in the West, 1939-1945* for excellent, more academic assessments of the key belligerents. Otherwise there are countless works which look into the minutiae of how individual armies operated and how the precise forms of battle differed greatly, as others have pointed out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4785384",
"title": "War in Europe (game)",
"section": "Section::::Scenarios.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 871,
"text": "For many World War II wargamers, this became the ultimate World War II wargame, even if it was not possible to complete all that many games. Nearly two decades later, Decision Games published a computer version by Greg Ploussios which recreated the game, which is still played by email between enthusiasts. The main limit to the computer game is that there is no computer opponent, so it must be played by two or more human players. Decision Games republished the monster in 1999, with additional optional rules (including Western Allied production) and counters (e.g. US Marines) and significantly upgraded map graphics. Decision Games is planning on again re-publishing this game, and stating they will add counters and new optional rules. A new computer game version of the \"War in Europe\", redesigned to fit more advanced versions of Windows, appeared early in 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10280894",
"title": "Military simulation",
"section": "Section::::Simulation and reality.:Validation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1339,
"text": "Historically, there have even been a few rare occasions where a simulation was validated as it was being carried out. One notable such occurrence was just before the famous Ardennes offensive in World War II, when the Germans attacked allied forces during a period of bad weather in the winter of 1944, hoping to reach the port of Antwerp and force the Allies to sue for peace. According to German General Friedrich J Fangor, the staff of Fifth \"Panzerarmee\" had met in November to game defensive strategies against a simulated American attack. They had no sooner begun the exercise than reports began arriving of a strong American attack in the Hűrtgen area—exactly the area they were gaming on their map table. \"Generalfeldmarschall\" Walther Model ordered the participants (apart from those commanders whose units were actually under attack) to continue playing, using the messages they were receiving from the front as game moves. For the next few hours simulation and reality ran hand-in-hand: when the officers at the game table decided that the situation warranted commitment of reserves, the commander of the 116th \"Panzer\" Division was able to turn from the table and issue as operational orders those moves they had just been gaming. The division was mobilised in the shortest possible time, and the American attack was repulsed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2295738",
"title": "Axis & Allies (2004 video game)",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.:WWII mode.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "WWII mode is a game mode which allows the player to wage war across the globe in a traditional turn-based fashion. It resembles a turn-based computer variant of the \"Axis & Allies\" board games, but with the option to fight battles in RTS mode. The player fights WWII in how they see fit, effectively \"changing the course of history.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15211538",
"title": "Secret Weapons of the Luftwaffe",
"section": "Section::::Setting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "The game focuses battles between the 8th United States airforce and the Luftwaffe challenge during World War II, especially the American Strategic Bombing offensive against Germany, from August 1943 towards the end of war in 1945. It is focused more on action than on realistic simulation. The game sets up German secret weapons, with fast jet propulsion and a variety of missiles and bombs, against slower but more numerous American piston-engined airplanes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13496892",
"title": "War Times",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "War Times is a real-time strategy computer game for Windows released in 2004. It was developed and produced by Spanish company Legend Studios and distributed in USA and Canada by Strategy First. It is a World War II strategy game where the player can play as either the Allies or the Axis and usually has to complete a task that pertains to killing the opposing force or defending a base from enemies for a set amount of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14610286",
"title": "Wargame (video games)",
"section": "Section::::Game design.:Comparison with traditional wargames.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "While it has been argued that computer wargame video games lack the realism of traditional games, they may include features that are impractical for tangible games. One such approach is using fog of war, whereby players are unable to see the landscape beyond the simulating viewing distance of their units. This is made practical in digital games by the fundamental difference of competing against artificial intelligence or remote competitors with their own view of the playing field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "877344",
"title": "Close Combat (series)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 689,
"text": "The five original \"Close Combat\" games were real-time tactical (RTT) war games, with a top-down perspective and two-player capabilities. Each was set in a different European theatre of the Second World War. Each game included a mixture of infantry and armoured units, whilst the later games also included artillery, mortars and air support. Although viewed from a top-down perspective, the later games modelled terrain elevation, and included buildings with multiple floors and viewable sides. The overall tone emphasised realism, and modelled the emotional or physical state of the soldiers and equipment which included, panicked, berserk, burning, incapacitated, pinned and many others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5djpuq
|
When and why Viet Nam and Korea (both North and South) abandoned Chinese characters?
|
[
{
"answer": "North Korea made the shift starting in the late 1940s. 1949, officially.\n\nSouth Korea was still using them quite frequently as late as the 1990s, and you can still find plenty of examples of mixed script Korean in academic texts today. In the early 90's newspapers finally switched over to Hangeul. However Chinese characters (*hanja*) are still used for abbreviations and some technical terminology where they can clear up ambiguity. Officially, the teaching of *hanja* stopped in 1971 in South Korea for younger students. In both Koreas, *hanja* are still taught to high schoolers, but in limited number. It's also worth mentioning that prior to this, hangeul was only really standardised in the 1930s, and then again in the 1980s. \n\nIn Vietnam, Chinese characters (chữ nôm) were replaced in the 1920s. The system that replaced it wasn't too new. It was developed and in use by missionaries in the mid 1800s.\n\nWhy, for both languages, is a little more complicated. A big part of it had to do with national identity. A big part of it had to do with efforts to improve literacy. On those grounds even Mao Zedong made early pushes to replace Chinese characters with an alphabet, though this ultimately never happened (though it got close in some places).\n\nAnother significant factor is that at this time (early 20th century) the practice of writing all formal texts in Classical Chinese was falling out of favour across Asia. People were starting to use the vernacular to write, rather than an archaic form of another language entirely. If you're going to write the way you speak, then there's less perceived value in using an old foreign orthography to do it, especially when the list of perceived shortcomings is quite long when it comes to how that script can represent your language.\n\nSimply put, one could say that the sort of nationalism that was developing at the start of the 20th century across the region (e.g. 五四運動) was really the key factor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37372825",
"title": "Red Chinese Battle Plan",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "Produced five years before the beginning of the United States' rapproachment with Mao Zedong in 1972, \"Red Chinese Battle Plan\" was made during the Vietnam War under the Lyndon Johnson administration. Despite the widening rift between the China and the Soviet Union, both powers supported the Vietnamese communists during the Indochina conflict, while the Western Bloc cultivated a myth of Chinese expansionism throughout the decade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "903097",
"title": "Vietnamese people",
"section": "Section::::Legend and early history.:Cultural and historical influences.:North.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 829,
"text": "Before the Chinese actually annexed Vietnam, groups from present-day southern China began to move into the Tonkin Delta in order to start new lives after being forced to leave their homelands. Thus, around the 3rd century BC, changes in China began to heavily influence the Đông Sơn culture which was thriving in Vietnam. One important series of changes occurred along the Yangtze River in southern China. According to historians, in 333 BC, three cultures, the Shu, the Ch'u, and the Yueh began to fight among themselves, causing the Yueh to move south in small scattered kingdoms. At the same time, the central power of northern China, the Ch'in Dynasty, began to split so that a large number of princes and members of the aristocracy also moved south to start their own small kingdoms. Sino-Vietnamese 越 gave the name \"Viet\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52053",
"title": "French Indochina",
"section": "Section::::History.:First Indochina War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "After the war, 200,000 Chinese troops under General Lu Han sent by Chiang Kai-shek invaded northern Indochina north of the 16th parallel to accept the surrender of Japanese occupying forces, and remained there until 1946. The Chinese used the , the Vietnamese branch of the Chinese , to increase their influence in Indochina and put pressure on their opponents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15130066",
"title": "Operation Camargue",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Chinese and American backing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 768,
"text": "Following the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War in 1949, the Viet Minh established close ties with China. It enabled the Chinese to expand their area of influence into Indochina and the Viet Minh to receive much-needed Chinese equipment and strategic planning support. From mid-1950, PRC military advisers were seconded to the Viet Minh at battalion, regimental and divisional levels. The common border meant that \"China became a 'sanctuary' where the Viet Minh could be trained and refitted\". When the Korean War broke out, Indochina became \"an important pawn in Cold War strategy\". In December 1950, the United States, concerned about growing Chinese Communist influence, started providing military aid to the French, with a first payment of US$15 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26922215",
"title": "Sino-Vietnamese conflicts, 1979–1991",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "When the Chinese People's Liberation Army (PLA) withdrew from Vietnam in March 1979 after the war, China announced that they were not ambitious for \"any square inch of the territory of Vietnam\". However, Chinese troops occupied an area of , which was disputed land controlled by Vietnam before hostilities broke out. In some places such as the area around Friendship Gate near the city of Lạng Sơn, Chinese troops occupied territories which had little military value but important symbolic value. Elsewhere, Chinese troops occupied the strategic positions of military importance as springboards to attack Vietnam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3398337",
"title": "East Asian cultural sphere",
"section": "Section::::East Asian Culture.:Language.:Writing Systems.:Chinese characters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Vietnam used to write in chữ Hán or Classical Chinese. Since the 8th century they began inventing many of their own chữ Nôm. Since French colonization, they have switched to using a modified version of the Latin alphabet called chữ Quốc ngữ. However, Chinese characters still hold a special place in the cultures as their history and literature have been greatly influenced by Chinese characters. In Vietnam (and North Korea), hanzi can be seen in temples, cemeteries, and monuments today, as well as serving as decorative motifs in art and design. And there are movements to restore Hán Nôm in Vietnam. (Also see History of writing in Vietnam.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69980",
"title": "Second Sino-Japanese War",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.:Communist Party of China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "In 1930, the Central Plains War broke out across China, involving regional commanders who had fought in alliance with the Kuomintang during the Northern Expedition, and the Nanjing government under Chiang. The Communist Party of China (CPC) previously fought openly against the Nanjing government after the Shanghai massacre of 1927, and they continued to expand during this civil war. The Kuomintang government in Nanjing decided to focus their efforts on suppressing the Chinese Communists through the Encirclement Campaigns, following the policy of \"first internal pacification, then external resistance\" ().\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5yzdgt
|
why would the government classify alien activity ?
|
[
{
"answer": "Imagine how the public would react if intelligent life contacted earth. Pandemonium. Men In Black did a pretty good job of summing it up, \"A person is smart. People, however, are dumb, panicky, and stupid\"\n\nIf intelligent life was discovered people would freak out. We aren't ready for that as a society. Hell, we are hardly ready to find bacteria on mars and be ok with it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Any nation that established contact with a superior alien intelligence could glean incredible technological and military advantages over its adversaries. It's possible that the \"official\" government (or whatever their analogous social structure is) representing the alien species might not want this, and enforces laws to prevent us from obtaining this technology, which is why we haven't had \"real\" contact yet - but this might be circumvented by individuals or small groups seeking to gain by trading secrets to us in exchange for raw materials, safe haven, or even acquiescence to operating facilities/bases in our solar system, or even on earth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is almost guaranteed that evidence of extraterrestrial life would destabilize the planet. \n\nWe've seen how people behave at a Walmart on Black Friday - How would they act if they found out there was a superior species *out there*?\n\nFear, hope, riots, gatherings would occur. Everything you know and love about your society would become insignificant. We'd suddenly become a global society, finally identifying as *human* rather than American or Chinese, black or hispanic. Governments would lose control after a large portion of our species becomes unified in such a manner and the rest descend into an existentialism induced chaos.\n\nHow then would we find structure? Who is in charge of the entire planet? How do you decide? \n\nIt would be much safer to keep knowledge of extraterrestrials from the common people and avoid such an embarrassment to the visitors. We're basically still the same creature that evolved to survive on the plains of Africa. Sometimes we need to maintain this sort of control over our society.\n\nThe aliens might even realize this themselves and command us to keep it a secret. They'd have to understand the reality or else they'd simply fly some of their ships over our cities or start a broadcast on all frequencies.\n\nSupposing this, we would presume then that Governments would decide (or be instructed) to begin unifying the planet culturally in preparation for this extraterrestrial-based social unification. Globalism would be encouraged, peace and understanding would be encouraged. Wars would slow down or vanish completely...\n\nBut instead we see that petty wars over money and territory continue to this day. We see wars against terrorism on TV, but read on the internet that we're the terrorists. We still see petty squabbles and social striations. We still let our own people die of starvation while others are forced to undergo drastic surgeries to reduce their weight. We'll force women to reproduce and then wait patiently to put that unwanted child into prison 18 years later.\n\nIf the government(s) are in contact with extraterrestrials then those extraterrestrials are probably not the ones that we'd want to meet. If they were then we would expect much different behavior from our financial elite and our governments.\n\nWe might expect those aliens to be non-benevolent anyway. \n\nYou don't end up with advanced technology from a friendly environment. Wars and struggle are what inspires intelligent beings to create technology. What use is a nuclear reactor when your food is plentiful and weather pleasant? What good is a fortress when you have no enemies?\n\nWhat is Human history, if not an ongoing succession of greater technologies grinding lesser ones beneath their boots? \n\nThe idea that any star-faring civilization will be the same ones who've been forced to bend and break their environment to survive could be reason enough for the riots and chaos of an Earth now made aware of extraterrestrial intelligence.\n\nImagine you're a peaceful alien and humans landed on your planet. Would you be worried? You would if you knew about our history genocides, hate, and destruction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because it's the government, and by that I mean that any news about alien activity would immediately be followed by \"What are you, our government, doing about it?\"\n\nAnd while I'm sure there are first contact and emergency response plans in place, in a lot of the possible scenarios we won't be able to do much about it.\n\nAnd admitting THAT is what would destabilize the planet.\n\nThe answer is the same as for the question \"why would the government classify information about an impending extinction level event\" (large asteroid hitting the planet, for example).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Religions would fall apart, people would give up on persevering and expect the aliens to maintain humanity by eliminating hunger and other primitive responsibilities. This is bad not only for the corrupt government industrial war profiting complex for obvious reasons such as the elimination of pollution, diseases, and war itself but also humanity would simply have no responsibility over itself, we might even become more unstable than we already are. We are still only a few hundred years into the discovery of technological advancements. I really wish there was some way benevolent extraterrestrials could make their selves known to the ones who want to have peaceful and loving relations with them. \n\nDear benevolent, loving extraterrestrials, if you're reading this, I love you, and want to learn from you. I know I may be terrified at first but with time, I hope that we can come to trust each other and you can show me the stars and the infinite loving beauty of the universe. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Lots of us had abortions\"\n\n\"What is that?\"\n\n\"It's when you terminate the potential of human life when it is still just a clump of developing cells.\"\n\n\"How efficient! This is wonderful! Let's us feast on these wine and crackers you speak of!\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4347189",
"title": "Suspect classification",
"section": "Section::::Federal classifications.:Suspect class.:Alienage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "Alienage, or the state of being an alien, i.e. a non-citizen of the United States, is a unique category. For purposes of state law, legal aliens are a suspect class (\"Graham v. Richardson\", 403 U.S. 365 (1971)). As such, state actions are analyzed according to strict scrutiny. In contrast, because the United States Congress has the power to regulate immigration, federal government action that discriminates based on alienage will receive rational basis scrutiny. State acts that affect unlawful immigrants are generally analyzed with rational basis review unless the topic is education of children, in which case they are analyzed under intermediate scrutiny based on \"Plyler v. Doe\", 457 U.S. 202 (1982).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1703155",
"title": "Alien (law)",
"section": "Section::::Common law jurisdictions.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "The usage of the term \"alien\" dates back to 1798, when it was used in the Alien and Sedition Acts. Although the INA provides no overarching explicit definition of the term \"illegal alien\", it is mentioned in a number of provisions under title 8. Several provisions even mention the term \"unauthorized alien\". According to PolitiFact, the term \"illegal alien\" occurs in federal law, but does so scarcely. PolitiFact notes that, \"where the term does appear, it’s undefined or part of an introductory title or limited to apply to certain individuals convicted of felonies.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7124412",
"title": "Illegal immigration",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "According to PolitiFact, the term \"illegal alien\" occurs in federal law, but does so scarcely. PolitiFact notes that, \"where the term does appear, it’s undefined or part of an introductory title or limited to apply to certain individuals convicted of felonies.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32191",
"title": "Patriot Act",
"section": "Section::::Titles.:Title IV: Border security.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 2154,
"text": "The Act amended the INA to add new provisions enforcing mandatory detention laws. These apply to any alien who is engaged in terrorism, or who is engaged in an activity that endangers U.S. national security. It also applies to those who are inadmissible or who must be deported because it is certified they are attempting to enter to undertake illegal espionage; are exporting goods, technology, or sensitive information illegally; or are attempting to control or overthrow the government; or have, or will have, engaged in terrorist activities. The Attorney General or the Attorney General's deputy may maintain custody of such aliens until they are removed from the U.S. unless it is no longer deemed they should be removed, in which case they are released. The alien can be detained for up to 90 days but can be held up to six months after it is deemed that they are a national security threat. However, the alien must be charged with a crime or removal proceedings start no longer than seven days after the alien's detention, otherwise the alien will be released. However, such detentions must be reviewed every six months by the Attorney General, who can then decide to revoke it, unless prevented from doing so by law. Every six months the alien may apply, in writing, for the certification to be reconsidered. Judicial review of any action or decision relating to this section, including judicial review of the merits of a certification, can be held under habeas corpus proceedings. Such proceedings can be initiated by an application filed with the United States Supreme Court, by any justice of the Supreme Court, by any circuit judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, or by any district court otherwise having jurisdiction to entertain the application. The final order is subject to appeal to the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit. Provisions were also made for a report to be required every six months of such decisions from the U.S. Attorney General to the Committee on the Judiciary of the House of Representatives and the Committee on the Judiciary of the Senate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7201014",
"title": "Military Commissions Act of 2006",
"section": "Section::::Provisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The Act also contains provisions (often referred to as the \"habeas provisions\") removing access to the courts for any alien detained by the United States government who is determined to be an enemy combatant, or who is 'awaiting determination' regarding enemy combatant status. This allows the United States government to detain such aliens indefinitely without prosecuting them in any manner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "324091",
"title": "Sedition",
"section": "Section::::History in common law jurisdictions.:United States.:Civilian.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 1168,
"text": "In 1940, the Alien Registration Act, or \"Smith Act\", was passed, which made it a federal crime to advocate or to teach the desirability of overthrowing the United States Government, or to be a member of any organization which does the same. It was often used against Communist Party organizations. This Act was invoked in three major cases, one of which against the Socialist Worker's Party in Minneapolis in 1941, resulting in 23 convictions, and again in what became known as the Great Sedition Trial of 1944 in which a number of pro-Nazi figures were indicted but released when the prosecution ended in a mistrial. Also, a series of trials of 140 leaders of the Communist Party USA also relied upon the terms of the \"Smith Act\"—beginning in 1949—and lasting until 1957. Although the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the convictions of 11 CPUSA leaders in 1951 in Dennis v. United States, that same Court reversed itself in 1957 in the case of \"Yates v. United States\", by ruling that teaching an ideal, no matter how harmful it may seem, does not equal advocating or planning its implementation. Although unused since at least 1961, the \"Smith Act\" remains a Federal law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2687516",
"title": "Space (Baxter novel)",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "Alien activity is discovered in a Kirkwood gap; the aliens are identified as self-replicating machines (von Neumann probes). Their activity is potentially an immense threat, as Malenfant notes in an earlier speech: \"A target system, we assume, is uninhabited. We can therefore program for massive and destructive exploitation of the system's resources, without restraint, by the probe. Such resources are useless for any other purpose, and are therefore economically free to us. And so we colonize, and build.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1kxcsr
|
why is it illegal to fight back on a "no knock warrant"?
|
[
{
"answer": "No knock warrants just mean they don't knock. They will loudly and repeatedly identify themselves as law enforcement agents, and they will be wearing vests with POLICE in large letters on both sides. So there's really no way you could legitimately not know if they are are law enforcement agents.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8230368",
"title": "No-knock warrant",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "No-knock warrants are controversial for various reasons. There have been cases where burglars have robbed homes by pretending to be officers with a no-knock warrant. There have been many cases where armed homeowners, believing that they are being invaded, have shot at officers, resulting in deaths on both sides. While it is legal to shoot a homeowner's dog when an officer fears for his/her life, there have been numerous high-profile cases in which family pets lacking the size, strength, or demeanor to attack officers have been shot, greatly increasing the risk of additional casualties in neighboring houses via overpenetrating bullets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2493023",
"title": "Knock-and-announce",
"section": "Section::::The rule.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "In a similar manner, where officers reasonably believe that exigent circumstances, such as the destruction of evidence or danger to officers will exist, a no-knock warrant may be issued. However, despite police awareness that such future exigencies will exist, they are generally not required to seek such a warrant; in this case, police must have an objectively reasonable belief, at the time of executing the warrant, that such circumstances do in fact exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8230368",
"title": "No-knock warrant",
"section": "Section::::Legal authority.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Federal judges and magistrates may lawfully and constitutionally issue \"no-knock\" warrants where circumstances justify a no-knock entry, and federal law enforcement officers may lawfully apply for such warrants under such circumstances. Although officers need not take affirmative steps to make an independent re-verification of the circumstances already recognized by a magistrate in issuing a no-knock warrant, such a warrant does not entitle officers to disregard reliable information clearly negating the existence of exigent circumstances when they actually receive such information before execution of the warrant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8157570",
"title": "Kathryn Johnston shooting",
"section": "Section::::Warrant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1310,
"text": "As justification for the no-knock warrant, the Atlanta Police Department initially claimed that the police were searching for drug dealers after a police informant was said to have bought crack at Johnston's home. However, the informant later denied having bought drugs at her house, and suspicion about the incident sparked a federal and state investigation. In the affidavit police used to obtain a search warrant for Johnston's house, Atlanta narcotics officers alleged their informant bought drugs inside Johnston's home earlier in the day from a man named \"Sam\", and that the home had video surveillance equipment justifying the no-knock warrant. In an interview with Atlanta television station WAGA a few days after Johnston's shooting, the informant denied having gone to her house and said that after the shooting, police pressured him to lie and say that he had. The informant denied that he had ever been to Johnston's house. According to WSB-TV in Atlanta, Detective Junnier subsequently told the Federal Bureau of Investigation that some of the information used to obtain the search warrant on Johnston's home was false. Several experts said that even if the warrant information had been entirely legitimate, the informant's word would not have been enough to legally justify the no-knock warrant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8230368",
"title": "No-knock warrant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "In the United States, a no-knock warrant is a warrant issued by a judge that allows law enforcement officers to enter a property without immediate prior notification of the residents, such as by knocking or ringing a doorbell. In most cases, law enforcement will identify themselves just before they forcefully enter the property. It is issued under the belief that any evidence they hope to find can be destroyed during the time that police identify themselves and the time they secure the area, or in the event where there is a large perceived threat to officer safety during the execution of the warrant.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31656",
"title": "Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Exceptions to the warrant requirement.:Searches incident to a lawful arrest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 2153,
"text": "A common law rule from Great Britain permits searches incident to an arrest without a warrant. This rule has been applied in American law, and has a lengthy common law history. The justification for such a search is to prevent the arrested individual 1.) from destroying evidence or 2.) using a weapon against the arresting officer by disarming the suspect. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that \"both justifications for the search-incident-to-arrest exception are absent and the rule does not apply\", when \"there is no possibility\" that the suspect could gain access to a weapon or destroy evidence. In \"Trupiano v. United States\" (1948), the Supreme Court held that \"a search or seizure without a warrant as an incident to a lawful arrest has always been considered to be a strictly limited right. It grows out of the inherent necessities of the situation at the time of the arrest. But there must be something more in the way of necessity than merely a lawful arrest.\" In \"United States v. Rabinowitz\" (1950), the Court reversed \"Trupiano\", holding instead that the officers' opportunity to obtain a warrant was not germane to the reasonableness of a search incident to an arrest. \"Rabinowitz\" suggested that any area within the \"immediate control\" of the arrestee could be searched, but it did not define the term. In deciding \"Chimel v. California\" (1969), the Supreme Court elucidated its previous decisions. It held that when an arrest is made, it is reasonable for the officer to search the arrestee for weapons and evidence. However, in \"Riley v. California\" (2014), the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that police must obtain a warrant to search an arrestee's cellular phone. The Court said that earlier Supreme Court decisions permitting searches incident to an arrest without a warrant do not apply to \"modern cellphones, which are now such a pervasive and insistent part of daily life that the proverbial visitor from Mars might conclude they were an important feature of human anatomy,\" and noted that US citizens' cellphones today typically contain \"a digital record of nearly every aspect of their lives — from the mundane to the intimate.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8230368",
"title": "No-knock warrant",
"section": "Section::::Legal authority.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "No-knock warrants may be issued in every state except Oregon (where state law bans no-knock warrants) and Florida (in which a 1994 state supreme court decision prohibited no-knock warrants). 13 states have laws explicitly authorizing no-knock warrants and in twenty additional states no-knock warrants are routinely granted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2sfkbv
|
Many technological advances in the past decades can be attributed to NASA. How much (if any) technological advances can be attributed to the Soviet space program?
|
[
{
"answer": "I know it may not be what your looking for but I think a lot of your answers will inevitably be in regards to rocketry. \n\nOn that front, the Soviets developed a number of advanced rocket engines, some of which are still some of the best in the world. The [RD-170](_URL_1_) for instance maintains the title as the most powerful rocket engine in the world. Most people believe this title goes to the American F-1 engine which was used for the Apollo program. However the F-1 is only the most powerful single cone engine, and comparatively the RD-170 outputs over 1,000,000 more Newtons of thrust. \n\nSecondly the [NK-33](_URL_0_) rocket engine which was originally developed for the Soviet Moon program has the second highest thrust to weight ratio of of any rocket. Similarly, it also has a very high specific impulse. It's only other contender is the SpaceX Merlin 1-D which was developed very recently. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "90815",
"title": "Military technology",
"section": "Section::::Postmodern technology.:Space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "During the Cold War, the world's two great superpowers — the Soviet Union and the United States of America — spent large proportions of their GDP on developing military technologies. The drive to place objects in orbit stimulated space research and started the Space Race. In 1957, the USSR launched the first artificial satellite, \"Sputnik 1\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2380807",
"title": "Militarisation of space",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Cold War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "During the Cold War, the world's two great superpowers—the Soviet Union and the United States of America—spent large proportions of their GDP on developing military technologies. The drive to place objects in orbit stimulated space research and started the Space Race. In 1957, the USSR launched the first artificial satellite, \"Sputnik 1\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55847",
"title": "National Defense Education Act",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "NDEA was among many science initiatives implemented by President Dwight D. Eisenhower in 1958 to increase the technological sophistication and power of the United States alongside, for instance, DARPA and NASA. It followed a growing national sense that U.S. scientists were falling behind scientists in the Soviet Union. The early Soviet success in the Space Race catalyzed a national sense of unease with Soviet technological advances, especially after the Soviet Union launched the first-ever satellite, Sputnik, the previous year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26779",
"title": "Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Economy.:Science and technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 128,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 128,
"end_character": 1023,
"text": "The Soviet Union placed great emphasis on science and technology within its economy, however, the most remarkable Soviet successes in technology, such as producing the world's first space satellite, typically were the responsibility of the military. Lenin believed that the USSR would never overtake the developed world if it remained as technologically backward as it was upon its founding. Soviet authorities proved their commitment to Lenin's belief by developing massive networks, research and development organizations. In the early 1960s, the Soviets awarded 40% of chemistry PhDs to women, compared to only 5% who received such a degree in the United States. By 1989, Soviet scientists were among the world's best-trained specialists in several areas, such as energy physics, selected areas of medicine, mathematics, welding and military technologies. Due to rigid state planning and bureaucracy, the Soviets remained far behind technologically in chemistry, biology, and computers when compared to the First World.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1176777",
"title": "Science and technology in the Soviet Union",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Soviet technology was most highly developed in the fields of nuclear physics, where the arms race with the West convinced policy makers to set aside sufficient resources for research. Due to a crash program directed by Igor Kurchatov (based on spies of Cambridge Five), the Soviet Union was the second nation to develop an atomic bomb, in 1949, four years after the United States. The Soviet Union detonated a hydrogen bomb in 1953, a mere ten months after the United States. Space exploration was also highly developed: in October 1957 the Soviet Union launched the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, into orbit; in April 1961 a Soviet cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, became the first man in space. The Soviets maintained a strong space program until economic problems led to cutbacks in the 1980s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18385902",
"title": "NASA spinoff technologies",
"section": "Section::::Mistakenly attributed NASA spinoffs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "The following is a list of technologies sometimes mistakenly attributed directly to NASA. In many cases, NASA popularized technology or aided its development, due to its usefulness in space, which ultimately resulted in the technology's creation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30731968",
"title": "Space policy of the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:Eisenhower administration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "NASA as created in the act passed by Congress was substantially stronger than the Eisenhower administration's original proposal. NASA took over the space technology research started by DARPA. NASA also took over the US manned satellite program, Man In Space Soonest, from the Air Force, as Project Mercury.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
46fvpp
|
Why is the myth that conscripted make up the bulk of medieval armies so prevalent?
|
[
{
"answer": "I have a theory that the reason for this is fairly simple: miscommunication.\n\n\"Medieval\" usually refers to the European Middle Ages, a period that stretched from the Fall of Rome in 476 until the Fall of Constantinople in ~~1492~~ 1453. There are about a thousand differing start and end dates, but using the demise of two Roman empires is convenient and a little poetic -- because, unlike dating it to Gutenberg's printing press, we don't have to quibble over whether to point at when he started or the vague \"c. 1525\" figure that better represents the spread of the printing press. But what's important here is that, no matter the exact start and end dates, the period corresponds to a stupidly long period of time. If we go with a more conservative figure of dating the start to 800 when Charlemagne founded the Holy Roman Empire, we're still looking at a period of nearly 700 years from start to end. More time separated a Genoese soldier on the walls of Constantinople in 1492 from Charlemagne than what separates this sub from Columbus himself. That's the first thing that makes communicating on this subject rather difficult at times.\n\nThere's also the matter of nomenclature. How do you define \"peasant,\" exactly? For most people, especially those who don't study medieval history, a peasant is probably just someone who occupies the second lowest strata of society (being just one step above slaves). A farmer, basically. Maybe a fisherman or hunter. \n\nIf we look at the English at Agincourt, 5/6ths of their army could probably be classified as \"peasantry.\" Yes, the longbowmen absolutely did go to war with a fairly extensive kit and a very specialized skillset. Yes, those longbowmen had to meet various requirements to actually qualify for service (like actually being able to draw and fire one of those massive warbows). Yes, those longbowmen would have been paid for their time and entitled to various rights while on campaign (most notably looting). But they weren't men at arms (who could very well have held sizable tracts of land) and they absolutely were not of the proper nobility (who comprised, perhaps, 100 of the 6,000 English soldiers at Agincourt). \n\nNow let's return to the first sentence in this post. Even if we get past all the traps above, the miscommunication *still* arises from the fact that when I say the English army was largely comprised of the peasantry, I'm referring just to social standing. If someone who is not as well informed on the subject were to then read that part of my post and see me classify the English army as peasantry, said person could, not knowing any better, simply conjure up the stereotypical image that Hollywood likes to give us of the peasant: dirty, dressed in earthy tones (bonus points for dirty brown), and probably featured on a set that is just as drab-looking as they are. \n\nThere are probably another half dozen factors that would contribute to the miscommunications that seem to breathe new life into these misconceptions on a regular basis, but I think that you've got the idea. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27650213",
"title": "Dutch States Army",
"section": "Section::::Financing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1376,
"text": "Though usually the aspect of financing of a military force is seen as \"derivative,\" in the case of the States Army it played an important formative role, and influenced the peculiarities of the organisation also. Though 16th-century armies were usually preponderantly mercenary armies, there often were elements of feudal levies and volunteers also. These were lacking in the States Army (the civic militia or Schutterij was not part of the army). Apparently it never occurred to the authorities in the Republic to organize a volunteer or conscript army; mercenaries were the only feasible option. This had already been the case under the Habsburg rulers, when the States of the several provinces were asked to pay for the raising of the Habsburg armies, and played a role in their financial administration, like mustering. The authorities of the rebel provinces continued where they left of in this respect. They were, however, content to limit their role to financial administration and the raising of the necessary money via the financing of a fiscal-military state (see the financial history of the Dutch Republic). The latter formed already a considerable burden on the public finances of the provinces in the time of Charles V, and contributed to the formation of early-modern institutions for the management of the public debt in which the Dutch had a pioneering role.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3610935",
"title": "Byzantine Greeks",
"section": "Section::::Society.:Soldiers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 855,
"text": "Until the 11th century, the majority of the conscripts were from rural areas, while the conscription of craftsmen and merchants is still an open question. From then on, professional recruiting replaced conscription, and the increasing use of mercenaries in the army was ruinous for the treasury. From the 10th century onwards, there were laws connecting land ownership and military service. While the state never allotted land for obligatory service, soldiers could and did use their pay to buy landed estates, and taxes would be decreased or waived in some cases. What the state did allocate to soldiers, however, from the 12th century onwards, were the tax revenues from some estates called \"pronoiai\" (). As in antiquity, the basic food of the soldier remained the dried biscuit bread, though its name had changed from \"boukelaton\" () to \"paximadion\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1376",
"title": "Army",
"section": "Section::::History.:Medieval Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "Thus the scutage was introduced, whereby most Englishmen paid to escape their service and this money was used to create a permanent army. However, almost all high medieval armies in Europe were composed of a great deal of paid core troops, and there was a large mercenary market in Europe from at least the early 12th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "753281",
"title": "Roman army",
"section": "Section::::Historical overview.:Roman army of the mid-Republic (c. 300–88 BC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1224,
"text": "After the 2nd Punic War (218–201 BC), the Romans acquired an overseas empire, which necessitated standing forces to fight lengthy wars of conquest and to garrison the newly gained provinces. Thus the army's character mutated from a temporary force based entirely on short-term conscription to a standing army in which the conscripts were supplemented by a large number of volunteers willing to serve for much longer than the legal six-year limit. These volunteers were mainly from the poorest social class, who did not have plots to tend at home and were attracted by the modest military pay and the prospect of a share of war booty. The minimum property requirement for service in the legions, which had been suspended during the 2nd Punic War, was effectively ignored from 201 BC onward in order to recruit sufficient volunteers. Between 150-100 BC, the manipular structure was gradually phased out, and the much larger cohort became the main tactical unit. In addition, from the 2nd Punic War onward, Roman armies were always accompanied by units of non-Italian mercenaries, such as Numidian light cavalry, Cretan archers, and Balearic slingers, who provided specialist functions that Roman armies had previously lacked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25818724",
"title": "Early Roman army",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Until c. 550 BC, there was probably no \"national\" Roman army, but a series of clan-based war-bands, which only coalesced into a united force in periods of serious external threat. Around 550 BC, during the period conventionally known as the rule of king Servius Tullius, it appears that a universal levy of eligible adult male citizens was instituted. This development apparently coincided with the introduction of heavy armour for most of the infantry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "753281",
"title": "Roman army",
"section": "Section::::Early Roman army (c. 550 to c. 300 BC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Until c. 550 BC, there was no \"national\" Roman army, but a series of clan-based war-bands which only coalesced into a united force in periods of serious external threat. Around 550 BC, during the period conventionally known as the rule of king Servius Tullius, it appears that a universal levy of eligible adult male citizens was instituted. This development apparently coincided with the introduction of heavy armour for most of the infantry. Although originally low in numbers the Roman infantry was extremely tactical and developed some of the most influential battle strategies to date.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3579278",
"title": "Military establishment of the Roman kingdom",
"section": "Section::::Conscription.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "When it was time to draft additional soldiers into the military, they would look to their citizens for assistance in the defense of Rome. In the writings of Polybius it was in the natural order of a Roman citizen to fight in the military. However, the military was divided by class and wealth. The poorer citizens made up most of the light infantry (\"velites\") of the legion. The higher class \"equites\" were drafted into the cavalry because they could afford a horse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
x4xwc
|
what stops cops from simply planting cocaine in your pocket and arresting you?
|
[
{
"answer": "nothing is stopping them. it happens all the time. sometimes a group of cops will walk into your house and throw a bag of coke on the table while arresting you. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It happens. Cops have been known to plant drugs on suspects to arrest them. \n\nWhy don't they? Well should they be caught the will be on the other end of that jailtime. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Usually the lack of a motive. It's a good idea not to give them one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "60353906",
"title": "The Legend of Cocaine Island",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "A man goes looking for cocaine on an island. Some cops (undercover) offer to help by taking the map and getting the coke in exchange for half. The cops (still undercover) send the man a picture of a hole with a bag in it, implying that cocaine is in the bag. They ask the man to come to a parking lot to give him his cut. At this time they arrest him for conspiracy. It was a witch hunt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21553083",
"title": "New York City Police Department corruption and misconduct",
"section": "Section::::Multiple-victim misconduct allegations and additional controversies.:Corruption in the 67th Precinct.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "A pattern of arrests of individuals who were charged with gun possession, made by officers in Brooklyn's 67th Precinct station house, was reported to be allegedly tampered, according to a 2014 newspaper report. The suspects stated that the police had placed the guns on their person, and the report said that \"each gun was found in a plastic bag or a handkerchief, with no traces of the suspect's fingerprints.\" Defense attorneys have said in court filings that the arresting officers may have been inventing informers as a way to satisfy arrest quotas and to collect $1,000 rewards from an anti-gun community safety program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42997274",
"title": "Don't Give a Damn",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "In order to snatch the drugs from the police station, the thugs plant bombs in the station, forcing the officers to leave the building while they pose as SDU members and go snatch the drugs from the evidence room. However, they were penetrated by Shek and after battling alongside Pierre against the thugs, the thugs managed to escape after one of the thugs Sean (Shawn Patrick Berry) was arrested.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1488232",
"title": "False arrest",
"section": "Section::::Citizens and businesses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "Most cases of false arrest involve accusations of shoplifting, and are brought against security guards and retail stores. A guard cannot arrest someone merely on the suspicion that person is going to commit a theft. In most jurisdictions, there must be some proof that a criminal act has \"actually\" been committed. For example, a guard does not have reasonable and probable cause if a shopper has not yet paid for merchandise they are carrying in the belief that the person intends to leave without making payment. Instead, there must be an actual act committedthe person \"must\" make an actual attempt to leave the store without paying for the merchandise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5841657",
"title": "Bhagam Bhag",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "the police to turn in the drugs to get good credit or an award, but the police get the wrong impression and think they are drug dealers. Commissioner JD Mehra (Jackie Shroff) releases them after telling them not to leave the country until they are proven innocent. Then while search of a heroine, Bunty and Gulab Singh take help of Guru (Shakti Kapoor), a local don who is a drunkard and they end up breaking his (Guru's) legs. Guru sends his goons to thrash Bunty and Gulab Singh but they escape. They bump into Munni (Lara Dutta), who is trying to commit suicide. Bunty saves her and brings her to the theatre group to be the heroine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25881768",
"title": "R v AM",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Without obtaining a warrant, the police opened the backpack and found illicit drugs. They charged the student who owned the backpack with possession of marijuana and psilocybin for the purpose of trafficking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1584322",
"title": "Scuttling",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "Colombian drug cartels have used narco-submarines to smuggle cocaine from Colombia to the United States. Their fiberglass construction makes them nearly invisible to radar, sonar, and infrared. After unloading or when intercepted, the crew scuttles the submarine. With the main evidence of trafficking gone, the crew go from suspected traffickers to castaways who, in accordance with maritime law, must be rescued and cannot be charged. However, laws were recently changed to address what was seen as an exploitation of legal loopholes. The United States now considers the operation of an unflagged (unregistered) vessel, designed solely for the clandestine transport of contraband, a crime in and of itself that carries severe penalties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
nehwp
|
Can cancer go away on its own?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Coley's toxins](_URL_0_) were developed from when William Coley observed a small number of patients whose incurable cancers went into remission following sepsis caused by streptococcal infections. In this sense, the spontaneous remission followed infection, so it didn't go away \"on its own,\" but it did go away without intervention.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Coley's toxins](_URL_0_) were developed from when William Coley observed a small number of patients whose incurable cancers went into remission following sepsis caused by streptococcal infections. In this sense, the spontaneous remission followed infection, so it didn't go away \"on its own,\" but it did go away without intervention.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "152509",
"title": "Metastasis",
"section": "Section::::Management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "Treatment and survival is determined, to a great extent, by whether or not a cancer remains localized or spreads to other locations in the body. If the cancer metastasizes to other tissues or organs it usually dramatically increases a patient's likelihood of death. Some cancers—such as some forms of leukemia, a cancer of the blood, or malignancies in the brain—can kill without spreading at all.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1342811",
"title": "Benign tumor",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "Although most benign tumors are not life-threatening, many types of benign tumors have the potential to become cancerous (malignant) through a process known as tumor progression. For this reason and other possible negative health effects, some benign tumors are removed by surgery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44286894",
"title": "Growth curve (biology)",
"section": "Section::::Cancer cell growth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "In the example shown in Figure 2, a tumor is found after the cell growth rate has slowed. Most of the cancer cells are removed by surgery. The remaining cancer cells begin to proliferate rapidly and cancer chemotherapy is started. Many tumor cells are killed by the chemotherapy, but eventually some cancer cells that are resistant to the chemotherapy drug begin to grow rapidly. The chemotherapy is no longer useful and is discontinued.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "105219",
"title": "Cancer",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 167,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 167,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "Those who survive cancer develop a second primary cancer at about twice the rate of those never diagnosed. The increased risk is believed to be due to the random chance of developing any cancer, the likelihood of surviving the first cancer, the same risk factors that produced the first cancer, unwanted side effects of treating the first cancer (particularly radiation therapy), and to better compliance with screening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20528341",
"title": "INCTR Challenge Fund",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "There are several reasons for this high death toll from cancer in developing countries. Due to poverty, lack of resources and vast distances, public access to treatment maybe difficult or non-existent. There is also not enough awareness (public or professional) about cancer to help either prevent the disease developing or to support early diagnosis. As a result, 80% of cancer patients present with advanced/incurable cancers. Unfortunately, in many cases, palliative care will not be available to them at the end of their lives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9495306",
"title": "Beanibazar Upazila",
"section": "Section::::Charities working in Beani Bazar.:Beani Bazar Cancer Hospital.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 299,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 299,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "With the right medical help, cancer doesn't have to be a death sentence. Those who can afford it travel to other countries to pay for their treatment and care. Those who can't are left to suffer and die.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7172",
"title": "Chemotherapy",
"section": "Section::::Limitations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Chemotherapy does not always work, and even when it is useful, it may not completely destroy the cancer. People frequently fail to understand its limitations. In one study of people who had been newly diagnosed with incurable, stage 4 cancer, more than two-thirds of people with lung cancer and more than four-fifths of people with colorectal cancer still believed that chemotherapy was likely to cure their cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1fq4tn
|
Is it possible to have a solid block of something floating in a gas?
|
[
{
"answer": "~~Yes! Here's a [video](_URL_0_) of an aluminium foil ship floating in sulphur hexaflouride.~~ \n \nWait, this isn't what you asked at all. Sorry, ignore.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "(I assume you mean a solid block of matter floating in a gas - not any trick such as floating a little tinfoil boat on a heavy gas, which is quite trivial.)\n\nGoogle \"phase diagram\".\n\nAt high enough pressure and temperature, many substances are gaseous. Due to the high pressure, density is also high.\n\nWhat you need to find is two substances which, at the same high temperature and high pressure, one of them is a gas, the other is a solid, and the density of the gas is higher than the density of the solid. Perhaps a combination of a heavy gas and a lightweight metal, and hope the gas doesn't decompose at that temperature (if it's not a simple element).\n\nHere's the phase diagram of water, which is rather complex as phase diagrams go - most of the others are simpler:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In general theory, sure it's completely possible. All that would be required is for the denisty of solid to be less than the density of the gas. In reality, it would be difficult with near standard temperature and pressure conditions. \n\nThe lowest density readily available solid that comes to mind off the top of my head is Lithium, with a density of 534 kg/m3. The most dense gas near STP is Xenon, with a density of 5.89 kg/m3. So, it's no dice, at conventional conditions. \n\nHowever, the critical density of Xenon is around 1100 kg/m3, which means it can be compressed (and heated as neccessary) to a density above 534 kg/m3 while still being clearly defined as a gas.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On a related note, does anyone know what the lowest density solid material know to man is? Google just loves aerogels, which are clearly not solid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38811886",
"title": "History of decompression research and development",
"section": "Section::::Mixed phase models (dissolved and bubble phases).:Varying Permeability Model.:Bubble nucleation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 281,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 281,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Gas bubbles with a radius greater than 1 micron should float to the surface of a standing liquid, whereas smaller ones should dissolve rapidly due to surface tension. The Tiny Bubble Group has been able to resolve this apparent paradox by developing and experimentally verifying a new model for stable gas nuclei.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37379",
"title": "Relative density",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Substances with a relative density of 1 are neutrally buoyant, those with RD greater than one are denser than water, and so (ignoring surface tension effects) will sink in it, and those with an RD of less than one are less dense than water, and so will float.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37379",
"title": "Relative density",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "If a substance's relative density is less than one then it is less dense than the reference; if greater than 1 then it is denser than the reference. If the relative density is exactly 1 then the densities are equal; that is, equal volumes of the two substances have the same mass. If the reference material is water then a substance with a relative density (or specific gravity) less than 1 will float in water. For example, an ice cube, with a relative density of about 0.91, will float. A substance with a relative density greater than 1 will sink.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9360334",
"title": "Modified-release dosage",
"section": "Section::::Methods.:Floating systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "A floating system is a system where it floats on gastric fluids due to low-density. The density of the gastric fluids is about 1 g/mL; thus, the drug/tablet administered must have a smaller density. The buoyancy will allow the system to float to the top of the stomach and release at a slower rate without worry of excreting it. This system requires there are enough gastric fluids present as well as food. Many types of forms of drugs use this method such as powders, capsules, and tablets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10173651",
"title": "Slosh dynamics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Strictly speaking, the liquid must have a free surface to constitute a slosh dynamics problem, where the dynamics of the liquid can interact with the container to alter the system dynamics significantly. Important examples include propellant slosh in spacecraft tanks and rockets (especially upper stages), and the free surface effect (cargo slosh) in ships and trucks transporting liquids (for example oil and gasoline).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11322595",
"title": "Extraterrestrial liquid water",
"section": "Section::::Indicators, methods of detection and confirmation.:Water rich circumstellar disks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "There is, of course, no guarantee that the other conditions will be found that allow liquid water to be present on a planetary surface. Should planetary mass objects be present, a single, gas giant planet, with or without planetary mass moons, orbiting close to the circumstellar habitable zone, could prevent the necessary conditions from occurring in the system. However, it would mean that planetary mass objects, such as the icy bodies of the solar system, could have abundant quantities of liquid within them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6740960",
"title": "Cheerios effect",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "A floating object will seek the highest point of the membrane and thus will find its way to either the center or the edge. A similar argument explains why bubbles on surfaces attract each other: a single bubble raises the liquid level locally causing other bubbles in the area to be attracted to it. Dense objects, like paper clips, can rest on liquid surfaces due to surface tension. These objects deform the liquid surface downward. Other floating objects that are seeking to sink but are constrained by surface tension will be attracted to the first. Objects with an irregular meniscus also deform the water surface forming \"capillary multipoles\". When such objects come close to each other they rotate in the plane of the water surface until they find an optimum relative orientation. Subsequently, they are attracted to each other by surface tension. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
usj0f
|
Books about Diogenes of Sinope
|
[
{
"answer": "*Diogenes the Cynic*, L. Navia (2005)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "154997",
"title": "Lost work",
"section": "Section::::Lost works.:Classical world.:Unnamed works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 273,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 273,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "BULLET::::- Lost works of Diogenes of Sinope He is reported to have written several books, none of which has survived to the present date. Whether or not these books were actually his writings or attributions are in dispute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6710192",
"title": "Liexian Zhuan",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "The Liexian Zhuan, sometimes translated as Biographies of Immortals, is the oldest extant Chinese hagiography of Daoist \"xian\" \"transcendents; immortals; saints; alchemists\". The text, which compiles the life stories of about 70 mythological and historical \"xian\", was traditionally attributed to the Western Han dynasty editor and imperial librarian Liu Xiang (77-8 BCE), but internal evidence dates it to the 2nd century CE during the Eastern Han period. The \"Liexian Zhuan\" became a model for later authors, such as Ge Hong's 4th century CE \"Shenxian zhuan\" (\"Biographies of Divine Immortals\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13528262",
"title": "Aristo of Ceos",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Judging from the scant extant fragments, his philosophical views seem to have followed his master Lyco pretty closely. Diogenes Laërtius, after enumerating the works of Aristo of Chios, says that Panaetius and Sosicrates attributed all these works, except the letters, to Aristo of Ceos. Whether this attribution is correct we are unable to determine. At any rate, one of those works, \"Conversations on Love\", is repeatedly ascribed to Aristo of Ceos by Athenaeus. One work of Aristo not mentioned by Diogenes Laërtius was entitled \"Lyco\" in gratitude to his master. There are also two epigrams in the \"Greek Anthology\" which are commonly attributed to Aristo of Ceos, though there is no evidence for the validity of their authorship.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "270348",
"title": "Dio Chrysostom",
"section": "Section::::Writings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1691,
"text": "Dio Chrysostom was part of the Second Sophistic school of Greek philosophers which reached its peak in the early 2nd century. He was considered as one of the most eminent of the Greek rhetoricians and sophists by the ancients who wrote about him, such as Philostratus, Synesius, and Photius. This is confirmed by the eighty orations of his which are still extant, and which were the only ones known in the time of Photius. These orations appear to be written versions of his oral teaching, and are like essays on political, moral, and philosophical subjects. They include four orations on Kingship addressed to Trajan on the virtues of a sovereign; four on the character of Diogenes of Sinope, on the troubles to which men expose themselves by deserting the path of Nature, and on the difficulties which a sovereign has to encounter; essays on slavery and freedom; on the means of attaining eminence as an orator; political discourses addressed to various towns which he sometimes praises and sometimes blames, but always with moderation and wisdom; on subjects of ethics and practical philosophy, which he treats in a popular and attractive manner; and lastly, orations on mythical subjects and show-speeches. He argued strongly against permitting prostitution. He also claimed that the epics of Homer had been translated and were sung in India; this is unlikely to be true, and there may have been confusion with the \"Mahabharata\" and the \"Ramayana\", of which there are some parallels in subject matter. Two orations of his (37 and 64) are now assigned to Favorinus. Besides the eighty orations we have fragments of fifteen others, and there are extant also five letters under Dio's name.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80047",
"title": "Diogenes Laërtius",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1057,
"text": "Diogenes Laërtius (; , \"Diogenēs Laertios\"; ) was a biographer of the Greek philosophers. Nothing is definitively known about his life, but his surviving \"Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers\" is a principal source for the history of ancient Greek philosophy. His reputation is controversial among scholars because he often repeats information from his sources without critically evaluating it. He also frequently focuses on trivial or insignificant details of his subjects' lives while ignoring important details of their philosophical teachings and he sometimes fails to distinguish between earlier and later teachings of specific philosophical schools. However, unlike many other ancient secondary sources, Diogenes Laërtius generally reports philosophical teachings without attempting to reinterpret or expand on them, which means his accounts are often closer to the primary sources. Due to the loss of so many of the primary sources on which Diogenes relied, his work has become the foremost surviving source on the history of Greek philosophy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1738950",
"title": "Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "Although it is at best an uncritical and unphilosophical compilation, its value, as giving us an insight into the private lives of the Greek sages, led Montaigne to write that he wished that instead of one Laërtius there had been a dozen. On the other hand, modern scholars have advised that we treat Diogenes' testimonia with care, especially when he fails to cite his sources: \"Diogenes has acquired an importance out of all proportion to his merits because the loss of many primary sources and of the earlier secondary compilations has accidentally left him the chief continuous source for the history of Greek philosophy\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2701286",
"title": "Antonius Diogenes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Scholars have tended to take it as a given that Lucian of Samosata had Diogenes' work principally in mind when he wrote his celebrated parody, the \"Verae Historiae\" (\"True Histories\"), but J.R. Morgan has more recently questioned this accepted notion upon extensive comparative study of the two works.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
h5ud7
|
Is it true that the quantum states of two related electrons can be entangled, making it so that changes to one effect the other, regardless of distance? If so, why? [Layman Here]
|
[
{
"answer": "What quantum entanglement is about is measuring a correlated *system* of electrons. You need to measure both particles and communicate (classically) the results of those measurements to determine that system. \n\nYou can check out more of it on [this](_URL_0_) thread.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's kind of a version of Schrodinger's Cat, also known as the EPR paradox. For the wiki article, read:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nHere's it in short - one type of subatomic particle (a muon) can decay into an electron of spin up and an electron of spin down. However, before you measure the spin on the electron, you don't know which one is spin up and which one is spin down. Actually, it's funny, they both exist in *both states*, with 1/2 probability for either way. Until you measure it, they exist in both states. However, let's say you separate these two electrons by some distance. Now, if you measure the spin on one of the electrons, and it comes out positive, you know with 100% certainty that the other electron is negative. This means that you have just transmitted *information* in zero seconds, and if velocity is distance/time, and distance is non-zero, you've just transmitted information at infinite speed, which is actually greater than the speed of light. This is the nature of the paradox that Einstein shat himself over for 20 years. \n\nThere are lots of interpretations, most of which I'm not familiar with, but have a huge section in that wikipedia article, so I'm going to read that now and you're welcome to join me in that if you'd like. \n\nIf you don't want to read the wiki, well, here's what Feynman has to say about it:\n\n_URL_1_\n\nBasically, experiment is experiment. There is no 'why', just 'how'. Later we figure out the why, but usually it's pretty hard to understand because we don't have everyday experience about it. It's just the way nature acts! You don't have to like it, you just have to know it's true. \n\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "888587",
"title": "Quantum logic gate",
"section": "Section::::Measurement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "If two different quantum registers are entangled (they cannot be expressed as a tensor product), measurement of one register affects or reveals the state of the other register by partially or entirely collapsing its state too. An example of such a linearly inseparable state is the EPR pair, which can be constructed with the CNOT and the Hadamard gates (described above). This effect is used in many algorithms: if two variables A and B are maximally entangled (the bell state is the simplest example of this), a function F is applied to A such that A is updated to the value of F(A), followed by measurement of A, then B will, when measured, be a value such that F(B) = A . This way, measurement of one register can be used to assign properties to some other registers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1206",
"title": "Atomic orbital",
"section": "Section::::Transitions between orbitals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Bound quantum states have discrete energy levels. When applied to atomic orbitals, this means that the energy differences between states are also discrete. A transition between these states (i.e., an electron absorbing or emitting a photon) can thus only happen if the photon has an energy corresponding with the exact energy difference between said states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11807",
"title": "Ferromagnetism",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.:Exchange interaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "When two nearby atoms have unpaired electrons, whether the electron spins are parallel or antiparallel affects whether the electrons can share the same orbit as a result of the quantum mechanical effect called the exchange interaction. This in turn affects the electron location and the Coulomb (electrostatic) interaction and thus the energy difference between these states.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12300987",
"title": "Quantum coupling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Quantum Coupling is an effect in quantum mechanics in which two or more quantum systems are bound such that a change in one of the quantum states in one of the systems will cause an instantaneous change in all of the bound systems. It is a state similar to quantum entanglement but whereas quantum entanglement can take place over long distances quantum coupling is restricted to quantum scales.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "82728",
"title": "Quantum superposition",
"section": "Section::::Theory.:Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "In quantum mechanics, two particles can be in special states where the amplitudes of their position are uncorrelated. For quantum amplitudes, the word entanglement replaces the word correlation, but the analogy is exact. A disentangled wave function has the form:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51910",
"title": "Quantum key distribution",
"section": "Section::::Quantum key exchange.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "BULLET::::- Entanglement based protocols : The quantum states of two (or more) separate objects can become linked together in such a way that they must be described by a combined quantum state, not as individual objects. This is known as entanglement and means that, for example, performing a measurement on one object affects the other. If an entangled pair of objects is shared between two parties, anyone intercepting either object alters the overall system, revealing the presence of the third party (and the amount of information they have gained).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58278312",
"title": "Aspect's experiment",
"section": "Section::::Scientific and historical context.:Entanglement, the EPR paradox and Bell inequalities.:Quantum entanglement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "Quantum mechanics dictates that once two separate quantum systems (two particles for example) have interacted or if they have a common origin, they cannot be considered as two independent systems. The quantum mechanical formalism postulates that if a first system possesses a formula_1 state, and the second a formula_2state, then the resulting entangled system is represented by a quantum superposition of the tensor product of both states: formula_3. This notation clearly shows that the physical distance between the two systems plays no role in the entangled state (because no position variable is present). The entangled quantum state remains identical — all else being equal — whatever the distances between both systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3zdlx1
|
why do some drinks like arnold palmer have a faint marijuana-like taste?
|
[
{
"answer": "Could be that ganga you just smoked? I personally haven't had this experience.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2088462",
"title": "Arnold Palmer (drink)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "The Arnold Palmer is a name commonly used for a non-alcoholic beverage that combines iced tea and lemonade. The name \"Arnold Palmer\" refers to the professional American golfer Arnold Palmer, who was known to often request and drink this beverage combination; some attribute the invention of the beverage to the golfer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "231887",
"title": "Dandelion and burdock",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The dominant flavour in these other drinks is usually sassafras or wintergreen, both now derived artificially rather than from the plant itself, in part because during the 1960s safrole, the major component of the volatile oil of sassafras, was found to be carcinogenic in rats when administered in relatively large doses. All of these drinks, while tasting similar, do have their own distinct flavour. Dandelion and burdock is most similar in flavour to sarsaparilla. The drink has recently seen an increase in popularity after previously poor sales.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2088462",
"title": "Arnold Palmer (drink)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "In 2012, an ESPN \"30 for 30 Shorts\" documentary was produced on the drink, featuring Palmer, beverage experts, a group of PGA golfers and comedian Will Arnett discussing the drink's history and popularity. In the film, Palmer attributes the spreading of the drink's name to an incident in which a woman copied his ordering the drink at lunch while working on a golf course in Palm Springs, California, saying \"I'll have that Arnold Palmer drink, too.\" Palmer preferred three parts unsweetened tea, to one part lemonade, but when mixed equal parts tea and lemonade, the drink is sometimes called a \"Half & Half\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2088462",
"title": "Arnold Palmer (drink)",
"section": "Section::::Mass-produced versions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "The drink has been sold under the Arnold Palmer trademark via a licensing arrangement with Innovative Flavors since 2001. Arizona Beverage Company began marketing and selling the beverage with Palmer's picture and signature on the bottle in 2002 and has handled distribution ever since. The line has expanded to include various flavors including Green Tea, Southern Style Sweet Tea and Pink Lemonade, Zero Calorie, Strawberry, Peach, Mango and Natural Energy. Lemonade combined with iced tea is also sold without the Arnold Palmer trademark by other companies, such as Nestea, Lipton Brisk, Honest Tea (as Half and Half), Nantucket Nectars (as Half and Half), Country Time, Sweet Leaf, XINGtea, Snapple, and Peace Iced Tea (as Caddyshack). It has 43 mg of caffeine per 23 oz drink.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "226479",
"title": "Shandy",
"section": "Section::::Rock or non-alcoholic shandy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "BULLET::::- United States: In the United States, a non-alcoholic half-and-half mix of traditional lemonade and iced tea is popular and is known as an Arnold Palmer, after the famous golfer. Created on an ad hoc basis at first, Palmer commercialized the mix and licensed use of his name and image on cans of the drink which are produced and marketed by the Arizona Tea company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "929761",
"title": "Iced tea",
"section": "Section::::Varieties.:Half and half.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "There is a growing popularity in the United States of a mixed drink called \"half and half\". Half and half is a mix of iced tea and lemonade, giving the drink a much sweeter taste. Often called an Arnold Palmer (although Palmer himself preferred 2:1 tea:lemonade), the drink was eventually marketed by Snapple, Nantucket Nectars, and AriZona Iced Tea. In 2012 an ESPN short documentary was produced on the drink, featuring Palmer, beverage experts, a group of PGA golfers and comedian Will Arnett discussing the drink's history and popularity. A John Daly is an alcoholic version of the drink, often made with sweet tea, vodka, and lemonade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28289515",
"title": "Mexican Coke",
"section": "Section::::Taste tests.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Results from taste tests have been mixed. In a taste test conducted by a local Westchester, New York magazine, tasters noted that the Mexican Coke had \"a more complex flavor with an ineffable spicy and herbal note\", and that it contained something \"that darkly hinted at root beer or old-fashioned sarsaparilla candies\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
f8at2a
|
why there's no algae over the surface of oceans ?
|
[
{
"answer": "There is. A lot of it. But constant turbulence of the surface prevents it from getting too clumped up. Additionally, there are a *lot* of things eating the algae, too, which keep algal populations manageable.\n\nSometimes those things get out of whack and you end up with [massive algal blooms](_URL_0_) that cover huge swaths of the ocean.\n\nYou rarely see solid mats of algae, though, because of the constant motion and turbulence. Algae that *does* clump together has evolved into different forms that are strong enough to deal with the ocean currents and don't *look* like algae, like [giant kelp](_URL_1_), which is, in fact, algae, not a plant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18006454",
"title": "Shewanella algae",
"section": "Section::::Metabolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "\"S. algae\" is of great interest to the United States Department of Energy because of its ability to reduce the amount of radioactive waste in groundwater by making it less soluble. An example would be:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18597983",
"title": "Seaweed",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Bioremediation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 679,
"text": "Algae's strong photosynthesis creates a large affinity for nutrients; this allows the seaweed to be used to remove undesired nutrients from water (as for instance in dead zones). Seaweed also generates oxygen, which benefits hypoxic (=oxygen-poor) dead zones. Nutrients such as ammonia, ammonium nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, iron, copper, as well as CO are rapidly consumed by growing seaweed. Reefs and lakes are naturally filtered this way (seaweed is consumed by fish and invertebrates), and this filtering process is duplicated in artificial seaweed filters such as algae scrubbers. China could remove its entire phosphorus effluent by increasing seaweed production by 150%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "600519",
"title": "Florida Bay",
"section": "Section::::Environmental issues.:Algae blooms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1023,
"text": "Blue-green algae causes numerous severe health consequences for the marine ecosystem as well surrounding human populations. Blooms result in reduced dissolved oxygen concentrations, alterations in aquatic food webs, algal scum lining the shores, the production of compounds that cause distasteful drinking water and fish flesh, and the production of toxins severe enough to poison aquatic as well as terrestrial organisms. Blooms have been reported throughout the continental United States, and resulting cyanotoxins have been associated with human and animal illness and death in at least 43 states. Most cyanobacteria produce the neurotoxin beta-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) that has been implicated as a significant environmental risk in the development of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). The cyanobacteria has also been linked to liver cancer, chronic fatigue illness, skin rashes, abdominal cramps, nausea, diarrhea and vomiting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90347",
"title": "Phycology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Algae are important as primary producers in aquatic ecosystems. Most algae are eukaryotic, photosynthetic organisms that live in a wet environment. They are distinguished from the higher plants by a lack of true roots, stems or leaves. They do not flower. Many species are single-celled and microscopic (including phytoplankton and other microalgae); many others are multicellular to one degree or another, some of these growing to large size (for example, seaweeds such as kelp and \"Sargassum\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19333613",
"title": "Sea anemone",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour and ecology.:Mutualistic relationships.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1267,
"text": "Although not plants and therefore incapable of photosynthesis themselves, many sea anemones form an important facultative mutualistic relationship with certain single-celled algae species that reside in the animals' gastrodermal cells, especially in the tentacles and oral disc. These algae may be either zooxanthellae, zoochlorellae or both. The sea anemone benefits from the products of the algae's photosynthesis, namely oxygen and food in the form of glycerol, glucose and alanine; the algae in turn are assured a reliable exposure to sunlight and protection from micro-feeders, which the sea anemones actively maintain. The algae also benefit by being protected by the sea anemone's stinging cells, reducing the likelihood of being eaten by herbivores. In the aggregating anemone (\"Anthopleura elegantissima\"), the colour of the anemone is largely dependent on the proportions and identities of the zooxanthellae and zoochlorellae present. The hidden anemone (\"Lebrunia coralligens\") has a whorl of seaweed-like pseudotentacles, rich in zooxanthellae, and an inner whorl of tentacles. A daily rhythm sees the pseudotentacles spread widely in the daytime for photosynthesis, but they are retracted at night, at which time the tentacles expand to search for prey.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39070352",
"title": "Wildlife of Antarctica",
"section": "Section::::Others.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Other algae live in or on the sea ice, often on its underside, or on the seabed in shallow areas. Over 700 seaweed species have been identified, of which 35% are endemic. Outside of the ocean many algae are found in freshwater both on the continent and on the subantarctic islands. Terrestrial algae, such as snow algae, have been found living in soil as far south as 86° 29'. Most are single-celled. In summer algal blooms can cause snow and ice to appear red, green, orange, or grey. These blooms can reach about 10 cells per mL. The dominant group of snow algae is chlamydomonas , a type of green algae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "233271",
"title": "Brown algae",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Brown algae have adapted to a wide variety of marine ecological niches including the tidal splash zone, rock pools, the whole intertidal zone and relatively deep near shore waters. They are an important constituent of some brackish water ecosystems, and have colonized freshwater on a maximum of six known occasions. A large number of Phaeophyceae are intertidal or upper littoral, and they are predominantly cool and cold water organisms that benefit from nutrients in up welling cold water currents and inflows from land; \"Sargassum\" being a prominent exception to this generalisation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3310dz
|
Weapon ownership in Medieval Europe
|
[
{
"answer": "In Iceland it certainly, from a Saga perspective (from the viewpoint that they reflect society in the Sturlung period, that is from about 1200 onwards) does not seem uncommon for 'farmers' (in Medieval Iceland nearly everybody was a farmer, as there were not urbanised areas/ towns|), or lower class landowners, to possess an axe or spear at least.\n\n\n\nAxes and spears have the virtue of being relatively cheap to make; only a small amount of poor quality iron was necessary, and although I am not convinced by the argument axes did have utilitarian purposes.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1196247",
"title": "Palladium Books",
"section": "Section::::\"Weapons\".:Contents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "\"Weapons\" is a compendium of virtually every edged or impact melee weapon used in any medieval or primitive culture. \"Weapons\" is an indexed sourcebook describing hundreds of different melee weapons, each illustrated. Weapons are covered in six sections: Swords, Knives, Hafted Weapons, Spears, Pole Arms, and Miscellaneous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41978832",
"title": "Royal Armoury of Madrid",
"section": "Section::::Collections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1237,
"text": "The reign of the Catholic Monarchs and the weaponry of Late Middle Ages, is also represented by weapons from various sources that frame the activity in this period. Are preserved Contemporary war weapons to the Granada War, consisting of illustrative defensive pieces of the Spanish, Italian and German workshops; and two of the oldest portable fire weapons known in Spain, even debtors in some ways, of the archery that supersede with the time. Within this group it deserve special mention the helmets and the armor pieces associated with a peculiar prestigious peninsular production, whose workshops have not yet been identified, but are supposed are from Aragonese origin; The Nasrid sultanate of Granada is present through a small but important sample of its panoply, since are preserved an example of each of the three types of weapons of Granadan creation; one genet from the collection of Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand of Austria; one leather shield preserved in the armory of Charles V; and a dagger wing associated with a belt with pouch and a holster for a Quran, those latter captured at the Battle of Lucena to Muhammad XII (Boabdil), and those presented to Alfonso XIII by the Marquis of Viana as part of the Villaseca legacy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13584",
"title": "History of the Mediterranean region",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.:Late Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 855,
"text": "During the Middle Ages, rival Christian and Muslim kingdoms forbade the trade of particular goods to enemy kingdoms including weaponry and other contraband items. The popes forbade the export of these commodities to the Islamic world. The Ottomans too forbade the export of weapons and other strategic items, declaring them \"memnu eşya\" or \"memnu olan\" to Christian states even in peace treaties, however friendly states could import some of the prohibited goods through capitulations. Despite these prohibitions, trade of contraband occurred on both sides. The European merchants traded in illegal goods with Muslims. The Ottomans were unable to suppress the trade with smuggling being undertaken mainly in the winter when the Ottoman Navy stationed at the Istanbul Arsenal was unable to stop Ottoman and non-Ottoman vessels from indulging in the trade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30227775",
"title": "Gunpowder Empires",
"section": "Section::::Gunpowder weapons in the three empires.:Ottoman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 954,
"text": "The first of the three empires to acquire gunpowder weapons was the Ottoman, as by the 14th century, the Ottomans had adopted gunpowder artillery. The adoption of the weapons by the Ottomans was so rapid that they \"preceded both their European and Middle Eastern adversaries in establishing centralized and permanent troops specialized in the manufacturing and handling of firearms.\" But it was their use of artillery that shocked their adversaries and impelled the other two Islamic empires to accelerate their weapons program. The Ottomans had artillery at least by the reign of Bayezid I and used them in the sieges of Constantinople in 1399 and 1402. They finally proved their worth as siege engines in the successful siege of Salonica in 1430. The Ottomans employed European foundries to cast their cannons, and by the siege of Constantinople in 1453, they had large enough cannons to batter the walls of the city, to the surprise of the defenders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20816431",
"title": "Gun law in the Czech Republic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Firearms ownership has a very long tradition in the country. The English term \"pistol\" originated in 15th-century Czech language. \"Mariánská skála\" in Ústí nad Labem is Europe's oldest still open shooting range, established in 1617. The Czech lands have been the manufacturing center (including weapons industry) of Central Europe for over two centuries. Firearms possession was severely restricted during German occupation and the subsequent communist dictatorship, with ownership rates gradually rising ever since return of liberty following the 1989 Velvet Revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49750",
"title": "Arms control",
"section": "Section::::History.:Pre-19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "There were few recorded attempts to control arms during the period between this and the rise of the Roman Catholic Church. In the 8th and 9th centuries AD, swords and chain mail armor manufactured in the Frankish empire were highly sought after for their quality, and Charlemagne (r. 768-814), made their sale or export to foreigners illegal, punishable by forfeiture of property or even death. This was an attempt to limit the possession and use of this equipment by the Franks' enemies, including the Moors, the Vikings and the Slavs. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1030181",
"title": "Guisarme",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "A guisarme (sometimes gisarme, giserne or bisarme) is a pole weapon used in Europe primarily between 1000 and 1400. Its origin is likely Germanic, from the Old High German , literally \"weeding iron\". Like many medieval polearms, the exact early form of the weapon is hard to define from literary references, and the identification of surviving weapons can be speculative.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2amzfe
|
Why didn't the Jews attempt to rebel or "rise up" in WW2 against their Nazi captors?
|
[
{
"answer": "You are right, it isn't that simple.\n\nFirst of all, the nazi persecution of the Jews happened incrementally, not all at once, and it was by no means clear that \"they were going to die anyway\". It is clear to us in hindsight, but you have to keep in mind that the concept of rounding up men, women and children, putting them on trains, unloading them at a purpose-built death camp, and gassing them, was never before encountered in the history of the world. It was so novel and alien an idea that hardly anyone at the time believed it was happening *even when they were told about it by eye witnesses*. Escapees from Auschwitz and Treblinka told their fellow Jews and were disbelieved initially. The same escapee reports were relayed through the Polish government in exile to the Western allies, and they disbelieved it too.\n\nSecondly, \"the Jews\" were not a nation with an army. They were a people who were a small to tiny minority in a number of separate occupied countries. They had no governing structure or access to arms. They were not unified structurally in any way.\n\nThirdly, and most importantly, there *was* Jewish resistance, what's more, it even arose in the most dire and impossible of circumstances.\n\nThere were uprisings in several Polish ghettos, most notably those of Warsaw in January and April-May 1943, and in Bialystok in August 1943. They were of course brutally suppressed and everybody to the last child was carted off to Treblinka and killed.\n\nThere were Jewish partisan groups fighting the Germans in Poland, the Baltic states and the Soviet Union. The reason there were separate Jewish partisans is, by the way, is that often Polish and Baltic partisans refused to admit Jews as members and even went so far as to kill them...\n\nLastly, there were uprisings in the death camps themselves. \n\nThere have been three large-scale uprisings in Nazi death camps. As the odds were stacked heavily against the inmates, these stories make for some bleak reading.\n\n**[SonderKommando revolt at Auschwitz-Birkenau](_URL_0_), October 7, 1944**\n\nThe Sonderkommandos were groups of Jewish prisoners charged with processing the belongings and handling the cremation of other prisoners. They knew that they would not be allowed to survive the war and had gathered some makeshift weapons and explosives. On the fateful day, they managed to set Crematorium IV on fire and kill three SS men. Some of them escaped briefly but all were recaptured and killed. In all, the revolt cost the lives of 451 members of the Sonderkommandos.\n\n**[Treblinka uprising](_URL_1_), August 2, 1943**\n\n300 inmates of Treblinka managed to escape, of whom 200 were recaptured (sometimes with the help of the Polish inhabitants of the region) and killed. According to various estimates, about 60-70 of the Treblinka escapees were still alive at the end of the war. Three guards were killed in the uprising, as well as about 600 of the 800 to 900 inmates. After the uprising, two more transports of Jews arrived and were killed. Shortly afterwards, Treblinka was dismantled, ploughed over and turned into a farm. The remaining inmates were killed at Sobibor.\n\n**The Sobibor Uprising on October 14, 1943**\n\n12 German officers were killed in the revolt as well as a number of Ukrainian guards. As Sobibor was strictly an extermination camp, where those that arrived by rail were immediately gassed, the number of prisoners was very small, just enough to keep the camp running. 300 out of 700 inmates managed to escape during the revolt. Many were recaptured and killed rather quickly, others were killed by the Polish resistance they met in the forests around the camp, still others were betrayed by Polish inhabitants of the region. Some were helped by the Poles, though, mainly in return for money and valuables belonging to gassed Jews that they had smuggled out of the camp. It should be remembered that to harbour Jewish refugees meant an almost certain death sentence at the time. Only about 50 of the escaped survived the war.\n\n\n\nImmediately after the revolt, all remaining prisoners in Sobibor were killed and the camp was dismantled.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4177379",
"title": "Dutch resistance",
"section": "Section::::Initial German policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 748,
"text": "If the Germans discovered people were involved in the resistance, they were often immediately jailed. It was the social democrats, Catholics, and communists who started the resistance movement. Membership of an armed or military organized group could lead to prolonged stays in concentration camps, and after mid-1944, to summary execution (as a result of Hitler's orders to shoot resistance members on sight – the \"Niedermachungsbefehl\"). The increasing attacks against Dutch fascists and Germans led to large-scale reprisals, often involving dozens, even hundreds of randomly chosen people who, if not executed, died after being deported. Most of the adult males in the village of Putten for example, which had 600 inhabitants, shared this fate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31316619",
"title": "German prisoners of war in the United States",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Prisoner resistance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "Prisoners regardless of ideology often taunted their captors, such as saluting with Sieg Heils when forced to attend the lowering of the United States flag. They secretly celebrated Hitler's birthday and other Nazi holidays after the Americans banned them, and many became upset when Jewish American officers supervised them. Less than 1% of all prisoners of war in America attempted to escape, however—about half the rate of Italian prisoners and less than the rate in the civilian prison system— and most were unsuccessful. The likelihood of an escapee returning to their forces overseas was very remote; the wish to avoid boredom was the reason most often given by those who attempted to escape, often hoping to reach Argentina. Prisoners who died during escape attempts usually received military funerals with US government-provided Nazi flags.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60225460",
"title": "Freedom of religion in Morocco",
"section": "Section::::History.:European dominion (1880 – 1956).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "During World War II, Morocco was controlled by Vichy France, which attempted to deport Jews to concentration camps as part of the Holocaust. This order was blocked by Mohammed V, technically still the sultan of Morocco under the French protectorate. However, some Nazi race laws were still implemented despite Mohammed's protests, and he was forced to sign certain laws barring Jews from certain schools and government positions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10396793",
"title": "The Holocaust",
"section": "Section::::Other victims of Nazi persecution.:Political and religious opponents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 1175,
"text": "German communists, socialists and trade unionists were among the earliest opponents of the Nazis and among the first to be sent to concentration camps. Before the invasion of the Soviet Union, Hitler issued the Commissar Order, which ordered the execution of all political commissars and Communist Party members captured. \"Nacht und Nebel\" (\"Night and Fog\") was a directive of Hitler in December 1941, resulting in the disappearance of political activists throughout the German-occupied territories. Because they refused to pledge allegiance to the Nazi party or serve in the military, Jehovah's Witnesses were sent to concentration camps, where they were identified by purple triangles and given the option of renouncing their faith and submitting to the state's authority. The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum estimates that between 2,700 and 3,300 were sent to the camps, where 1,400 died; in \"The Holocaust Encyclopedia\" (2001), Sybil Milton estimates that 10,000 were sent and 2,500 died. According to German historian Detlef Garbe, \"no other religious movement resisted the pressure to conform to National Socialism with comparable unanimity and steadfastness.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "273309",
"title": "Edelweiss Pirates",
"section": "Section::::History.:Nazi response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 938,
"text": "The Nazi response to the \"Edelweißpiraten\" was relatively minor before the war, because they were viewed as a minor irritant and it did not fit in with the policy of selective terror. As the war went on, and some 'Pirates' activities got more extreme, the punishments did too. Individuals identified by the Gestapo as belonging to the various gangs were often rounded up and released with their heads shaved to shame them. In some cases, young people were sent to concentration camps for youth or temporarily detained in prison. On October 25, 1944, Heinrich Himmler ordered a crackdown on the group and in November of that year, a group of thirteen people, the heads of the \"Ehrenfelder Gruppe\", were publicly hanged in Cologne. Some of these were former \"Edelweißpiraten\". The \"Edelweißpiraten\" hanged included six teenagers, amongst them Bartholomäus Schink, called Barthel, former member of the local Navajos. Fritz Theilen survived.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4675616",
"title": "History of the Jews in Venice",
"section": "Section::::Rise of Fascism and the Holocaust.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1480,
"text": "In November 1943, Jews were declared 'enemy aliens' in accordance with the manifesto of the Italian Social Republic, to be arrested and their property seized. Although some Jews managed to escape to neutral Switzerland or Allied-occupied southern Italy, over two hundred were rounded up, most between 5 December 1943 (when approximately 150 were arrested) and late summer 1944. They were held at the city's Marco Foscarini college, the women's prison on Giudecca, the prison at Santa Maria Maggiore and subsequently at Fossoli concentration camp, before being deported, in most cases, to Auschwitz-Birkenau in 1944. Those arrested later in 1944 included some 20 residents of a Jewish convalescence home, the Casa di Ricovero Israelitica (including Venice's Chief Rabbi, Adolfo Ottolenghi, who chose to follow the fate of his fellow deportees) and 29 from a Jewish hospital. Most of those arrested in the summer of 1944 spent time incarcerated at Risiera di San Sabba concentration camp, Trieste. Although a figure of two hundred and five Jewish deportees from Venice between November 1943 and August 1944 is often quoted, one source give the higher figure of 246, which includes those deported to Trieste, some of whom died there, and a smaller number of arrests after this point up until the end of the war. Only 8 Jewish residents of Venice emerged from the death camps. The 1938 Jewish population of Venice (2000) was reduced by the war's end to 1500, or in some sources 1050.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2586029",
"title": "Eugenio Calò",
"section": "Section::::German occupation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "After the German invasion in 1943, the anti-Semitic persecutions increased. The Fascists and the Germans began arresting the Jews and sending them to concentration camps. When Calò had learned about the capture of his family and the fact that they had been kept in Florence's Le Murate prison, he tried to organize their escape. His efforts were in vain. In May 1944 they were all deported to a concentration camp in Fossoli, and on the 16th of that month were sent on a transport to Auschwitz. His wife Carolina Lombroso gave birth to their fourth son while on the train. His family was killed by the Germans immediately upon arriving at Auschwitz.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1zx7iq
|
How well accepted is the theory that the Minoan civilization was devastated by a massive tsunami and that this event lead to the the myth of Atlantis?
|
[
{
"answer": "Not even a tiny little bit.\n\n* Just to be clear, strictly speaking \"Minoan\" is the name of a style of material culture. It is often dangerous, and often wrong, to equate that with a particular ethnic group, language, or political entity. Certainly by the historical period Crete had a very diverse ethnic composition. Having said that, it is very possible that \"Minoan\" does equate to a single political entity controlling the island from Knossos (there's some archaeological evidence suggesting that; but it's not crazy to disagree with that conclusion and see Minoan Crete as a group of autonomous palace cultures).\n* As a bit of background, the so-called \"Old Palaces\" of Crete were destroyed in the mid-18th century BCE, and it is often supposed that earthquakes were the cause. This destruction did not interrupt ongoing development, however, whatever the real cause.\n* The palace (i.e. \"Minoan\") culture of Crete didn't come to an end until ca. 1450 BCE.\n* There have been attempts to pin this on the eruption of Thera/Santorini, to be sure. Geological evidence of a powerful tsunami has been found at various points on the coast of Crete.\n* However, these attempts are just a tiny bit flawed by the data we have relating to the date of the eruption. Dating by pottery evidence is extremely contested in terms of absolute dates, but relative dates are secure; the eruption belongs to the period known as Late Minoan 1A, yet we know there was a building boom in the Late Minoan 1B period. Even without absolute dates, that's fairly damning. Moreover, radiocarbon dating has pointed to an earlier date still, in the late 17th century. Even before that, some archaeologists had already been arguing for a 17th century date (Stuart Manning's 1999 book on the subject argued for 1628/1627, based partly on ice-cores taken from Greenland, evidence that has subsequently been challenged); one olive branch that was buried alive in the eruption has been radiocarbon dated to 1627-1600 (95% confidence). Even without consensus on the dates of pottery styles, there's a pretty good consensus putting it, if not before 1600 BCE, then certainly not much later. You can't blame events in the 1400s on an event with that kind of dating evidence.\n* (Having said that, it is moderately safe to say that the Minoan settlements on Thera itself were wiped out by the eruption.)\n\nInstead, evidence of destruction caused by human agency in the LM 1B period, followed by evidence of Mycenaean material and textual culture on Crete in the LM II and III periods, points to Mycenaean invasion as the occasion of the downfall of the Minoan palace culture. Attempts to drag Thera into it are unnecessary and unfounded.\n\n\"Atlantis\" doesn't even enter into it. That's a \"legend\" that was invented for a specific occasion by a 4th century BCE philosopher, and which he set in the Mesolithic (in the 10th millennium BCE, to be specific). And in myths recorded after 800 BCE, it takes some believing to see historical events even in the Iron Age, let alone in the Mycenaean period, let alone in the Minoan period.\n\n**Edits:** formatting error; added a bit more detail about Manning's book.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12795423",
"title": "List of tsunamis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Around 1600 BCE, a tsunami caused by the eruption of Thira devastated the Minoan civilization on Crete and related cultures in the Cyclades, as well as in areas on the Greek mainland facing the eruption, such as the Argolid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2178",
"title": "Atlantis",
"section": "Section::::Location hypotheses.:In or near the Mediterranean Sea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 414,
"text": "The Thera eruption, dated to the seventeenth or sixteenth century BC, caused a large tsunami that some experts hypothesize devastated the Minoan civilization on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the story. In the area of the Black Sea the following locations have been proposed: Bosporus and Ancomah (a legendary place near Trabzon).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "73327",
"title": "Minoan civilization",
"section": "Section::::Collapse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 139,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 139,
"end_character": 887,
"text": "Many archaeologists believe that the eruption triggered a crisis, making the Minoans vulnerable to conquest by the Mycenaeans. According to Sinclair Hood, the Minoans were most likely conquered by an invading force. Although the civilization's collapse was aided by the Thera eruption, its ultimate end came from conquest. Archaeological evidence suggests that the island was destroyed by fire, with the palace at Knossos receiving less damage than other sites on Crete. Since natural disasters are not selective, the uneven destruction was probably caused by invaders who would have seen the usefulness of preserving a palace like Knossos for their own use. Several authors have noted evidence that Minoan civilization had exceeded its environmental carrying capacity, with archaeological recovery at Knossos indicating deforestation in the region near the civilization's later stages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2725929",
"title": "Location hypotheses of Atlantis",
"section": "Section::::North-West of Egypt: From Greece to Spain.:Knossos and Thera (Santorini).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "The Minoan civilization on Crete was the dominant sea power of the eastern Mediterranean, with large cities and temples, but after 1400 BC only small villages existed. Archaeologists believe that some abrupt event changed society, but an invasion is unlikely because of the Minoan fleet. After the discovery of the Minoans at Knossos on the island by Sir Arthur Evans in 1900, theories linking the disappearance of the empire with the destruction of Atlantis were proposed by K. T. Frost in 1913 and E. S. Balch in 1917. This theory was revived by Spyridon Marinatos in 1950, Angelos Galanopoulos in 1960,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "892526",
"title": "Cumbre Vieja",
"section": "Section::::Future threats.:Historical \"mega-tsunamis\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "During the second millennium BC, the volcano on Santorini exploded with a VEI estimated at 7. Research suggests that the eruption generated a tsunami which inundated Crete, possibly triggering the downfall of the Minoan civilization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4217801",
"title": "Minoan eruption",
"section": "Section::::Historical impact.:Minoan civilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1107,
"text": "Significant Minoan remains have been found above the Thera ash layer and tsunami level dating from the Late Minoan I era, and it is unclear whether the effects of the ash and tsunami were enough to trigger the downfall of the Minoan civilization. Some sites were abandoned or settlement systems significantly interrupted in the immediate aftermath of the eruption. As the Minoans were a sea power and depended on ships for their livelihood, the Thera eruption likely caused significant economic hardship to the Minoans. Whether the effects were enough to trigger the downfall of the civilization is intensely debated. The Mycenaean conquest of the Minoans occurred in the Late Minoan II period. The Mycenaeans were a military civilization. Using their functional navy and a well-equipped army, they were capable of an invasion. Mycenaean weaponry has been found in burials on Crete. This demonstrates Mycenaean military influence not many years after the eruption. Many archaeologists speculate that the eruption caused a crisis in Minoan civilization, making them vulnerable to conquest by the Mycenaeans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "73327",
"title": "Minoan civilization",
"section": "Section::::Chronology and history.:Overview.:Late Minoan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Around 1450 BC, Minoan culture reached a turning point due to a natural catastrophe (possibly an earthquake). Although another eruption of the Thera volcano has been linked to this downfall, its dating and implications are disputed. Several important palaces, in locations such as Malia, Tylissos, Phaistos and Hagia Triada, and the living quarters of Knossos were destroyed. The palace in Knossos seems to have remained largely intact, resulting in its dynasty's ability to spread its influence over large parts of Crete until it was overrun by the Mycenaean Greeks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
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] | null |
6ofvuy
|
why haven't we researched more into tunnelling through the earth as a means of travel?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's simply far, far, far, far, far, faaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaar simpler to travel across the surface. \n\nMaintaining (for that matter, even creating) a tunnel through the earth is beyond our technological capabilities for the far forseeable future. Even if we could do it, it would be astronomically expensive, with the total benefit of shaving a few hours off however many vehicles we could fit through it.\n\nAdditionally, the center of the earth itself is a solid metal ball, with liquid metal around it, and above that viscous rock. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The deepest hole we've ever managed to dig (and we're not really sure why the hell it worked) is a 7.5 mile borehole in Russia. It's 9 inches in diameter. \nWe're terribly confused by how they managed to get it that deep; sediment layers and rock formations aside, the enormous pressure at that level should cause it to collapse in on itself. \n\nThe biggest issue is... well, why the hell would we? Subways are great and all, but trying to connect even just two cities is a huge amount of effort, time, and money. Far easier for everyone to just build a road or hop a flight. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another aspect others aren't mentioning is propulsion. Once you got to the center, you'd have to overcome gravity to get back out to the other side. A body in freefall towards the center of the Earth will eventually just settle in the center of the planet.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The center of the earth isn't lava. It's a solid core of metal, surrounded by a liquid core of metal. And is about 7000 degrees. And under massive pressure from all the rock and metal above it. Oh, and much of that heat comes from radioactive decay, so it's pretty radioactive down there too. \n\nIn short, an absolutely terrible place for humans to be and way, way beyond our technological capabilities. \n\nIt's like asking \"why aren't we trying to send an astronaut to the surface of the sun?\" Because we'd be dead and anything we'd be able to make to get there would be destroyed long before we arrived. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The thing is that we know more about space than we do about the center of the Earth. The people in here are telling you what scientists BELIEVE is at the center of the Earth. The fact is that we literally having only scratched the surface (we have dug down very little compaired to how much there is overall) of what is under our feet. Even the Russia dig changed some of what we thought we knew about the center of the planet. We simply do not have the technology, nor the need, nor the funds to throw at this kind of project.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We *have* considered it. (Not through the molten core, of course, but using tunnels as a means of travel.) In fact, Elon Musk appears to be making significant headway towards making tunnels as easy to build as streets.\n\nThe long-term benefits can be enormous. If a tunnel is perfectly straight (i.e. it doesn't follow the curvature of the Earth, but instead makes a direct line from point A to point B) and if friction can be significantly reduced (evacuating air from the tunnel, levitating the train with magnets, etc.) then the train could be made to travel with very little energy involved.\n\nThe engineering challenges, however, are significant. \n\n* The cost of tunneling (Elon Musk appears to have solved that one, though not at any great depth.)\n\n* Depending on how long the tunnel is, it may dip several miles underground, which presents a whole host of additional challenges above regular tunnel-digging.\n\n* Then there's the cost of evacuating the air and KEEPING it evacuated. It may prove cheaper to just put more energy to fight the air friction than to keep it evacuated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "160832",
"title": "Tunnel",
"section": "Section::::Geotechnical investigation and design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 651,
"text": "A major tunnel project must start with a comprehensive investigation of ground conditions by collecting samples from boreholes and by other geophysical techniques. An informed choice can then be made of machinery and methods for excavation and ground support, which will reduce the risk of encountering unforeseen ground conditions. In planning the route, the horizontal and vertical alignments can be selected to make use of the best ground and water conditions. It is common practice to locate a tunnel deeper than otherwise would be required, in order to excavate through solid rock or other material that is easier to support during construction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18361733",
"title": "Rapid transit",
"section": "Section::::Infrastructure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "Underground tunnels move traffic away from street level, avoiding delays caused by traffic congestion and leaving more land available for buildings and other uses. In areas of high land prices and dense land use, tunnels may be the only economic route for mass transportation. Cut-and-cover tunnels are constructed by digging up city streets, which are then rebuilt over the tunnel; alternatively, tunnel-boring machines can be used to dig deep-bore tunnels that lie further down in bedrock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3455617",
"title": "Rapid transit technology",
"section": "Section::::Tunnel construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Another usual type of tunneling method is called bored tunneling. Here, construction starts with a vertical shaft from which tunnels are horizontally dug, often with a tunneling shield, thus avoiding almost any disturbance to existing streets, buildings, and utilities. But problems with ground water are more likely, and tunneling through native bedrock may require blasting. (The first city to extensively use deep tunneling was London, where a thick sedimentary layer of clay largely avoids both problems.) The confined space in the tunnel also limits the machinery that can be used, but specialized tunnel-boring machines are now available to overcome this challenge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11501255",
"title": "Transport in Milford Sound",
"section": "Section::::Rejected proposed new methods.:Milford Dart tunnel (rejected by NZ government 2013).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "The proposed tunnel faces a number of criticisms. One of the major hindrances is the location of both entrances in national parks, Fiordland National Park in the west and Mount Aspiring National Park in the east. While the proposed new road sections would be very short, they have already led to criticism from the environmental group Forest and Bird which noted that the Department of Conservations's general policy forbids the construction of new roads in National Parks. The disposal of up to 250,000 cubic metres of soil from the tunnel excavation is also considered problematic. Southland and Te Anau business interests are also concerned that the tunnel proposal will cause tourism to bypass Te Anau and overwhelm Glenorchy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "472802",
"title": "Tōhoku Shinkansen",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "The mountainous terrain that the line passes through has necessitated heavy reliance on tunnels. The Iwate-Ichinohe Tunnel on the Morioka–Hachinohe stretch, completed in 2000, was briefly the world's longest land rail tunnel at , but in 2005 it was superseded by the Hakkōda Tunnel on the extension to Aomori, at . In 2007 the Lötschberg Base Tunnel (), and in 2010 the Gotthard Base Tunnel (, bored through and due in service by 2016) in Switzerland superseded both.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3363771",
"title": "Fehmarn Belt Fixed Link",
"section": "Section::::Tunnel characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The proposed tunnel would be long, deep below the surface of the sea, and would carry a double-track railway. Arguments brought forward in favour of a tunnel include its starkly reduced environmental impact, its independence from weather conditions, as crosswinds can have considerable impact on trucks and trailers, especially on a north–south bridge. A bored tunnel was deemed too expensive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8181739",
"title": "Sheppey Crossing",
"section": "Section::::Construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "A tunnel, as an alternative crossing, was advocated by the Council for the Protection of Rural England and others, on landscape and safety grounds. This was rejected primarily on environmental grounds, the site being within and by Special Protection Areas. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
40bycm
|
Why have the majority of governments adopted parliamentarian republicanism rather than presidential republicanism?
|
[
{
"answer": "The premise of this question is rather flawed. In democratic Latin America, Eastern Europe, Africa and Asia, Westminster-style systems are the distinct minority. Far more common in the aggregate are three other systems: strong Presidents (i.e., not only executive Presidents in the US sense but possessed of significant legislative power exercisable by decree), US-style systems, and French-style hybrids, with an executive President who shares authority with a Prime Minister and Cabinet somewhat or entirely responsible to the majority of the lower house of the legislature. \n\nWhere Westminster-style systems prevail, it's for one of three reasons. Mostly commonly, because the state was a former British colony, felt comfortable with that system, and never had a post-democratization crisis which required (or permitted) a strong Presidency to take shape. Secondly, because the state wanted to become a constitutional monarchy (such as the Commonwealth states which retained the Queen, or Japan or Thailand) and the Westminster system is the obvious solution to the state having, by definition, a head of state who is both non-elected and required to be above partisan politics. Third, pretty much only in Eastern Europe, because a state had a legacy of mistrust of authoritarian leaders and wanted to emulate the Westminster style systems prevailing among their western European (new) peers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "65836",
"title": "Republicanism in Australia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Politically, republicanism is officially supported by the Labor Party and the Greens, and is also supported by some Liberal Party members of the Australian parliament. Australian voters rejected a proposal to establish a republic with a parliamentary appointed head of state in a referendum held in 1999.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31858887",
"title": "Social conservatism in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Electoral politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1024,
"text": "In American politics, the Republican Party is the largest political party with some socially conservative ideals incorporated into its platform. Social conservatives predominantly support the Republican Party, although there are also socially conservative Democrats who break ranks with the party platform. Despite this, there have been instances where the Republican Party's nominee has been considered too socially progressive by social conservatives. This has led to the support of third party candidates from parties such as the Constitution Party, whose philosophies more closely parallel that of social conservatism. While many social conservatives see third parties as a viable option in such a situation, some high-profile social conservatives see the excessive support of them as dangerous. This fear arises from the possibility of vote splitting. Social conservatives, like any other interest-group, usually must find a balance between pragmatic electability and ideological principles when supporting candidates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22640978",
"title": "Lorenzo Peña",
"section": "Section::::Philosophical views.:Republican republicanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Republican republicanism is thus a political philosophy tending to increase the scope of activities entrusted to the State, by setting up a planned economy with a powerful public sector and a gradual socialization of property; in the meanwhile private ownership has to be fraught with legal burdens for the common good. This doctrine borrows a number of ideas from the traditions of the British Fabian Society, French solidarism and German chair-socialism as well as the Spanish school of Krausist philosophers and lawyers who inspired the II Republic (1931–1939), whose Constitution he takes as a paradigm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25755",
"title": "Republicanism",
"section": "Section::::Modern republicanism.:The British Empire and the Commonwealth of Nations.:Australia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "In Australia, the debate between republicans and monarchists is still active, and republicanism draws support from across the political spectrum. Former Prime Minister Malcolm Turnbull was a leading proponent of an Australian republic prior to joining the centre-right Liberal Party, and led the pro-republic campaign during the failed 1999 Australian republic referendum. After becoming Prime Minister in 2015, he confirmed he still supports a republic, but stated that the issue should wait until after the reign of Queen Elizabeth II. The centre-left Labor Party officially supports the abolition of the monarchy and another referendum on the issue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25755",
"title": "Republicanism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Republicanism is a representative form of government organization. It is a political ideology centered on citizenship in a state organized as a republic. Historically, it ranges from the rule of a representative minority or oligarchy to popular sovereignty. It has had different definitions and interpretations which vary significantly based on historical context and methodological approach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1764584",
"title": "Republicanism in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Republicanism was based on Ancient Greco-Roman, Renaissance, and English models and ideas. It formed the basis for the American Revolution, the Declaration of Independence (1776), the Constitution (1787), and the Bill of Rights, as well as the Gettysburg Address (1863).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2569245",
"title": "First Portuguese Republic",
"section": "Section::::The republic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "A republican Constitution was approved in 1911, inaugurating a parliamentary regime with reduced presidential powers and two chambers of parliament. The constitution generally accorded full civil liberties, the religious liberties of Catholics being an exception.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
a9v4mu
|
Tell me about ANZAC soldiers roles in WWII
|
[
{
"answer": "ANZAC (Australia New Zealand Army Corps) is actually mostly a WWI term which didn't have a whole lot of application to WWII. However, it is commonly used as a moniker for all Australian and NZ land forces in WWII.\n\nAs part of the British Empire, Australians and New Zealanders were deployed alongside other Commonwealth forces, mostly in two theatres: they served in North Africa with the Eighth Army and then in Italy with the same unit. They served in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific, the latter theatre mostly being in defensive dispositions. \n\nSome major and famous battles involving large ANZ forces are:\n\n(1) Tobruk: the Australian 9th Division was surrounded by the German Afrika Korps in the harbour town of Tobruk where it survived a seven month siege April 1941 - November 1941.\n\n(2) Battle of Second El-Alamein: the above Australian unit and the New Zealand 2nd Division were closely involved in major parts of this battle, in which British General Montgomery broke through Rommel's (Stumme's) defences and reversed the Axis offensive momentum in North Africa. \n\nRommel was very complimentary to the New Zealand troops in North Africa, and the Australians too. They say that Rommel said that if he had to capture hell, he would use Australians to take it and New Zealanders to hold it. But I am not sure if he ever really did say that. \n\n(3) Battle of Greece. Big disaster, but not their fault. It was a bad move.\n\n(4) Australian troops were deployed to defend Singapore from the Japanese. These units did not perform very well. Many were captured with some dishonour (if you want to think about it that way). The Australian commander in this battle escaped Singapore while his troops marched into captivity and became quite an unpopular person for this. \n\n(5) Australian troops protected the city of Port Moresby in New Guinea, which was the closest port facility to Australia that Japan could reasonably occupy. When US carrier units forced the Japanese away from an amphibious landing, they went overland, through dense jungle, along the Kokoda Track. Australians repulsed them in very difficult fighting.\n\nA lot of people seem to be prone to saying that Australia/New Zealand troops were the \"shock units\" of the British Empire (they also say this about Highland troops, Gurkhas, Canadians, et cetera). There's not a lot of evidence to support this. If you look at the Australian Army in WWII you find units of varying calibre. Some were excellent, some were not. The British deployed the Australians and New Zealanders were they were needed and they went to those places and fought the Germans, Italians, or Japanese there. \n\nHowever, as Japan got closer to Australia, significant Australian units were withdrawn to protect Australia, a military decision the British were not too happy with but that they couldn't politically resist. Australia raised large military forces, but many were simply used for the defence of Australia against a potential Japanese invasion.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15400166",
"title": "Anzacs (TV series)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Anzacs (named for members of the all volunteer ANZAC army formations) is a 1985 Australian five-part television miniseries set in World War I. The series follows the lives of a group of young Australian men who enlist in the 8th Battalion (Australia) of the First Australian Imperial Force in 1914, fighting first at Gallipoli in 1915, and then on the Western Front for the remainder of the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34693530",
"title": "Sons of the Anzacs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Sons of the Anzacs is a 1945 Australian documentary about the exploits of Australian soldiers during World War II. It covered nine campaigns up until the fall of Lae. It was later re-made and updated, in 1968, to cover the entire war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1248438",
"title": "Anzac spirit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "The Anzac spirit or Anzac legend is a concept which suggests that Australian and New Zealand soldiers possess shared characteristics, specifically the qualities those soldiers allegedly exemplified on the battlefields of World War I. These perceived qualities include endurance, courage, ingenuity, good humour, larrikinism, and mateship. According to this concept, the soldiers are perceived to have been innocent and fit, stoical and laconic, irreverent in the face of authority, naturally egalitarian and disdainful of British class differences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43426992",
"title": "ANZAC Girls",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "ANZAC Girls is an Australian television drama series that first screened on ABC1 on 10 August 2014. The six-part series tells the rarely told true stories of the nurses serving with the Australian Army Nursing Service at Gallipoli and the Western Front during the First World War. The series is based on Peter Rees' book \"The Other ANZACs\" as well as diaries, letters, photographs and historical documents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "946423",
"title": "Anzac Memorial",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins of the term \"Anzac\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "The term \"Anzac\" began as an acronym for the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps in World War I, but it was soon accepted as a word in its own right. The Anzacs formed part of the expeditionary force organised by Britain and France to invade the Gallipoli Peninsula and clear the Dardanelles Straits for the British Navy. The Australian Anzacs represented the national effort from a young nation taking its part in the Great War and reports of the courage they displayed at Gallipoli became the most enduring legend of Australian military history (Government Architect's CMP, 2007).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40960673",
"title": "ANZAC (acronym)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "The ANZAC acronym came from the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, formed in Egypt prior to the Gallipoli Campaign during the First World War. The corps was the higher formation for all Australian and New Zealand soldiers. It then gave its name to ANZAC Cove, on the Gallipoli peninsula, and at first was only used to identify the men who took part in the Gallipoli landings, although it later came to mean \"any Australian or New Zealand soldier of the First World War.\" Both the 'ANZAC' and the 'Anzac' versions of the acronym have been protected by the Commonwealth Government of Australia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49528252",
"title": "Anzac Day in Queensland",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Anzac Day is a day of remembrance in Queensland, Australia. It is a public holiday held on 25 April each year. The date is significant as the Australian and New Zealand troops (the ANZACs) first landed at Gallipoli in World War I on 25 April 1915.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1vhv2a
|
is it more politically correct to say indian or native american? is one preferred by the race?
|
[
{
"answer": "Indians are from the Indian subcontinent. Native Americans were in the US before it was the US.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Indian is based on the incorrect assumption that Columbus had arrived in Asia. Most indigenous people prefer, NA, so I hear.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was always taught that Native American or American Indian was preferred to calling them \"Indians,\" just because the term \"Indian\" should refer to someone with an ethnic background from India. The federal government still has the \"Bureau of Indian Affairs\" but I think the name is a holdover from when it was created. I suppose the best way to find out would be to ask someone who is an Indian or Native American.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Native is preferred. Early Europeans that discovered the Americas thought they'd found passage to India and called the natives Indians by mistake. Thus, using that term just makes you appear ignorant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I am not in any way for PC. But, as a descendant of a Native American, I prefer Native American. It's just more accurate. If you know the tribe (Cherokee), etc. that works too. Indian is not as offensive as calling a black person the \"N\" word, but it's kind of like calling a dog a spaceship -- it just doesn't make sense.\n\nOn a side note, my Grandfather did kind of like the US immigrants calling him \"Chief\". They meant it as an insult, but in his sub-tribe, it meant \"I am your humble servant\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The best way to refer to an indigenous person is to recognize them by their tribal nation. When I introduce myself or get asked, \"What are you?\" I tell them that I am Coushatta before anything else. I am from the Coushatta tribe of Louisiana.\n\nMost of the time just \"Native\" works best, at least for me it does. To be honest, when non-Indians go on and say or spell out Native American or American Indian it's a little frustrating. That's a lot to spit out of your mouth. \n\nredskin, injun and chief are good way to catch an ass beating (again, personal preference).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5347230",
"title": "Racial classification of Indian Americans",
"section": "Section::::U.S. Census.:Self-identification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Some Indian Americans who were unfamiliar with the ethnonymic conventions used in the United States, mistakenly indicated that they were \"American Indian\" as their race in the 1990 US Census, because they were unaware that this term is used in the United States to refer to Native Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30146161",
"title": "Demographics of the 110th United States Congress",
"section": "Section::::Race/ethnicity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 918,
"text": "Compared with the primarily European American, African American, Latino, and Asian/Pacific American communities, American Indians, comprising 1.5% of the population, are the most underrepresented group. Tom Cole, a Chickasaw, is the only registered American Indian currently in the House. Tracking Native American members of Congress is complex, since many people of mixed blood are not registered as part of the American Indian population. Charles Curtis, who was three-quarters Native American and had ancestries from a variety of different tribes, was elected in 1892 as the first U.S. representative from this group. Curtis accomplished several other firsts during his political tenure. He became the first American Indian to serve in the US Senate (in office 1907-13 and 1915–29), to lead a major party (served as Republican Senate Majority Leader from 1925 to 1929), and to obtain the office of Vice President. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39117329",
"title": "Contemporary Native American issues in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Terminology differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Native Americans are also commonly known as \"Indians\" or \"American Indians\". A 1995 U.S. Census Bureau survey found that more Native Americans in the United States preferred \"American Indian\" to \"Native American\". Most American Indians are comfortable with \"Indian\", \"American Indian\", and \"Native American\", and the terms are often used interchangeably.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8887677",
"title": "Members of the 111th United States Congress",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.:Race/ethnicity.:Native Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 941,
"text": "Compared with the European American, African American, Latino, and Asian/Pacific American communities, American Indians, who comprise 1.5% of the population, are the most underrepresented group. Tom Cole, a Chickasaw, and Markwayne Mullin, a Cherokee, are the only registered American Indians currently in Congress. Tracking Native American members of Congress is complex, since many people of mixed blood are not registered as part of the American Indian population. Charles Curtis, who was three-eighths Native American and had ancestry from a variety of different tribes, was elected in 1892 as the first U.S. representative from this group. Curtis accomplished several other firsts during his political tenure. He became the first American Indian to serve in the US Senate (in office 1907–13 and 1915–29), to lead a major party (served as Republican Senate Majority Leader from 1925 to 1929), and to obtain the office of Vice President.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5347230",
"title": "Racial classification of Indian Americans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 952,
"text": "The racial classification of Indian Americans has varied over the years and across institutions. Originally, neither the courts nor the census bureau classified Indian Americans as a race because there were only negligible numbers of Indian immigrants in the United States. For most of America's early history, the government only recognized two racial classifications, \"White\" or \"Colored\". Due to racist immigration laws of the time, those deemed \"Colored\" were often stripped of their American citizenship or denied the ability to become citizens. For these reasons, various South Asians in America took the government to court to try and be considered \"White\" instead of \"Colored\", using various rationales. It wasn't until 1980, amid pressures within the Indian community for recognition, that the census created an \"Asian Indian\" category. Around 360,000 people identified as such in 1980; in the last census, in 2010, this grew to 2.8 million. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1037363",
"title": "Chief Illiniwek",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "In the past few years, opinion polls on the subject have not been much help in defining Native American opinion on the subject. In 2002, a Peter Harris Research Group poll of those who self-declared Native American ethnicity on a U.S. census showed that 81% of self-identified Native Americans support the use of Indian nicknames in high school and college sports, and 83% of Native Americans support the use of Indian mascots and symbols in professional sports. However, the methods and results of this poll have been disputed. A separate poll conducted by the Native-run newspaper \"Indian Country Today\" in 2001 reported that 81% of those polled \"indicated use of American Indian names, symbols and mascots are predominantly offensive and deeply disparaging to Native Americans.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10895673",
"title": "Definitions of whiteness in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Specific ethnic groups.:Asian Americans.:South Asian Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "The U.S. Census Bureau has over the years changed its own classification of Indians. In 1930 and 1940, Indian Americans were classified as \"Hindu\" by \"Race\", and in 1950 and 1960, they were categorized as \"Other Race\", and in 1970, they were deemed \"white\". Since 1980, Indians and other South Asians have been classified according to self-reporting, with many selecting \"Asian Indian\" to differentiate themselves from peoples of \"American Indian\" or Native American background.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
zajcv
|
Why is digital camouflage preferable to more traditional styles?
|
[
{
"answer": "Some references [here](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'd just like to point out that camouflage has a variety of use cases with distinct considerations. Camouflaging is different for objects of different size, either still or active, in different environments and against different observers in different ranges.\n\nMilitary camouflage on individual fighters is often enhanced with stuff like tree branches (or anything comparable, depending on the environment), which serve to break the form of the fighter. In this case the pattern has to provide a good base. Military camouflage is also not only used against humans observing with naked eye, but also optical enhancements and various imaging tech.\n\nThere are a variety of patterns, digital and otherwise, that are widely used with no consensus on what's \"most effective\". The Latvian army uses an interesting pattern with [really big squares](_URL_0_), the Germans use random dotted shapes, and some armies still don't bother with camo patterns at all. There are also fractal patterns, striped patterns, and traditional looking new patterns. MultiCam is not a digital pattern, but the US Army has started issuing MC equipment to some troops over UCP. The British introduced a new pattern with familiar distinct British camouflage pattern shapes but MultiCam-style colors.\n\nMany people are willing to bet that digital is not better. New patterns are being created and tested in new ways all the time.\n\nI can't say what the considerations are when it comes to hunting. One thing that comes to mind is that different animals see and pay attention to different things.\n\nI don't have better sources than what I've read in the past and short military service, but in my own experience it's pretty hard for the human eye to focus on the kind of random scrabble of digi patterns. The most important job of the camouflage is not to resemble some natural object, but to blend in as \"noise\" and not be picked out.\n\nAlso, military camouflage needs to be feasible to produce in mass quantities at a reasonable cost, and provide a good compromise in a variety of environments (which are different for each organization). In addition, military-issue equipment needs to be very durable, which might or might not create some limitations on what kind of patterns can be issued.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "45960",
"title": "Cloaking device",
"section": "Section::::Scientific experimentation.:Active camouflage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "\"Active camouflage\" (or \"adaptive camouflage\") is a group of camouflage technologies which would allow an object (usually military in nature) to blend into its surroundings by use of panels or coatings capable of changing color or luminosity. Active camouflage can be seen as having the potential to become the perfection of the art of camouflaging things from visual detection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15955754",
"title": "Multi-scale camouflage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Multi-scale camouflage is a type of military camouflage combining patterns at two or more scales, often (though not necessarily) with a digital camouflage pattern created with computer assistance. The function is to provide camouflage over a range of distances, or equivalently over a range of scales (scale-invariant camouflage), in the manner of fractals, so some approaches are called fractal camouflage. Not all multiscale patterns are composed of rectangular pixels, even if they were designed using a computer. Further, not all pixellated patterns work at different scales, so being pixellated or digital does not of itself guarantee improved performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3554176",
"title": "Military camouflage",
"section": "Section::::Principles.:Digital camouflage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "Digital camouflage provides a disruptive effect through the use of pixellated patterns at a range of scales, meaning that the camouflage helps to defeat observation at a range of distances. Such patterns were first developed during the Second World War, when Johann Georg Otto Schick designed a number of patterns for the Waffen-SS, combining micro- and macro-patterns in one scheme. The German Army developed the idea further in the 1970s into Flecktarn, which combines smaller shapes with dithering; this softens the edges of the large scale pattern, making the underlying objects harder to discern. Pixellated shapes pre-date computer aided design by many years, already being used in Soviet Union experiments with camouflage patterns, such as \"TTsMKK\" developed in 1944 or 1945.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1048693",
"title": "Active camouflage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "Active camouflage or adaptive camouflage is camouflage that adapts, often rapidly, to the surroundings of an object such as an animal or military vehicle. In theory, active camouflage could provide perfect concealment from visual detection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3554176",
"title": "Military camouflage",
"section": "Section::::Principles.:Compromises.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "While camouflage tricks are in principle limitless, both cost and practical considerations limit the choice of methods and the time and effort devoted to camouflage. Paint and uniforms must also protect vehicles and soldiers from the elements. Units need to move, fire their weapons and perform other tasks to keep functional, some of which run counter to camouflage. Camouflage may be dropped altogether. Late in the Second World War, the USAAF abandoned camouflage paint for some aircraft to lure enemy fighters to attack, while in the Cold War, some aircraft similarly flew with polished metal skins, to reduce drag and weight, or to reduce vulnerability to radiation from nuclear weapons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6446",
"title": "Camouflage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Non-military use of camouflage includes making cell telephone towers less obtrusive and helping hunters to approach wary game animals. Patterns derived from military camouflage are frequently used in fashion clothing, exploiting their strong designs and sometimes their symbolism. Camouflage themes recur in modern art, and both figuratively and literally in science fiction and works of literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3554176",
"title": "Military camouflage",
"section": "Section::::Principles.:Compromises.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1495,
"text": "No single camouflage pattern is effective in all terrains. The effectiveness of a pattern depends on contrast as well as colour tones. Strong contrasts which disrupt outlines are better suited for environments such as forests where the play of light and shade is prominent, while low contrasts are better suited to open terrain with little shading structure. Terrain-specific camouflage patterns, made to match the local terrain, may be more effective in that terrain than more general patterns. However, unlike an animal or a civilian hunter, military units may need to cross several terrain types like woodland, farmland and built up areas in a single day. While civilian hunting clothing may have almost photo-realistic depictions of tree bark or leaves (indeed, some such patterns are based on photographs), military camouflage is designed to work in a range of environments. With the cost of uniforms in particular being substantial, most armies operating globally have two separate full uniforms, one for woodland/jungle and one for desert and other dry terrain. An American attempt at a global camouflage pattern for all environments (the 2004 UCP) was however withdrawn after a few years of service. On the other end of the scale are terrain specific patterns like the \"Berlin camo\", applied to British vehicles operating in Berlin during the Cold War, where square fields of various gray shades was designed to hide vehicles against the mostly concrete architecture of post-war Berlin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1wnrnv
|
why, in some videos i've seen recently, is the snow not melting and just turning black when people try to melt it with lighters?
|
[
{
"answer": "because the flame isnt hot enough, so it's basically just spitting the gas residue onto the snow.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The black stuff is soot from the lighter flame.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9292969",
"title": "2007 Siberian orange snow",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "The orange snow was malodorous, oily to the touch, and reported to contain four times the normal level of iron. Though mostly orange, some of the snow was red or yellow. It affected an area with about 27,000 residents. It was originally speculated that it was caused by industrial pollution, a rocket launch or even a nuclear accident. It was later determined that the snow was non-toxic; however, people in the region were advised not to use the snow or allow animals to feed upon it. Colored snow is uncommon in Russia but not unheard of, as there have been many cases of black, blue, green and red snowfall.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23607823",
"title": "Snowflake",
"section": "Section::::Formation.:Appearance.:Color.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Although ice by itself is clear, snow usually appears white in color due to diffuse reflection of the whole spectrum of light by the scattering of light by the small crystal facets of the snowflakes of which it is comprised.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17599355",
"title": "White",
"section": "Section::::Scientific understanding (Color science).:Why snow, clouds and beaches are white.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Snow is a mixture of air and tiny ice crystals. When white sunlight enters snow, very little of the spectrum is absorbed; almost all of the light is reflected or scattered by the air and water molecules, so the snow appears to be the color of sunlight, white. Sometimes the light bounces around inside the ice crystals before being scattered, making the snow seem to sparkle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1576566",
"title": "Fake fur",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "BULLET::::- Fake furs are not able to keep snow from melting and re-freezing on the fiber filaments; this is very important, especially in hiking, mountain climbing, skiing and other outdoor activities which are done in extreme conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21741538",
"title": "White as Snow (song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "\"White as Snow\" is a song by Irish rock band U2 and the ninth track on their 2009 album \"No Line on the Horizon\". It was written from the perspective of a dying soldier serving in Afghanistan, and lasts the length of time it takes him to die. The track is based on the hymn \"Veni, veni Emmanuel\", and is the only political song on the album.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9292969",
"title": "2007 Siberian orange snow",
"section": "Section::::Possible causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Russia's environmental watchdog originally claimed that the colored snowfall was caused by industrial pollution, such as \"waste from metallurgical plants.\" It stated that the snow contained four times the normal quantities of acids, nitrates, and iron. However, it would be nearly impossible to pinpoint a culprit if pollution were the cause, as there are various industries nearby, such as the city of Omsk, which is a center of the oil industry in Russia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9292969",
"title": "2007 Siberian orange snow",
"section": "Section::::Possible causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "This orange snow may have been caused by a heavy sandstorm in neighboring Kazakhstan. Tests on the snow revealed numerous sand and clay dust particles, which were blown into Russia in the upper stratosphere. The speculation that the coloration was caused by a rocket launch from Baikonur in Kazakhstan was later dismissed, as the last launch before the event took place on 18 January. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2vu483
|
according to the cdc, the transmission rate for hiv and other stds are statistically low. why exactly is this?
|
[
{
"answer": "The human immune system is pretty good.\n\nYou don't get a cold every times somebody sneezes around you. You don't get e.coli every time somebody undercooks a burger.\n\n...and you don't get HIV every time your dick touches somebody.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15982224",
"title": "Health in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Infectious disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) remain a major public health challenge in the United States. CDC estimates that there are approximately 19 million new STD infections yearly. The two most commonly reported infectious diseases with 1.5 million total cases (2009) are chlamydia and gonorrhea. Adolescent girls (15–19 years of age) and young women (20–24 years of age) are especially affected by these two diseases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2159778",
"title": "Reproductive health",
"section": "Section::::Sexually transmitted infection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "There are more than 600 million cases of STI's worldwide and more than 20 million new cases within the United States. Numbers of such high magnitude weigh a heavy burden on the local and global economy. A study conducted at Oxford University in 2015 concluded that despite giving participants early antiviral medications (ART), they still cost an estimated $256 billion over 2 decades. HIV testing done at modest rates could reduce HIV infections by 21%, HIV retention by 54% and HIV mortality rates by 64%, with a cost-effectiveness ration of $45,300 per Quality-adjusted life year. However, the study concluded that the United States has led to an excess in infections, treatment costs, and deaths, even when interventions do not improve over all survival rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6047998",
"title": "Sexual Ecology",
"section": "Section::::Subject.:Chapter 2.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "levels of infectivity. Gonorrhea is estimated to have a 47% chance of transmission in a single encounter, while HIV is estimated at having a very low infectivity of about 1%. This implies that it is considerably more difficult to spark an epidemic of HIV than it is for other STDs, and that it requires extraordinary circumstances to do so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4475854",
"title": "HIV/AIDS in India",
"section": "Section::::Epidemiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "The estimated adult HIV prevalence was 0.32% in 2008 and 0.31% in 2009. The states with high HIV prevalence rates include Manipur (1.40%), Andhra Pradesh (0.90%), Mizoram (0.81%), Nagaland (0.78%), Karnataka (0.63%) and Maharashtra (0.55%).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21560753",
"title": "List of HIV/AIDS cases and deaths registered by region",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 807,
"text": "US CDC has changed reporting standards for AIDS related deaths (again in 2014); HIV case reporting is not uniform among states that also implement their own surveillance. Globally, some 35.3 million are living with HIV/AIDS, World Health Organization (WHO), an estimated 36 million people have died since the first cases were reported in 1981 and 1.6 million people died of HIV/AIDS in 2012. Using WHO statistics, in 2012 the number of people living with HIV was growing at a faster rate (1.98%) than worldwide human population growth (1.1% annual), and the cumulative number of people with HIV is growing at roughly three times faster (3.22%). The costs of treatment is significantly increasing burden on healthcare systems when budgets remain stagnant, causing cutoffs in funding to healthcare providers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "591031",
"title": "Men who have sex with men",
"section": "Section::::Health issues.:Sexually transmitted infections.:HIV/AIDS.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1043,
"text": "According to a CDC study, HIV prevalence in the MSM population of the U.S. varies widely by ethnicity. \"As many as 46% of black MSM have HIV\" while \"the HIV rate is estimated at 21% for white MSM and 17% for Hispanic MSM.\" In the United States from 2001–2005, the highest transmission risk behaviors were sex between men (40–49% of new cases) and high risk heterosexual sex (32–35% of new cases). HIV infection is increasing at a rate of 12% annually among 13–24-year-old American men who have sex with men. Experts attribute this to \"AIDS fatigue\" among younger people who have no memory of the worst phase of the epidemic in the 1980s and early 1990s, as well as \"condom fatigue\" among those who have grown tired of and disillusioned with the unrelenting safer sex message. The increase may also be because of new treatments. In developing countries, HIV infection rates have been characterized as skyrocketing among MSM. Studies have found that less than 5% of MSM in Africa, Asia, and Latin America have access to HIV-related health care.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39597367",
"title": "National Intelligence Assessments on Infectious Diseases",
"section": "Section::::Intelligence Community Assessment on the Next Wave of HIV/AIDS.:Ethiopia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Expert estimates the actual number of HIV patients may be between 3 and 5 million. Adult prevalence is much higher in cities (13–20%) than in rural areas (5%). Heterosexual transmission is the primary mode of spread, and people with multiple partners—especially those with sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and prostitutes—have significantly higher infection rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2xs5xg
|
why are buildings in australia and america not built with sturdier materials, to deal with the regular natural disasters?
|
[
{
"answer": "So, *nothing* holds up against tornadoes. You can build a tornado-resistant house, but it's extraordinarily expensive and frankly not worth it. You essentially need to build a missile-proof bunker. Bricks will not stand a chance against one.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Price. A brick and mortar house is more expensive, and tornadoes and floods don't happen all the time. It doesn't make financial sense for most people to build a home that can withstand something that has a very low likelihood of happening to your home. The \"regular\" natural disaster is not really that regular. sure, tornadoes will happen in the midwest, but the likelihood of it happening t your particular house is fairly low. Its cheaper to build a safe room to survive the event if it does happen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First, the US has a lot of wood, so that makes it easy to build with that, and very cheap. [That's part of why the US has likely the largest median home size in the world](_URL_0_). You just don't get as much space as cheap with brick and morter.\n\nBut more importantly there are a TON of houses in the US, and very few of them actually get destroyed in natural disasters. Even in the worst area of the US for tornados the odds of a structure ever being hit by a tornado is 1 in 5000, that's pretty slim.\n\nFinally, brick isn't really all that great. Sure it's nice against wind but tornados aren't dangerous because of the air blowing, but because of what the air blows. Your nice brick and morter house wouldn't hold up well when a car is thrown against it at 60 miles an hour.\n\nSo...\n\n1. You're not THAT likely to have your house destroyed\n2. Building with sturdier materials is more expensive, and you get less for it\n3. Those sturdier materials probably aren't going to protect you all that much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm in Australia, and events such as flooding are so rare that it's not worth the extra cost of building it that way, but most insurances don't cover it, so it's very much a 'cross fingers and hope for the best' situation. Also, almost all suburban houses are brick and mortar anyway, which holds up much better against flooding and fires. Bushfires are a much bigger threat here, but the same rules apply. If you're in the danger zone, get your garden hose ready and hope the firies get it under control in time.\n\nAnd destructive tornados are almost non-existent here.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9540056",
"title": "Architecture of Aberdeen",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The hard grey stone is one of the most durable materials available and helps to explain why the city's buildings look brand-new when they have been newly cleaned and the cement has been pointed. Unlike other Scottish cities where less durable stone, such as sandstone, has been used, the buildings do not weather, and need very little maintenance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7094834",
"title": "Damp proofing",
"section": "Section::::Remedial damp proofing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Until the 20th century, masonry buildings in Europe and North America were generally constructed from highly permeable materials such as stone and lime-based mortars and renders covered with soft water-based paints which all allowed any damp to diffuse into the air without damage. The later application of impermeable materials which prevent the natural dispersion of damp, such as tile, linoleum, cement and gypsum-based materials and synthetic paints is thought by some to be the most significant cause of damp problems in older buildings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "857633",
"title": "Vernacular architecture",
"section": "Section::::Influences on the vernacular.:Culture.:Permanent dwellings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "Materials used will become heavier, more solid and more durable. They may also become more complicated and more expensive, as the capital and labour required to construct them is a one-time cost. Permanent dwellings often offer a greater degree of protection and shelter from the elements. In some cases however, where dwellings are subjected to severe weather conditions such as frequent flooding or high winds, buildings may be deliberately \"designed\" to fail and be replaced, rather than requiring the uneconomical or even impossible structures needed to withstand them. The collapse of a relatively flimsy, lightweight structure is also less likely to cause serious injury than a heavy structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "841877",
"title": "Earthbag construction",
"section": "Section::::Earthbag development.:Proponents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Rebuilding after natural disasters and in low-income regions around the world has included earthbag. Although heavy earthen walls are usually dangerous in quakes, Nepal's spring 2015 earthquakes left earthbag buildings in good condition near destroyed buildings. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5666707",
"title": "Architectural terracotta",
"section": "Section::::History.:Western terracotta.:1930s–present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Post-World War II the industry had to face the decline of buildings built during the heyday of the material, 1910–1940. Structural problems resulting from incomplete waterproofing, improper installation, poor maintenance, and interior corroding mild steel made the material unpopular in newer constructions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1973575",
"title": "Renovation",
"section": "Section::::Wood and renovations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "In North America, most structures are demolished because of external forces such as zoning changes and rising land values. Additionally, buildings that cannot be modified to serve the functional needs of the occupants are subject to demolition. Very few buildings on the continent are demolished due to structural degradation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "464779",
"title": "Building material",
"section": "Section::::The total cost of building materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "In history there are trends in building materials from being natural to becoming more man-made and composite; biodegradable to imperishable; indigenous (local) to being transported globally; repairable to disposable; chosen for increased levels of fire-safety, and improved seismic resistance.. These trends tend to increase the \"initial\" and \"long term\" economic, ecological, energy, and social costs of building materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2h27r9
|
Is there an animal who can control their digestive systems?
|
[
{
"answer": "Many animals including birds and insects have the ability to purge their stomach contents on command. Bird feedings and flies vomiting stomach acid is an example of this phenomena. Once it goes past the stomach there is usually in mammals at least a one way valve that prevents food from going in the opposite direction. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2541868",
"title": "Extracellular digestion",
"section": "Section::::Extracellular digestion in other animals.:Arthropods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "The arthropod digestive system is divisible into three areas: the fore gut, mid gut, and hind gut. All free-living species exhibit a distinct and separate mouth and anus, and in all species, food must be moved through the digestive tract by muscular activity rather than cilia activity since the lumen of the fore gut and hind gut is lined with cuticle. Digestion is generally extracellular. Nutrients are distributed to the tissues through the hemal system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9293603",
"title": "Mouth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Some animal phyla, including vertebrates, have a complete digestive system, with a mouth at one end and an anus at the other. Which end forms first in ontogeny is a criterion used to classify animals into protostomes and deuterostomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165423",
"title": "Digestion",
"section": "Section::::Digestive system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Digestive systems take many forms. There is a fundamental distinction between internal and external digestion. External digestion developed earlier in evolutionary history, and most fungi still rely on it. In this process, enzymes are secreted into the environment surrounding the organism, where they break down an organic material, and some of the products diffuse back to the organism. Animals have a tube (gastrointestinal tract) in which internal digestion occurs, which is more efficient because more of the broken down products can be captured, and the internal chemical environment can be more efficiently controlled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1207755",
"title": "Monogastric",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "A monogastric organism has a simple single-chambered stomach, compared with a ruminant organism, like a cow, goat, or sheep, which has a four-chambered complex stomach. Examples of monogastric animals include omnivores such as humans, rats, dogs and pigs, carnivores such as cats, and herbivores such as horses and rabbits. Herbivores with monogastric digestion can digest cellulose in their diets by way of symbiotic gut bacteria. However, their ability to extract energy from cellulose digestion is less efficient than in ruminants. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2541868",
"title": "Extracellular digestion",
"section": "Section::::Invert digestive systems are bags and tubes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Single-celled organisms as well as sponges digest their food intracellularly. Other multi-cellular organisms digest their food extracellularly, within a digestive cavity. In this case the digestive enzymes are released into a cavity that is continuous with the animal's external environment. In cnidarians and in flatworms such as planarians, the digestive cavity, called a gastrovascular cavity, has only one opening that serves as both mouth and anus. There is no specialization within this type of digestive system because every cell is exposed to all stages of food digestion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9293603",
"title": "Mouth",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "In the first multicellular animals, there was probably no mouth or gut and food particles were engulfed by the cells on the exterior surface by a process known as endocytosis. The particles became enclosed in vacuoles into which enzymes were secreted and digestion took place intracellularly. The digestive products were absorbed into the cytoplasm and diffused into other cells. This form of digestion is used nowadays by simple organisms such as \"Amoeba\" and \"Paramecium\" and also by sponges which, despite their large size, have no mouth or gut and capture their food by endocytosis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "455186",
"title": "Planarian",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "The planarian has very simple organ systems. The digestive system consists of a mouth, pharynx, and a gastrovascular cavity. The mouth is located in the center of the underside of the body. Digestive enzymes are secreted from the mouth to begin external digestion. The pharynx connects the mouth to the gastrovascular cavity. This structure branches throughout the body allowing nutrients from food to reach all extremities. Planaria eat living or dead small animals that they suck up with their muscular mouths. Food passes from the mouth through the pharynx into the intestines where it is digested by the cells lining the intestines. Then its nutrients diffuse to the rest of the planaria.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9qulgw
|
What makes James Dean an icon?
|
[
{
"answer": "You might get a good answer on r/truefilm as well.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1934516",
"title": "Swizz Beatz",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "Dean was named the first \"Producer in Residence\" at New York University, for the 2010–11 academic year. About.com ranked him number 27 on its list of the \"Top 50 Greatest Hip-Hop Producers,\" and \"The Source\" included him on its list of the \"20 greatest producers\" in the magazine's 20-year history. Fellow American rapper and producer Kanye West called Dean \"the best rap producer of all time.\" Aside from music, Dean has also added multiple entrepreneurial endeavors to his repertoire, including fashion design, art collecting, and board directing. He's been a member of trustees at the Brooklyn Museum since 2015, and a creative director for the companies Monster Cable and Reebok. Dean is married to American musician Alicia Keys, with whom he has two children. The two were featured in their first cover shoot in 2018 for \"Cultured Magazine\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "699423",
"title": "Loren Dean",
"section": "Section::::Film career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Dean was also lauded for his role as a cocaine-addicted, has-been movie star who is accidentally re-launched on the road to fame and fortune by a fan in \"Starstruck\". \"Variety\" noted that Dean \"nails his role with precision\". He was also lauded for his performance as a mysterious small-town psychologist in \"Mumford\" (1999). Dean's performance was considered \"plausible and generous,\" and he was favorably compared to a \"young Charles Grodin.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9141506",
"title": "Mike Dean (record producer)",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Dean went on to mix, produce, and master widely throughout American hip hop. He has become known for his work with Kanye West. After initially contributing to the mixing of West's albums \"The College Dropout\" and \"Late Registration\", Dean contributed as producer on West's \"Graduation\", \"My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy\", \"Yeezus\", \"The Life of Pablo\", and \"Ye\" albums. He also co-produced with West on his collaboration album with Jay-Z, \"Watch the Throne\". Dean was an additional producer on \"Mercy\" and \"Higher\" on GOOD Music's 2012 compilation album \"Cruel Summer\". Dean has made particularly heavy contributions on West's last albums, and is credited on most tracks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8643615",
"title": "James Dean (song)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "\"James Dean\" was first written as for an album originally intended to have a theme on anti-heroes. According to Glenn Frey, he together with Don Henley, Jackson Browne, and J. D. Souther were jamming together after attending a Tim Hardin show at the Troubadour in 1972, and they came up the idea about doing an album about anti-heroes. From this came the songs \"Doolin-Dalton\" and \"James Dean\". The album however evolved into a wild-west themed album \"Desperado\" which was released in 1973, and \"James Dean\" was shelved. When recording began for \"On the Border\", the song was immediately pulled off the shelf and completed. The song was written mostly by Jackson Browne according to Henley.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18622157",
"title": "James Dean",
"section": "Section::::Legacy and iconic status.:Sexuality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Today, Dean is often considered an icon because of his perceived experimental take on life, which included his ambivalent sexuality. The \"Gay Times\" Readers' Awards cited him as the greatest male gay icon of all time. When questioned about his sexual orientation, Dean is reported to have said, \"No, I am not a homosexual. But I'm also not going to go through life with one hand tied behind my back.\" Bast, Dean's first biographer, once said he and Dean \"experimented\" sexually, but without explaining, and in a later book describes the difficult circumstances of their involvement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58423772",
"title": "Dean Thompson",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Characterisation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 938,
"text": "Dean is a member of the show's River Boys group, who were introduced in 2011 with the arrival of the Braxton brothers. Dean was branded \"the new bad boy of Summer Bay\" by Jonathon Moran of \"The Daily Telegraph\". O'Connor told a reporter from \"New Idea\" that playing a \"bad boy on Home And Away is something a lot of actors want to do.\" He added that it allowed him to have fun with the drama the character creates. While O'Connor described him as \"cheeky\" and said that he loves AFL. The actor added that he likes that his character has tattoos, as he has always wanted one. O'Connor felt honoured to play a River Boy because he believed their backstory and role in \"Home and Away\" to be iconic. He told a 7plus reporter that \"the role of a River Boy is appealing to me because of the rebellious nature of the character. As a teenager I’d always wanted to test the boundaries and I feel as though I can do that within the role of Dean.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8968619",
"title": "Richard Dean",
"section": "Section::::Early life and education.:Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Dean's first appearance on a TV reality show was on UPN's \"America's Next Top Model\". In 2006, he joined model Frederique van der Wal on TLC's \"Cover Shot\", in which \"supermoms\" were transformed into \"supermodels\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
21t6qj
|
how do they measure the time a car needs to accelerate from 1 to 100 km/h? does this not heavily depend on the driver?
|
[
{
"answer": "It actually does depend on the driver, and other factors. Manufacturers are known to cheat a little bit with this, but usually not so severely that it results in a grossly inaccurate time. The following factors are important:\n\n1) Condition of the pavement or strip (wet, smooth?)\n\n2) Temperature, humidity, and ambient air pressure\n\n3) Weight of the car\n\n4) Sunny or cloudy (affects temperature of track and tires)\n\n5) Intake temperature (engine revving can destroy performance)\n\n6) Use of rollout in determining time\n\n7) and... of course... they're going to be using a skilled driver, who will try different combinations of launch rpm and wheelspin\n\n8) Fuel -- highest recommended octane for that vehicle\n\n note: fuel is a real kicker, as the proper fuel provides cooling and maximum power availability for a well-designed engine. using a lower octane will cause the engine's computer to reduce engine output. using a higher octane will waste fuel and result in a lower efficiency and less acceleration",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > Does this not heavily depend on the driver?\n\nYes an no.\n\nA professional driver can probably accelerate faster than you or I. But the difference between a typical professional and world class driver isn't that great, especially in a stock vehicle. Those few hundredths of a second might win a drag race, but don't really offer enough wiggle room to misrepresent what a car can do. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "35530574",
"title": "Time-saving bias",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "In another study drivers were asked to indicate how much time they feel can be saved when increasing from either a low (30 mph) or high (60 mph) speed (Fuller et al., 2009). For example, participants were asked the following question: \"You are driving along an open road. How much time do you feel you would gain if you drove for 10 miles at 40 mph instead of 30 mph?\" (Fuller et al., 2009, p. 14). Another question had a higher starting speed (60 mph) and two other questions asked about losing time when decreasing speed (from either 30 or 60 mph).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38860793",
"title": "Lykan HyperSport",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The manufacturer claims a top speed of , depending on the gear ratio setup. The car has claimed acceleration times of 2.8 seconds for 0-100 km/h (0-62 mph) and 9.4 seconds for 0-200 km/h (0-125 mph), though no independent tests have been conducted. There was a demonstration of the car by W Motors in 2013 in Dubai, in which they claim to have recorded the car's performance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4219348",
"title": "Chevrolet Corvette (C4)",
"section": "Section::::ZR-1 (1990–1995).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Tested performance figures by Road and Track magazine include a acceleration time of 4.9 seconds, a quarter mile time of 13.4 seconds, braking distance of 132 ft from 60 mph and 233 ft from 80 mph along with skidpad acceleration of 0.94 g. The car's tested top speed by the magazine amounted to .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1240566",
"title": "Merkur XR4Ti",
"section": "Section::::Performance reviews and legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Numbers from the March 1985 road test by \"Road & Track\" magazine are comparable. Their car ran from 0-60 mph in 7.9 seconds and reached the end of the quarter mile in 16.0 seconds. Lateral acceleration was measured at 0.767 Gs and the car ran through the R&T slalom at a speed of 59.7 mph. Their car's fuel economy was measured as .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1125312",
"title": "Two-second rule",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "To estimate the time, a driver can wait until the rear end of the vehicle in front passes any distinct and fixed point on the roadway—e.g. a road sign, mailbox, line/crack/patch in the road. After the car ahead passes a given fixed point, the front of one's car should pass the same point no less than two seconds later. If the elapsed time is less than this, one should increase the distance, then repeat the method again until the time is at least two seconds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2831127",
"title": "Traffic flow",
"section": "Section::::Traffic stream properties.:Speed.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Time mean speed\" is measured at a reference point on the roadway over a period of time. In practice, it is measured by the use of loop detectors. Loop detectors, when spread over a reference area, can identify each vehicle and can track its speed. However, average speed measurements obtained from this method are not accurate because instantaneous speeds averaged over several vehicles do not account for the difference in travel time for the vehicles that are traveling at different speeds over the same distance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3830734",
"title": "Rolls-Royce Phantom III",
"section": "Section::::Engineering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "The sheer bulk of the car is reflected in its performance figures. An example tested in 1938 by The English Autocar magazine returned a top speed of 140 km/h (87½ mph) and a 0 - 60 mph (0 – 96 km/h) time of 16.8 seconds. The overall fuel consumption quoted from that road test was .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
8m9iof
|
How do we know the age of the universe, specifically with a margin of error of 59 million years?
|
[
{
"answer": "By measuring it. There are so many contributing measurements that it is difficult to list them all in a reddit comment. [Wikipedia has an article](_URL_0_).\n\nThe small uncertainty is simply a result of very precise measurements.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's a phenomena called the Cosmic Microwave Background, or CMB. If you point a radio telescope in any direction, you see radio waves from the CMB. Looking at radio waves from the CMB is kind of like looking at visible light from the sun. If you go far back enough in time, the universe was denser and hotter, so dense and so hot that hydrogen atoms filled all of space ~~and there was fusion happening everywhere~~. But as time went on, the universe became less dense and less hot, until ~~fusion stopped happening and~~ the light could travel freely through space. The light we see from the CMB is from the moment that light could freely travel.\n\nInterestingly enough, both light from the CMB and light from the sun follow a blackbody spectrum. In fact, anything with a temperature emits blackbody radiation. If you measure the intensity of the light at different frequencies, you can fit the temperature. Right now the CMB is in radio, which is cold (about 2.73 kelvin), but if you go back in time the CMB light was much hotter. The reason it's colder now is because light is a transverse wave. As the universe expanded, the peaks and troughs of the light waves expanded with the expanded space. This phenomena is known as red-shifting.\n\nAnyway, if you look in different directions, the original temperature of the CMB is almost exactly the same in every direction, to about one part in 100,000. But it's not exactly the same in every direction. If you look at different angles, the temperatures can be slightly different. If you look at temperature deviations as a function of different angles, you can calculate what's called a Power Spectrum. The Power Spectrum allows you to solve what are called the Boltzmann Equations. The Boltzmann Equations are thermodynamic equations which constrain many parameters of the universe, such as its age, the expansion rate, the density of normal matter, density of dark matter, etc. Solving the Boltzmann Equations constrains the age of the universe.\n\nAs a side note, the Boltzmann Equations are perhaps the most compelling argument for dark matter, since it's impossible to fit the Power Spectrum without a dark matter component (but this argument is so technical that many people are not familiar it).\n\nedit: if anyone is interested in learning more, this is a good resource: _URL_0_. It's the 2015 Planck results, an experiment to map the CMB super precisely.\n\nedit2: As others have mentioned, the period of fusion was between 10 seconds and 20 minutes after the big bang, and is known as big bang nucleosynthesis. The period when light could travel freely was much later, about 380,000 years after the big bang, and is known as the time of last scattering. \n\nAlso I should mention there are easier, more intuitive ways of calculating the age of the universe, such as measuring the Hubble Constant directly from redshifts and distances and calculating T = 1/H. However, the current best margin of error of 59 million years comes from precise measurements of the CMB Power Spectrum.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The CMB was the result of electron capture by protons and helium nuclei, ~380000 after the BB. At this point the universe was a hot plasma consisting of free, unbound electrons, H and He nuclei and photons. Upon cooling, below the ionization threshold for neutral hydrogen , and expanding to a lower threshold density, the mean free path of the photons greatly exceeded the spacing between the nucleii. Protons captured electrons thus emitting light, neutral hydrogen atoms formed and the universe became transparent. This is a similar state as the photosphere of a star, the region where light escapes. \n\n\nFusion resulting in deuterium, helium and lithium nucleii as a result of the BB ended long before the birth of the CMB. Fusion did not re-commence until stars ignited due to collapsing clouds of neutral hydrogen clumping up to a critical density. Once lit, reionization occurred as the universe was now bathed in a new source of light. Fusion was not directly involved in the creation of the CMB.The energy scales for fusion and electron capture are widely separated hence they separate in time in the early universe.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As far as I understand it (someone correct me if wrong), the margin of error is only correct under assumption that the right model of universe expansion is used. Under different models, the age might be different. The margin of error is on the measurements plugged into the model and isn't on the choice of model itself\n\nThere's some additional evidence of the age of the universe, one of which is that stars/galaxies can be shown to be a certain age. That puts another limit on the age of the universe, which matches well with the CMB results, but is less precise overall.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Basically, we assume a cosmological model, and fit its parameters based on observations of what the universe has now (amount of radiation, matter, etc.). Then we look at that model and determine how log after the big bang the universe became opaque (and how hot it was at the time.) Then run the clock forward until the light from that time matches a 2.7k blackbody. \nOf course, if it turns that the LambdaCDM model is not sufficient, the age of the universe could be quite different.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Keep in mind that any scientific statement has an implied caveat: “ based on the information that we currently have”. In this case, there almost isn’t a number small enough to represent how little of the universe we’ve actually explored / studied, however despite that it seems as if we’ve managed to unlock some pretty significant secrets. We pretty much understand the lifespan of a star for example. So we actually might be right about the age of the universe, but realistically there’s probably some seriously crucial information that we’re missing that means our numbers are way off. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This also has to do with Hubble's constant. What Hubble's constant reveals is that galaxies that are more distant tend to travel at higher velocities away from us. By plotting all of these galaxies with distance on the X-axis and velocity on the Y-axis, it reveals an upward sloping line, and the slope of that line is the value of Hubble's constant. Its units of measurement are (kms^-1). / Mpc, and 1/Hubble's constant will give us an UPWARD estimate of the age of the universe. The reason it is an upward estimate is because this number assumes that there is no mass or deceleration in the universe, and that these galaxies have been traveling at this speed for all of time. \n\nHowever, acceleration of the universe started ~5 billion years ago due to dark energy becoming more dense than regular matter. (Dark energy remains the same density regardless of volume.) Imagine dark energy as when you throw a ball in the air, and when it hits it's maximum height on the parabola, it starts to rise rather than come down back to the ground. \n\nThis number has fluctuated in the last 100 years, for Hubble himself estimated his own constant incorrectly. By measuring the distance to galaxies incorrectly, he came up with the number 500(kms^-1) /Mpc, which put the universe at about 2 billion years old, when archeologists measured the earth to be about 3-4 billion based on dating rocks. To this day, we know Hubble's constant to be ~73.8 (kms^-1) / Mpc +/- 2.4(kms^-1) / Mpc. This puts the universe at around 13.8 billion years old. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[An interesting lecture by Prof Carolin Crawford of Gresham College on the subject.](_URL_0_)\n\nGreshem college, Perimeter Institute, Fermilab, and SLAC have great youtube channels for this kind of stuff. Also, look up Sean Carroll. He's a great science communicator on cosmology and physics.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are many ways and clearly many answers. For those who do not want to read any lengthy answers, I will make a couple breif ones\n\n1) Edwin Hubble noticed that almost all galaxies when being looked at are \"redshifted\". Redshirting is like listening to a police siren going away from you, the sound waves are stretched, but in this case it's lightwaves. Not only that, but the further a galaxy was from us, the faster it was moving away. This can be witnessed in the perspective of nearly any Galaxy you put yourself in. This discovery leads to the idea of an expanding universe. Over time we asked \"wait, what if we wound the clock backwards?\" So we did, and realized, logically, everything was closer together back in the past, and with lots of math and computations, we calculated that all matter was concentrated to a single point which is the beginning of The Big Bang. We don't know what happened before then, so we just leave it at that\n\n2) The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) has been redshifted as well, but to a much larger degree, making their once visbile light waves stretch out so much that they are now radiowaves. Not visible to the human eye, but once were. When you look at the CMB, you notice that everything is uniform with very minor variations. This suggests that all of these points we look at that are billions and billions of light-years away were once all together. There is some fancy math to be done here but it essentially proof of concept of the big bang, some fancy math was done (Blotzman Equations as mentioned in other comments), and it gives you the general beginning of when the universe might have been",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There's a great book on this that talks about the multiple ways we know this, by my old advisor, called (appropriately) \"How Old is the Universe?\" It's readable, but goes being pop sci, so it's actually worth reading, imo. You should check it out!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "847879",
"title": "Age of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Assumption of strong priors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 783,
"text": "The age of the universe based on the best fit to Planck 2015 data alone is billion years (the estimate of billion years uses Gaussian priors based on earlier estimates from other studies to determine the combined uncertainty). This number represents an accurate \"direct\" measurement of the age of the universe (other methods typically involve Hubble's law and the age of the oldest stars in globular clusters, etc.). It is possible to use different methods for determining the same parameter (in this case – the age of the universe) and arrive at different answers with no overlap in the \"errors\". To best avoid the problem, it is common to show two sets of uncertainties; one related to the actual measurement and the other related to the systematic errors of the model being used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40836275",
"title": "Cosmic age problem",
"section": "Section::::Late 1990s: probable solution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "More recent measurements from WMAP and the Planck spacecraft lead to an estimate of the age of the universe of 13.80 billion years with only 0.3 percent uncertainty (based on the standard Lambda-CDM model), and modern age measurements for globular clusters and other objects are currently smaller than this value (within the measurement uncertainties). A substantial majority of cosmologists therefore believe the age problem is now resolved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40836275",
"title": "Cosmic age problem",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Since around 1997–2003, the problem is believed to be solved by most cosmologists: modern cosmological measurements lead to a precise estimate of the age of the universe (i.e. time since the Big Bang) of 13.8 billion years, and recent age estimates for the oldest objects are either younger than this, or consistent allowing for measurement uncertainties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "847879",
"title": "Age of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Planck.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "In 2015, the Planck Collaboration estimated the age of the universe to be billion years, slightly higher but within the uncertainties of the earlier number derived from the WMAP data. By combining the Planck data with external data, the best combined estimate of the age of the universe is old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "847879",
"title": "Age of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Assumption of strong priors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "Calculating the age of the universe is accurate only if the assumptions built into the models being used to estimate it are also accurate. This is referred to as strong priors and essentially involves stripping the potential errors in other parts of the model to render the accuracy of actual observational data directly into the concluded result. Although this is not a valid procedure in all contexts (as noted in the accompanying caveat: \"based on the fact we have assumed the underlying model we used is correct\"), the age given is thus accurate to the specified error (since this error represents the error in the instrument used to gather the raw data input into the model).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183089",
"title": "List of unsolved problems in physics",
"section": "Section::::Problems solved in recent decades.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "BULLET::::- Cosmic age problem (1920s–1990s): The estimated age of the universe was around 3 to 8 billion years younger than estimates of the ages of the oldest stars in the Milky Way. Better estimates for the distances to the stars, and the recognition of the accelerating expansion of the universe, reconciled the age estimates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "175184",
"title": "European Southern Observatory",
"section": "Section::::ESO telescopes: research and discoveries.:Age of the universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Like carbon dating over longer timescales, the uranium clock measures the age of a star. It shows that this star is 12.5 billion years old. Because the star cannot be older than the universe itself, the universe must be older than this. This agrees with known cosmology, which gives an age of the universe of 13.8 billion years. The star (and the Milky Way) must have formed soon after the Big Bang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1hfp5f
|
Would an object falling to Earth fall faster if it is in the Earth's path as it revolves around the Sun?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well that depends on where the object originated. For example, if it was simply floating in the space that the Earth is moving into, then yes. It will fall like a normal object with an initial downward velocity equal to the speed of the Earth. If the object originated from Earth's frame of reference, it would not matter which side of the planet it launched from because in both cases it would have the same initial velocity. I hope that helps",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If it's dropped from an arbitrary point in space, yes. The earth's movement would shorten the distance required.\n\nIf the object was launched from earth (i.e. projectile motion like a cannonball being shot vertically) then no. The initial velocity would always equal the final velocity, as energy is conserved.\n\nThe key here is relative velocity. When you drive down the highway and toss something forwards, it's moving at whatever speed your car was moving plus whatever velocity you imparted on the object. Of course, this is relative to the earth. Relative to you, the object isn't moving that quickly, it's just as though you tossed the same object the same way in a parked car. That's relative velocity in a nutshell.\n\nHope that helps!",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12963",
"title": "Giordano Bruno",
"section": "Section::::Cosmology.:Bruno's cosmological claims.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 1060,
"text": "With the Earth move [...] all things that are on the Earth. If, therefore, from a point outside the Earth something were thrown upon the Earth, it would lose, because of the latter's motion, its straightness as would be seen on the ship [...] moving along a river, if someone on point C of the riverbank were to throw a stone along a straight line, and would see the stone miss its target by the amount of the velocity of the ship's motion. But if someone were placed high on the mast of that ship, move as it may however fast, he would not miss his target at all, so that the stone or some other heavy thing thrown downward would not come along a straight line from the point E which is at the top of the mast, or cage, to the point D which is at the bottom of the mast, or at some point in the bowels and body of the ship. Thus, if from the point D to the point E someone who is inside the ship would throw a stone straight up, it would return to the bottom along the same line however far the ship moved, provided it was not subject to any pitch and roll.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38579",
"title": "Gravity",
"section": "Section::::Specifics.:Earth's gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "According to Newton's 3rd Law, the Earth itself experiences a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to that which it exerts on a falling object. This means that the Earth also accelerates towards the object until they collide. Because the mass of the Earth is huge, however, the acceleration imparted to the Earth by this opposite force is negligible in comparison to the object's. If the object does not bounce after it has collided with the Earth, each of them then exerts a repulsive contact force on the other which effectively balances the attractive force of gravity and prevents further acceleration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265006",
"title": "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems",
"section": "Section::::Summary.:Day two.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "He also points out that attempting to prove that the Earth doesn't move by using vertical fall commits the logical fault of paralogism (assuming what is to be proved), because if the Earth is moving then it is only in appearance that it is falling vertically; in fact it is falling at a slant, as happens with a cannonball rising through the cannon (illustrated).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3071186",
"title": "Gravitational acceleration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "At different points on Earth, objects fall with an acceleration between and depending on altitude and latitude, with a conventional standard value of exactly 9.80665 m/s (approximately 32.17405 ft/s). This does not take into account other effects, such as buoyancy or drag.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "315685",
"title": "Early life of Isaac Newton",
"section": "Section::::Universal law of gravitation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "The fact that heavy bodies have always a tendency to fall to the Earth, no matter at what height they are placed above the Earth's surface, seems to have led Newton to conjecture that it was possible that the same tendency to fall to the Earth was the cause by which the Moon was retained in its orbit round the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265006",
"title": "Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems",
"section": "Section::::Summary.:Day two.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "In fact, a ball falling from such a height wouldn't fall behind but ahead of the vertical because the rotational motion would be in ever-decreasing circles. What makes the Earth move is similar to whatever moves Mars or Jupiter and is the same as that which pulls the stone to Earth. Calling it gravity doesn't explain what it is.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "574544",
"title": "Circular motion",
"section": "Section::::Non-uniform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "The reason why the object does not fall down when subjected to only downward forces is a simple one. Think about what keeps an object up after it is thrown. Once an object is thrown into the air, there is only the downward force of earth's gravity that acts on the object. That does not mean that once an object is thrown in the air, it will fall instantly. What keeps that object up in the air is its velocity. The first of Newton's laws of motion states that an object's inertia keeps it in motion, and since the object in the air has a velocity, it will tend to keep moving in that direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6dmsp5
|
How successful was Friedrich Engels as a businessman? And how were the living conditions of his employees?
|
[
{
"answer": "Engels was not in charge of the business he was sent to Manchester to join - a cotton thread factory. It was majority-owned, and run, by his father's business partner, Peter Ermen.\n\nErmen suspected that the younger Engels had been sent to spy on him, so he refused to place him in positions where he had much responsibility or participated in strategic decision-making. Engels was largely restricted to mundane clerical duties in what he called \"the bitch business\", spending 20 years maintaining an extensive correspondence with suppliers and clients, while systematically raiding Ermen's petty cash box for some of the funds he passed on to help support his colleague Marx.\n\nAs for the living conditions of employees, it was horror at the appalling slum conditions that he found in Manchester that prompted Engels to write his first book, *The Condition of the Working Class in England* and which inspired much of his radicalism. It's well worth mentioning in this connection that, while Engels had the money to live comfortably, and from a social point of view was expected to do so, he actually preferred to spend most of his time living in cheap lodgings under an assumed name with his mistress, an Irish worker named Mary Burns.\n\nI have written in much more detail about Engels's time in Manchester, conditions in the city, and his relationship with Mary Burns, [here](_URL_0_). It's a fascinating story.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26272272",
"title": "Anders Fredrik Regnell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Having accumulated considerable wealth, he financially supported several European botanists and donated large sums to various scientific institutions at home. He bequeathed his estate to the University of Uppsala.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25946637",
"title": "Friedrich Wilhelm, Prince of Wied",
"section": "Section::::Prince of Wied.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 637,
"text": "Via the \"Arnold Georg AG\" and the \"AG für Steinindustrie\" (both headquartered in Neuwied, Germany) Friedrich Wilhelm invested successfully part of his inherited wealth in a diverse range of industries. Furthermore, he owned 5,500 hectares (13,590 acres) of forest and 2,000 hectares (4,942 acres) of farmland near his hometown of Neuwied, Germany. In addition he bought 25,000 hectares (61,775 acres) of forest in British Columbia, Canada. In 1974 he established the \"Beaumont Timber Company\" (Salmo (British Columbia)) to manage his Canadian forest interests. It is now one of the largest private timberland owners in British Columbia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58957803",
"title": "Johan Lohe",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Eventually Johan Lohe started his own business with great success. He was one of the richest people in Sweden, and managed a trading company, a shipping business, a sugar refinery and ironworks. However, he became most known for his banking business as a moneylender, by which he acquired an enormous fortune and counted the king of Sweden among his clients; he was ennobled in 1703. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47096",
"title": "Friedrich Engels",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Friedrich Engels ( ; ; sometimes anglicised Frederick Engels; 28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895) was a German philosopher, communist, social scientist, journalist and businessman. His father was an owner of large textile factories in Salford, England and in Barmen, Prussia (what is now in Wuppertal, Germany). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "100515",
"title": "Carl Wilhelm Siemens",
"section": "Section::::The early years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "Due to the education of the younger members of the family becoming a financial worry, on 10 March 1843, Carl Wilhelm Siemens left for London. He was acting as an agent for his brother Werner, and he hoped to earn enough money by selling a patent in England to help support and educate his many brothers and sisters. He felt a keen desire to see England and the journey cost him £1. William had already shown himself to be an enthusiastic businessman, having financed his trip by selling an invention of his brother's, an improvement to the gold and silver plating process, to George Richards Elkington. He was well aware, as he wrote to Werner, that his visit might achieve nothing, but if all went well he intended to remain. This indeed proved to be the case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12417332",
"title": "Wilhelm Ralph Merton",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Wilhelm Ralph Merton (14 May 1848 in Frankfurt–15 December 1916 in Berlin) was a prominent and influential German-born entrepreneur, social democrat and philanthropist. Among his most notable accomplishments, he was a founder of the University of Frankfurt and Metallgesellschaft AG, which became the largest non-ferrous mining company in the world and the second largest company in Germany.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7775063",
"title": "Friedrich Weyerhäuser",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Friedrich (Frederick) Weyerhäuser (November 21, 1834 in Nieder-Saulheim, Rhenish Hesse – April 4, 1914 in Pasadena, California), also spelled Weyerhaeuser, was a German-American timber mogul and founder of the Weyerhaeuser Company, which owns saw mills, paper factories, and other business enterprises, and large areas of forested land. He is the eighth-richest American of all time, with a net worth of $85 billion in 2016 dollars. He was known as the \"timber-king of the Northwest.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5ax8bq
|
Was there ever an official reason as to why the Confederate Army chose not to invade Washington DC in the beginning days of the Civil War when the city was completely unprotected?
|
[
{
"answer": "Your question presupposes a couple of things that aren't necessarily true. First, the Confederates weren't in any better position to just storm \"Washington City\" (as it was known then) than the Union was to march straight into Richmond. The early months of the war saw both sides consolidating and, even more importantly, drilling the civilian-soldiers pouring into the respective capitols. Moving an army en mass is an extremely complicated undertaking, and neither side (but especially the Confederates) had the infrastructure in place to get their armies and supply trains organized for a major offensive (let alone a siege). If nothing else, the timeline illustrates this clearly. The war started in April 1861, and the first major clash of the armies came at Manassas/Bull Run in late-July of that year. If it was as easy as just sprinting the 100 or so miles to take the other city, both sides would have tried to do so: but it just wasn't feasible. Either side trying such a thing so early in the war would have been playing with an all-in proposition with extremely green troops (and with no one left behind to guard the capitol just abandoned in case things didn't work out). So in the Spring of 1861, it was a risky proposition at best, and a reckless one at worst.\n\nSecond, Lincoln was keenly aware of the strategic and symbolic importance of holding Washington, and some of the first actions he took when assuming office was to reinforce and fortify the city. The accounts you mention of Lincoln saying \"why won't they attack\" sound vaguely familiar, but I don't immediately recall a source for that. Do you have one? To my mind, that conversation or recollection had to do with the period immediately after 1st Manassas/Bull Run, when the Union was on its heels a bit (though never in any real danger of losing Washington). \n\nThe truth of the matter is that both sides in the Spring of 1861 had extremely raw armies with little formal training outside of the officer corps. The armies had neither the infrastructure, numerical strength, or knowhow to pull off so audacious and difficult an operation as sacking the other side's capitol. Even in 1862, when McClellan had a well-trained, sizable army at his disposal, he was unable to take Richmond (a city with far fewer defenders and defenses than Washington). To think that the Confederates could have sacked Washington so early in the war just doesn't jive with the facts and what leaders then (and historians now) understood about the actual capabilities of the Confederate army, such as it was.\n\n[Sources, Bruce Catton, 'Mr. Lincoln's Army'; James McPherson, 'Battle Cry of Freedom'; Doris Kearns Goodwin, 'Team of Rivals'] ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6732922",
"title": "Virginia in the American Civil War",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 833,
"text": "In May, it was decided to move the Confederate capital from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, Virginia, in part because the defense of Virginia's capital was deemed vital to the Confederacy's survival. On May 24, 1861, the U.S. Army moved into northern Virginia and captured Alexandria without a fight. Most of the battles in the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War took place in Virginia because the Confederacy had to defend its national capital at Richmond, and public opinion in the North demanded that the Union move \"On to Richmond!\" The successes of Robert E. Lee in defending Richmond are a central theme of the military history of the war. The White House of the Confederacy, located a few blocks north of the State Capitol, became home to the family of Confederate leader, former Mississippi Senator Jefferson Davis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6732922",
"title": "Virginia in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Strategic significance.:Richmond.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "The Confederate's need for war materiel played a very significant role in its decision to move its capital from Montgomery, Alabama to Richmond in May 1861, despite its dangerous northern location 100 miles south of the United States capital in Washington, DC. It was mainly for this industrial reason that the Confederates fought so hard to defend the city. The capital of the Confederacy could easily be moved again if necessary, but Richmond's industry and factories could not be moved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1226125",
"title": "LeRoy Pope Walker",
"section": "Section::::Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "In April 1861, shortly after the Civil War began with the bombardment of Fort Sumter by rebel forces, Walker predicted that Washington, D.C. and Boston would fall to the Confederacy before May 1 of that year. However, this never happened, and the last time that General Robert E. Lee's army ever invaded the North was his Pennsylvania Campaign, which ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, which the Union forces won. The Confederacy would never again attempt to invade the Union after that. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6736104",
"title": "Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Defending the capital.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "The capital's defenses, for the most part, deterred the Confederate Army from attacking. One notable exception was the Battle of Fort Stevens on July 11–12, 1864, in which Union soldiers repelled troops under the command of Confederate Lt. Gen. Jubal A. Early. This battle was the first time since the War of 1812 that a U.S. president came under enemy fire during wartime when Lincoln visited the fort to observe the fighting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4232959",
"title": "Kingsmill",
"section": "Section::::History.:American Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Action during the American Civil War (1861–65) also skirted Kingsmill Plantation lands. In 1862, Union troops under Major General George B. McClellan engaged in a failed attempt to seize the Confederate capital of Richmond. Slowly and carefully, much to the frustration of U.S. President Abraham Lincoln, McClellan assembled huge naval forces and a massive siege train of land-based troops, arms and supplies around a staging area based at the union stronghold of Fort Monroe at the tip of the Virginia Peninsula, where the harbor of Hampton Roads had been under federal control via siege for about a year already.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3734237",
"title": "Battle of Appomattox Station",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Breakthrough at Petersburg.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "Much of the Army of Northern Virginia, local defense troops and a battalion of sailors as well as Confederate President Jefferson Davis and his cabinet, were able to escape from Petersburg and Richmond just in advance of the Union troops entering those cities on April 3 because Confederate rear guard forces, especially at Forts Gregg and Whitworth, Fort Mahone and Sutherland's Station, fought desperate delaying actions on April 2 to give most of the Confederates a head start on Union Army pursuers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6736104",
"title": "Washington, D.C., in the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Washington, D.C., during the early stages of the War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Faced with an open rebellion that had turned hostile, Lincoln began organizing a military force to protect Washington. The Confederates desired to make Washington their capital and massed to take it. On April 10 forces began to trickle into the city. On April 19, the Baltimore riot threatened the arrival of further reinforcements. Led by Andrew Carnegie, a railroad was built circumventing Baltimore, allowing soldiers to arrive on April 25, thereby saving the capital.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
192nbq
|
What were the scale of the battles in both the world wars? I have a hard time imagining millions, plural, dying.
|
[
{
"answer": "OK, here are the top ten deadliest battles of both wars. You have to remember that these \"battles\" were often more like \"offensives\" or \"campaigns\" - they could last up to several weeks or months (in WWI), and weren't settled in a day like most medieval battles. People died in their thousands or tens of thousands in a daily meat grinder.\n\n**WWI**\n\n1. The Hundred Days Offensive (1,855,369 casualties), 1918\n\n2. The Spring Offensive (1,539,715), 1918\n\n3. The Battle of the Somme (1,219,201), 1916 (The British lost 60,000 men in a single day, more than the Americans lost *in all of Vietnam*).\n\n4. The Battle of Verdun (976,000), 1916\n\n5. Battle of Passchendaele (848,614), 1917\n\n6. Serbian Campaign (633,500+), 1914-1915\n\n7. First Battle of the Marnes (483,000), 1914\n\n8. Battle of Gallipoli (473,000), 1915\n\n9. Battle of Arras (278,000), 1917\n\n10. Battle of Tannenberg (182,000), 1914 (The only one on the Eastern front)\n\n**WWII**\n\n1. Battle of Stalingrad, 23 August 1942–2 February 1943: (1,250,000–1,798,619)\n\n2. Battle of Berlin, 16 April–2 May 1945: (1,298,745)\n\n3. Battle of Moscow, 2 October 1941–7 January 1942: (1,000,000)\n\n4. Battle of Narva, 2 February–10 August 1944: (550,000)\n\n5. Battle of France, 10 May–25 June 1940: (469,000) \n\n6. Battle of Luzon, 9 January–15 August 1945: (332,330–345,330) \n\n7. Second Battle of Kharkov, 12 May–28 May 1942: (300,000)\n\n8. Battle of Kursk, 5 July–23 August 1943: (257,125–388,000)\n\n9. Battle of the Bulge, 16 December 1944–25 January 1945: (186,369)\n\n10. Battle of Monte Cassino, 17 January–18 May 1944: (185,000)\n\nSo, if you're wondering why we Europeans aren't all that gung-ho about wars and invading Irak and bombing Iran and having civilians running around with assault rifles, you can read the reason in the numbers above. Most of us our countries were invaded (or were attempted to) and people died like flies and lay rotting in the streets and in fields and in the forests. It's sickening and there *has* to be a better way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A huge factor in the casualty figures of early 20th century wars versus Vietnam and onward, is the lack of body armor.\n\nThe easiest part of the human body to hit when you shoot at someone is the torso, from belly button to clavicle. This is because its at barrel height when you raise your weapon to fire. It is also the biggest body area, everything else is an appendage or the teeny tiny head. This area of the body was completely and utterly unprotected amongst normal soldiers in WW1 and WW2. \n\nIn the US Army, I spent a year in Iraq in 2005. Everytime I went off base, I wore full body armor. Ceramic ballistic plates in a kevlar flak jacket, protecting my back and torso. I had kevlar pads protecting my sides (where the vest buckled together), protecting my throat, and protecting my groin. My helmet was layered kevlar, not stamped steel. \n\nThis level of personal protection has led to an extremely high percentage of combat injury survival. While I was there, it blew my mind that in the world wars, young soldiers just like me went up against the strongest armies in the world wearing basically street clothes. Combat injuries were far more lethal back then. Thousands (millions?) of brave young men died in battle in those wars where they would have survived today. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33158",
"title": "War",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Largest by death toll.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Three of the ten most costly wars, in terms of loss of life, have been waged in the last century. These are the two World Wars, followed by the Second Sino-Japanese War (which is sometimes considered part of World War II, or as overlapping). Most of the others involved China or neighboring peoples. The death toll of World War II, being over 60 million, surpasses all other war-death-tolls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60961312",
"title": "Treadmill of destruction",
"section": "Section::::Historical treadmill of destruction.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 2906,
"text": "World War II is a prime example of paramount number of military operations with a long history of military conflict involving 30 countries, lasting from 1939 to 1945 and being the deadliest wars, killing over 70 million people across the globe. There are many factors that contributed to World War II which were the World War I, the Great Depression, militarism, nationalism, expansionism and fascism. During the years of violence, significant amounts of physical capital were destroyed through the years of bombing and ground battles, hunger was common within Western Europe, families were separated from each other, children lost their fathers as they were sent to the army to fight the war, horrendous acts of violations were committed and because of that, political and economic systems were permanently modified. Militarisation activities in World War II changed the long term economic growth of many countries, affecting capital stock through the bombing of the environment, productive capacity which resulted in the reallocation of food and other production into military resources. The development and production of new weaponry during the war had many environmental consequences, as aircraft were used to drop highly advanced bombs such as the Fat man, which was dropped onto Hiroshima, killing 70000 people, buildings,trees, paths and contaminating the air, water, soil and food sources causing Japan to immediately surrender and ending World War II. The use of chemical weapons, aerial warfare and conflict had significant environmental impacts which caused to the depletion of global flora and fauna, as well as a reduction in species diversity, these effects of chemical weapons eventually became more deadly as more were developed and deposited in the oceans which run the risk of the corroding and leaching of harmful chemical properties they contain. In ground battles many forests were destroyed from fighting during the war as trees were cut down and blown up to clear the path for combative and strategic purposes, thus exploiting many trees. The length and the magnitude of the war had adverse effects on the environment across the globe with the mass of destructive weapons eroding the lands, buildings, pollution of the air and waters of chemical and nuclear weapons, forest, wildlife and animal habitats were ruined and alterations into atmospheric disturbances caused by the weapons of mass destruction led to climate change and weather changes. Although the war was the most horrific historical event, it played an end in the Great Depression. The unemployment rate fell from 1.9% by 1945 towards 20% of the population employed into the workforce, levels of GDP and consumption significantly increased over time due to government spending, the substantial amounts of military operations and debt financed resulted in gross debt reaching 120% of GDP and the end to excess capacity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "430456",
"title": "Lewis Fry Richardson",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical analysis of war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 792,
"text": "In \"Statistics of Deadly Quarrels\" Richardson presented data on virtually every war from 1815 to 1945. As a result, he hypothesized a base 10 logarithmic scale for conflicts. In other words, there are many more small fights, in which only a few people die, than large ones that kill many. While no conflict's size can be predicted beforehand—indeed, it is impossible to give an upper limit to the series—overall they do form a Poisson distribution. On a smaller scale he showed the same pattern for gang murders in Chicago and Shanghai. Others have noted that similar statistical patterns occur frequently, whether planned (lotteries, with many more small payoffs than large wins), or by natural organisation (there are more small towns with grocery stores than big cities with superstores).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34613",
"title": "1930s",
"section": "Section::::Politics and wars.:Prominent political events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "BULLET::::- Major conflict occurs across the world such as the Chaco War, the Second Italo-Abyssinian War, the Spanish Civil War, the Chinese Civil War, the Second Sino-Japanese War, and the outbreak of World War II on September 1, 1939.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "154435",
"title": "Ypres",
"section": "Section::::History.:First World War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Of the battles, the largest, best-known, and most costly in human suffering was the Third Battle of Ypres (31 July to 6 November 1917, also known as the Battle of Passchendaele), in which the British, Canadian, ANZAC, and French forces recaptured the Passchendaele Ridge east of the city at a terrible cost of lives. After months of fighting, this battle resulted in nearly half a million casualties to all sides, and only a few miles of ground won by Allied forces. During the course of the war the town was all but obliterated by the artillery fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51488899",
"title": "Civilization II: Conflicts in Civilization",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "The majority of battles in the scenarios are based on genuine historical events, such as the American Civil War, Alexander the Great's conquests, the Crusades and World War I. However, there are also a few fantasy scenarios including the stopping of an alien invasion, and surviving after a nuclear apocalypse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6513114",
"title": "World War III in popular culture",
"section": "Section::::1990s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "World War III is referenced in the 1996 film \"\". William T. Riker states that 600 million people were killed, most major cities were destroyed, and very few world governments were left after a 3rd world war occurring sometime around 2053. At almost the same time, Kim Stanley Robinson featured a character dissecting World War III 40 years after the fact in Green Mars. Robinson's war featured transnational corporations taking over national governments and using them to attack each other in the year 2061, with only 100 million people being killed by the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2jf3cb
|
why do people keep saying 'splenda is poison'
|
[
{
"answer": "According to a friend who works for the Alabama Department of Environmental Management, and has to do air quality testing at the only Splenda plant in the United States, \n\nSucralose (splenda) is produced by treating Sucrose (sugar) with poisonous gasses to replace several of the OH groups in its chemical chain with Cl. If i remember correctly, he said they use Phosgene gas to do this. I am not 100 percent on whether or not it's Phosgene. But certain that they use poisonous gasses to replace OH with Cl. \n\nThis apparently causes your body to treat is like something undigestible, therefore making it a 0 calorie sweetener.\n\nTL;DR: they use poisonous gas to turn real sugar into something your body won't treat as food. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People are stupid and believe whatever bullshit crosses their facebook feed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I have looked into it before and the only reason I can possibly come up with was it was made by guys who were trying to make an insecticide. _URL_0_ on the history section. Somehow that translates to \"it's a poison!\" ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One thing people don't understand is that a molecule isn't necessarily toxic just because a toxic molecule was used to make it. For example, I'm currently trying to make an anti-tumor drug but a few of the reagents are carcinogenic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "An article recently published in Nature has linked sucralose along with other non-caloric artificial sweetners to glucose intolerance via alteration of intestinal microbes. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nI wouldn't call it poison. I would be concerned about the consumption of artificial sweetners and impact on rate of diabetes and obesity. \n\nAlso, Just because the synthesis of the artificial sweetner uses hazardous reagents does not mean the sweetner itself is hazardous. If this were true most of the approved drugs on the market would fall into the same category. Tylenol (Acetaminophen) synthesis uses acetic anhydride which has an NFPA health hazard of 3 which is the same hazard as hydrochloric acid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The short answer: \n\nBecause there is a deplorable lack of understanding of basic science among the general populous.\n\nThe slightly longer answer:\n\nThe word chemical means something different to people who's understanding of science comes primarily from watching the news. \"Are chemicals killing your baby? More at 11:00.\"\n\nBut everything is made up of chemicals. Water is a chemical.\n\nThings with long scientific names might sound like they are dangerous as well, but there's no causative link between the length of a chemical's name and the affect it might have on a person. Some very dangerous things have short names and others with long names are beneficial - while the reverse can also be true.\n\nSome uninformed people (such as the media) believe that chemicals that are similar to another in the components that comprise it, must necessarily have similar characteristics. But this is not so. In fact even a very minor change in the constituents of a molecule can radically impact the properties it demonstrates. Strangely, the people who say things like \"margarine is only one molecule away from being plastic\" assert that eating margarine is bad for you because it's like eating plastic - but they never consider that their (faulty) logic also implies that plastic is only one molecule away from margarine. So, even using their own (faulty) logic we can demonstrate that that slight distinction in chemical makeup is significant - since plastic does not present with the same properties as does margarine.\n\nNot really related to your question directly, but still interesting:\n\nIn fact, it has been repeatedly demonstrated that everything you take in when you ingest splenda can be accounted for at the other end - in your fecal or urinary discharge. That doesn't mean that while it's in your body it can't still have an impact, but our bodies do not retain it as they do some other things. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "From wikipedia \"A repeated dose study of sucralose in human subjects concluded that \"there is no indication that adverse effects on human health would occur from frequent or long-term exposure to sucralose at the maximum anticipated levels of intake\".[21] Conversely, a Duke University study conducted on rats (funded by The Sugar Association[22]) shows that sucralose consumption levels of 1.1 mg/kg (below the FDA 'safe' level) to 11 mg/kg, throughout a 12-week administration of Splenda, exhibited numerous adverse effects, including reduction in beneficial fecal microflora, increased fecal pH, and enhanced expression levels of P-gp, CYP3A4, and CYP2D1, which are known to limit the bioavailability of nutrients and orally administered drugs.[23] These effects have not been observed in humans,[21] and the relevance of this animal study to human health is unknown. The study has been the subject of some controversy, with experts disagreeing over the validity of its conclusions.[24] The other ingredients in Splenda, dextrose and maltodextrin, are listed as generally recognized as safe because of their long history of safe consumption.[25][26]\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One thing that occurs is that when you eat it you have an insulin response, but there is no sugar for the insulin to work on. It is thought that this free insulin causes nervous system degeneration. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think you are referring to the new studies that are saying sugar substitutes can change the bacteria in the gut. And, I don't know, lead to obesity and diabetes...But go ahead and punch away! (Please don't give it to kids)\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is more research showing that artificial sweeteners have little to no effect than otherwise. The few articles against it are standing against mountains of evidence of previous studies. Splenda is not \"poison\", and neither is aspartame (unless you have PKU). Saccharin on the other hand has had a multitude of negative studies, thus why sweet n low has faded from the market. People often mix the dangers of saccharin with other artificial sweeteners. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34582364",
"title": "Poison (Wooding novel)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "Poison is the story of a rebellious human teenager living in the swamp town of Gull with her father, stepmother, and her baby sister Azalea. She struggles against the oppression in her life, particularly with her strained relationship with her Stepmother, Snapdragon. Her only friend in Gull is the old traveler, Fleet, who tells her tales of the old wars and phaeries and maintains that Poison has some of the “Old Blood” in her. On Soulswatch Eve, Poison’s baby sister is taken and replaced with a Changeling. After consulting with Fleet, Poison sets out from Gull to rescue her sister from the Phaerie Lord. She pays the Wraith-Catcher Bram to take her to Shieldtown to seek out the creature Lamprey, whom Fleet has referred her to. Once in Shieldtown Poison encounters a young woman heading back to Gull, and asks her to relay a message to her parents. After proving herself to Lamprey, Poison is sent to the home of the Bone Witch.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1142909",
"title": "Goofer dust",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "A euphemistic word for goofering is \"poisoning,\" which in this context does not refer to a physical poison but to a physical agent that, through magical means, brings about an \"unnatural illness\" or the death of the victim. Even more euphemistic is the special use of the verb \"hurt,\" which is often defined as \"to poison,\" with the tacit understanding that \"to poison\" really means \"to goofer.\" The more general verbs \"fix\" (meaning to prepare a spell) and \"trick\" (meaning to cast a spell) are also applied to goofering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7826437",
"title": "Species of The Saga of Seven Suns",
"section": "Section::::Elemental races.:Wentals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 1028,
"text": "Though wentals are not hostile in nature, some aspects of their essence (under certain circumstances) can become 'tainted' due to strong selfish desires of their hosts. When trying to save Cesca from her excessive wounds, the wentals informed Jess of how tainted wentals had been formed in the past and caused great destruction. Fortunately, tainted wentals cannot propagate, but are eternally enraged by everything around them. They seek to replace order with chaos (what they feel is the 'Natural order') and thus attack all those around them. Tainted wentals can either be destroyed by killing the host body, or extracting the tainted essence and purifying it (a process which also kills the host). Karla Tamblyn became a Tainted Wental after Jess recovered her frozen body from within the ice of Plumas where she had died many years before. She was reanimated by tainted wental energy and almost completely destroyed the Clan Tamblyn homestead and water mines before Jess and the newly imbued Cesca returned and saved them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46813517",
"title": "Poison (Rita Ora song)",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "\"'Poison's about having something to complain about and in my world that thing I'm complaining about is love and being 24. You forget what real life is sometimes and it's not about pretending to have an upper hand on someone, it's about knowing the truth and keeping it moving.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "118655",
"title": "Tabun (nerve agent)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "Tabun or GA is an extremely toxic chemical substance. It is a clear, colorless, and tasteless liquid with a faint fruity odor. It is classified as a nerve agent because it fatally interferes with normal functioning of the mammalian nervous system. Its production is strictly controlled and stockpiling outlawed by the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993. Tabun is the first of the \"G-series\" nerve agents along with GB (sarin), GD (soman) and GF (cyclosarin).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5313",
"title": "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon",
"section": "Section::::Themes and interpretations.:Poison.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Poison is also a significant theme in the film. In the world of martial arts, poison is considered the act of one who is too cowardly and dishonorable to fight; and indeed, the only character who explicitly fits these characteristics is Jade Fox. The poison is a weapon of her bitterness, and quest for vengeance: she poisons the master of Wudang, attempts to poison Jen, and succeeds in killing Mu Bai using a poisoned needle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51108",
"title": "Poison",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 619,
"text": "All living things produce substances to protect them from getting eaten, so the term \"poison\" is usually only used for substances which are poisonous to humans, while substances that mainly are poisonous to a common pathogen to the organism and humans are considered antibiotics. Bacteria are for example a common adversary for Penicillium chrysogenum mold and humans, and since the mold's poison only targets bacteria humans may use it for getting rid of bacteria in their bodies. Human antimicrobial peptides which are toxic to viruses, fungi, bacteria and cancerous cells are considered a part of the immune system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
dskelv
|
why don’t car manufacturers design cars that cannot be started without seatbelt being fastened
|
[
{
"answer": "Emergencies. What if there is some sort of accident while you’re driving and you can’t pull over? What if you want to pull over and sleep with the heat on? What if you need to jump start your car alone, hopping in and out. \n\nAlso it’s too easy to trick the car. It also creates another system that could go wrong and cause the car not to start. That’s no good. \n\nWhat if the kids in the back seat undo their belts while you’re sailing along. \n\nIt’s just a terrible idea. Now... breathalyzers connected to the ignition are a good idea!! Hahah",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20702990",
"title": "Subaru Legacy (first generation)",
"section": "Section::::Specifications.:Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 1181,
"text": "In the United States, the Legacy was introduced with automatic seat belts due to United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) regulations stating that all cars produced from April 1, 1989 were to be equipped with a passive front passenger restraint system that would protect front occupants from frontal impact without occupant participation. This regulation was enacted to force manufacturers to install air bags in their vehicles. In 1991, Subaru added a driver side airbag only (as an option) for 1992 models which didn't satisfy the U.S. regulation. The 1993 and 1994 models all had a driver side airbag standard. If a vehicle had dual air bags, the passive seat belt systems could be removed, which Subaru did in 1995, with the Second Generation. The monocoque body integrated a steel safety cage that surrounded the passenger compartment, with collapsible engine and trunk sections for added passenger protection. Steel beams were added inside the front and rear door to protect passengers from side collisions. To increase the rigidity of the front and rear bumpers, a styrofoam insert is added, which is used on vehicles sold only in North America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51474",
"title": "Seat belt",
"section": "Section::::Automated reminders and engine start interlocks.:U.S. regulation history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "The Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard № 208 (FMVSS 208) was amended by the NHTSA to require a seat belt/starter interlock system to prevent passenger cars from being started with an unbelted front-seat occupant. This mandate applied to passenger cars built after August 1973, i.e., starting with the 1974 model year. The specifications required the system to permit the car to be started only if the belt of an occupied seat were fastened after the occupant sat down, so pre-buckling the belts would not defeat the system. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51474",
"title": "Seat belt",
"section": "Section::::Technology.:Automatic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Seatbelts that automatically move into position around a vehicle occupant once the adjacent door is closed and/or the engine is started were developed as a countermeasure against low usage rates of manual seat belts, particularly in the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51474",
"title": "Seat belt",
"section": "Section::::Legislation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "The effects of seat belt laws are disputed by those who observe that their passage did not reduce road fatalities. There was also concern that instead of legislating for a general protection standard for vehicle occupants, laws that required a particular technical approach would rapidly become dated as motor manufacturers would tool up for a particular standard which could not easily be changed. For example, in 1969 there were competing designs for lap and three-point seat belts, rapidly tilting seats, and airbags being developed. But as countries started to mandate seat belt restraints the global auto industry invested in the tooling and standardized exclusively on seat belts, and ignored other restraint designs such as air bags for several decades\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "338360",
"title": "Classic car",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "Retro-styled (color-coded with chromed buckles) 2-point and 3-point seat (safety) belts are manufactured according to Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (FMVSS). However, most classic car bodies (manufactured before the late 1960s) did not include safety belts as standard equipment, and do not include readily available reinforced mounting points, on the vehicle body, therefore it can be problematic to install such equipment properly: specific studies and calculations should be performed before any attempts. Proper installation is critical, which means locating attachment points on the body/frame, assuring the strength by proper reinforcement, and following the seat belt installation instructions properly to reduce the risk of malfunction or failure. Some classic car owners are reluctant to retrofit seat belts for the loss of originality this modification implies. There have also been instances of cars losing points at shows for being retrofitted with seat belts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "925848",
"title": "Seat belt legislation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Seat belt legislation requires the fitting of seat belts to motor vehicles and the wearing of seat belts by motor vehicle occupants to be mandatory. Laws requiring the fitting of seat belts to cars have in some cases been followed by laws mandating their use, with the effect that thousands of deaths on the road have been prevented. Different laws apply in different countries to the wearing of seat belts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20702990",
"title": "Subaru Legacy (first generation)",
"section": "Section::::Specifications.:Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "Canadian spec Legacy were not fitted with automatic seat belts due to objections from the Canadian Government and current United States owners have been known to convert the automatic seat belts to the Canadian version when the mechanism fails to retract. Replacing the failed automatic seat belt is currently cost-prohibitive due to current Subaru pricing for failed parts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
d47bjz
|
how does sound work on a microscale? eg if i've shrunk myself to insect size could i hear a spider chew its food if i stood next to it?
|
[
{
"answer": "You can hear it without shrinking, you just need to get close with your ears. Maybe the spider has to sit in your ear chewing on its food.\n\nIt is not your size really that determines that, it is more that evolutionary your ear are not designed to hear something like that, since it was never important for your survival.\n\nEdit: Typo",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23366462",
"title": "Insect",
"section": "Section::::Senses and communication.:Sound production and hearing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 97,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 97,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Communication using surface-borne vibrational signals is more widespread among insects because of size constraints in producing air-borne sounds. Insects cannot effectively produce low-frequency sounds, and high-frequency sounds tend to disperse more in a dense environment (such as foliage), so insects living in such environments communicate primarily using substrate-borne vibrations. The mechanisms of production of vibrational signals are just as diverse as those for producing sound in insects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23366462",
"title": "Insect",
"section": "Section::::Senses and communication.:Sound production and hearing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Very low sounds are also produced in various species of Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera, Mantodea and Neuroptera. These low sounds are simply the sounds made by the insect's movement. Through microscopic stridulatory structures located on the insect's muscles and joints, the normal sounds of the insect moving are amplified and can be used to warn or communicate with other insects. Most sound-making insects also have tympanal organs that can perceive airborne sounds. Some species in Hemiptera, such as the corixids (water boatmen), are known to communicate via underwater sounds. Most insects are also able to sense vibrations transmitted through surfaces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23366462",
"title": "Insect",
"section": "Section::::Senses and communication.:Sound production and hearing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 1278,
"text": "Insects were the earliest organisms to produce and sense sounds. Insects make sounds mostly by mechanical action of appendages. In grasshoppers and crickets, this is achieved by stridulation. Cicadas make the loudest sounds among the insects by producing and amplifying sounds with special modifications to their body to form tymbals and associated musculature. The African cicada \"Brevisana brevis\" has been measured at 106.7 decibels at a distance of . Some insects, such as the \"Helicoverpa zea\" moths, hawk moths and Hedylid butterflies, can hear ultrasound and take evasive action when they sense that they have been detected by bats. Some moths produce ultrasonic clicks that were once thought to have a role in jamming bat echolocation. The ultrasonic clicks were subsequently found to be produced mostly by unpalatable moths to warn bats, just as warning colorations are used against predators that hunt by sight. Some otherwise palatable moths have evolved to mimic these calls. More recently, the claim that some moths can jam bat sonar has been revisited. Ultrasonic recording and high-speed infrared videography of bat-moth interactions suggest the palatable tiger moth really does defend against attacking big brown bats using ultrasonic clicks that jam bat sonar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48801648",
"title": "Gryllotalpa vinae",
"section": "Section::::Biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "\"Gryllotalpa vineae\" is believed to produce a louder sound than any other insect. The male stridulates by raising and lowering his wing cases repeatedly while scraping the rear edge of the left forewing, which forms a plectrum, against the lower edge of the right forewing, which has a ratchet-like series of teeth. The vibrations that these rapid movements make are produced at a frequency of 3500 per second, and the \"harp\" (part of the wing) vibrates at the same frequency and acts to amplify the sound. The male stridulates in his burrow, which is Y-shaped with two horn-shaped openings on the ground surface, and a smooth-walled bulb on the stem of the \"Y\". This is just larger than the mole cricket, and he faces into the bulb with his tail near the tunnel fork. The bulb acts as a resonator and augments the sound dramatically so that one metre from the entrances, the sound intensity is ninety decibels, and can be heard away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "286817",
"title": "Huntsman spider",
"section": "Section::::Sound production in mating rituals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "Males of \"Heteropoda venatoria\", one of the huntsman spiders that seems to easily find its way around the world, have recently been found to deliberately make a substrate-borne sound when they detect a chemical (pheromone) left by a nearby female of their species. The males anchor themselves firmly to the surface onto which they have crawled and then use their legs to transmit vibrations from their bodies to the surface. Most of the sound emitted is produced by strong vibrations of the abdomen. The characteristic frequency of vibration and the pattern of bursts of sound identify them to females of their species, who will approach if they are interested in mating. This sound can often be heard as a rhythmic ticking, somewhat like a quartz clock, which fades in and out and can be heard by human ears in a relatively quiet environment. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69274",
"title": "Animal echolocation",
"section": "Section::::Bats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "When searching for prey they produce sounds at a low rate (10–20 clicks/second). During the search phase the sound emission is coupled to respiration, which is again coupled to the wingbeat. This coupling appears to dramatically conserve energy as there is little to no additional energetic cost of echolocation to flying bats. After detecting a potential prey item, microbats increase the rate of pulses, ending with the terminal buzz, at rates as high as 200 clicks/second. During approach to a detected target, the duration of the sounds is gradually decreased, as is the energy of the sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9104205",
"title": "Tympanum (anatomy)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Using sound, vertebrates and many insects are capable of sensing their prey, identifying and locating their predators, warning other individuals, and locating potential mates and rivals by hearing the intentional or unintentional sounds they make. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
104x2v
|
coffee culture
|
[
{
"answer": "Hey there.\n\nWould this happen to be a Kaldi's in the St. Louis/Midwest area?\n\nI'll break it down as easy as I can, \n\nDepending the cafe you either have the choice of a 12oz, 160z or 20oz drink, or it's 8oz, 12oz or 16 oz. (Going through some changes, like getting rid of the 20oz size and the names that are counterintuitive.)\n\n**Latte**: Espresso with steamed milk and a small amount of foam (about 20% depending the size.)\n**Cappuccino**: Espresso with steamed milk and more foam than a latte. Traditionally, it will be 1/3 espresso, 1/3 milk and 1/3 foam. When someone orders a 16oz cappuccino, that ratio isn't possible but there's more foam than a latte would have.\n**Espresso**: coffee, in its simplest definition, just brewed under pressure creating an emulsion rather than a solution. \n**Macchiato**: Espresso with a small amount of foam on top.\n\nAlso depending on the cafe there will be some flavor options to add to your coffee, but my suggestion is to try it without first to see if you like it. Hope that helps! Send any other questions our way :) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My good friend The Oatmeal can explain it all in [a handy infographic!](_URL_0_)\n\nLets break down your question. Size? I comes in small, medium, and large. Starbucks loves to use Italian names for their sizes because foreign branding works. Ingredients? Ground coffee, milk, sugar, cream and maybe in very select cases [Chicory Root](_URL_1_).\n\nYour different types of drinks depend on how its brewed and what's added to it. You can brew coffee by drip, steam, press and cold brew to name a few but it all comes down to putting water through ground coffee beans. Whats added to it in the process also determines what it is. A Cappuccino is steamed coffee and milk put together. They have weird names because coffee was considered very foreign and a product of the elite so the foreign branding and elite-ish culture stuck around.\n\nEdit: Straight black coffee is typically far too strong for most people to drink. For your first drink I recommend a Café au lait (say it \"Cafe-o-lay), that's standard drip coffee with steamed milk added. It's easy to drink and one of my favorites.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Here](_URL_0_) is a helpful chart that shows you what makes up some of the most common coffee drinks. \n\nAnything with \"latte\" in is is going to be espresso and steamed milk. \"con Panna\" means with whipped cream, and in America a \"Caffe au Lait\" is generally a latte made with strong coffee rather than espresso.\n\nAs for the sizes, many places have there own naming scheme, I don't think there is any sort of standardization there. Most places will have their different sizes sitting out on the counter though so you'll know what you're getting. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not a coffee \"expert\" but perhaps that's good because I won't be able to go over your head. Coffee culture is like wine or beer culture: it's about learning the minute differences between roasts, preparation styles and can basically be ignored if you're willing to just experiment to find what you like.\n\nFirst off, ignore any special names for the sizes. Just ask to see the cups if you're not sure how much you want.\n\nThe base is obviously coffee, what is added to it or how it's prepped is what the names represent. Coffee comes in different \"roasts\" — darker roasts being more robust or flavorful and lighter coffees being smoother, sometimes more acidic in the taste.\n\nCoffee comes hot by default and you can ask for \"room\" to add cream or sugar. These things make the coffee's taste a bit easier to handle. \n\nI would say that the other base is espresso. Espresso is to coffee as liquor is to beer. You can get it added to coffee, it's hardcore caffeine and hard to develop a taste for. Now that you've got a primer let's move into the terms.\n\nMocha/other flavors: A Mocha is a latte or cappuccino with chocolate added in. You can also get caramel, vanilla, pumpkin spice— all kinds of different flavors in any thing. They often come in those syrups you see behind the counter.\n\nIced- Coffee is poured over ice. Sometimes stores actually just prepare cold coffee instead.\n\nCappuccino- Steamed milk with coffee, often with flavoring.\n\nLatte- Steamed milk with espresso, often with flavoring. \n\nFrappe- Coffee is blended like a smoothie. Often mixed with something like chocolate syrup to make a \"Mocha Frappe\" or caramel. Sometime you can get mint or \n\nAmericano- Espresso blended with water.\n\nThere are probably some things that I'm missing but you should have a good primer now to work with. The keys with any sort of culture revolving around any of these sorts of ritualistic drinks (beer, wine, coffee) is to ask questions when you're confused and most importantly experiment to find what works for you. \n\nGood luck. \n\n(Edited for grammar.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One additional note to make is that there's different types of roasting- the simplest explanation is light/medium/dark (there's a more complicated scale that goes half city/city/city plus/full city/full city plus/vienna/french/italian, but light/medium/dark is the most common one). It's literally light/medium/dark brown beans, depending on how long it was roasted for.\n\nA common misconception is that dark roast coffee is stronger. It isn't. Caffiene content is actually lower, and the strength of the coffee depends on how it was brewed, not the type of beans. This misconception exists because people develop this bizzare macho \"I'm tough because my coffee tastes bad and I drink it anyway\" attitude quite similar to the attitude towards alcohol consumption held by 18-25 year old boys. Darker roasts have a more burnt, bitter taste, which most people don't really care for, but because it's less pleasant to drink, people think it's stronger, and therefore think that drinking it makes them cooler.\n\nMost fancy drinks are based around espresso. It's a more concentrated and stronger brewing method. There's no difference between the beans. Espresso machines require a finer ground than regular drip machines, so lots of pre ground coffee is sold as \"espresso\" if it's been ground more finely. Darker roasts are also more popular for use with espresso, so you'll often see some very dark roast stuff labelled as \"espresso\". However, the beans themselves are the same, and there's nothing stopping you from making very dark roast coffee in a drip machine, or from using light roast coffee in an espresso machine, as long as the grind size is correct for the machine. It's all about personal preference.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Coffee is a drug that makes you talk.\"\n\n~ Leonard Cohen",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ONce bought jamaican blue mountain peaberry beans. That was the best coffee i ever had.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Walk up and say \"ey ky va medium coffee\"\n\nIt's what I do and it works every time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7687063",
"title": "Coffee culture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "Coffee culture is a phrase that describes a social atmosphere or associated social behaviors that depend heavily on coffee, particularly as a social lubricant. The term also refers to the cultural diffusion and adoption of coffee as a widely consumed stimulant. In the late 20th century, espresso became an increasingly dominant drink contributing to coffee culture, particularly in the Western world and other urbanized centers around the globe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7687063",
"title": "Coffee culture",
"section": "Section::::Social aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Coffee has played a large role in history and literature because of the effects of the industry on cultures where it is produced and consumed. Coffee is often regarded as one of the primary economic goods used in imperial control of trade. The colonized trade patterns in goods, such as slaves, coffee, and sugar, defined Brazilian trade for centuries. Coffee in culture or trade is a central theme and prominently referenced in poetry, fiction, and regional history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4506407",
"title": "Arabic coffee",
"section": "Section::::Cultivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 661,
"text": "Much of the popularization of coffee is due to its cultivation in the Arab world, beginning in what is now Yemen, by Sufi monks in the 15th century. Through thousands of Arabs pilgrimaging to Mecca, the enjoyment and harvesting of coffee, or the \"wine of Araby\" spread to other Arab countries (e.g. Egypt, Syria) and eventually to a majority of the world through the 16th century. Coffee, in addition to being essential in the home, became a major part of social life. Coffeehouses, qahwa قَهوة in Modern Standard Arabic, became \"Schools of the Wise\" as they developed into places of intellectual discussion, in addition to centers of relaxation and comradery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51613538",
"title": "Coffee in world cultures",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins.:Cultivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "Much of the popularization of coffee is due to its cultivation in the Arab world, beginning in what is now Yemen, by Sufi monks in the 15th century. Through thousands of Muslims pilgrimaging to Mecca, the enjoyment and harvesting of coffee, or the \"wine of Araby\" spread to other countries (e.g. Turkey, Egypt, Syria) and eventually to a majority of the world through the 16th century. Coffee, in addition to being essential in the home, became a major part of social life. Coffeehouses, qahwa قَهوة in Modern Standard Arabic, became \"Schools of the Wise\" as they developed into places of intellectual discussion, in addition to centers of relaxation and comradery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7687063",
"title": "Coffee culture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "In the United States, coffee culture is often used to describe the ubiquitous presence of espresso stands and coffee shops in the Seattle Metropolitan area, along with the spread of massive, international franchises such as Starbucks. Socializing in coffee culture settings offers access to free wireless internet for customers, many of whom do business or personal work in these locations. Coffee culture varies by country, state, and city. For example, the strength of existing café-style coffee culture in Australia explains Starbucks’s negative impact on the continent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51613538",
"title": "Coffee in world cultures",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins.:Ethiopian Legend.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "The heritage of coffee grown all around the world can be found in the forests of Ethiopia, where the theory of its origins also resides. According to local legend, a goat herder named Kaldi saw his goats eating coffee \"berries\". This caused them to gain extreme amounts of energy, preventing them from sleeping at night. He brought this information to local monks, who created a drink with the coffee beans. One monk who drank the concoction found that it allowed him to stay up all night and pray. As this information spread to other Ethiopian monks, it began to spread across the civilized world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44875313",
"title": "Handcrafts and folk art in Oaxaca",
"section": "Section::::Other parts of the state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Coffee is grown and processed in the mountain areas near the coast, especially in the municipalities of Santa María Huatulco, Pluma Hidalgo, Candelaria Loxicha, San Miguel del Puerto, San Mateo Piñas, Santiago Xanica, and San Pedro Pochutla. This tradition dates from the 17th century when the coffee plant was introduced by English pirates, later developed in the 20th century by German immigrants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2acxkq
|
How does the intestinal flora re-establish?
|
[
{
"answer": "1) This would depend on the gut flora and how they respond to the treatment. A lot would die from the antibiotics, although some do survive. This can cause gastrointestinal distress because the antibiotics essentially change the biodiversity in the intestines. You end up having high abundance of some, low abundance of others, and this really messes with the intraspecies controls that they exert on one another that will promote high population growth of microbes that are normally kept low due to interactions with other microbes. So to answer, the biodiversity changes.\n\n2) The flora can fix itself because you never really 100% kill everything in your gut. If you did, you would have more problems than runny poo because of malnutrition and what not. Also, a lot of food carries these microbes, and when ingested, will re-establish a normal community. If it is a serious concern, then probiotics and things can be taken.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3135637",
"title": "Human gastrointestinal microbiota",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Development of enteric protection and immune system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1184,
"text": "In humans, a gut flora similar to an adult's is formed within one to two years of birth. As the gut flora gets established, the lining of the intestines – the intestinal epithelium and the intestinal mucosal barrier that it secretes – develop as well, in a way that is tolerant to, and even supportive of, commensalistic microorganisms to a certain extent and also provides a barrier to pathogenic ones. Specifically, goblet cells that produce the mucosa proliferate, and the mucosa layer thickens, providing an outside mucosal layer in which \"friendly\" microorganisms can anchor and feed, and an inner layer that even these organisms cannot penetrate. Additionally, the development of gut-associated lymphoid tissue (GALT), which forms part of the intestinal epithelium and which detects and reacts to pathogens, appears and develops during the time that the gut flora develops and established. The GALT that develops is tolerant to gut flora species, but not to other microorganisms. GALT also normally becomes tolerant to food to which the infant is exposed, as well as digestive products of food, and gut flora's metabolites (molecules formed from metabolism) produced from food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4639139",
"title": "Descending colon",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "While the first part of the large intestine is responsible for the absorption of water and other substances from the chyme, the main function of the descending colon is to store waste until it can be removed from the body in solid form, when a person has a bowel movement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21479285",
"title": "Urine test strip",
"section": "Section::::Diseases Identified with a Urine Test Strip.:Liver diseases and haemolytic disorders.:Urobilinogen test.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Intestinal bacteria convert the conjugated bilirubin that is excreted by the bile duct into the intestine into urobilinogen and stercobilinogen. Part of the urobilinogen is reabsorbed in the intestine then circulated in the blood to the liver where it is excreted. A small part of this recirculated urobilinogen is filtered out by the kidneys and appears in urine (less than 1 mg/dl urine). The stercobilinogen can not be reabsorbed and remains in the intestine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42193218",
"title": "Human digestive system",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Lower gastrointestinal tract.:Large intestine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 1091,
"text": "In the large intestine, the passage of the digesting food in the colon is a lot slower, taking from 12 to 50 hours until it is removed by defecation. The colon mainly serves as a site for the fermentation of digestible matter by the gut flora. The time taken varies considerably between individuals. The remaining semi-solid waste is termed feces and is removed by the coordinated contractions of the intestinal walls, termed peristalsis, which propels the excreta forward to reach the rectum and exit via defecation from the anus. The wall has an outer layer of longitudinal muscles, the taeniae coli, and an inner layer of circular muscles. The circular muscle keeps the material moving forward and also prevents any back flow of waste. Also of help in the action of peristalsis is the basal electrical rhythm that determines the frequency of contractions. The taeniae coli can be seen and are responsible for the bulges (haustra) present in the colon. Most parts of the GI tract are covered with serous membranes and have a mesentery. Other more muscular parts are lined with adventitia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3135637",
"title": "Human gastrointestinal microbiota",
"section": "Section::::Functions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "When the gut flora first started to be studied, it was thought to have three key roles: directly defending against pathogens, fortifying host defense by its role in developing and maintaining the intestinal epithelium and inducing antibody production there, and metabolizing otherwise indigestible compounds in food; subsequent work discovered its role in training the developing immune system, and yet further work focused on its role in the gut-brain axis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12082283",
"title": "Human vestigiality",
"section": "Section::::Anatomical.:Appendix.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Intestinal bacterial populations entrenched in the appendix may support quick re-establishment of the flora of the large intestine after an illness, poisoning, or after an antibiotic treatment depletes or otherwise causes harmful changes to the bacterial population of the colon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41080840",
"title": "Gut–brain axis",
"section": "Section::::Gut flora.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "The gut flora is the complex community of microorganisms that live in the digestive tracts of humans and other animals. The gut metagenome is the aggregate of all the genomes of gut microbiota. The gut is one niche that human microbiota inhabit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
32q80m
|
why is christianity in decline in the western world?.
|
[
{
"answer": "Religiosity in general is in decline in the West. The reasons why are a subject of considerable controversy, to say the least.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because people are beginning to think rationally about religion. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Expanding religions have historically grown most in times of colonial power structures or population booms. As the people of the western hemisphere have lost new places to expand into and supplant existing cultures with their own, and don't have as many children as the rest of the world, there has ceased to be an avenue for growth. Islam and Hinduism lose plenty of adherents over time, but high birth rates means those religions are still expanding.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would guess its not from lack of faith, or disbelief in christianity, but a overwhelming amount of information that church leaders in the western world are some really terrible people. Its really hard to self identify with Pat Roberts types as they unashamedly milk poor people for cash to fly private jets. How do you continue to support a church that is blatently disobeying its own tenants? Ie clergy screwing kids and hiding it With help from superiors?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58033444",
"title": "Decline of Christianity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The decline of Christianity is an ongoing trend in Europe. Developed countries and denominations in the post-World War II era have shifted towards post-Christian, secular, globalized, multicultural and multifaith societies. Infant baptism has declined in many nations, with thousands of churches closing or merging due to lack of attendees. There is also evidence of decline in North America. Despite the decline, Christianity remains the dominant religion in the Western world, where 70% of the population is nominally Christian.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21208200",
"title": "Western world",
"section": "Section::::Modern definitions.:Cultural definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 1139,
"text": "In the 20th century, Christianity declined in influence in many Western countries, mostly in the European Union where some member states have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years, and also elsewhere. Secularism (separating religion from politics and science) increased. However, while church attendance is in decline, in some western countries (i.e. Italy, Poland and Portugal) more than half the people state that religion is important, and most Westerners nominally identify themselves as Christians (e.g. 59% in the United Kingdom) and attend church on major occasions, such as Christmas and Easter. In the Americas, Christianity continues to play an important societal role, though in areas such as Canada, a low level of religiosity is common as a result of experiencing processes of secularization similar to European ones. The official religions of the United Kingdom and some Nordic countries are forms of Christianity, even though the majority of European countries have no official religion. Despite this, Christianity, in its different forms, remains the largest faith in most Western countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58033444",
"title": "Decline of Christianity",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "Reports are mixed on the extent and rate of the decline of Christianity. A 2015 analysis of the European Values Study in the \"Handbook of Children and Youth Studies\" identified a \"dramatic decline\" in religious affiliation across Europe from 1981 to 2008. However, Christianity is still the largest religion in Western Europe, according to a 2018 study by the Pew Research Center, where 71% of Western Europeans identified themselves as Christian. According to the same study, 83% of those who were raised as Christians still identify as such. The European Values Study found that in most European countries in 2008, the majority of young respondents identified themselves as Christians. Unlike Western Europe, in Central and Eastern European countries the proportion of Christians has been stable or even increased in the post-communist era.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7809444",
"title": "Growth of religion",
"section": "Section::::Growth of religious groups.:Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 866,
"text": "The significant growth of Christianity in non-Western countries led to regional distribution changes of Christians. In 1900, Europe and the Americas were home to the vast majority of the world's Christians (93%). Besides, Christianity has grown enormously in Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia and Pacific. In 2010, 26% of the world's Christians lived in Europe, followed by 24.4% in Latin America and the Caribbean, 23.8% in Sub-Saharan Africa, 13.2% in Asia and the Pacific, 12.3% in North America, and 1% in the Middle East and North Africa. The study also suggested that by 2050, the global Christian population will change considerably. By 2050, 38% of the world's Christians will live in the Sub-Saharan Africa, followed by 23% in Latin America and the Caribbean, 16% in Europe, 13% in Asia and the Pacific and 10% of the world's Christians will live in North America .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7809444",
"title": "Growth of religion",
"section": "Section::::Growth of religious groups.:Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Christianity is still the largest religion in Western Europe, according to a 2018 study by the Pew Research Center, 71.0% of the Western European population identified themselves as Christians. According to the same study, a large majority of those who raised as Christians (83%) in Western Europe, still identified themselves as Christians today. On the other hand, Central and Eastern European countries did not experience a decline in the percentage of Christians, as the proportion of Christians in these countries have mostly been stable or even increasing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7809444",
"title": "Growth of religion",
"section": "Section::::Growth of religious groups.:Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 592,
"text": "According to a 2005 paper submitted to a meeting of the American Political Science Association, most of Christianity's growth has occurred in non-Western countries. The paper concludes that the Pentecostalism movement is the fastest-growing religion worldwide. Protestantism is growing as a result of historic missionary activity and indigenous Christian movements by Africans in Africa, and due primarily to conversion in Asia, Latin America, Muslim world, and Oceania. According to Pew Research Center, Christianity is declining in the United states while non-Christian faiths are growing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21366214",
"title": "Postchristianity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Some scholars have disputed the global decline of Christianity, and instead hypothesized of an evolution of Christianity which allows it to not only survive, but actively expand its influence in contemporary societies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1kexms
|
Is there any historical/archeological record regarding the beginnings of widespread hair styles? If so, where and when did it begin, and which gender was more likely to participate?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not like people were putting together catalogs of what was in style for the season, but ideas and styles were communicated visually as well as aurally. Men and women would have both been interested in hair styles, but in the West women's styles were often more elaborate. There is actually a really great record just in the art that each culture left behind, but it is notable that there are much fewer depictions of the working classes than upper classes. I personally like sculpture for hair styles since you get to see things all the way around. I love [this Minoan fresco](_URL_1_) but it's hard to tell exactly what is going on, compared to this [Etruscan sarcophagus.](_URL_0_) One of the more notable hair styles in ancient Roman art is the [bust of a Flavian woman](_URL_2_). I also took [this picture](_URL_3_) at the Getty Villa (which is all antiquities) earlier this year because of how well it shows all the detail, but I'm kicking myself for not getting the information on it.\n\nAnyway, to answer your question, there is a MASSIVE record of hair styles from Mesopotamia to the renaissance. Let me know if there's any culture or time period or region or kind of style (mens/long/braids etc.) that you're more interested in and I'll try to find you some sources! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52401",
"title": "Hairstyle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 627,
"text": "The oldest known depiction of hair styling is hair braiding which dates back about 30,000 years. In history, women's hair was often elaborately and carefully dressed in special ways. From the time of the Roman Empire until the Middle Ages, most women grew their hair as long as it would naturally grow. Between the late 15th century and the 16th century, a very high hairline on the forehead was considered attractive. Around the same time period, European men often wore their hair cropped no longer than shoulder-length. In the early 17th century, male hairstyles grew longer, with waves or curls being considered desirable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52401",
"title": "Hairstyle",
"section": "Section::::Prehistory and history.:Roman Empire and Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 681,
"text": "Between 27 BC and 102 AD, in Imperial Rome, women wore their hair in complicated styles: a mass of curls on top, or in rows of waves, drawn back into ringlets or braids. Eventually noblewomen's hairstyles grew so complex that they required daily attention from several slaves and a stylist in order to be maintained. The hair was often lightened using wood ash, unslaked lime and sodium bicarbonate, or darkened with copper filings, oak-apples or leeches marinated in wine and vinegar. It was augmented by wigs, hairpieces and pads, and held in place by nets, pins, combs and pomade. Under the Byzantine Empire, noblewomen covered most of their hair with silk caps and pearl nets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52401",
"title": "Hairstyle",
"section": "Section::::Prehistory and history.:Ancient history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "In ancient civilizations, women's hair was often elaborately and carefully dressed in special ways. Women coloured their hair, curled it, and pinned it up (ponytail) in a variety of ways. They set their hair in waves and curls using wet clay, which they dried in the sun and then combed out, or else by using a jelly made of quince seeds soaked in water, or curling tongs and curling irons of various kinds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "149297",
"title": "Fayum mummy portraits",
"section": "Section::::Mummy portraits as sources on provincial Roman fashion.:Hairstyles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 892,
"text": "Since Roman men tended to wear short-cropped hair, female hairstyles are a better source of evidence for changes in fashion. The female portraits suggest a coarse chronological scheme: Simple hairstyles with a central parting in the Tiberian period are followed by more complex ringlet hairstyles, nested plaits and curly toupées over the forehead in the late 1st century. Small oval nested plaits dominate the time of the Antonines, simple central-parting hairstyles with a hairknot in the neck occur in the second half of the 2nd century. The time of Septimius Severus was characterised by toupée-like fluffy as well as strict, straight styles, followed by looped plaits on the crown of the head. The latter belong to the very final phase of mummy portraits, and have only been noted on a few mummy wrappings. It seems to be the case that curly hairstyles were especially popular in Egypt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52401",
"title": "Hairstyle",
"section": "Section::::Social and cultural implications.:Gender.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "At most times in most cultures, men have worn their hair in styles that are different from women's. American sociologist Rose Weitz once wrote that the most widespread cultural rule about hair is that women's hair must differ from men's hair. An exception is the men and women living in the Orinoco-Amazon Basin, where traditionally both genders have worn their hair cut into a bowl shape. In Western countries in the 1960s, both young men and young women wore their hair long and natural, and since then it has become more common for men to grow their hair. During most periods in human history when men and women wore similar hairstyles, as in the 1920s and 1960s, it has generated significant social concern and approbation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52401",
"title": "Hairstyle",
"section": "Section::::Prehistory and history.:Early modern history.:Female styles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1172,
"text": "From the 16th to the 19th century, European women's hair became more visible while their hair coverings grew smaller, with both becoming more elaborate, and with hairstyles beginning to include ornamentation such as flowers, ostrich plumes, ropes of pearls, jewels, ribbons and small crafted objects such as replicas of ships and windmills. Bound hair was felt to be symbolic of propriety: loosening one's hair was considered immodest and sexual, and sometimes was felt to have supernatural connotations. Red hair was popular, particularly in England during the reign of the red-haired Elizabeth I, and women and aristocratic men used borax, saltpeter, saffron and sulfur powder to dye their hair red, making themselves nauseated and giving themselves headaches and nosebleeds. During this period in Spain and Latin cultures, women wore lace mantillas, often worn over a high comb, and in Buenos Aires, there developed a fashion for extremely large tortoise-shell hair combs called peinetón, which could measure up to three feet in height and width, and which are said by historians to have reflected the growing influence of France, rather than Spain, upon Argentinians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2583157",
"title": "Byzantine dress",
"section": "Section::::Hair.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "Men's hair was generally short and neat until the late Empire, and often is shown elegantly curled, probably artificially (picture at top). The 9th century Khludov Psalter has Iconophile illuminations which vilify the last Iconoclast Patriarch, John the Grammarian, caricaturing him with untidy hair sticking straight out in all directions. Monk's hair was long, and most clergy had beards, as did many lay men, especially later. Upper-class women mostly wore their hair up, again very often curled and elaborately shaped. If we are to judge by religious art, and the few depictions of other women outside the court, women probably kept their hair covered in public, especially when married.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
121l0c
|
How do babies get the essential bacteria in their large intestine, if the slightest infection will nearly or just outright kill them?
|
[
{
"answer": "I dont think the slightest infection will just outright kill them that seems extremely wrong, seeing as how as babies we are exposed to thousands of microbes and build immunities to them as they grow.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They get it from mom.\n\nVaginal birthed babies aspirate as they pass through, breast fed babies get it as they nurse (from the skin), and they otherwise acquire it in the classic stick-everything-in-your-mouth stage. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This was asked yesterday. I provided an answer here: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3135637",
"title": "Human gastrointestinal microbiota",
"section": "Section::::Acquisition in human infants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "During birth and rapidly thereafter, bacteria from the mother and the surrounding environment colonize the infant's gut. The exact sources of bacteria is not fully understood, but may include the birth canal, other people (parents, siblings, hospital workers), breastmilk, food, and the general environment with which the infant interacts. However, as of 2013, it remains unclear whether most colonizing arises from the mother or not. Infants born by caesarean section may also be exposed to their mothers' microflora, but the initial exposure is most likely to be from the surrounding environment such as the air, other infants, and the nursing staff, which serve as vectors for transfer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92409",
"title": "Shigellosis",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Upon ingestion, the bacteria pass through the gastrointestinal tract until they reach the small intestine. There they begin to multiply until they reach the large intestine. In the large intestine, the bacteria cause cell injury and the beginning stages of Shigellosis via two main mechanisms: direct invasion of epithelial cells in the large intestine and production of enterotoxin 1 and enterotoxin 2.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26951",
"title": "Systemic scleroderma",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Other organs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "The small intestine can also become involved, leading to bacterial overgrowth and malabsorption of bile salts, fats, carbohydrates, proteins, and vitamins. The colon can be involved, and can cause pseudo-obstruction or ischemic colitis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3640445",
"title": "Blind loop syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "The overgrowth of bacteria in the small intestine is prevented by various mechanical and chemical factors which include the constant peristaltic movement of contents along the length of the gastrointestinal tract and the antibacterial properties of gastric secretions, pancreatic secretions and bile.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2791679",
"title": "Leukocyte adhesion deficiency",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Individuals with LAD suffer from bacterial infections beginning in the neonatal period. Infections such as omphalitis, pneumonia, gingivitis, and peritonitis are common and often life-threatening due to the infant's inability to properly destroy the invading pathogens. These individuals do not form abscesses because granulocytes cannot migrate to the sites of infection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3135637",
"title": "Human gastrointestinal microbiota",
"section": "Section::::Composition.:Anatomy.:Intestines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 958,
"text": "The small intestine contains a trace amount of microorganisms due to the proximity and influence of the stomach. Gram-positive cocci and rod-shaped bacteria are the predominant microorganisms found in the small intestine. However, in the distal portion of the small intestine alkaline conditions support gram-negative bacteria of the \"Enterobacteriaceae\". The bacterial flora of the small intestine aid in a wide range of intestinal functions. The bacterial flora provide regulatory signals that enable the development and utility of the gut. Overgrowth of bacteria in the small intestine can lead to intestinal failure. In addition the large intestine contains the largest bacterial ecosystem in the human body. About 99% of the large intestine and feces flora are made up of obligate anaerobes such as \"Bacteroides\" and \"Bifidobacterium.\" Factors that disrupt the microorganism population of the large intestine include antibiotics, stress, and parasites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69720",
"title": "Gastrointestinal tract",
"section": "Section::::Human gastrointestinal tract.:Function.:Intestinal microbiota.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "The large intestine hosts several kinds of bacteria that can deal with molecules that the human body cannot otherwise break down. This is an example of symbiosis. These bacteria also account for the production of gases at host-pathogen interface, inside our intestine(this gas is released as \"flatulence\" when eliminated through the anus). However the large intestine is mainly concerned with the absorption of water from digested material (which is regulated by the hypothalamus) and the re absorption of sodium, as well as any nutrients that may have escaped primary digestion in the ileum. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
126955
|
Can a photo-realistic game be run on a super computer?
|
[
{
"answer": "Warning. I am not a graphics researcher so my answer is an educated guess. I would say that we aren't even close.\n\nPhoto realistic stills are still very difficult. Graphics research would be a lot less exciting if all they did was make existing systems render faster. Advances in the way we handle light are still being made (I think). This is critically important for making things like skin and hair look correct. Then we have to deal with physics engines, which are still extremely rough approximations of the real world. Getting rigid objects to behave correctly is tricky, let alone fluids. While this is partially a product of our limited resources when rendering at 60fps, remember that Brave and Tangled were considered to be huge tech achievements in how they handled hair. Those stills are rendered by supercomputers working for a long time. Getting the render time down to 0.02 seconds is not easy.\n\nI think it is tempting to say that CGI in movies is photo realistic but I don't think we can say that yet. Remember when you saw the star wars prequels and they looked amazing? Look again and notice how far we have come since then. It is difficult to imagine how much we can improve our tech. The recent hulk movies are another good example.\n\nYou could probably cheat a bit and make a game in an environment that was easy to handle. Limited light sources along with hard and smooth surfaces are much easier to handle than grass, skin, and water. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15637214",
"title": "Craft Director Tools",
"section": "Section::::Interactivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Today there are several different computer programs that simulate things like cars and airplanes. An obvious example is a flight simulator, another would be video games where players drive cars. But neither of these tools is designed to help movie makers and content-creators to make editable, recorded animation material. None of those technologies are an aid for Maya and 3ds Max.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54925606",
"title": "Men in Black: The Game",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Calvin Hubble of Game Revolution noted the poor artificial intelligence, but praised the character animations for bearing resemblance to their film counterparts, and wrote that the graphics were \"decent enough to pass.\" However, Hubble noted that each of the game's menus and loading screens \"have an extremely simple, bold, solid-color font. […] I could have made a better interface given Photoshop and about a day.\" Kim Randell of \"Computer and Video Games\" called the game's first level \"incredibly pedantic,\" and wrote, \"The combat system is fiddly, and the murky backgrounds sometimes make your grasp of the scene less than complete. Later on it looks and sounds cool, but with a continuing frustration factor.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "375416",
"title": "Computer simulation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "Computer simulations are realized by running computer programs that can be either small, running almost instantly on small devices, or large-scale programs that run for hours or days on network-based groups of computers. The scale of events being simulated by computer simulations has far exceeded anything possible (or perhaps even imaginable) using traditional paper-and-pencil mathematical modeling. Over 10 years ago, a desert-battle simulation of one force invading another involved the modeling of 66,239 tanks, trucks and other vehicles on simulated terrain around Kuwait, using multiple supercomputers in the DoD High Performance Computer Modernization Program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4018680",
"title": "Twin Kingdom Valley",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Graphics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 831,
"text": "A major section of the software is a custom graphics language, which is an early scalable vector graphics format. Hundreds of images of objects and locations are drawn in the game using this custom tool. Perspective of a limited kind is achieved by permitting images to be drawn scaled down within another image. For example, a castle model would be designed for close up view, but could also be drawn as a subroutine for a distant castle in a desert. The graphics speed was about 10 polygons per second, so the game could not afford to write background polygons and over fill. Images are just created by flood fills, such that each screen pixels is filled only once. A modern PC (using an emulator) can paint these pictures instantly, but the original game owners would need to wait three or four seconds for the screen to paint.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1887427",
"title": "Rampage World Tour",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Charles Ardai of \"Computer Gaming World\" noted that the PC port of the game had performance and graphics issues when played in full-screen mode. Best performance was achieved when the screen was set to a postcard-sized frame. He found the action to be basic, although there is a variety of animation. He added that it is \"suffused with all the monster movie fun that was conspicuously lacking in the recent \"Godzilla\" film\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1214676",
"title": "Flight Unlimited",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Presentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1125,
"text": "Atkin found the cockpit and terrain graphics to look \"almost real\". He commented, \"Every few years a sim comes along that lets reviewers use the 'sets new standards for graphics' cliché, and \"Flight Unlimited\" is the 1995 entry in this club.\" Bob and John Nolan called \"Flight Unlimited\" \"the ultimate show off piece for your new Pentium\", thanks to \"unbelievable\" graphics superior to those of any other computer game. Gaudiosi concurred: he characterized the visuals as \"photo-sharp\" and \"better than any I have seen\". \"PC Magazine\"s staff found the graphics \"impressive\" and \"even more stunning than those in \"Microsoft Flight Simulator\"\". Ware noted the \"stunning 3-D photo-realistic scenery\", while Bailey stated that the \"graphics are brilliantly rendered and whiz by smoothly\". Buchanan called \"Flight Unlimited\"s terrain \"just superb\" and Vizard described it as \"amazingly real\". Buchanan believed that \"what you hear in \"Flight Unlimited\" is every bit as good as what you see\", thanks to \"utterly convincing\" sound effects. Atkin praised the instructor as \"one of the best uses of voice ever in a multimedia title\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14610286",
"title": "Wargame (video games)",
"section": "Section::::Game design.:Comparison with traditional wargames.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "While it has been argued that computer wargame video games lack the realism of traditional games, they may include features that are impractical for tangible games. One such approach is using fog of war, whereby players are unable to see the landscape beyond the simulating viewing distance of their units. This is made practical in digital games by the fundamental difference of competing against artificial intelligence or remote competitors with their own view of the playing field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4guufd
|
why is it so hard to remove pharmaceuticals from water?
|
[
{
"answer": "Molecules are really small and difficult to deal with on an individual basis. It isn't like you can just strain them out like with a sieve.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "359238",
"title": "Prescription drug",
"section": "Section::::Environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 1004,
"text": "Traces of prescription drugs — including antibiotics, anti-convulsants, mood stabilizers and sex hormones — have been detected in drinking water. Pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) discarded from human therapy and their metabolites have been found to not be completely eliminated by sewage treatment plants and have been found at low concentrations in surface waters downstream from those plants. The continuous discarding of incompletely treated water may interact with other environmental chemicals and lead to uncertain ecological effects. Due to most pharmaceuticals being highly soluble, fish and other aquatic organisms are susceptible to their effects. The long term effects of pharmaceuticals in the environment may affect survival and reproduction of such organisms. However, levels of medical drug waste in the water is at a low enough level that it is not a direct concern to human health. However, processes, such as biomagnification, are potential concerns in impacting human health.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16507731",
"title": "Bank filtration",
"section": "Section::::Procedure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "There have been indications that some pharmaceutical compounds (medical drug traces from human use) may not always be sufficiently removed by bank filtration, and that in areas with substantial contamination of this type, additional treatment may be needed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44413707",
"title": "Groundwater pollution",
"section": "Section::::Pollutant types.:Pharmaceuticals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "Trace amounts of pharmaceuticals in both groundwater and surface water are far below what is considered dangerous or of concern in most areas, but it could be an increasing problem as population grows and more reclaimed wastewater is utilized for municipal water supplies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22037708",
"title": "Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 2404,
"text": "Since the 1990s, water contamination by pharmaceuticals has been an environmental issue of concern. In addition, it is important to note that many public health professionals in the United States began writing reports of pharmaceutical contamination in waterways in the 1970s.” Most pharmaceuticals are deposited in the environment through human consumption and excretion, and are often filtered ineffectively by municipal sewage treatment plants which are not designed to manage them. Once in the water, they can have diverse, subtle effects on organisms, although research is still limited. Pharmaceuticals may also be deposited in the environment through improper disposal, runoff from sludge fertilizer and reclaimed wastewater irrigation, and leaky sewer pipes. In 2009, an investigative report by Associated Press concluded that U.S. manufacturers had legally released 271 million pounds of compounds used as drugs into the environment, 92% of which was the industrial chemicals phenol and hydrogen peroxide, which are also used as antiseptics. It could not distinguish between drugs released by manufacturers as opposed to the pharmaceutical industry. It also found that an estimated 250 million pounds of pharmaceuticals and contaminated packaging were discarded by hospitals and long-term care facilities. The series of articles led to a hearing conducted by the U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Transportation Safety, Infrastructure Security, and Water Quality. This hearing was designed to address the levels of pharmaceutical contaminants in U.S. drinking water. This was the first time that pharmaceutical companies were questioned about their waste disposal methods. \"No federal regulations or laws were created as a result of the hearing.\" \"Between the years of 1970-2018 more than 3000 pharmaceutical chemicals were manufactured, but only 17 are screened or tested for in waterways.\" Alternately, \"There are no studies designed to examine the effects of pharmaceutical contaminated drinking water on human health.” In parallel, the European Union is the second biggest consumer in the world (24% of the world total) after the USA and in the majority of EU Member States, around 50% of unused human medicinal products is not collected to be disposed of properly. In the EU, between 30 and 90% of the orally administered doses are estimated to be excreted as the active substances in the urine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22191761",
"title": "Liquid oxygen (supplement)",
"section": "Section::::Liquid Oxygen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Professor Ken Harvey, a member of the World Health Organization team that formulated criteria for the promotion of medicinal drugs and a member of Auspharm Consumer Health Watch, states that the product is \"no more than salty water\", and that most forms of water carry some dissolved oxygen. The Federal Trade Commission has prosecuted some makers of such products for making \"blatantly false and unsubstantiated health claims\", although it has not banned the sale of such products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19615310",
"title": "Drinking water quality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Substances for which there are no federal standards.:Pharmaceutical substances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "Many pharmaceutical substances are not regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. They have been found in tiny concentrations in the drinking water of several US cities affecting at least 41 million Americans, according to a five-month inquiry by the Associated Press published in March 2008. Pharmaceutical substances are used worldwide and are a big part of some peoples lives. These substances not being regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act has potential to have major impact on the lives of many individuals. At any point a region can face strong pollution and the pharmaceuticals made in that area can have a large chance of being contaminated as well causing possible harm to the consumers. According to the AP report, researchers do not yet understand the exact risks from decades of persistent exposure to random combinations of low levels of pharmaceuticals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41202666",
"title": "Drug pollution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "\"Pharmaceutical pollution is now detected in waters throughout the world,\" said a scientist at the Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies in Millbrook, New York. \"Causes include aging infrastructure, sewage overflows and agricultural runoff. Even when wastewater makes it to sewage treatment facilities, they aren't equipped to remove pharmaceuticals.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2hc8rp
|
AMA: The Economy of the Ancient Roman Empire
|
[
{
"answer": "Two questions:\n\n1) are you familiar with how prostitution and the economy of it worked in Rome? What would be the cost if a prostitute? Were they individuals or were they housed in a brothel?\n\n2) how would a poet go about seeing sponsors for his work? I'm thinking like Catullus or Virgil or the like. Would a rich patrician support them in exchange for laudatory words?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lets say I want to buy a house. Was there anything similar to the concept of a mortgage that I could get to finance my purchase?\n\nIf so, how did mortgages and other securities function? I mean, at its core a mortgage is really just a loan using the property itself as collateral, so it doesn't seem like an alien concept, but was there any of the complexity that we have now present in that part of the financial system?\n\nAlso, how available would this be to someone?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "how much of a thing was free enterprise in ancient rome? Would we recognize the economy if were dropped from 2014 America into 100 AD Rome?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. How much does the Roman roads benefits the economic of the Empire? \n2. How does the people in Rome get rich? Does being a general in post-Marius Reformation helps?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A few questions that've been bugging me lately. \n\n1. To what degree was the high Roman Empire a \"capitalist\" economy? I understand there is a world of hurt involved in defining what capitalism is, or what constitutes a capitalist economy, as well as the fact that clearly the bulk of the economy of the whole empire did not operate primarily from a capitalist/wage-labor mode of production, but I am interested in your personal perspective on to what extent it existed and where. \n\n2. What is the current thinking (and who are currently the major historians/archaeologists dealing in the subject matter) on what role the Roman city played on the economy? I believe you've mentioned to me that the idea of the Roman city as a parasitic entity (I think this is Moses Finley) is out of date. I'm wondering who replaced Finley, and who I should be reading as of now?\n\n3. How different would you categorize the late Roman economy (i.e. that suggested by Wickham) from the high Roman economy? I know that the late Roman economy seemed marked by greater command after Diocletian, with much revolving around the twin grain doles of Carthage-Rome and Alexandria-Constantinople. Whereas it seems the high Roman economy was much more free floating, though much revolving around the central wheel spoke of the city of Rome itself. \n\n4. Which would mean a corollary question (I have asked this previously, but I'm not sure if I got your thoughts on it), how necessary was Rome itself to the high Roman economy? Could provincial markets exist robustly on trade to other far flung provinces without Rome as the hub?\n\nThanks a bunch. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I was just thinking about these questions in the context of Caesar's (and others') land laws: in brief: \n\n1. Caesar's law redistributed \"public\" land. Does this mean the land in question had no private owner prior to redistribution? How did this land come to be public in the first place? What was it used for if it had no private owner? \n\n2. If I recall, other laws redistributed land in *latifundia* -- that is, large privately owned parcels of land. Is my understanding of the term and the laws correct? How was that accomplished? Was there a concept in Rome analogous to eminent domain? \n\nThank you in advance!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. Was there a middle class?\n\n2. When the Romans conquered a territory, how did they go about integrating it into the economy? How did they make sure currency was distributed for example?\n\n3. What did the Romans export, and to whom?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "if I understand the Roman's view on economics, they had no concept of debt? Or was it interest? How did that function when the government was low on funds? No money, just debase the coinage until you get what you need? What about a private person, how would they come up with funds to purchase something?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How would someone receive the grain dole? Was there a kind of application process for it? Were there any concerns in the Roman world about \"welfare fraud\"?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is something I've long wondered:\n\nDuring the height of the Empire, Rome had a population close to a million people, and most of those people lived in apartment blocks. They presumably didn't have any arable land as part of their personal property. So what did those people do all day? Did they work 9-5s like we do today? Did they leave the city to work in agriculture? Did they just not work in an organized fashion?\n\nTL;DR What was the typical job of a city dweller like?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. I've heard it said that one of the important differences between economies of the ERE an its western counterpart was the relative proximity of the former to other wealthy empires (Persia, India, China etc). How true is this? It seems to me, at least, that long distance trade could only be in very luxury items and thus would only affect the super-rich, if anyone at all. Bulk items (grain, livestock, wine etc) which were the bread and butter of the Roman economy couldn't really be transported except via the Mediterranean and its river systems given the technology limitations of its day. So basically I just want to know how important was external trade for the Roman economy.\n\n2. How efficient was the Roman economy and did it degrade substantially as a result of the transformation from the predominantly middle-income, family farm model, to a more plantation-oriented one with the super-rich landowners and poor tenant farmers, with seemingly almost nothing in between them. \n\n3. How developed was banking in the roman world? Of course there were private lendors. But say I am a mercant/businessman/landowner operating in Italy and North Africa, possibly Hispania. What options do I have? Can I write a check to someone without needing to physically transfer gold coins from one place to another? How did Roman banking compare to medieval Italian ones? How were ledgers maintained?",
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"answer": "How flexible was the labour force? Were most people highly trained from childhood/adolescence and at risk of unemployment? Or would the average worker change their job based on economic changes?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Thank you for the AMA.\n\nWhat sorts of data are available on wages, prices, incomes, and land rents during Roman times? (To fix a time scale, say 100 BCE through 500 CE, but most interestingly for me roughly 80 CE to 180 CE.)\n\nTo what extent was the Roman military an important element in building infrastructure, both in the core and on the periphery?\n\nIs there anywhere I can go to get a monetary history of ancient Rome? Basically a discussion of the stock of money and the level of prices from (say) 100 BCE to 500 CE? ",
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"answer": "David Graeber, in his book \"Debt: the first 5000 years\", characterizes the Roman state economy as a \"military-mining-slavery complex\". I'll summarize his argument below (I hope fairly) for any readers who are not familiar with it. \n\nMy question is, is this interpretation of events accurate? If so, how large was the \"money\" economy, ie based on coin, compared to the non-money economy? How did exchange work without money during the Roman Empire?\n\n___________________________________________\nGraeber argues that Rome introduced coinage as a kind of \"trick\" to feed it's massive armies: By paying the army in coin and requiring the taxes to be paid in coin, the elite obliged all tax payers to find something to do that soldiers would pay them for, whether supplying goods or services. This obligation did away with the need of supporting a vast system of logistics to feed otherwise hungry soldiers, and allowed for the provision of far larger armies than would otherwise be possible. These armies were engaged in constant expansion and enslavement of subject peoples, who worked the mines, from which the metal for coinage came from in the first place. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The Roman Empire is often touted as being a progressive high-point on the historical arc of the ancient world. Are there any instances of progressive populist tendencies in Roman economic policy? How would leadership respond to a large disturbance in agricultural production caused by disease or conflict? ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "How did the Roman economy help unite the empire as a whole, did domestic trade help bring the empire together? \n\nDid other places 'Romanize' to take part in the Roman economy, or did many pre-empire market customs persist in trade? \n\nHow much Roman trade took place with foreign markets was it a significant part of economies, did it only really affect frontier provinces or the empire as a whole?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "To what degree was there a concentration of wealth to fewer and fewer individuals and if so what part did this play in the fall of the Roman empire?",
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{
"answer": "Your comment about public amenities being funded by tolls makes me wonder-did the Roman world have a comparable institution to the _waqf_(that is, a legal mechanism for endowing a public amenity or charitable service in an inalienable manner with a specific source of revenue)?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "In the first century BC, after the end of the Cimbrian War and up to the Principate:\n\n* How widespread was currency and currency use in rural areas, especially between farmers independent of the larger latifundia? \n* I remember hearing that an urban prole might subsist almost entirely on donations from various patrons, even spending their mornings going practically door-to-door. What forms did patronage take between rural patrons and clients (for example, between Pompey Strabo and his Picentine clients)?\n* How much of the Italian agricultural sector was dedicated to the growing of grains, versus \"non-staples\" like olives, wines and livestock? \n\nAs for Rome herself:\n\n* Were there licenses required to run businesses within Rome, or any other limitations that we know of? What about craftsmen in general? \n* Were there any economic limitations to the Pomerium? I.e. were there any trades or crafts that were illegal to ply inside/outside of its boundary?\n* Was the Tiber ever used to transport goods to and/or from Rome?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "How liquid was capital in the Roman economy? How would one go about cashing in one's property, or say borrowing against anticipated revenue, if most wealth was tied up in land and its products? \n\nHow much did Romans understand about the law of supply and demand? Were there large price spikes or drops in markets, and were those taken advantage of by speculators? ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "So, I've been thinking of something to ask you about, and I have something!\n\nWhen the Romans absorbed other polities, be that via the medium of conquest or peaceful annexation, by default that includes inheriting the pre-existing economic system within those polities. Are important socio-economic roles consistently usurped by Romans in their new acquisitions? Were those economies Romanised over time, to fit with the expectations of Roman economic oversight (and maybe ethics)? Or would places like Nabataea, or Utica, or Massalia have retained distinctly individual organisation? ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I've heard alot of theories regarding the Roman taxsystem and how it played a role in the downfall of the empire, that the size of the empire made it impossible to collect taxes due to rampant corruption and rebellions over taxation. \n\nHow was taxes collected in the Roman empire and how effective was the collection? \n\nDo you have any examples of what type of taxes that was collected (salestax, tariffs, incometax etc) and high/low it was? \n\nHow did the structure of collection system look like? Did they use local rulers to collect in client states and conquered areas who then later paid a % of it to Rome or did the Roman senate/the Emperor appoint someone from Rome?\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "I had heard that the amount of early Roman coins had a lot of gold in them and that over time, less and less gold went into the coins with hardly any gold in them at the collapse of the western empire. Is that true? ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Interesting AMA!\n\nCan you explain briefly how their currency was developed and what they defined as wealth?",
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"answer": "Thanks for hosting this! I have a bit of knowledge in feudalism, but translating that into an understanding of the Romans can get a bit fuzzy.\n\nHow much control did peasants/farmers have in in their labor? Were their crops or construction projects dictated by government officials / nearby patricians, or were they largely just restricted by tradition and necessity?",
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"answer": "Was there an organized black market of any kind? What objects would it sell? How did the empire deal with it? ",
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{
"answer": "Interesting idea for an AMA. Thanks for doing this. I have two questions, both about physical currency:\n\n1. Who controlled the money supply? Was there an official \"mint\" that produced all of the coins in the empire, or did different areas mint their own local currency? Was there an idea (like today) of limiting the amount of coins in circulation?\n\n2. To what degree was counterfeit currency a problem? I mean, we have examples of counterfeiting from ancient China to the Aztecs, so I assume there had to be some. Do we know what methods were used? Did they have controls or safeguards in place to prevent or detect counterfeit coins? Were there specific laws in place to punish people for doing this?\n\nForgive me if these questions reflect a gross misunderstanding of Roman economics, since my knowledge on the topic is close to zero.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Was there anything resembling medieval guilds or later trade associations in Roman times?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Thanks for doing this AMA!\n\nWho was the richest Roman ever. I was thinking crassus but I heard that emperors controlled insane amounts of the GDP at times.\n\nAlso when was Roma at her most economically stable/rich. Was it during the reign of the Antonines?\n\nWhat is your favourite aspect of the Roman economy?\n\nThanks!",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Thank you for doing this AMA; this is such a fascinating topic! \n\n1. What was the nature of economic interaction between urban and rural zones? \n\n2. What was settlement like outside of Roman cities? Would most rural inhabitants have been tenant farmers, or small freeholders? What were the mechanics of this type tenancy? \n\n3. To what degree did “regional specialization” exist within the differing regions of the Empire?\n\n4. What resources would you recommend as an introduction to the Roman economy?\n",
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"answer": "What do you think of the level of monetization? I've met several numismatists who argue 1) ancient governments including Rome were not interested in coins as primarily an economic tool, and 2) most people would not have dealt very often with coins. I have a hard time buying either of these claims.",
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"answer": "1. What were the major advancements in agricultural technology during the course of Rome?\n2. Did the extensive use of slaves damage the economy with less jobs open to plebs? I believe that Caeser tried to introduce reforms to make it so every farm had a certain percentage of free men working.\n3. How did the Romans manage to work out taxes for such a vast empire? Did they delegate it to governors and if so then what was the extent of the corruption?\n4. Finally I was told by my teacher that Southern italy's economy was permamently damaged due to Hannibal's scorched earth tactics is this true?\n\nThanks for all the time you are giving :)",
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"answer": "Were there jewelers? If so, what kinds of people would be able to afford even the most basic jewelry, and where did it come from?",
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{
"answer": "Hi,\nthanks for making this AMA!\n\n**Introduction**\n\nCurrently I write a paper about the inclosure of the commons in England in the Late Medieval an stumbled upon the social stratification of England. So I'm also interested in the poulation of the roman empire. There is at least one point in english medival history where we have very good numbers for the number of people who where slaves, cottagers, tenants-in-chief, freeholder and all the other kinds of dependent people. ([Domesday Books of 1086](_URL_0_)).\n\n**Question**\n\n*Do we have some kind of social statistics of a certain point of time of the whole Roman Empire?* How many people belonged to the nobilty (of Rome), were slaves, were of Latin/Itallic origin, were foreigners, were soldiers, were freeholders of land ect. \n\nAdditional Question: Is there a book you can recommend about this topic?\n\n",
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"answer": "Ooooh, I've got a question I've been wondering about for ages! I'm curious what the economic fallout of the Punic Wars was like. My understanding is that Carthage was the biggest trading hub in the western Mediterranean, and I'm wondering what happened to all that port traffic after it fell. Was there a net decrease in trade across the Mediterranean? Did the merchants just all start operating out of a different home port? And if trade did decrease, did it ever pick back up to its pre-war levels? Actually, do we even have any data to answer these questions?",
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"answer": "Hope I'm not too late to this thread! I have two questions, each with multiple parts. I hope they're not too tedious! \n\nI remember having read that Rome, as a city, had an big issue with chronic unemployment. How large was the segment of the population that was directly dependent on the *panem* part of *panem et circenses*? And was this unemployment issue also a problem in other large cities of the Empire? And when the empire began to decline and the capital was moved, was this problem still present? I know it was an issue in Constantinople, but was there a similar problem in Mediolanum and, later, Ravenna? \n\nYou point out that the Roman Empire had an economy mostly based on agriculture. I remember reading that many wealthy Romans had large agricultural estates, which were often located in many different places, as wealthy Romans liked to diversify their portfolios. However, how did they stop things such as embezzlement or theft when they were absent from such disparate estates? Even if they had overseers and administrators, I imagine it must be difficult to make sure they're not taking advantage of you. So my question is: What was the state of financial/fiscal law enforcement and how did it work?",
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{
"answer": "What regions were the most important for the economy of the Roman empire (agriculture, mining, slavery, tools ...)? Who did own the ships for the commerce in the Empire (individuals, family, association...)?",
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"answer": "Could you recommend a good book(s) on this subject? Seems quite fascinating.",
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{
"answer": "How did the trades work? Were there just small shops with one or two craftsmen, or big factories with more? How were people trained? Were the craftsmen self-employed or might they just work in a shop owned by a senator? \n\nAlso how were grand public building projects like aquaducts or temples organized? Were there contractors who submitted bids like today? Would the work be done by free men or slaves?",
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},
{
"answer": "Was mass slavery beneficial to the economy at large at any point or did it cause more unemployment problems than it solved? I feel I should know this so I can prepare for the day when robots are doing all the future jobs. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5752813",
"title": "The Ancient Economy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "The Ancient Economy is a book about the economic system of classical antiquity written by the classicist Moses I. Finley. It was originally published in 1973. Finley interprets the economy from 1000 BC to 500 AD sociologically, instead of using economic models (like for example Michael Rostovtzeff). Finley attempted to prove that the ancient economy was largely a byproduct of status. In other words, economic systems were not interdependent, they were embedded in status positions. The analysis owes some debt to sociologists such as Max Weber and Karl Polanyi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10623551",
"title": "Economic history of Greece and the Greek world",
"section": "Section::::Byzantine Economy.:Early.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "The early Byzantine economy describes the economy of Roman Empire following the changing of its capital from Rome itself to the newly founded city of Constantinople (or \"Nova Roma\") by the Emperor Constantine I. It was essentially a continuation of the old Roman economy but with a shift in trade flow towards the newly burgeoning Greek city on the Bosphorus rather than Rome itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27990144",
"title": "Elio Lo Cascio",
"section": "Section::::Recent works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Ancient and Pre-modern Economies. GDP in Roman Empire and Early Modern Europe\", in de Callataÿ, François (ed.), Quantifying the Greco-Roman Economy and Beyond, Bari: Edipuglia, 2014, pp. 229–51 (co-author),\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "27766105",
"title": "Demography of the Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::References.:Sources.:Modern sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "BULLET::::- Lo Cascio, Elio. \"The Early Roman Empire: The State and the Economy\", in W. Scheidel, I. Morris and R. Saller, eds., \"The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World\" (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 619–47.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "2488214",
"title": "Macedonia (Roman province)",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "The economy was greatly stimulated by the construction of the Via Egnatia, the installation of Roman merchants in the cities, and the founding of Roman colonies. The Imperial government brought, along with its roads and administrative system, an economic boom, which benefited both the Roman ruling class and the lower classes. With vast arable and rich pastures, the great ruling families amassed huge fortunes in the society based on slave labor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27990144",
"title": "Elio Lo Cascio",
"section": "Section::::Recent works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"The Early Roman Empire: The State and the Economy\", in Scheidel, Walter; Morris Ian; Saller, Richard (eds.), The Cambridge Economic History of the Greco-Roman World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, pp. 619–647,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "16058452",
"title": "Economics of the Roman army",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "The economics of the Roman army concerns the costs of maintaining the Imperial Roman army and the infrastructure to support it, as well as the economic development to which the presence of long-term military bases contributed. Supply contracts with the military generated trade with producers near the base, throughout the province, and across provincial borders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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] | null |
2ko9zx
|
How did Michelin, a tire company, become the creators of the definitive guide to fine dining?
|
[
{
"answer": "As it should be when connecting tire companies with restaurant reviews, the Michelin Guide's popularity started to rise with the innovation of the \"motor tourist,\" the vehicle-toting traveler. The Michelin Tyre company made its first *Guide Michelin France* in 1900. The first Michelin Guides were just driver's handbooks, with tips for vehicle maintenance and nearby petrol stations. These pocket Michelin Guides were given out freely for \"l'instruction sur l'emploi des pneus Michelin pour voitures et automobile\" (instructions for the use of Michelin tires on cars and automobiles). The ultimate goal was to reassure new drivers that, even if they left town in their new motor vehicles, they could still find petrol stations, mechanics, and even post offices. As Kory Olston points out in her study of *Michelin* maps, the guide's popularity was indebted to the rise of motor tourism in turn-of-the-century France. The *Michelin* maps were designed differently than standard travel guides; town plans were relatively sparse and two-tone, with major roadways taking the focus instead of urban landmarks. The guide catered to bourgeois drivers, offering a \"more restrained number of tourist venues\" with a \"clarity of display to make it easier for their readers to traverse unfamiliar municipalities easily.\"\n\nIn 1926, these \"tourist venues\" finally included restaurants for motor tourists to frequent on their holidays in the countryside. The *Guide* of 1926 included a \"restaurant star,\" or a single star to denote a particularly special dining experience. A decade later, the second and third stars showed up, along with a criteria: one star for \"Une très bonne table dans sa catégorie\" (a good site in its category), two for \"Table excellente, mérite un détour\" (an excellent site worth a detour), and three for \"Une des meilleures tables, vaut le voyage\" (one of the best sites, worthy of a trip). Within three decades, the *Guide* had gone from a mechanic's handbook to a special purchase for rich motor tourists looking to get the best out of their journeys.\n\nThe three-star feat is more difficult to explain. One possible reason for its \"impossibility\" may come from the fact that the third star didn't exist during the WWII era. During the War, the *Guide* was simply reprinted from its 1939 edition, and then post-war shortages forced Michelin to put a halt on three-star ratings until 1950. *Guide* critics are anonymous, so there's not much testimony on the elusive three-star review--but we can guess that the restaurants that *do* have three stars have supreme quality of ingredients, consistency between visits, and head chefs with dedicated personalities.\n\nSources:\n\nKory Olson, *Maps for a New Kind of Tourist: The First Guides Michelin France (1900–1913)*. Available [here](_URL_2_).\n\n*Michelin Guide History*. Provence and Beyond. [Here](_URL_1_).\n\n*The Michelin Guide: Over 100 Editions and a Century of History*. ViaMichelin. [Here](_URL_0_).\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's also worth noting that Michelin is a family-owned company with a very peculiar business philosophy. They believe that their core product is mobility, rather than tires, and they have showed time and again a strong commitment to promoting easier ways to travel, which in the early 20th century was indeed a main obstacle to the auto industry as people did not projected themselves traveling long distances on a daily basis. The Guides were intended to facilitate road travelling; as were a series of road milestones that Michelin helped installed in France throughout most of the 20th century in order for drivers to locate themselves in their maps. Another example was their decision in the late 40's to invest heavily in the radial tire, which was consider a more reliable tire as it lasted longer and was safer than the industry's standards for the time. To many competitors, the radial was a nonsensical investment, as it implied redesigning factories for a product that would last longer and therefore sell less. The company has retained this approach and in many ways it helps explain why a small family company in the middle-of-French-nowhere could become a world leader. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46569126",
"title": "François Michelin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "François Michelin (15 June 1926 – 29 April 2015) was a French heir and business executive. He served as the Chief Executive Officer of Michelin from 1955 to 1999. Under his leadership at the helm of a family business founded by his grandfather in 1889, Michelin became the number one manufacturer of tires globally, dominating the marketshare in Europe and the United States. A practising Roman Catholic, he was idiosyncratically non-hierarchical and conducted business from his hometown of Clermont-Ferrand in the rural Auvergne.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1372275",
"title": "Radial tire",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Michelin in France designed, developed, patented, and commercialized the radial tire. There is no evidence that Michelin had knowledge of Arthur Savage's earlier work. The first Michelin X radial tire for cars was developed in 1946 by Michelin researcher Marius Mignol. Michelin owned the leading automaker Citroën, so it was quickly able to introduce its new design, including on the new 1948 Citroën 2CV model. In 1952, Michelin developed a radial truck tire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "79732",
"title": "Michelin",
"section": "Section::::Tyres and wheels.:History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "In 1968, Michelin opened its first North American sales office, and was able to grow that market for its products rapidly; by 1989 the company had 10% market share for OEM tyres purchased by American automobile makers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "515211",
"title": "Goodrich Corporation",
"section": "Section::::History.:1980–1990s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "Also in 1988, Michelin Group, a subsidiary of the French tire company Michelin et Cie () proposed to acquire the Uniroyal Goodrich Tire Company and took actions towards acquiring a stake. By May 1990, Michelin Group had completed its buyout of Uniroyal Goodrich Tire Company from Clayton & Dubilier of New York. The deal was valued at about US$1.5 billion. B.F. Goodrich surrendered its 7% warrant to Michelin Group, and received $32.5 million additional revenue from the sale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2036409",
"title": "Michelin Guide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Michelin Guides ( ) are a series of guide books published by the French tire company for more than a century. The term normally refers to the annually published Michelin \"Red Guide\", the oldest European hotel and restaurant reference guide, which awards up to three \"Michelin stars\" for excellence to a select few establishments. The acquisition or loss of a star can have dramatic effects on the success of a restaurant. Michelin also publishes a series of general guides to cities, regions, and countries, the \"Green Guides\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "644781",
"title": "Michelin Man",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "Michelin dominated the French tyre industry for decades and remains a leading player in the market. It was one of the leading advertisers; to this day its famous guidebooks are widely used by travellers. Bibendum was depicted visually as a lord of industry, a master of all he surveyed, and a patriotic exponent of the French spirit. In the 1920s, Bibendum urged Frenchmen to adopt America's superior factory system, but to patriotically avoid using the \"inferior\" products of those factories. As automobiles became available to the middle classes, Michelin advertising likewise shifted downscale, and its restaurant and hotel guides likewise covered a broader range of price categories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2397993",
"title": "United States Rubber Company",
"section": "Section::::Michelin Group.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "By May 1990, Michelin Group completed its purchase of Uniroyal Goodrich Tire Company from Clayton & Dubilier of New York. The deal was valued at about US$1.5 billion. B.F. Goodrich surrendered its 7% warrant to Michelin Group for US$32.5 million.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
] | null |
4dgddg
|
Tuesday Trivia | Where Are they Now? Surprising Legacies of Historic Places and Things
|
[
{
"answer": "On the main square of the old centre of the Sicilian city of Syracuse stands the [Duomo di Siracusa](_URL_0_). On the outside, it is a beautiful 18th century High Sicilian Baroque church. \n\nOn the inside, it is a [Greek temple](_URL_1_).\n\nThe columns that still support the roof of the church date to the 5th century BC. The building was originally a temple to Athena; it is mentioned in the writings of Plato (who lived in Syracuse for a while) and Cicero.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "One of the more interesting examples of this, encompassing both my hobby and day job, is the case of the HMS Revenge and *Royal Sovereign*. Construction of the ships started in late 1913 and early 1914, and they were finished in 1916. They saw service in both World Wars. *Revenge* fought at Jutland, while *Royal Sovereign* missed it. In the Second World War, *Revenge* saw service escorting convoys, while *Royal Sovereign* was transferred to the Soviet Union as the battleship *Arkhangelsk*. In 1944, *Revenge* was disarmed and used as a training ship, while *Royal Sovereign* would be returned to the UK in 1949. The ships were both scrapped in 1948-49. However, much of the machinery from their gun turrets would be saved. In 1949, Bernard Lovell at the University of Manchester wanted to build a massive radio telescope at Jodrell Bank in Cheshire. This telescope had to be steerable, so they needed two big motors to rotate the telescope in elevation. The turret motors from *Royal Sovereign* and *Revenge* were cheap and easy to acquire, given that they were lying around after the battleships were scrapped. The telescope ended up being built around these two motors, and they're still in place in the telescope today.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The oldest building in Virginia actually dates to the late 15th century. Not possible, you say? It was originally constructed in Lancashire, England but was carefully dismantled, shipped, and reconstructed in Richmond in the 1920s. So this [English Tudor manor](_URL_0_) is now a 17th century museum in America.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Kazan Cathedral in St. Petersburg was transformed into a [Museum of the History of Religion and Atheism](_URL_0_) in the Soviet period. Needless to say, it did not present religion positively. It was transformed back into a church in the post-Soviet period. Now people line up for ages to kiss the Orthodox icon (Our Lady of Kazan) within the church.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since moving to Brussels, I've noticed quite a few surprising uses made of older buildings here. There's a even a verb made up from the city's name that designates buildings whose interior has been exchanged, leaving only the historical facades intact.\n\nA good example of such change is the former hippodrome, the [Hippodrome de Boitfort](_URL_2_) near the forest, which I visited only to find a golf course on the former racecourse. The golf course was founded in 1988 (featuring nine holes), while the hippodrome itself goes back [to 1875](_URL_4_).\n\nI was also impressed to find the [Comic Strip Museum](_URL_3_) inside a large building by famous Art Nouveau architect Victor Horta. It was designed in 1905 and originally housed the textile department store *Magasins Waucquez*. The building was left to abandon since the 1920's, and only saved through an initiative started by an architect and a few well-known cartoonists (including Hergé) after 1980. Similarly the current [Music Instrument Museum](_URL_1_) is housed in another Art Nouveau building from 1899 , the former Old England department store.\n\nTo finish up I thought I'd mention the world's only streetcar traversing a forest, the [tram 44](_URL_0_). Its rails were originally built in 1897 to connect two parts of an international exhibition, the palais du Cinquantenaire and the château de Tervueren – all three constructions started by Leopold II. The rails are still in use today, using historical streetcars in summer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This isn't that interesting, but I have to talk about it because I was there yesterday.\n\nAfter the USS *Nautilus* was decommissioned she was painstakingly preserved and turned into a living [museum of naval history.](_URL_0_) Obviously the boat is small so it's built around a whole complex, but the *Nautilus* is definitely a centerpiece.\n\nOne interesting thing about the museum is that it's run directly by the U.S. Navy, which of course has access to the entire naval history of the nation. It's a very educating visit, even for someone like me who knows too much about submarines already.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6147337",
"title": "Tourism in New York City",
"section": "Section::::Industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1164,
"text": "Many visitors investigate their genealogy at historic immigration sites such as Ellis Island and the Statue of Liberty. Other tourist destinations include the Empire State Building, for 41 years the world's tallest building after its construction in 1931, Radio City Music Hall, home of The Rockettes, a variety of Broadway shows, the Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum, housed on a World War II aircraft carrier, and city landmarks such as Central Park, one of the finest examples of landscape architecture in the world. New York City has encouraged tourist shopping by eliminating its sales tax on clothing and footwear. In the past, the World Trade Center was an important tourist destination before the September 11 attacks, which devastated the city and its tourist industry. Tourists were scarce for months, and it took two years for the numbers to fully rebound with fewer international, but more domestic visitors, due in part to an emphasis on \"patriotic tourism\". The World Trade Center site itself became an important place to visit, and visits to the World Trade Center have increased, especially with openings of new buildings on the site in recent years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17126381",
"title": "Angie Girl",
"section": "Section::::Settings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "Set in the 19th century of London, the whole city has an old rustic vibe, yet still appears to be modern. Landmarks one of such is the Big Ben is present in the story giving an insight of the foreign world of English history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57957524",
"title": "The Greatest Wonder of the World and American Tobacco Warehouse and Fancy Goods Emporium",
"section": "Section::::Heritage listing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "The Greatest Wonder of the World and the American Tobacco Warehouse and Fancy Goods Emporium are of state heritage significance for aesthetic values as now rare examples of rough, \"erected-in-a-hurry\" vernacular buildings built to service the burgeoning gold rush population around Gulgong-one of the richest goldfields in NSW. The 1876 remodelling of \"The Greatest Wonder of the World\" is of significance as an example of the innovative reuse of a simple earlier structure as a more substantial building, signalling the evolution of the town from camp to village. Together these buildings are of state heritage significance as they together demonstrate a pattern of construction and development typical of the development of gold rush towns in NSW.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57638",
"title": "Santo Domingo",
"section": "Section::::Cityscape.:Architecture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 779,
"text": "The city's most important historical buildings include the Catedral Santa María La Menor, the first cathedral of the Americas, which states its distinction; the Alcázar de Colón, the first castle in the Americas, once the residence of Viceroy of the Indies Don Diego Colón, a son of Christopher Columbus; the Monasterio de San Francisco, the ruins of the first monastery in the Americas; the Museo de las Casas Reales, in a monumental complex that includes the former Palace of the Governors and the building of the former Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo; the Fortaleza Ozama, the oldest fortress in the Americas; the Pantéon Nacional, a former Jesuit edifice now hosting the remains of various renowned Dominicans; and the Dominican Convent, the first convent in the Americas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "86947",
"title": "Grand Place",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th and 21st centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "The Grand Place was named by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1998. The place is now primarily an important tourist attraction. A number of guild houses have been converted into shops, terraced restaurants and brasseries. Notable institutions include Godiva Chocolatier and the \"Maison Dandoy\" speculoos confectionery. One of the houses owned by the brewers' guild is home to a brewers' museum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2016839",
"title": "Hội An",
"section": "Section::::Heritage and tourism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "In 1999 the old town was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO as a well-preserved example of a Southeast Asian trading port of the 15th to 19th centuries, with buildings that display a blend of local and foreign influences. According to the UNESCO Impact Report 2008 on Hội An, tourism has brought changes to the area which are not sustainable without mitigation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44776",
"title": "Catania",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "The city is noted for its history, culture, architecture and gastronomy. Its old town, besides being one of the biggest examples of baroque architecture in Italy, is a World Heritage Site, protected by UNESCO.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
u0ku8
|
Engineering/Environmental Science: How viable are solar panels when considering when material production concerns?
|
[
{
"answer": "Also how do they measure up as an alternative roofing material?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends on the type of panels. For crystalline Silicon (most common), energy payback times (how long it takes to produce the energy required to make it) are a few years. Silicon is the second most abundant element on the planet, so supply isn't really an issue. The problem for c-Si is centered around cost -- growing crystalline wafers is very expensive. There are a variety of other technologies which could replace or improve on c-Si. These are all in varies stages of development from on the market now to a decade or more from commercial manufacture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "623774",
"title": "Environmental impact of electricity generation",
"section": "Section::::Renewable energy.:Solar power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Its negative impact on the environment lies in the creation of the solar cells which are made primarily of silica (from sand) and the extraction of silicon from silica may require the use of fossil fuels, although newer manufacturing processes have eliminated CO production. Solar power carries an upfront cost to the environment via production, but offers clean energy throughout the lifespan of the solar cell.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "652531",
"title": "Photovoltaics",
"section": "Section::::Current developments.:Environmental impacts of photovoltaic technologies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "While solar photovoltaic (PV) cells are promising for clean energy production, their deployment is hindered by production costs, material availability, and toxicity. Data required to investigate their impact are sometimes affected by a rather large amount of uncertainty. The values of human labor and water consumption, for example, are not precisely assessed due to the lack of systematic and accurate analyses in the scientific literature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17669405",
"title": "Solar lamp",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "The use of solar energy minimizes the creation pollution indoors, where kerosene have been linked to cases of health issues. However, photovoltaic panels are made out of silicon and other toxic metals including lead that can be difficult to dispose of.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1228320",
"title": "Energy returned on energy invested",
"section": "Section::::Competing methodology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "In the case of photovoltaic solar panels, the IEA method tends to focus on the energy used in the factory process alone. In 2016, Hall observed that much of the published work in this field is produced by advocates or persons with a connection to business interests among the competing technologies, and that government agencies had not yet provided adequate funding for rigorous analysis by more neutral observers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "193939",
"title": "Alternative energy",
"section": "Section::::Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 1336,
"text": "Solar panels are an icon of the 'green power' movement, however the process of manufacturing the quartz based panels can be detrimental to the environment. Raw quartz (silica) used to create solar cells must be mined using harsh chemicals that harm the surrounding environment, as well as those working in the mines. Silicosis is a form of lung disease that is caused by the inhalation of crystalline silica dust resulting in nodule lesions in the lungs. The silica must be cultivated into metallurgical-grade silicon, the process requiring a massive amount of energy as the quartz is placed into electric arc furnaces. The metallurgical grade silica must be processed into polysilicon. This process also produces tetrachloride, a toxic substance that, if not disposed of correctly, can be harmful to the surrounding environment. Hydrochloric acid is formed when tetrachloride interacts with water, lowering water and soil pH. Incidents of tetrachloride spills are common in China, as the production of solar panels has shifted from Europe and the United States to Asian countries within the early 2000s. Because of such, the villagers of Gaolong are unable to leave their homes due to air and soil becoming toxic. This was due to Luoyang Zhongui High-Technology Co. repeatedly dumped tetrachloride in a nearby field for almost a year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "190450",
"title": "Appropriate technology",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Energy generation and uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "BULLET::::- Photovoltaic (PV) solar panels, and (large) Concentrating solar power plants. PV solar panels made from low-cost photovoltaic cells or PV-cells which have first been concentrated by a Luminescent solar concentrator-panel are also a good option. Especially companies as Solfocus make appropriate technology CSP plants which can be made from waste plastics polluting the surroundings (see above).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3507365",
"title": "Solar panel",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "There are many practical applications for the use of solar panels or photovoltaics. It can first be used in agriculture as a power source for irrigation. In health care solar panels can be used to refrigerate medical supplies. It can also be used for infrastructure. PV modules are used in photovoltaic systems and include a large variety of electric devices:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7ziu0o
|
does it take more energy to run with 4 legs than it does 2?
|
[
{
"answer": "Yes it takes more energy to run with 4 limbs vs 2. This is one reason that humans are such good endurance sprinters. Being able to run 15+ miles non stop is fairly uncommon in the animal kingdom, where as humans in good shape can do that fairly consistently. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The really simple answer is that humans run more efficiently because we let gravity do a lot more of the work; when we go forward we're basically putting one foot out and falling forward, then pulling ourselves forward and repeating the process with the other foot. When quadrapedal animals run, they need to propel themselves forward with their front and back legs; the advantages of this are that they can put more of their total muscle mass into running and you get more sources of speed, and run faster/quicker; pretty much any quadraped can out-sprint a human. But humans are the undisputed champions of distance-running on Earth, partly because their run is more energy efficient.\n\nThe other thing that helps us run, just as a sidenote, is the fact that our bodies are really good at not overheating. A cheetah for instance can only keep up their vaunted 60 mph run-speed for a very short distance without overheating and exhausting themselves. But our ability to have the airflow of our forward motion wick heat away by evaporating sweat off of us is one of nature's best heat regulation mechanisms, and allows for humans to run for hours on end without stopping, when properly trained.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Running on 4 legs is more efficient, and allows for different gaits at different speeds.\n\nHumans exceed at running long distances because we excel at removing excess heat from our bodies via our superior ability to sweat.\nSweating is the only thing we are truely better at physically when compared to anything else in the animal kingdom. We can chase animals to death not because of good technique, but the ability to stave off exhaustion.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Efficiency depends on the animal, actually. Animals that run all the time, horses and deer for example, have tendons in their legs that act like bouncy springs, conserving quite a bit of energy. On the other hand, bears for example, lots of muscles in their limbs, but more for killing prey and climbing trees, not as efficient at running as a horse.\n\nTo answer your own question, what takes more energy, running on 4 legs or 2, take an animal that can do both, bear or gorilla for example, and ask yourself do they prefer to run on 2 legs or 4?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Related: \"Persistance Hunt\" where human hunters literally run thier prey into exhaustion. \n_URL_0_ \n(Bonus David Attenborough narration)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "86681",
"title": "Tandem bicycle",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 851,
"text": "Compared to a conventional bicycle, a tandem has double the pedalling power, without necessarily doubling the speed, and with only slightly more frictional loss in the drivetrain. It has about the same wind resistance as a conventional bicycle. High-performance tandems may weigh less than twice as much as a single bike, so the power-to-weight ratio may be slightly better than that of a single bike and rider. On flat terrain and downhill, most of the power produced by cyclists is used to overcome wind resistance, so tandems can reach higher speeds than the same riders on single bicycles. They are not necessarily slower on climbs, but are perceived as such, in part due to the need for a high level of coordination between the riders, especially if the physical abilities of the two riders are very different, requiring a compromise on cadence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37841887",
"title": "Elastic mechanisms in animals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "While running, tendons are able to reduce the metabolic rate of muscle activity by reducing the volume of the muscle that is active to produce force. The timing of muscle activation is very important for utilizing the mechanical and energetic benefits of tendon elasticity. Power attenuation by the use of the tendons can allow the muscle-tendon system the ability to absorb energy at a rate beyond the muscles maximum capacity to absorb energy. Power amplification mechanisms are able to work because the spring and muscles contain different intrinsic limits of power. Muscles in a skeletal system can be limited in their maximum power production. Power amplification by the use of the tendons allows the muscle to produce power beyond the muscle’s capacity. The mechanical functions of tendons contain a structural basis and are not subjected to limitation of power production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4210",
"title": "Bipedalism",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Biomechanics.:Running.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 93,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 93,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Running is characterized by a spring-mass movement. Kinetic and potential energy are in phase, and the energy is stored & released from a spring-like limb during foot contact. Again, the whole-body kinetics are similar to animals with more limbs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24106558",
"title": "Endurance running hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Anatomical and physiological adaptations.:Running vs. walking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 731,
"text": "Running and walking incorporated different biomechanisms. Walking requires an \"inverted pendulum\" where the body's center of mass is shifted over the extended leg, to exchange potential and kinetic energy with each step. Running involves a \"mass spring\" mechanism to exchange potential and kinetic energy, with the use of tendons and ligaments. Tendons and ligaments are elastic tissues that store energy. They are stretched and then release energy as they recoil. This mass spring mechanism becomes less energetically costly at faster speeds and is therefore more efficient than the inverted pendulum of walking mechanics when traveling at greater speeds. Tendons and ligaments, however, do not provide these benefits in walking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24106558",
"title": "Endurance running hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Anatomical and physiological adaptations.:Increased efficiency.:Storage and utilization of energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "Taken together, the flexibility in diet and the enhanced usage of fuel heightens the previously mentioned finding that, unlike quadrupeds, hominins do not have a single energetically optimal running speed. For quadrupeds, increasing running speed means increasing the demand for oxygen and fuel. Due to skeletal structure and bipedalism, hominins are free to run energetically over a broader range of speeds and gaits, while maintaining a constant energy consumption rate of approximately 4.1 MJ per 15 km. Thus their utilization of energy is greatly enhanced.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8861650",
"title": "Super-Cycle",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "The Super-Cycle is a piece of quasi-living New Genesis technology; it resembles a small three-wheeled car, rather than a motorcycle, and can carry several passengers. Despite having an open top, it can travel at supersonic speeds (on the ground or by flying) without harm to its passengers using electrons; it can also turn itself and its passengers intangible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3084771",
"title": "Electric bicycle laws",
"section": "Section::::Canada.:Provincial requirements for use.:Saskatchewan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 1092,
"text": "Power assisted bicycles are classified in two categories in Saskatchewan. An \"electric assist bicycle\" is a 2 or 3-wheeled bicycle that uses pedals and a motor at the same time only. A \"power cycle\" uses either pedals and motor or motor only. Both must have engines with 500 watt power or less, and must not be able exceed 32 km/h (20 mph), i.e., electric motor cuts out at this speed or cycle is unable to go this fast on a level surface. The power cycle has to meet the Canadian Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (CMVSS) for a \"power-assisted bicycle\". The power cycle requires at least a learner's driving licence (class 7), and all of the other classes 1–5 may operate these also. The electric assist bicycle does not require a licence. Helmets are required for each. Both are treated as bicycles regarding rules of the road. Gas powered or assisted bicycles are classified as motorcycles regardless of engine size or if using pedals plus motor. Stickers identifying the bicycle's compliance with the Federal classification may be required for power cycles by some cities or municipalities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2kcmn7
|
What is the definition of Boiling Point?
|
[
{
"answer": "Ever try and do a push up with someone sitting on your back? (Don't do that.) It's kinda like that.\n\nExternal pressure modulates *where* the boiling point is, the mechanism is still the same, but it's where the thermodynamic scale tips in favor of phase change. A high pressure provides a lot of surface force onto the liquid (though molecular collisions) which force the liquid molecules to be of even higher thermal energy to escape into the vapor phase.\n\nYou can do this at home with some water and a pump and a sealed jar of water. As you lower the pressure, the water will begin to boil at room temperature. Here's a chart of this for water: \n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2184383",
"title": "Boiling-point elevation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "Boiling-point elevation describes the phenomenon that the boiling point of a liquid (a solvent) will be higher when another compound is added, meaning that a solution has a higher boiling point than a pure solvent. This happens whenever a non-volatile solute, such as a salt, is added to a pure solvent, such as water. The boiling point can be measured accurately using an ebullioscope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "456234",
"title": "Colligative properties",
"section": "Section::::Boiling point and freezing point.:Boiling point elevation (ebullioscopy).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "The boiling point is the temperature at which there is equilibrium between liquid and gas phases. At the boiling point, the number of gas molecules condensing to liquid equals the number of liquid molecules evaporating to gas. Adding a solute dilutes the concentration of the liquid molecules and reduces the rate of evaporation. To compensate for this and re-attain equilibrium, the boiling point occurs at a higher temperature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4115",
"title": "Boiling point",
"section": "Section::::Saturation temperature and pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "The boiling point corresponds to the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the surrounding environmental pressure. Thus, the boiling point is dependent on the pressure. Boiling points may be published with respect to the NIST, USA standard pressure of 101.325 kPa (or 1 atm), or the IUPAC standard pressure of 100.000 kPa. At higher elevations, where the atmospheric pressure is much lower, the boiling point is also lower. The boiling point increases with increased pressure up to the critical point, where the gas and liquid properties become identical. The boiling point cannot be increased beyond the critical point. Likewise, the boiling point decreases with decreasing pressure until the triple point is reached. The boiling point cannot be reduced below the triple point.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2528589",
"title": "Volatility (chemistry)",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Boiling point.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the surrounding pressure, causing the liquid to rapidly evaporate, or boil. It is closely related to vapor pressure, but is dependent on pressure. The normal boiling point is the boiling point at atmospheric pressure, but it can also be reported at higher and lower pressures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "184726",
"title": "Heat transfer",
"section": "Section::::Phase transition.:Boiling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid evaporates resulting in an abrupt change in vapor volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4115",
"title": "Boiling point",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "The normal boiling point (also called the atmospheric boiling point or the atmospheric pressure boiling point) of a liquid is the special case in which the vapor pressure of the liquid equals the defined atmospheric pressure at sea level, 1 atmosphere. At that temperature, the vapor pressure of the liquid becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and allow bubbles of vapor to form inside the bulk of the liquid. The standard boiling point has been defined by IUPAC since 1982 as the temperature at which boiling occurs under a pressure of 1 bar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52636",
"title": "Boiling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "Boiling is the rapid vaporization of a liquid, which occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to the pressure exerted on the liquid by the surrounding atmosphere. There are two main types of boiling: nucleate boiling where small bubbles of vapour form at discrete points, and critical heat flux boiling where the boiling surface is heated above a certain critical temperature and a film of vapor forms on the surface. Transition boiling is an intermediate, unstable form of boiling with elements of both types. The boiling point of water is 100 °C or 212 °F but is lower with the decreased atmospheric pressure found at higher altitudes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
4lxx39
|
If the brain is split, are some tasks harder if the input comes from just one eye/ear, or if the input moves from left to right eye/ear?
|
[
{
"answer": "Just to clarify, the thing that makes split-brain patients interesting is that they can highlight cognitive difficulties (things to do with thoughts being broken), which we were not aware of prior to these experiments. The reason we were not aware of these difficulties is that they do not manifest in daily life. You will find very few, or maybe no, situations where information is coming into just one of your two sense organs.\n\nWikipedia has a really nice article on [split-brain patients](_URL_1_), and there are descriptions of case studies. YouTube also has a [video of one of these patients being tested](_URL_2_) by [Michael Gazzaniga](_URL_0_). It's only ten minutes and worth a watch.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25181073",
"title": "Neuroscience of multilingualism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1080,
"text": "The brain contains areas that are specialized to deal with language, located in the perisylvian cortex of the left hemisphere. These areas are crucial for performing language tasks, but they are not the only areas that are used; disparate parts of both right and left brain hemispheres are active during language production. In multilingual individuals, there is a great deal of similarity in the brain areas used for each of their languages. Insights into the neurology of multilingualism have been gained by the study of multilingual individuals with aphasia, or the loss of one or more languages as a result of brain damage. Bilingual aphasics can show several different patterns of recovery; they may recover one language but not another, they may recover both languages simultaneously, or they may involuntarily mix different languages during language production during the recovery period. These patterns are explained by the \"dynamic view\" of bilingual aphasia, which holds that the language system of representation and control is compromised as a result of brain damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305136",
"title": "Visual system",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Optic chiasm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "The optic nerves from both eyes meet and cross at the optic chiasm, at the base of the hypothalamus of the brain. At this point the information coming from both eyes is combined and then splits according to the visual field. The corresponding halves of the field of view (right and left) are sent to the left and right halves of the brain, respectively, to be processed. That is, the right side of primary visual cortex deals with the left half of the \"field of view\" from both eyes, and similarly for the left brain. A small region in the center of the field of view is processed redundantly by both halves of the brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3665897",
"title": "Lateralization of brain function",
"section": "Section::::Lateralized functions.:Sensory processing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "In vision, about half the neurons of the optic nerve from each eye cross to project to the opposite hemisphere and about half do not cross to project to the hemisphere on the same side. This means that the left side of the visual field is processed largely by the visual cortex of the right hemisphere and vice versa for the right side of the visual field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28796066",
"title": "Split-brain (computing)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Split-brain is a computer term, based on an analogy with the medical Split-brain syndrome. It indicates data or availability inconsistencies originating from the maintenance of two separate data sets with overlap in scope, either because of servers in a network design, or a failure condition based on servers not communicating and synchronizing their data to each other. This last case is also commonly referred to as a network partition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8010519",
"title": "Animal testing on non-human primates",
"section": "Section::::Notable studies.:Split-brain experiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "In the 1950s, Roger Sperry developed split-brain preparations in non-human primates that emphasized the importance of information transfer that occurred in these neocortical connections. For example, learning on simple tasks, if restricted in sensory input and motor output to one hemisphere of a split-brain animal, would not transfer to the other hemisphere. The right brain has no idea what the left brain is up to, if these specific connections are cut. Those experiments were followed by tests on human beings with epilepsy who had undergone split-brain surgery, which established that the neocortical connections between hemispheres are the principal route for cognition to transfer from one side of the brain to another. These experiments also formed the modern basis for lateralization of function in the human brain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "490620",
"title": "Human brain",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Lateralisation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1189,
"text": "The cerebrum has a contralateral organisation with each hemisphere of the brain interacting primarily with one half of the body: the left side of the brain interacts with the right side of the body, and vice versa. The developmental cause for this is uncertain. Motor connections from the brain to the spinal cord, and sensory connections from the spinal cord to the brain, both cross sides in the brainstem. Visual input follows a more complex rule: the optic nerves from the two eyes come together at a point called the optic chiasm, and half of the fibres from each nerve split off to join the other. The result is that connections from the left half of the retina, in both eyes, go to the left side of the brain, whereas connections from the right half of the retina go to the right side of the brain. Because each half of the retina receives light coming from the opposite half of the visual field, the functional consequence is that visual input from the left side of the world goes to the right side of the brain, and vice versa. Thus, the right side of the brain receives somatosensory input from the left side of the body, and visual input from the left side of the visual field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32528",
"title": "Visual cortex",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Both hemispheres of the brain contain a visual cortex; the visual cortex in the left hemisphere receives signals from the right visual field, and the visual cortex in the right hemisphere receives signals from the left visual field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
44dcxx
|
why did it change from chinese new year to 'lunar new year' if multiple other cultures have lunar calendars with different dates for new years (ie islam, judaism, etc)?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is technically called Lunar New Years because, as you know, the calender is based off the phases of the moon. It is commonly called Chinese New Years in the west because \"white people\" first heard of this from the Chinese immigrants who came during the California Gold Rush of 1849 to 1860s. Chinese New Years has been changed to be known as \"Lunar New Years\" now because Vietnamese, Korean, and Japanese culture also still/used to celebrate this Lunar New Year.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19682699",
"title": "Chinese New Year",
"section": "Section::::Dates in Chinese lunisolar calendar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "The lunisolar Chinese calendar determines the date of Lunar New Year. The calendar is also used in countries that have been influenced by, or have relations with, China – such as Korea, Japan and Vietnam, though occasionally the date celebrated may differ by one day or even one moon cycle due to using a meridian based on a different capital city in a different time zone or different placements of intercalary months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3398337",
"title": "East Asian cultural sphere",
"section": "Section::::East Asian Culture.:Traditions.:New Year.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "Greater China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam traditionally observe the same lunar new year. However, Japan has moved its New Year to fit the Western New Year since the Meiji Restoration while Korea later also moved to Western New Year since the 1970s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21637",
"title": "New Year",
"section": "Section::::By month or season.:East Asian New Year.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Chinese New Year, also known as the Lunar New Year, occurs every year on the new moon of the first lunar month, about the beginning of spring (Lichun). The exact date can fall any time between January 21 and February 21 (inclusive) of the Gregorian Calendar. Traditionally, years were marked by one of twelve Earthly Branches, represented by an animal, and one of ten Heavenly Stems, which correspond to the five elements. This combination cycles every 60 years. It is the most important Chinese celebration of the year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6966",
"title": "Chinese calendar",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Chinese New Year.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "The date of the Chinese New Year accords with the patterns of the solar calendar and hence is variable from year to year. However, there are two general rules that govern the date. Firstly, Chinese New Year transpires on the second new moon following the December solstice. If there is a leap month after the eleventh or twelfth month, then Chinese New Year falls on the third new moon after the December solstice. Alternatively, Chinese New Year will fall on the new moon that is closest to \"lì chūn\", or the solar term that begins spring (typically falls on February 4). However, this rule is not as reliable since it can be difficult to determine which new moon is the closest in the case of an early or late Chinese New Year . \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60908563",
"title": "Taiwanese superstitions",
"section": "Section::::Superstitions and folklore.:Lunar New Year.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Lunar New Year, also known as Chinese New Year, celebrates the beginning of a new year according to the Chinese calendar. During this period of about 15 days, many Taiwanese people celebrate its traditions and more importantly, strictly adhere to the superstitions the come with this occasion. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19682699",
"title": "Chinese New Year",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "Chinese New Year (or generally referred to as Lunar New Year globally) is the Chinese festival that celebrates the beginning of a new year on the traditional Chinese calendar. The festival is usually referred to as the Spring Festival in mainland China, and is one of several Lunar New Years in Asia. Observances traditionally take place from the evening preceding the first day of the year to the Lantern Festival, held on the 15th day of the year. The first day of Chinese New Year begins on the new moon that appears between 21 January and 20 February. In 2019, the first day of the Chinese New Year was on Tuesday, 5 February, initiating the Year of the Pig.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19682699",
"title": "Chinese New Year",
"section": "Section::::Dates in Chinese lunisolar calendar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Chinese calendar defines the lunar month with winter solstice as the 11th month, which means that Chinese New Year usually falls on the second new moon after the winter solstice (rarely the third if an intercalary month intervenes). In more than 96% of the years, the Chinese New Year's Day is the closest new moon to lichun () on 4 or 5 February, and the first new moon after Dahan (). In the Gregorian calendar, the Lunar New Year begins at the new moon that falls between 21 January and 20 February.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7xqmz5
|
My friend's farts always smell like death. Do people really have distinctive fart smells?
|
[
{
"answer": "The answer to both your questions is yes. People do have colonic bacterial ‘fingerprints’, but they are not static and change over time depending on a multitude of factors. The bacterial biome can change the odor of a persons flatulence but that is also dependent on diet, illness, etc. For example the smells associated with a *C. diff* infection are quite unique. \n\nThe gut biome is usually initially colonized during birth as the baby passes through the vaginal canal. C-sections are of course a different mechanism. You inherit fart smells from your mother in most cases. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "424956",
"title": "Perfume (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "The effect his scent has had now confirms to Grenouille how much he hates people, especially as he realizes that they worship him now and that even this degree of control does not give him satisfaction. He decides to return to Paris, intending to die there, and after a long journey ends up at the fish market where he was born. He approaches a crowd of criminals gathered in a cemetery and pours the entire bottle of his final perfume on himself. The people are so drawn to him that they are compelled to obtain parts of his body, eventually tearing him to pieces and eating them. The story ends with the crowd, now embarrassed by their actions, agreeing that they did it out of \"love\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5910868",
"title": "Gus (Psych)",
"section": "Section::::Fictional biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Gus has a very refined sense of smell and has nicknamed his nose \"the Super Sniffer\". He is able to recognize the base component of a perfume by smelling it and can perform the same trick with food. The talent seems to be hereditary, as it has been displayed by both of his parents, and has led to the uncovering of crucial evidence in several cases. He has been shown to have a fear of dead people, having run away from a scene where a dead person is present on more than one occasion. He has showed the dislike of seeing blood on occasions. He is also well-versed in high-tech locks or safes, as demonstrated by his ability to crack an electronic lock on his first try.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2939738",
"title": "United States Senate Committee on the Philippines",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.:Alleged war crimes.:Concentration camps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "What a farce it all is ... this little spot of black sogginess is a reconcentrado pen, with a dead line outside, beyond which everything living is shot ... Upon arrival, I found 30 cases of smallpox, and average fresh ones of five a day, which practically have to be turned out to die. At nightfall crowds of huge vampire bats softly swirl out of their orgies over the dead. Mosquitos work in relays. This corpse-carcass stench wafts in and combined with some lovely municipal odors besides makes it slightly unpleasant here.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9326975",
"title": "Poultry Compter",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "the mixture of scents that arose from mundungus, tobacco, foul feet, dirty shirts, stinking breaths, and uncleanly carcases, poisoned our nostrils far worse than a Southwark ditch, a tanner's yard, or a tallow-chandler's melting-room. The ill-looking vermin, with long, rusty beards, swaddled up in rags, and their heads—some covered with thrum-caps, and others thrust into the tops of old stockings. Some quitted their play they were before engaged in, and came hovering round us, like so many cannibals, with such devouring countenances, as if a man had been but a morsel with 'em, all crying out, \"Garnish, garnish,\" as a rabble in an insurrection crying, \"Liberty, liberty!\" We were forced to submit to the doctrine of nonresistance, and comply with their demands, which extended to the sum of two shillings each.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8454650",
"title": "Granite, Colorado",
"section": "Section::::Granite Cemetery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "Dave Jardine, another old miner, lived in a log cabin situated on Pine Creek, south of Granite, till his death in 1953. Jardine always carried a \"doodlebug\", a pendulum similar to that used for dousing, to tell the future or just for advise. Dave, or \"Stinky Dave\" as he was called, loved dogs and had 5 or 6 strays which he kept in his cabin at night. He had deep chronic venous ulcers on both ankles that may have been the cause of his bad odor, and may well have been the cause of his death. According to county records, when authorities discovered him he had been eaten by his dogs after he had died alone in his cabin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "424956",
"title": "Perfume (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1480,
"text": "On his way to Grasse, Grenouille travels the countryside and is increasingly disgusted by the scent of humanity. Avoiding civilization, he comes instead to live in a cave inside the Plomb du Cantal, surviving off the mountain's sparse vegetation and wildlife. However, his peace is ended when he realizes after seven years that he himself does not possess any scent: he cannot smell himself and neither, he finally understands, can other people. Traveling to Montpellier with a fabricated story about being kidnapped and kept in a cave for seven years to account for his haggard appearance, he creates a body odour for himself from everyday materials and finds that his new \"disguise\" tricks people into thinking that it is the scent of a human; he is now accepted by society instead of shunned. In Montpellier, he gains the patronage of the Marquis de La Taillade-Espinasse, who uses Grenouille to publicize his pseudoscientific theory about the influence of \"fluidal\" energies on human vitality. Grenouille manufactures perfumes which successfully distort the public perception of him from a wretched \"caveman\" into a clean and cultivated patrician, helping to win enormous popularity for the Marquis' theory. Seeing how easily humanity can be fooled by a simple scent, Grenouille's hatred becomes contempt. He realizes that it is within his ability to develop scents described as \"superhuman\" and \"angelic\" that will affect in unprecedented ways how other people perceive him.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16805148",
"title": "The Stinking Corpse",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "\"The Stinking Corpse\" is an Aztec myth that tells of the body of a giant, killed by the Toltecs, which released a stench that would kill anyone who smelled it. Versions of it are recorded in the \"Legend of the Suns\" (part of the Codex Chimalpopoca), the \"Anónimo Mexicano\", Torquemada's \"Monarchia Indiana\", and elsewhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9lb0h6
|
why do conditioners make little to no foam unlike shampoos?
|
[
{
"answer": "It is about their purpose. The foam in soaps and shampoos is part of what makes it able to clean the dirt and oils from the hair and scalp. Conditioner is there to add back in some of what is lost since not all those oils are required to be stripped away as part of that cleaning, so they are made differently, conditioner is not a soap.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2494084",
"title": "Hair care",
"section": "Section::::Hair cleaning and conditioning.:Hair cleaning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 709,
"text": "Conditioners are often used after shampooing to smooth down the cuticle layer of the hair, which can become roughened during the physical process of shampooing. There are three main types of conditioners: anti-oxidant conditioners, which are mainly used in salons after chemical services and prevent creeping oxidation; internal conditioners, which enter into the cortex of the hair and help improve the hair's internal condition (also known as treatments); and external conditioners, or everyday conditioners, which smooth down the cuticle layer, making the hair shiny, combable and smooth. Conditioners can also provide a physical layer of protection for the hair against physical and environmental damage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "887815",
"title": "Hair conditioner",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Conditioners are available in a wide range of forms including viscous liquids, gels and creams as well as thinner lotions and sprays. Hair conditioner is usually used after the hair has been washed with shampoo. It is applied and worked into the hair and may either be washed out a short time later or left in. For short hair, 2-3 tablespoons is the recommended amount. For long hair, up to 8 tablespoons may be used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27243949",
"title": "No poo",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.:Chemical additives' effect on the body.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1115,
"text": "One reason is concern about the effect of ingredients typically found in commercial hair care products. Shampoo typically contains chemical additives such as sodium lauryl sulfate and sodium laureth sulfate, which can irritate sensitive skin or if not thoroughly rinsed. Such chemical additives are also believed by some consumers to dry out their hair. The Environmental Working Group (EWG) compared the ingredients in 42,000 personal care products against 50 toxicity and regulatory databases and found that most shampoos have at least one chemical that \"raises concern\" (although the hair care industry counters by claiming that the chemicals are safe in the concentrations used). The group flagged the following groups of ingredients as hazardous: fragrances, due to containing unknown constituents, parabens, possibly linked to endocrine disruption and neurotoxicity, DMDM hydantoin, due to possible allergy concerns, and 1,4-dioxane, which the Environmental Protection Agency has labelled as a probable human carcinogen. Some disagree with the EWG’s assessments while others think they aren’t strong enough. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27243949",
"title": "No poo",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.:Chemical additives' effect on the body.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Some shampoos also include silicone derivatives (such as dimethicone), which is claimed to coat the hair. While it is claimed that silicone derivatives protect the hair and make it more manageable (dimethicone is a common ingredient in smoothing serums and detangling conditioners), the film that proponents assert coats the hair is also claimed to prevent moisture from entering the hair, eventually drying it out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "887815",
"title": "Hair conditioner",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Hair conditioner is a hair care product used to improve the feel, appearance and manageability of hair. Its main purpose of is to reduce friction between strands of hair to allow easier brushing or combing, which might otherwise cause damage to the scalp. Various other benefits are often advertised, such as hair repair, strengthening, or a reduction in split ends.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54201",
"title": "Sodium dodecyl sulfate",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Cleaning and hygiene.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "In lower concentrations, it is found in toothpastes, shampoos, shaving creams, and bubble bath formulations, for its ability to create a foam (lather), for its surfactant properties, and in part for its thickening effect.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20163098",
"title": "Defoamer",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Detergents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Anti-foams are added in certain types of detergents to reduce foaming that might decrease the action of the detergent. For example, dishwasher detergents have to be low foaming for the dishwasher to work properly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2j4ayf
|
Why does both heating and cooling my house dry out the air?
|
[
{
"answer": "With very few exceptions, air has a certain level of water vapor in it, which is what we refer to as humidity. Air can only hold so much water vapor in it until it is completely saturated, and this is what we mean when we say the (relative) humidity is 40%: currently, the air has 40% of the maximum amount of vapor it can hold. The amount of vapor air can hold is dependent on temperature and warmer air can hold more vapor while colder air can hold less.\n\nA related quantity is called the dew point, which is the temperature where the relative humidity (RH) would become 100% (the air cannot hold any more water). So if the temperature is 70F and 50% relative humidity, the dew point is 60F, which means if we cooled the air to 60F without adding or removing any water vapor from it, the RH would be 100%, which makes sense since cold air can't hold as much vapor as warm air.\n\nSo when you take your 70F/50% air and run it through your air conditioner, it is cooled to well below the dew point. Since you can't have greater than 100% RH, that means that some of the water vapor has to come out of the air. When it gets pumped into the room, it gradually warms back up to 70F, but since it lost some water vapor in the air conditioner, your relative humidity will now be lower.\n\nSimilarly, when you heat air, you're raising the amount of water vapor it can hold without actually adding any vapor to it, so your RH will go down.\n\nAs an aside, natural gas heaters produce water vapor as a product of combustion, but I don't know if that vapor makes it into the heated air or is condensed/exhausted elsewhere.\n\nEDIT: Corrected a dew point typo",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25086311",
"title": "Kew Gardens",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Plant houses.:Alpine House.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "To conserve energy the cooling air is not refrigerated but is cooled by being passed through a labyrinth of pipes buried under the house at a depth where the temperature remains suitable all year round. The house is designed so that the maximum temperature should not exceed .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45279654",
"title": "Ojo del Sol",
"section": "Section::::The building.:Design and construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "The house is designed to maintain a comfortable temperature with little power from the grid. \"Water in the black tubes is heated by the sun throughout the day. At night the stored heat is radiated back into the interior of the house walls and provides radiant wall heat.\" For cooling, the house is set 1.5 meters into the ground, eliminating the need for air conditioning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7221088",
"title": "Air conditioning",
"section": "Section::::Operating principles.:Evaporative cooling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "Evaporative coolers tend to feel as if they are not working during times of high humidity, when there is not much dry air with which the coolers can work to make the air as cool as possible for dwelling occupants. Unlike other types of air conditioners, evaporative coolers rely on the outside air to be channeled through cooler pads that cool the air before it reaches the inside of a house through its air duct system; this cooled outside air must be allowed to push the warmer air within the house out through an exhaust opening such as an open door or window. These coolers cost less and are mechanically simple to understand and maintain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35409969",
"title": "Kew House",
"section": "Section::::Design approach.:Sustainable design techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "Throughout the house, it has natural ventilation and a passive evaporative-cooling system that uses the sloped site as an advantage. Moreover, air is circulated through the house with the use of a passive evaporative cooling system that takes the prevailing south westerly wind over the grass embankment and under the house where it flows through the floor vents to the east end of the building. The fine water mist sprays, placed at the top end of the embankment, cools down the air further.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1251508",
"title": "Geothermal heating",
"section": "Section::::Ground-source heat pumps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Switching the direction of heat flow, the same system can be used to circulate the cooled water through the house for cooling in the summer months. The heat is exhausted to the relatively cooler ground (or groundwater) rather than delivering it to the hot outside air as an air conditioner does. As a result, the heat is pumped across a larger temperature difference and this leads to higher efficiency and lower energy use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3603358",
"title": "Waldsee (camp)",
"section": "Section::::BioHaus (Passive House).:Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "The building replaces 100% outside air; no air is recirculated through the system. Two underground tubes exchange outside and inside air eight feet beneath the ground, passively warming or cooling the air to match the temperature of the ground (~55°F year round). The house transfers heat between the outgoing air and the incoming air before it reaches the rooms, resulting in a difference of less than 10°F between the incoming fresh air and the desired room temperature, even in the midst of Minnesotan winter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251975",
"title": "Dehumidifier",
"section": "Section::::Thermal condensation dehumidification.:Makeshift dehumidifiers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 404,
"text": "Because window air conditioner units have condensers and expansion units, some of them can be used as makeshift dehumidifiers by sending their heat exhaust back into the same room as the cooled air, instead of the outside environment. If the condensate from the cooling coils is drained away from the room as it drips off the cooling coils, the result will be room air that is drier but slightly warmer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7g3rua
|
Why did the Danube valley fail to produce a great early civilisation, like the Nile, the Euphrates, the Indus, the Yangtze etc.
|
[
{
"answer": "/u/cthulhushrugged is right on here. The question can't be answered, and if it could, it would be an anthropological question just as much as a geo-climactic one. \n\nA note on the latter, though: the Danube watersheds were largely primeval forests in prehistory (though this is a gigantic region and can't really be so easily categorized in any period). The others you mention (Nile, Mesopotamia, China, Indus) were naturally more predisposed to farming for surplus, which is the key to \"getting ahead\" (as Diamond might put it). \n\nAnd a second note: as attractive as they are, arguments based on geographical determinism are almost always flawed. They work well on paper, but not in practice. ",
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{
"answer": "As someone who studies Ancient Mesopotamia, I might be able to give a partial answer to the question.\n\nThe area that is known as the \"Fertile Crescent\" comprises the Levante, as well as the Taurus and Zagros Mountains. this area contained perfect conditions to allow hunter-gatherers to transition from migrating tribes into permanent settlements. Marc Van De Mieroop states, \"The process took several millennia and involved the domestication of plants, primarily cereals, and of animals. The archaeological sites where we see these changes happen are usually located at the borders of different ecological zones, whose occupants took advantage of varied plant resources and hunted different animals.\" The idea is that the Fertile Crescent sat in a zone where dry-farming (rain-fed agriculture) could take place. But the other essential ingredient is the availability of domesticable plants and animals.\n\nArcheological digs at the city of Jericho show a city wall dating back to around 9000 BCE. It is one of the earliest sites showing a transition from moving with the supply of food and water to a permanent community. Jericho had plentiful fresh water and plants and animals hunter-gatherers could use for food. Van De Meiroop again states, \"Selective hunting of wild animals also replaced previous indiscriminate killing. People culled wild herds to procure a proper age and gender balance, and protected them from natural predators.\" This is the slow transition from hunting and gathering into a more sedentary life. These tribes no longer needed to move with the herd as the availability of resources allowed the tribes around the Fertile Crescent to settle down permanently. \n\nIt was a slow process. \"Direct control of the food supply via cereal agriculture was achieved through a series of probably inadvertent steps from the eleventh to seventh millennia as humans became more practiced at sowing, husbandry, harvesting, and storage.\" The tribes of the Fertile Crescent stumbled onto an area perfect to experiment and perfect the tools necessary to form permanent communities. \n\nEssentially, it is not only the fertile soil and climate that determined where civilizations began but the availability of domesticable plants and animals. \n\nBibliography:\n\nVan De Mieroop, Marc. *A History of the Ancient Near East*. West Sussex: Blackwell, 2016. \n\nAn interesting read:\n\nWilkinson, TJ. \"The Structure and Dynamics of Dry-Farming States in Upper Mesopotamia [and Comments\nand Reply].\" *Current Anthropology* 35 No. 5 (Dec. 1994): 483-520",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "446049",
"title": "Sindhis",
"section": "Section::::History.:Pre-historic period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "The Indus Valley Civilisation went into decline around the year 1700 BC for reasons that are not entirely known, though its downfall was probably precipitated by an earthquake or natural event that dried up the Ghaggar River. The Indo-Aryans are believed to have founded the Vedic civilisation that existed between the Sarasvati River and Ganges river around 1500 BC. This civilisation helped shape subsequent cultures in South Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8928747",
"title": "4.2 kiloyear event",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:South central Asia and India.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "Urban centers of the Indus Valley Civilisation were abandoned and were replaced by disparate local cultures, due to the same climate change that affected the neighbouring areas of the Middle East. many scholars believe that drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia caused the collapse of the Indus Civilisation. The Ghaggar-Hakra system was rain-fed, and water supply depended on the monsoons. The Indus valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BC, linked to a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. The Indian monsoon declined and aridity increased, with the Ghaggar-Hakra retracting its reach towards the foothills of the Himalaya, leading to erratic and less extensive floods that made inundation agriculture less sustainable. Aridification reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise, and to scatter its population eastward.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2510506",
"title": "Indo-Aryan migration",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 261,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 261,
"end_character": 918,
"text": "The Indus Valley Civilisation was localised, that is, urban centers disappeared and were replaced by local cultures, due to a climate change that is also signalled for the neighbouring areas of the Middle East. many scholars believe that drought and a decline in trade with Egypt and Mesopotamia caused the collapse of the Indus Civilisation. The Ghaggar-Hakra system was rain-fed, and water-supply depended on the monsoons. The Indus valley climate grew significantly cooler and drier from about 1800 BCE, linked to a general weakening of the monsoon at that time. The Indian monsoon declined and aridity increased, with the Ghaggar-Hakra retracting its reach towards the foothills of the Himalaya, leading to erratic and less extensive floods that made inundation agriculture less sustainable. Aridification reduced the water supply enough to cause the civilisation's demise, and to scatter its population eastward.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2858036",
"title": "Ghaggar-Hakra River",
"section": "Section::::Identification with the Rigvedic Sarasvati.:Tectonics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "Some paleo-environmental scientists have proposed that the Hakkra was fed by Himalayan sources, which made it a mighty river, but dried-up between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE, due to tectonic disturbances which caused a tilt in topography of Northwest India, resulting in the migration of rivers. According to this theory, the Sutlej moved westward and became a tributary of the Indus River, while the Yamuna moved eastward and became a tributary of the Ganges, supposedly in the early 2nd millennium BCE, while reaching its current bed by 1st millennium BCE. The Drishadvati bed retained only a small seasonal flow. The water loss due to these movements caused the Ghaggar-Hakra river to dry up in the Thar Desert.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32708",
"title": "Sarasvati River",
"section": "Section::::Identification theories.:Ghaggar-Hakra River.:Tectonics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "Some paleo-environmental scientists have proposed that the Hakkra was fed by Himalayan sources, which made it a mighty river, but dried-up between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE, due to tectonic disturbances which caused a tilt in topography of Northwest India, resulting in the migration of rivers. According to this theory, the Sutlej moved westward and became a tributary of the Indus River, while the Yamuna moved eastward and became a tributary of the Ganges, supposedly in the early 2nd millennium BCE, while reaching its current bed by 1st millennium BCE. The Drishadvati bed retained only a small seasonal flow. The water loss due to these movements caused the Ghaggar-Hakra river to dry up in the Thar Desert.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21007548",
"title": "History of agriculture in the Indian subcontinent",
"section": "Section::::Early history.:Indus Valley Civilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilisation by around 4500 BCE. The size and prosperity of the Indus civilisation grew as a result of this innovation, which eventually led to more planned settlements making use of drainage and sewers. Sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilisation, including artificial reservoirs at Girnar dated to 3000 BCE, and an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE. Archaeological evidence of an animal-drawn plough dates back to 2500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilisation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2858036",
"title": "Ghaggar-Hakra River",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Recent geophysical research shows that during the time of the Harappan Civilisation the Ghaggar-Hakra system was a system of monsoon-fed rivers, not Himalayan-fed, and that the Indus Valley Civilisation declined when the monsoons that fed the rivers diminished at around some 4,000 years ago. Subatlantic aridification subsequently reduced the Ghaggar-Hakra to the seasonal river it is today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
537iqy
|
Besides Market Garden, what are some other notable and interesting Allied failures of World War 2?
|
[
{
"answer": "[Here's a great thread on this topic, which includes an answer from yours truly.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "While this might be a bit of a stretch since in the end it is billed as an Allied military victory, I think the Battle of Anzio and its after effects failed to accomplish their primary objectives.\n\nAt the end of 1943/beginning of 1944 the Allies were bogged down assaulting the Gustav line, a series of German defensive works that spanned the Italian peninsula west to east, with its anchor in the town of Monte Casino. Churchill's idea was to land two infantry divisions to the northwest of the Gustav line near the city of Anzio. According to Rick Attkinson's book *The Day of Battle: The War in Sicily and Italy, 1943–1944* this attack appeared to demonstrate two benefits, it would either force the Germans to divert troops from the Gustav line, making an Allied breakthrough there more likely, or the troops at the Anzio beachhead could advance inland and trap the defenders between several Allied Divisions.\n\nThe first landings took place in January 22, 1944, and at first things looked great. The Allies managed to land 36,000 soldiers and 3,200 vehicles without any casualties at all and the American General in command at the beach, John Lucas, quickly consolidated the beach head. Unfortunately, after this, things just got worse and worse for the Allies. With only two infantry divisions and no supporting armor, it was important for Lucas to advance rapidly inland, as the Anzio beachhead was surrounded by high ground, perfect for the defensive mastermind Albert Kesselring, who commanded the German forces in Italy. According to Lloyd Clark’s book *Anzio: The Friction of War. Italy and the Battle for Rome 1944.* Lucas considered his force too small for his mission, and worried about Kesselring’s inevitable counter-attacks that would feature heavy artillery and tanks, he also declined the aid offered to him by Italian partisans, who claimed they could help his divisions navigate the local, hilly terrain. \n\nThus, Lucas spent too much time consolidating the Anzio beach head, and Kesselring could move minimal reinforcements to the hills and mountains surrounding it, and a long battle of attrition that resembled the stalemate at Monte Casino grinded on for about four months. In the end, the Allies took the town and Abbey of Monte Casino after assaulting it directly 5 times, and it was only after Allied armies began marching north that Major General Lucian Truscott, who had replaced Lucas coordinated a successful breakout of the beachhead. Clark’s book also points out that in the aftermath of Anzio yet another Allied failure shows it head; as Truscott was driving east to capture retreating German division from the Gustav line, his commander, Lieutenant General Mark Clark ordered Truscott’s corps northward to liberate Rome, in what is widely considered a purely symbolic victory for the Allied armies. This decision by Clark allowed thousands of German soldiers and their equipment to withdraw to the Gothic line, another set of defenses similar to the Gustav line that was towards the north of Italy.\n\nThus we see not only did Anzio not directly lead to the Allied breach of the Gustav line (you could even argue the troops who breached the Gustav line were the ones that allowed the Anzio breakout), but the Allied divisions that landed failed to trap retreating German forces. So despite the fact that the Allies eventually “won” the battle of Anzio, the poor planning and decisions made would help the Germans keep the fight up in Italy until almost the last days of the war in Europe.\n\nSources:\n\nThe Day of Battle: The War in Sicily and Italy, 1943–1944; Rick Attkinson\n\nAnzio: The Friction of War. Italy and the Battle for Rome 1944; Lloyd Clark\n",
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"answer": "A non-exhaustive list:\n\n1. Norway 1940: the British and French fail to hold Norway against a fairly light Wehrmacht force, despite maintaining a hold on the important port of Narvik for some time.\n\n2. Greece and Crete 1941: stripping forces from the armies that had just trounced, but not finished off, the Italians in North Africa, Wavell and Churchill attempt to defend Greece from Italian and German attack. The defence is a farce against strong German mobile- and air forces and an undignified evacuation ensues. The Germans then attack the island of Crete with an air-mobile force. Allied mistakes and weakened air power (because of losses associated with Greece and the refusal of the British high command to allow quality Fighter Command units to leave Britain) see this very close-run battle turn to victory for Germany. The German force did however suffer heavily though in the ensuing evacuation the Commonwealth army and naval units suffered heavily as well. \nThis represented a regrettable waste of forces that could have been useful in...\n\n3. Malaya/Singapore/Burma 1941-2: A large Commonwealth force, given time to prepare and what should have been ample resources, is trounced out of the Malay peninsula by a much smaller Japanese force. Two British capital ships, which could have stopped the seaborne component of the attack and against which the Japanese had no available comparable ships, are sunk. The highly defensible island of Singapore is easily accessed by the Japanese army.\nThis defeat is probably Britain's greatest ever, and represented the end of British, and indeed European, power in Asia forever. The Japanese force rolled on into Burma where they defeated the Commonwealth armies present, stiffened with forces sent in response to the initial attack. A counteroffensive in the Arakan Peninsula in 1942 made no progress whatsoever, took heavy casualties, and the British forces had to evacuate precipitously to avoid being encircled. \n\n4. Philippines 1941-2: While the British Commonwealth forces in Asia were suffering their calvary, US Forces under Douglas MacArthur were attempting to defend the Philippines. Warned, prepared and well-equipped (like the British, this refers to resourcing in general, in both cases the forces were not balanced and much equipment was not good enough), MacArthur's inept leadership, bad luck and the skill and detailed planning of the Japanese saw the US-Filipino force routed from their best positions and driven down the Bataan Peninsula.\nMacArthur's propaganda machine was so effective in making ordinary Americans believe in his skill and tenacity that Roosevelt was unable to slate to him responsibility for ultimate failure (FDR was probably also happy to have MacArthur 'busy' in the Pacific, rather than plotting against him at home).\n\n5. The Channel Dash, 1941: after a raiding cruise in the Atlantic, three German heavy ships retired to the French port of Brest, where they were held by a British blockade. Here, they were bombed repeatedly by British aircraft and although Bomber Command was not very effective in 1941, occasional hits were obtained. \nIn early 1941 the Germans executed a plan to sail the ships *straight up the English Channel* to safe harbours in northern Germany. Due to good luck and British ineptitude, all three ships pulled off the escape without suffering a scratch. \n\n6. Dieppe 1942: A mostly Canadian force was landed on the French coast at Dieppe in 1942 for a sort of large raid. The idea was to test attack and the German defence of a coastal port, expand on the commando raid technique, and probably to placate the Soviets' demand for a Second Front. \nCo-ordination failures, rapid German response, and a multitude of small failures (for instance many tanks simply couldn't advance on the beach, which consisted of small, smooth stones) led to something of a disaster. The sheer difficulty of the mission was known, and was also a factor. Many of the lessons were applied to the D-Day landings.\n\n7. The Dodecanese Campaign, 1944: Churchill was obsessed with Greece, and was the impetus behind this plan which landed Allied troops on Greek Islands. The British command failed to rapidly secure Italian co-operation, losing the chance of gaining support from the large Italian garrison. Also, the US government refused to take part, denying the support of American units including, crucially, long-range fighter aircraft.\nOut of range of meaningful support, especially air support, and with other higher priorities the Germans were able to marshall strong forces including paratroopers with lavish support by otherwise-obsolete Stuka dive bombers, to smash the British (and Greek loyalist) units, which had no hope of evacuation. The famous, elite Long Range Desert Group was squandered in this operation.\n\n",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56433",
"title": "Operation Market Garden",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 967,
"text": "Operation Market Garden was a failed World War II military operation fought in the Netherlands from 17 to 25 September 1944. It was the brainchild of Field Marshal Sir Bernard Law Montgomery, planned primarily by Generals Brereton and Williams of the USAAF. The airborne part of the operation was undertaken by the First Allied Airborne Army with the land operation by XXX Corps of the British Second Army. The objective was to create a salient into German territory with a foothold over the River Rhine, creating an Allied invasion route into northern Germany. This was to be achieved by seizing a series of nine bridges by Airborne forces with land forces swiftly following moving over the bridges. The operation succeeded in liberating the Dutch cities of Eindhoven and Nijmegen along with many towns, creating a salient into German-held territory limiting V-2 rocket launching sites. It failed, however, to secure a foothold over the Rhine, halting at the river.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "857306",
"title": "Victory garden",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "Amid regular rationing of food in Britain, the United States Department of Agriculture encouraged the planting of victory gardens during the course of World War II. Around one third of the vegetables produced by the United States came from victory gardens. It was emphasized to American home front urbanites and suburbanites that the produce from their gardens would help to lower the price of vegetables needed by the US War Department to feed the troops, thus saving money that could be spent elsewhere on the military: \"Our food is fighting,\" one US poster read. By May 1943, there were 18 million victory gardens in the United States – 12 million in cities and 6 million on farms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "857306",
"title": "Victory garden",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "Victory gardens, also called war gardens or food gardens for defense, were vegetable, fruit, and herb gardens planted at private residences and public parks in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and Germany during World War I and World War II. George Washington Carver wrote an agricultural tract and promoted the idea of what he called a \"Victory Garden\". They were used along with Rationing Stamps and Cards to reduce pressure on the public food supply. Besides indirectly aiding the war effort, these gardens were also considered a civil \"morale booster\" in that gardeners could feel empowered by their contribution of labor and rewarded by the produce grown. This made victory gardens a part of daily life on the home front.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16168296",
"title": "September 1944",
"section": "Section::::September 25, 1944 (Monday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 164,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 164,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "BULLET::::- Operation Market Garden ended in defeat for the Allies when they failed to cross the Rhine. The operation was mostly overlooked in popular histories of World War II until the 1974 publication of the book \"A Bridge Too Far\" by Cornelius Ryan, which was the basis for a film of the same name released in 1977.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1138643",
"title": "Allied advance from Paris to the Rhine",
"section": "Section::::Northern Group of Armies (21st Army Group).:Market Garden.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "\"Market Garden\" had two distinct parts. \"Market\" was to be the largest airborne operation in history, dropping three and a half divisions of American, British, and Polish paratroopers to capture key bridges and prevent their demolition by the Germans. \"Garden\" was a ground attack by the British Second Army across the bridges. It was assumed that the German forces would still be recovering from the previous campaign and opposition would not be very stiff for either operation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "857306",
"title": "Victory garden",
"section": "Section::::World War I.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In March 1917, Charles Lathrop Pack organized the US National War Garden Commission and launched the war garden campaign. Food production had fallen dramatically during World War I, especially in Europe, where agricultural labor had been recruited into military service and remaining farms devastated by the conflict. Pack and others conceived the idea that the supply of food could be greatly increased without the use of land and manpower already engaged in agriculture, and without the significant use of transportation facilities needed for the war effort. The campaign promoted the cultivation of available private and public lands, resulting in over five million gardens in the USA and foodstuff production exceeding $1.2 billion by the end of the war.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33963385",
"title": "Combat Mission: Battle for Normandy",
"section": "Section::::Expansion Modules.:Market Garden.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 719,
"text": "\"Market Garden\" is the second add-on module, released in October, 2013. As described at the web site, \"Combat Mission: Market Garden depicts allied Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery's September 1944 dash across Holland [sic] in a daring gambit to leap the Rhine river and enter the heartland of Germany itself. Fielding U.S., British and Polish forces, Operation Market Garden was meant to be the lightning stroke which would end the war that year.\" Several new terrain types, such as large bridges, new buildings, and larger maps were added, in addition to new types of vehicles and troop formations. The \"Market Garden\" module requires version 2 of the base game. It does not require the \"Commonwealth Forces\" module.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
67b3ed
|
if lava is melted rock, why is it so fertile when it cools down?
|
[
{
"answer": "It's not. Take a look at the [western coast of the island of Hawaii](_URL_0_). The land on the western coast is considerably more recent than the land on the eastern coast. The weather and mountain range plays a large role as well but the fresh land was so rocky and porous that it could not hold water sufficiently to make fertile land.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24712184",
"title": "Igneous rock",
"section": "Section::::Geological setting.:Extrusive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Because lava usually cools and crystallizes rapidly, it is usually fine-grained. If the cooling has been so rapid as to prevent the formation of even small crystals after extrusion, the resulting rock may be mostly glass (such as the rock obsidian). If the cooling of the lava happened more slowly, the rock would be coarse-grained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2200368",
"title": "Geology of Venus",
"section": "Section::::Surface processes.:Chemical erosion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "Chemical and mechanical erosion of the old lava flows is caused by reactions of the surface with the atmosphere in the presence of carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide (see carbonate-silicate cycle for details). These two gases are the planet's first and third most abundant gases, respectively; the second most abundant gas is inert nitrogen. The reactions probably include the deterioration of silicates by carbon dioxide to produce carbonates and quartz, as well as the deterioration of silicates by sulfur dioxide to produce anhydrate calcium sulfate and carbon dioxide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "81256",
"title": "Volcanism",
"section": "Section::::Forming rocks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "When magma cools it solidifies and forms rocks. The type of rock formed depends on the chemical composition of the magma and how rapidly it cools. Magma that reaches the surface to become lava cools rapidly, resulting in rocks with small crystals such as basalt. Some of this magma may cool extremely rapidly and will form volcanic glass (rocks without crystals) such as obsidian. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2319157",
"title": "Rock cycle",
"section": "Section::::The rock cycle.:Transition to igneous rock.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 910,
"text": "When rocks are pushed deep under the Earth's surface, they may melt into magma. If the conditions no longer exist for the magma to stay in its liquid state, it cools and solidifies into an igneous rock. A rock that cools within the Earth is called intrusive or plutonic and cools very slowly, producing a coarse-grained texture such as the rock granite. As a result of volcanic activity, magma (which is called lava when it reaches Earth's surface) may cool very rapidly while being on the Earth's surface exposed to the atmosphere and are called extrusive or volcanic rocks. These rocks are fine-grained and sometimes cool so rapidly that no crystals can form and result in a natural glass, such as obsidian, however the most common fine-grained rock would be known as basalt. Any of the three main types of rocks (igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks) can melt into magma and cool into igneous rocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61373346",
"title": "Ashangi Basalts",
"section": "Section::::Environment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "These volcanic rocks formed through melting of the earth mantle. After magma generation, lava flowed out over the surface, in successive flows. Some part of it disappeared within the next 1 to 3 million years due to weathering and erosion, while other parts remained present. Within the basalt, columnar joints occur as a result of cooling; they are visible along the flanks of the ridges. The columnar joints are perpendicular to the surface of the lava flows; they are mostly vertical, but may also be strongly inclined. The lower succession, the one that overlies the Amba Aradam Formation and the Adigrat Sandstone holds vertical and closely spaced columnar joints. A common characteristic of the columnar joints observed in the Ashangi Basalts is their pentagonal or hexagonal shape (in plan view).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1044338",
"title": "Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes",
"section": "Section::::Submarine preshield stage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Because the eruptions occur with the volcano underwater, the form of lava typically erupted is pillow lava. Pillow lava is rounded balls of lava that was given very little time to cool due to immediate exposure to water. Water pressure prevents the lava from exploding upon contact with the cold ocean water, forcing it to simmer and solidify quickly. This stage is thought to last about 200,000 years, but lavas erupted during this stage make up only a tiny fraction of the final volume of the volcano. As time progresses, eruptions become stronger and more frequent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21438242",
"title": "Lava",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Lava is molten rock generated by geothermal energy and expelled through fractures in planetary crust or in an eruption, usually at temperatures from . The structures resulting from subsequent solidification and cooling are also sometimes described as \"lava\". The molten rock is formed in the interior of some planets, including Earth, and some of their satellites, though such material located below the crust is referred to by other terms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2jj3d3
|
What is wrong with the "Black Legend"?
|
[
{
"answer": "Here's three things:\n\n1. Most of the perpetrators of the Black Legend weren't simply saying \"the Spanish are very oppressive to indigenous peoples.\" The Pope called them \"the scum of the Earth.\" Immanuel Kant, in *Observations on the Feeling of the Beautiful and Sublime*, calls the Spaniard cruel, centuries behind in science, lazy, ignorant of reform, and un-European (derogatively). These are not objective utterances. Pope Paul IV, for instance, had what you might call a personal vendetta against the Spanish, having hated growing up there and being a political opponent of its royalty. Black Legend wasn't always a criticism of deeds, but the defaming of a people.\n\n2. In modern popular accounts, criticism of the Spanish is typically tied with a hidden \"noble savage\" motif. The narrative is as follows: the Inca are living their happy peaceful life in the Andes. They've got a lot of cool things: roads with regular storehouses/rest stops, a diverse religious culture, nifty stoneworking techniques, etc. Then the white man comes with his horses and guns and tramples over them, forcing them to near slavery in tin and silver mines. Poor Inca! That was rightfully their land, and they never did anything to deserve that!\nWhat's wrong with this? Any time you see this story, the Inca are the good guys and the Spanish are bad. As targustargus tried to point out, this completely lacks nuance and knowledge of Andean prehistory. For instance, the Inca were only native to the Cuzco area. They had conquered the rest of the Andes within the past hundred years, and they were still conquering places in the far north when the Spanish first arrived. Like the Spanish, they were a small ethnic group with big ambitions for conquest who laid their own culture and infrastructures on top of subjugated groups and who appropriated resources, culture, and religion for their own goals.\nAdditionally, the mit'a system you bring up was in fact an effective method of creating an infrastructure. In the Inca empire's brief existence though, this was often an infrastructure for conquest, with roads to facilitate troop movement and storehouses to extend campaigns. If a people joined the empire through treaty, then such a taxation might be reasonable. But if you're a former citizen of the enormous city of Chan Chan, defeated by Topa Inca Yupanqui's army ~1470, being forced to help replicate your own destruction is unspeakably humiliating. As an archaeologist of pre-Inca cultures, I am regularly frustrated by how much cultural knowledge has been lost due to the Inca conquest.\n\n3. In addition, popular accounts focus on the Spanish actions and downplay native agency. It's always \"The Spanish conquered the Inca\" and it's never \"The Inca attempted political intrigue and military outmanuevering against the Spanish, but failed.\" The conquest changed the Spanish as it did the Andeans.\n\n**TL;DR Popular narratives downplay any benefits of the Spanish conquest and romanticize the prior Inca conquerors.**\n\nSome good sources for complex looks at the conquest period:\n\nGose, P. (2008). Invaders as ancestors: on the intercultural making and unmaking of Spanish colonialism in the Andes. Toronto; Buffalo: University of Toronto Press.\n\nMumford, J. R. (2012). Vertical empire [electronic resource]: the general resettlement of Indians in the colonial Andes. Durham [N.C.]: Duke University Press.\n\nRamos, G. (2010). Death and conversion in the Andes: Lima and Cuzco, 1532-1670. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press.\n\nWernke, S. A. (2013). Negotiated settlements : Andean communities and landscapes under Inka and Spanish colonialism. Gainesville: University Press of Florida.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "CommodoreCoCo has brought up some good point, but one thing I'd add is that the Black Legend is not about the brutality of European conquerors in the New World in general, but claims the Spanish were uniquely bad.\n\nThe Spanish did some bad things, but were they so much worse than the Dutch? The English? The French? The Portuguese?\n\nIn some ways, I would say they took different approaches. For example, the English were more likely to regard American Indians as being foreign states, while the Spanish were more likely to regard them as being Spanish subjects. Although thanks to the power differences, bigotry, etc, the Spanish authorities treated their Indian subjects worse than they treated, say, the typical Castilian peasant, and the English treated the Indian foreigners with more cruelty in war and less respect in peace than they did with, say, the Dutch when fighting the Anglo-Dutch wars or the treaties ending them. (This isn't to say that, say, the English never engaged in outright conquest, or that the Spanish never recognized the sovereignty of American Indian powers or signed treaties with them; just that the general patterns varied to some degree.)\n\nCan we say the Spanish were *worse* though? That's a tougher call. From a sort of \"international law\" perspective, the Spanish approach of outright, often unprovoked conquest seems worse, but bringing people under the authority of the crown did give them some rudimentary sense of responsibility, whereas, say, the English coercing an Indian tribe into signing a \"cede your land to us, and move somewhere else and starve to death\" treaty felt much less responsibility.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "186824",
"title": "Black Legend",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "A black legend is a historiographical phenomenon in which a sustained trend in historical writing of biased reporting and introduction of fabricated, exaggerated and/or decontextualized facts is directed against particular persons, nations or institutions with the intention of creating a distorted and uniquely inhuman image of them while hiding their positive contributions to history. The term was first used by French writer Arthur Lévy in his 1893 work \"Napoléon Intime\", in contrast to the expression \"Golden Legend\" that had been in circulation around Europe since the publication of a book of that name during the Middle Ages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57784300",
"title": "Black legend (Spain)",
"section": "Section::::Modern examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 879,
"text": "The black legend is cited in films such as \"Victoria & Abdul\". In his essay \"Why Spaniards Make Good Bad Guys\", Samuel Amago analyzes the persistence of the legend in contemporary European cinema. The American Council of Education reported anti-Hispanism in textbooks in 1944, identifying basic errors and biased portrayals and concluding, \"The abolition of the black legend and its effects in our interpretation of Latin American life is one of our main problems in the educational and intellectual aspect, as well as in the political sphere\". According to Philip Wayne Powell in 1971, however, the core textbook errors still remained. The black legend can be said to contribute to white supremacy, erasing the ethical and intellectual contributions of southern Europeans and reducing the power and competence of Native American empires before and during the Spanish conquest. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57784300",
"title": "Black legend (Spain)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "The Black Legend, or the Spanish Black Legend, is a black legend consisting of anti-Spanish and anti-Catholic propaganda which started in the 16th century, originally as a political and psychological weapon by Spain's rivals in the attempt of demonizing the Spanish Empire, its people and culture, and countering its influence and power in world affairs. The assimilation of primarily English and German propaganda into mainstream history created an anti-Hispanic bias in subsequent historians and a distorted view of the history of Spain, Latin America, and other parts of the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186824",
"title": "Black Legend",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 913,
"text": "Though black legends can be perpetrated against any nation or culture, the term \"The Black Legend\" has come to refer specifically to \"The Spanish Black Legend\" () when not otherwise qualified, the theory that anti-Spanish political propaganda from the 16th century or earlier, whether about Spain, the Spanish Empire or Hispanic America, was sometimes \"absorbed and converted into broadly held stereotypes\" that assumed that Spain was \"uniquely evil\". The absorption of political propaganda and outright fabrications into mainstream academic interpretations of Spanish history, along with their use to conceal or sanitize inconvenient facts about other nations, resulted in a systematic repetition of such anti-Spanish bias and distortions. Commonly cited examples of this include the Spanish Inquisition and the relationship between Spanish colonists in the New World and the indigenous peoples of the Americas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186824",
"title": "Black Legend",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Italian origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Arnoldsson's theory on the origins of the Black Legend has been disputed as confusing the process of Black Legend generation with simply a negative view or a critique of a foreign power. In general, they raise the following objections:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186824",
"title": "Black Legend",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Anti-Islamic and anti-Semitic origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "Roca Barea, among others, argues that The Black Legend is founded on a spin-off, a reused version of the anti-Semitic narratives forged and circulated through England and most of Central Europe from the 13th century on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57784300",
"title": "Black legend (Spain)",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "The term \"black legend\" was first used by Arthur Lévy about biographies of Napoleon in the context of the opposition between a \"golden legend\" and a \"black legend\": two extreme, simplistic, one-dimensional approaches to a character which portrayed him as a god or a demon. \"Golden\" and \"black legends\" had been used by Spanish historians and intellectuals with the same meaning in reference to aspects of Spanish history; Antonio Soler used both terms about the portrayal of Castilian and Aragonese monarchs. At an 18 April 1899 Paris conference, Emilia Pardo Bazán used it for the first time to refer to a general view of modern Spanish history:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3za6g7
|
asteroid belts and planetary rings
|
[
{
"answer": "Orbiting happens when you continuously fall towards the planet but keep missing. Missing the planet happens because of sideways motion, you drop towards the planet a bit, but your sideways motion has taken you so far the planet is still just as far away as it was before.\n\nIf you orbit too fast, you will just fling out, if you orbit too slow, you won't be able to miss the planet, your free fall ends in a crash.\n\nNow, the curious thing is, gas cloud can have momentum, that is, spinning energy. And this energy will be retained unless external force acts on the system. And in space, there aren't that many external forces. So if gas cloud spun one way, so does the star that forms from it, and so do the planets that eventually orbit it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12607134",
"title": "Geology of solar terrestrial planets",
"section": "Section::::Small Solar System bodies.:Asteroid belt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "The asteroid belt is located between Mars and Jupiter. It is made of thousands of rocky planetesimals from to a few meters across. These are thought to be debris of the formation of the Solar System that could not form a planet due to Jupiter's gravity. When asteroids collide they produce small fragments that occasionally fall on Earth. These rocks are called meteorites and provide information about the primordial solar nebula. Most of these fragments have the size of sand grains. They burn up in the Earth's atmosphere, causing them to glow like meteors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55118655",
"title": "Extraterrestrial diamonds",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Although diamonds on Earth are rare, extraterrestrial diamonds (diamonds formed outside of Earth) are very common. Diamonds not much larger than molecules are abundant in meteorites and some of them formed in stars before the Solar System existed. High pressure experiments suggest large amounts of diamonds are formed from methane on the ice giant planets Uranus and Neptune, while some planets in other solar systems may be almost pure diamond. Diamonds are also found in stars and may have been the first mineral ever to have formed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4511790",
"title": "Asteroids in fiction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Asteroids and asteroid belts are a staple of science fiction stories. Asteroids play several potential roles in science fiction: as places which human beings might colonize; as resources for extracting minerals; as a hazard encountered by spaceships traveling between two other points; and as a threat to life on Earth due to potential impacts\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "791",
"title": "Asteroid",
"section": "Section::::Fiction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 141,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 141,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Asteroids and the asteroid belt are a staple of science fiction stories. Asteroids play several potential roles in science fiction: as places human beings might colonize, resources for extracting minerals, hazards encountered by spacecraft traveling between two other points, and as a threat to life on Earth or other inhabited planets, dwarf planets, and natural satellites by potential impact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5235648",
"title": "Frost line (astrophysics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Researchers Rebecca Martin and Mario Livio have proposed that asteroid belts may tend to form in the vicinity of the frost line, due to nearby giant planets disrupting planet formation inside their orbit. By analysing the temperature of warm dust found around some 90 stars, they concluded that the dust (and therefore possible asteroid belts) was typically found close to the frost line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3036653",
"title": "837 Schwarzschilda",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "The main-belt asteroid was named after physicist and astronomer Karl Schwarzschild (1873–1916), who had died earlier that year. He was director of the observatories in Göttingen and Potsdam, known for his work in photometry, geometrical optics, stellar statistics and theoretical astrophysics, most notably for producing the first exact solutions to Einstein's field equations. At the time, it was custom to give feminized names to minor planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1189386",
"title": "Horseshoe orbit",
"section": "Section::::Explanation of horseshoe orbital cycle.:Stages of the orbit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "On the longer term, asteroids can transfer between horseshoe orbits and quasi-satellite orbits. Quasi-satellites aren't gravitationally bound to their planet, but appear to circle it in a retrograde direction as they circle the Sun with the same orbital period as the planet. By 2016, orbital calculations showed that four of Earth's horseshoe librators and all five of its then known quasi-satellites repeatedly transfer between horseshoe and quasi-satellite orbits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1j9qfc
|
why can luxury restaurants charge $60 for a single ravioli on a white plate?
|
[
{
"answer": "Truffles. Truffles on everything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, you said it in the question. It's a luxury restaurant. You don't eat their food because the food is good. You pay them for the atmosphere, service, and over-all treatment you receive. The food is just something they do on the side. Although, typically, I would expect that they do have at least a few meals available, that will not be the main reason for going to a luxury restaurant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think there are two possible reasons:\n\n1) Perfection. Some luxury restaurants consider their food to be masterpieces of artwork. You're not paying for the ingredients but for the time and skill of an artist to make the perfect ravioli.\n\n2) Atmosphere. As LordHomogy said \n > You pay them for the atmosphere, service, and over-all treatment you receive. \n\nThis can be about the addiction of the kind of treatment, or about the social prestige of being able to have it",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well, lets start with the food itself. The food components used in a luxury restaurant like a Michelin-starred one are generally of very high quality and fresh. Where \"normal\" restaurants may substitute with e.g. pre-made sauces and pasta, a luxury restaurant of certain reputation will always prepare everything fresh and by themselves. Deep fried products and other convenience foods are (almost) never used. So, besides the high purchasing prices of the components used in \"luxury\" food, you have to add the cost of time needed for its preparation. Producing a stack of self-made ravioli, for example, takes a lot of time.\n\nAnd all this time that is needed forces a luxury restaurant to have enough kitchen staff/cooks to deal with the immense workload they have to deal with if the restaurant is full. Cooks in luxury restaurants are usually very well-educated and have a lot of experience, so they are paid very well. This is especially true for the chef (de cuisine), since he is the one that designs the product and is responsible for its success. A huge amount of creativity, sense of taste and understanding of different kinds of tastes and cuisines is necessary, so you can imagine that they'll earn a lot.\n\nBut it doesn't end at the kitchen staff. If you go to a luxury restaurant, you expect excellent service which is provided by well educated and experienced waiters, lead by an even more experienced Maitre d'. Additional services usually include a Sommelier who counsels you on your choice of wine for your dish. All these people want to get paid, too.\n\nThen you have the equipment. Tables, chairs, chinaware, silverware, tablecloths, napkins... you name it. Where \"normal\" restaurants might not concern themselves too much with the condition of your silverware, a luxury restaurant cannot afford anything less than perfection, so theiy'll replace anything that looks remotely worn out quickly. Costs that have to be covered, too.\n\nAnd on top of that you have an owner, who wants to drive a Porsche, too. Usually a renown chef with years of experience who likes to earn six figures a year at least. Add all that up and you easily get a $100 three course meal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The stuff in that piece of ravioli are probably more expensive than what's in most restaurants: pasta dough made on site, high quality cheese, each ravioli made by hand, and finished off in truffle oil. All of those combined with the higher end service and atmosphere in the restaurant equal a higher price than a bowl of average ravioli at Olive Garden.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sometimes it's a simple as a brand image. For instance, you can buy a shirt for 5 dollars at a place like Target or Walmart, or you can buy a shirt that costs $40 because it was made by Tommy Hilfiger.\n\nThis isn't the only reason, but is one of the major ones.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I can only assume you are paying for the good service and ambience",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Part of that price is a filter on customers, folks who frequent Maury or Jerry Springer are not likely to buy a $60 Ravoli. People with kids rarely are going to buy a $60 Ravoli. Pricing like this allows rich people to have a meal in peace",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47870708",
"title": "Kaiseki",
"section": "Section::::Price.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "Kaiseki is often very expensive – kaiseki dinners at top traditional restaurants generally cost from 5,000 yen to upwards of 40,000 per person, without drinks. Cheaper options are available, notably lunch (from around 4,000 to 8,000 yen (US $37 to $74), and in some circumstances bento (around 2,000 to 4,000 yen (US $18 to $37)). In some cases counter seating is cheaper than private rooms. At \"ryokan,\" the meals may be included in the price of the room or optional, and may be available only to guests, or served to the general public (some \"ryokan\" are now primarily restaurants). Traditional menu options offer three price levels, Sho Chiku Bai (traditional trio of pine, bamboo, and plum), with pine being most expensive, plum least expensive; this is still found at some restaurants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "969285",
"title": "Buffet",
"section": "Section::::Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "BULLET::::- The \"all-you-can-eat\" buffet is more free-form; customers pay a fixed fee and then can help themselves to as much food as they wish to eat in a single meal. This form is found often in restaurants, especially in hotels. In some countries, this format is popular for \"Sunday brunch\" buffets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43692535",
"title": "Cha chaan teng buffet",
"section": "Section::::Menu.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "French toast, sandwiches, various Fried rice and Chinese noodles. For drinks, it offers Hong Kong style milk tea, coffee, ‘Yuanyang’, lemon tea and so on. The price of the buffet ranges from $40 to $80. In one of the restaurants, consumers can choose to have either a $40 or $80 buffet. Consumers who choose to have $40 can have breakfast, lunch or tea buffet. Those who pay $80 can have the dinner buffet. Both these two sets of buffet provide one free drink to consumers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48391759",
"title": "Araki (restaurant)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "The restaurant is known for its seafood influenced cuisine, as well as for staying true to Japanese culture and traditions with a lot of the staff wearing traditional Japanese clothes. The restaurant is at the higher end of the price scale, with the average cost being around £300 per person. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22579929",
"title": "Restaurant Patrick Guilbaud",
"section": "Section::::Reviews.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "In February 2004, Restaurant Patrick Guilbaud was mentioned in \"The New York Times\", where it was reported that lunch cost $36 and dinner was available for $124. Guilbaud's food was described as \"seriously good\" and was served in \"seriously elegant surroundings\", with \"reservations advised\" by the newspaper. Food on offer included roast quail coated with hazelnuts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "490100",
"title": "Poon choi",
"section": "Section::::Modern Poon choi.:Variety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Providing a variety of price categories allows people also to choose the diversity of delicacies which they can afford. Relatively high priced Poon choi includes luxury food such as abalones, shark fin, oyster, which people may select to gain honour by showing that they are generous and wealthy. Those who prefer a reasonable price can have a tasty meal with more common ingredients.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8389888",
"title": "Types of restaurants",
"section": "Section::::Categories of restaurants.:Fine dining.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Fine dining establishments are sometimes called \"white-tablecloth restaurants\", because they traditionally featured table service by servers, at tables covered by white tablecloths. The tablecloths came to symbolize the experience. The use of white tablecloths eventually became less fashionable, but the service and upscale ambience remained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1g3ev9
|
if the nsa can easily mine most/all data and circumvent encryption methods, why can't they easily locate groups like anonymous?
|
[
{
"answer": "They aren't allowed to. NSA's main goal is to investigate/surveillance foreign intelligence(foreign military threats to the US and since 9/11, terrorist plots and threats , Not *foreign intelligence services* ) And they can only investigate US citizens if they can find a link between that citizen and a foreign terrorist and with a warrant acquired by the FISC court(Foreign intelligence services court, a 11 member panel appointed by the chief justice of the supreme court himself)\n\nPlus they are legally bound to as of current, three laws of which that deals with terrorism. The Patriot act, Protect america act of 2007 and FISA amendments of 2008. \n\nTLDR: They are legally and constitutionally barred from surveillance of anything other then foreign threats(terrorists/plots/attacks/ enemy military actions)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59270266",
"title": "Government hacking",
"section": "Section::::Hackers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Due to new technologies, it was necessary to update cryptographic algorithms. This need has raised the level of complexity of techniques used for encrypting the data of individuals to guarantee network security. Because of the difficulty of deciphering data, government agencies have begun to search for other ways to conduct criminal investigations; one such option is hacking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59270266",
"title": "Government hacking",
"section": "Section::::Hacking by governments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "To conduct searches and gain remote access on a regular, large scale, legal attempts have been made to change encryption. Weaker encryption would make technology less secure overall. Governments could copy, modify, or delete data during digital investigations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "222427",
"title": "Crypto-anarchism",
"section": "Section::::Plausible deniability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "Deniable encryption and anonymizing networks can be used to avoid being detected while sharing illegal or sensitive information that users are too afraid to share without any protection of their identity. The information being shared could be anything from anti-state propaganda, whistleblowing, organization of narcotics distribution, illegal pornographic content, distribution of reports from political dissidents, anonymous monetary transactions, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40455685",
"title": "Bullrun (decryption program)",
"section": "Section::::Methods.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "The NSA encourages the manufacturers of security technology to disclose backdoors to their products or encryption keys so that they may access the encrypted data. However, fearing widespread adoption of encryption, the NSA set out to stealthily influence and weaken encryption standards and obtain master keys—either by agreement, by force of law, or by computer network exploitation (hacking).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39626432",
"title": "Edward Snowden",
"section": "Section::::Global surveillance disclosures.:Revelations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "It was revealed that the NSA was harvesting millions of email and instant messaging contact lists, searching email content, tracking and mapping the location of cell phones, undermining attempts at encryption via Bullrun and that the agency was using cookies to piggyback on the same tools used by Internet advertisers \"to pinpoint targets for government hacking and to bolster surveillance.\" The NSA was shown to be secretly accessing Yahoo and Google data centers to collect information from hundreds of millions of account holders worldwide by tapping undersea cables using the MUSCULAR surveillance program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39936650",
"title": "XKeyscore",
"section": "Section::::Workings.:Capabilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "\"The Guardian\" opined in 2013 that most of these things cannot be detected by other NSA tools, because they operate with strong selectors (like e-mail and IP addresses and phone numbers) and the raw data volumes are too high to be forwarded to other NSA databases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2681135",
"title": "Wireless security",
"section": "Section::::Security measures.:End-to-end encryption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "One can argue that both layer 2 and layer 3 encryption methods are not good enough for protecting valuable data like passwords and personal emails. Those technologies add encryption only to parts of the communication path, still allowing people to spy on the traffic if they have gained access to the wired network somehow. The solution may be encryption and authorization in the application layer, using technologies like SSL, SSH, GnuPG, PGP and similar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
2s0dgr
|
Why did the Japanese stop wearing kimonos?
|
[
{
"answer": "Well some people actually do still wear kimonos as a part of their everyday. \n\nBefore we start, we should define what kimono are. In Japanese, 着物 *kimono* literally means 'thing you wear'. In other words, for Japanese people, kimono literally just meant 'clothes'. Anything you wore was a kimono. This only changed with the introduction of Western clothes which were called 洋服 *youfuku*, literally meaning 'Western garments'. Now a days, when someone says kimono in America, it conjures up images of [elaborate traditional dress](_URL_8_) and [images of elegant women or high quality dress](_URL_4_). \n\n[But everyday clothes were also called kimono](_URL_0_). And kimono are not exclusively worn by women. The [traditional clothes of Japanese men can also be called kimono](_URL_10_). Pop media has contributed to the image of 'exotic' Asian women or geisha and the kimono has taken almost fetish like levels of sexual association by some people (in a similar way the china dress is). \n\nIn my post, when I talk about kimono, it is generally inclusive of all traditional Japanese clothes, as worn by men, women and children, as well as the different clothes worn by elites in the capital as well as the farmers in the fields. Now let's begin. \n\nThe first shift from kimono to western dress began with the Meiji Period during the mid 19th century, after the opening of the ports by Perry. It was a part of the large importation of various technologies, knowledge & information, methods, foods, and various other things from the West. \n\nA big proponent of adopting Western clothing was **military dress**. \n\nThe Japanese government were moving away from the feudal samurai - lord system of military power in favor of establishing a central, government funded and nationally associated professional military in the style of [Prussia or the British Empire](_URL_1_). \n\nThe government forbid military men from wearing kimono to any official functions and/or while on active duty, forcibly committing a massive organization in Japan to the Western dress. Government officials were also bound by similar rules put forth for the bureaucrats. \n\nYou can see here an illustration of what the average officers and line infantry would have looked like in the newly formed [Japanese Imperial forces](_URL_7_). \n\nThis was a time of many firsts for the Japanese military, including the first time they had a really unified command and a standardized uniform, uniting the armed forces of Japan in mind and body. \n\nThe other big driving force of adopting Western clothing were **Japanese elites**. \n\nTo see how rapid the changes made during the Meiji Restoration were, look no further than the Emperor himself. This is what [Emperor Meiji looked like in the early days of 1872](_URL_5_). \n\nLater that year, he would cut off his top knot, a sign of hundreds of years of tradition, and adopt Western dress to symbolize his support for progress, pragmatic adoption of Western things, and a new Japan. [This is what the Emperor looked like just one year.](_URL_6_)\n\nThe Meiji Restoration was a top-down movement to rapidly industrialize Japan and to make the transition smoother, the ruling elites of Japan believed that they needed to be able to absorb Western culture, language, science, and ways if they were to also be able to rapidly learn Western medicine, military strategies, economic systems, and earn a strong position in global politics. \n\nThis led the elites of Japan to lead the way and pioneer adoption of all things Western. Western food, Western entertainment (to put the Meiji Restoration in context, Western composers like Wagner, Liszt, Brahms, Saint-Saëns, and Dvořák were all alive and making music during this time. Mozart and Beethoven had only been dead for maybe 20 years), Western literature, and of course, [Western dress](_URL_9_).\n\nMost notably, *men adopted suits* rather quickly and it became the norm to wear a suit to work for the upper and middle class. Lower class citizens generally kept wearing their kimono, especially farmers. The Meiji Restoration mostly focused on urban populations, while rural areas generally just kept going about daily life as they always did as the gap between urban and rural areas grew wider and wider. \n\nAnother notable thing is that **women generally did NOT adopt Western dress**. Many new ideas and ways of thinking were being born in Japan but gender equality was not one of them. Female participation in the labor market did not change a great deal during the Meiji Period and most women remained the masters of the home and hearth. This meant that they still spent the majority of their day at home, child rearing and maintaining the household. \n\nWomen quickly found that western dress was incredibly impractical for the inside of the average Japanese home. So the vast majority continued to wear kimono at home. As a matter of fact, most men also continued to wear the kimono at home as well. They would wake up, change into their suits, go to work, then come home and change into more comfortable kimono as home wear. \n\nFor elites, some women would also wear Western style dresses outside but many continued to wear kimono even outside. One of the big reasons was that for the first time, sumptuary laws from the Edo period that forbid the common people from wearing kimonos with silk or ostentatious colors, designs, etc. were repealed. The average Japanese women could now wear glamorous kimono that were previously only permitted on those of incredibly high status or even restricted to only the Imperial court. \n\nThe design of the kimono changed quite a bit. To the outside world looking in, one may not be able to tell the difference but for the average Japanese woman, the changes were huge. They were suddenly allowed to buy (and able to afford!) silk, they could pick and choose designs that previously would have literally been forbidden to someone of low status. It sparked a massive uptick in the domestic textile industry and helped propel a major part of Japanese light industry development during the time period. \n\nThe design of the kimono also changed. [For example, the *obi*](_URL_2_), the sash that is tied around the waist that holds the kimono together while also being decorative. Because of the repealing of sumptuary laws and a general change in the way society thought about clothes in public spaces, the way one could wear a kimono was relaxed quite a bit during the Meiji Period. For example, in this picture, the obi is tilted and simply tucked as opposed to being tied in a more complex and 'proper' way that would have been necessary for clothing etiquette during the Edo Period. \n\n[The obi was also featured lower and 'boxier' than in previous designs](_URL_3_), as a result of the influence of Western dresses. [With lower, boxier obi](_URL_12_), the sillouhette of a woman's kimono now looked similar to that of a Western dress worn over a corset that accentuated the bust and hips into an S curve. \n\nAfter the Meiji Period, Japan enters the Taisho Period, between World War I and World War II. Japan experiences even more freedom and liberation of clothing culture and more people wear Western clothing during everyday moments, including casual Western clothing. Western clothing is no longer something simply worn at work. This is also a period of a rise in **Western architecture**(_URL_11_) that further facilitated the wearing of Western dress (particularly in the home). \n\nThe kimono becomes increasingly out of fashion when worn outside of the home and adoption of Western clothes steadily increases. Western clothes are associated with progress, civilization and modernity while kimono are symbols of the past. That being said, there were reactionaries that disapproved of the rapid changes of Japanese society refuse to adopt Western ways and Western clothing. \n\nBy the time World War II ends and Japan begins to rebuild, Western clothes are a dominant part of Japanese clothing culture. In most work places, especially corporate office jobs, the business suit is standard and often required. Many uniforms are Western style. And casual Western clothing like shirts, pants, etc. are everywhere. By the 1950s and 1960s, much of Japan is wearing Western clothes on a near constant basis, with traditional dress being taken out during the summer for festivals, religious ceremonies, holidays, etc. \n\n_URL_11_ To say that people have 'stopped wearing' kimono is a little misleading. The vast majority of Japanese people wear kimonos several times a year, especially during summer. It's not uncommon to see Japanese people wearing kimono on the streets, even in major metropolitan cities.\n\nDuring the summer time, which is unbearably humid and hot in Japan, many people wear simple kimono because they are cooler and light, helping people deal with the heat. \n\nAnd it's almost a staple to wear kimono to festivals throughout the year in Japan, whether they be children, teenagers, or adults. \n\n**If anything Japanese people wear their traditional dress a great deal more than most other cultures.** ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "16873",
"title": "Kimono",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1077,
"text": "The formal kimono was replaced by the more convenient Western clothes and \"yukata\" as everyday wear. After an edict by Emperor Meiji, police, railroad men and teachers moved to Western clothes. The Japanese began shedding kimonos in favor of Western dress in the 1870s. The Western clothes became the army and school uniform for boys. After the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, kimono wearers often became victims of robbery because they could not run very fast due to the restricting nature of the kimono on the body and geta clogs. Also, kimono produced by traditional methods have become too expensive for the average family. A common price for a kimono- and-obi ensemble is over $1,000, according to the Tokyo Wholesalers Association. Many cost far more. Even on some special occasions such as wedding day, an elaborate kimono is de rigueur, most people choose to rent one. The Tokyo Women's & Children's Wear Manufacturers' Association (東京婦人子供服組合) promoted Western clothes. Between 1920 and 1930 the sailor outfit replaced the undivided \"hakama\" in school uniforms for girls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148846",
"title": "Japanese clothing",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Western influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "Until the 1930s, the majority of Japanese wore the kimono, and Western clothes were still restricted to out-of-home use by certain classes. The Japanese have interpreted western clothing styles from the United States and Europe and made it their own. Overall, it is evident throughout history that there has been much more of a Western influence on Japan’s culture and clothing. However, the traditional kimono remains a major part of the Japanese way of life and will be for a long time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16873",
"title": "Kimono",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1043,
"text": "Chinese fashion had a huge influence on Japan from the Kofun period to the early Heian period as a result of mass immigration from the continent and a Japanese envoy to the Tang dynasty. There is an opinion that \"Kimono\" was basically derived from the Chinese clothing in the Wu region. During Japan's Heian period (794–1192 AD), the kimono became increasingly stylized, though one still wore a half-apron, called a \"mo\", over it. During the Muromachi age (1336–1573 AD), the \"Kosode\", a single kimono formerly considered underwear, began to be worn without the hakama (trousers, divided skirt) over it, and thus began to be held closed by an \"obi\" \"belt\". During the Edo period (1603–1867 AD), the sleeves began to grow in length, especially among unmarried women, and the \"Obi\" became wider, with various styles of tying coming into fashion. Since then, the basic shape of both the men's and women's kimono has remained essentially unchanged. Kimonos made with exceptional skill from fine materials have been regarded as great works of art.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148846",
"title": "Japanese clothing",
"section": "Section::::Types of traditional clothing.:Kimono.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "After the four-class system ended in the Tokugawa period (1603-1867), the symbolic meaning of the kimono shifted from a reflection of social class to a reflection of self, allowing people to incorporate their own tastes and individualize their outfit. The process of wearing a kimono requires a knowledge of multiple steps and layers that must precede the final thick layer of the outer robe. Kimono schools have been built specifically to teach those interested in learning about the garment and the proper method of wearing it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16873",
"title": "Kimono",
"section": "Section::::Textiles and construction of kimono.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "Historically, kimono were often taken apart for washing in separate panels, and were resewn by hand. Because of the standardised method of construction, and the fact that no fabric is wasted, the kimono can easily be retailored to fit the changing body, or indeed another person.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "167104",
"title": "Culture of Japan",
"section": "Section::::Traditional clothing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 1307,
"text": "Traditional Japanese clothing distinguishes Japan from all other countries around the world. The Japanese word kimono means \"something one wears\" and they are the traditional garments of Japan. Originally, the word kimono was used for all types of clothing, but eventually, it came to refer specifically to the full-length garment also known as the naga-gi, meaning \"long-wear\", that is still worn today on special occasions by women, men, and children. The earliest kimonos were heavily influenced by traditional Han Chinese clothing, known today as hanfu (漢服, kanfuku in Japanese), through Japanese embassies to China which resulted in extensive Chinese culture adoptions by Japan, as early as the 5th century AD. It was during the 8th century, however, that Chinese fashions came into style among the Japanese, and the overlapping collar became particularly women's fashion. Kimono in this meaning plus all other items of traditional Japanese clothing is known collectively as wafuku which means \"Japanese clothes\" as opposed to yofuku (Western-style clothing). Kimonos come in a variety of colors, styles, and sizes. Men mainly wear darker or more muted colors, while women tend to wear brighter colors and pastels, and, especially for younger women, often with complicated abstract or floral patterns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "148846",
"title": "Japanese clothing",
"section": "Section::::Types of traditional clothing.:Kimono.:Materials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Kimono are worn with sash-belts called obi, of which there are several varieties. In previous centuries, obi were relatively pliant and soft, so literally held the kimono closed; modern-day obi are generally stiffer, meaning the kimono is actually kept closed through tying a series of flat ribbons, such as kumihimo, around the body. The two most common varieties of obi for women are \"fukuro\" obi, which can be worn with everything but the most casual forms of kimono, and \"nagoya\" obi, which are narrower at one end to make them easier to wear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
7cfvm8
|
Are different sections of our bodies different temperatures? Everyone talks about internal body temp, but how much variance do we normally see in the temperature in extremities and such?
|
[
{
"answer": "In humans the average internal temperature is 37.0 °C. However, we don't always has exactly the same temperature at every moment of the day. Temperatures cycle up and down, controlled by our circadian rhythm. The lowest temperature occurs about two hours before we normally wake up (Altough the circadian rhytm can be altered). Temperatures also change according to activities and external factors.\n\nIt really depends, if it is cold outside, your limbs will be much cooler than the rest of your body. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8331759",
"title": "Human body temperature",
"section": "Section::::Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "Normal human body temperature varies slightly from person to person and by the time of day. Consequently, each type of measurement has a range of normal temperatures. The range for normal human body temperatures, taken orally, is (). This means that any oral temperature between is likely to be normal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8331759",
"title": "Human body temperature",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Individual body temperature depends upon the age, exertion, infection, sex, and reproductive status of the subject, the time of day, the place in the body at which the measurement is made, and the subject's state of consciousness (waking, sleeping or sedated), activity level, and emotional state. It is typically maintained within this range by thermoregulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "505484",
"title": "Spermatogenesis",
"section": "Section::::Influencing factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Seminiferous epithelium is sensitive to elevated temperature in humans and some other species, and will be adversely affected by temperatures as high as normal body temperature. Consequently, the testes are located outside the body in a sack of skin called the scrotum. The optimal temperature is maintained at 2 °C (man)–8 °C (mouse) below body temperature. This is achieved by regulation of blood flow and positioning towards and away from the heat of the body by the cremasteric muscle and the dartos smooth muscle in the scrotum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4311569",
"title": "Medical thermometer",
"section": "Section::::Classification by location.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 1048,
"text": "The temperature can be measured in various locations on the body which maintain a fairly stable temperature (mainly sub-lingual, axillary, rectal, vaginal, forehead, or temporal artery). The normal temperature varies slightly with the location; an oral reading of 37 °C does not correspond to rectal, temporal, etc. readings of the same value. When a temperature is quoted the location should also be specified. If a temperature is stated without qualification (e.g., typical body temperature) it is usually assumed to be sub-lingual. The differences between core temperature and measurements at different locations, known as \"clinical bias\", is discussed in the article on normal human body temperature. Measurements are subject to both site-dependent clinical bias and variability between a series of measurements (standard deviations of the differences). For example, one study found that the clinical bias of rectal temperatures was greater than for ear temperature measured by a selection of thermometers under test, but variability was less.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8331759",
"title": "Human body temperature",
"section": "Section::::Variations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1093,
"text": "Reported values vary depending on how it is measured: oral (under the tongue): (), internal (rectal, vaginal): . A rectal or vaginal measurement taken directly inside the body cavity is typically slightly higher than oral measurement, and oral measurement is somewhat higher than skin measurement. Other places, such as under the arm or in the ear, produce different typical temperatures. While some people think of these averages as representing normal or ideal measurements, a wide range of temperatures has been found in healthy people. The body temperature of a healthy person varies during the day by about with lower temperatures in the morning and higher temperatures in the late afternoon and evening, as the body's needs and activities change. Other circumstances also affect the body's temperature. The core body temperature of an individual tends to have the lowest value in the second half of the sleep cycle; the lowest point, called the nadir, is one of the primary markers for circadian rhythms. The body temperature also changes when a person is hungry, sleepy, sick, or cold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647050",
"title": "Temperature",
"section": "Section::::Thermodynamic approach.:Local thermodynamic equilibrium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Thus, when local thermodynamic equilibrium prevails in a body, temperature can be regarded as a spatially varying local property in that body, and this is because temperature is an intensive variable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378661",
"title": "Thermoregulation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 762,
"text": "It was not until the introduction of thermometers that any exact data on the temperature of animals could be obtained. It was then found that local differences were present, since heat production and heat loss vary considerably in different parts of the body, although the circulation of the blood tends to bring about a mean temperature of the internal parts. Hence it is important to identify the parts of the body that most closely reflect the temperature of the internal organs. Also, for such results to be comparable, the measurements must be conducted under comparable conditions. The rectum has traditionally been considered to reflect most accurately the temperature of internal parts, or in some cases of sex or species, the vagina, uterus or bladder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1lqixz
|
How (If at all) do rainstorms interfere with cellular phone reception?
|
[
{
"answer": "Rainfall certainly does; as well as interference caused by the leading edge of a storm front. The general phenomenon is called [rain fade](_URL_0_). \n \nRadio and TV are just colors of light that we can't perceive with the human eye. They can be affected by physical objects (like raindrops). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your TV reception is a lot weaker during the rain because they have a very tight operating margin at a pretty high frequency. There is a very slight amount of rain attenuation at the low microwave frequencies your cell phone works at. You can see some empirical curves from Skolnik's book here: _URL_0_\nThe context is RADAR but your cell phone is the same deal.\n\nAs far as your TV goes, it operates at a much higher frequency, 10-14 GHz with a much lower link margin. When they engineered satellite TV they basically designed it to have sufficient link margin to be up 99% of the time. From Pratt's Satellite Communications, a simple model for rain loss is: k*(R)^alpha dB/km. Where the coefficients k and alpha are from an empirical table dependent on frequency and polarization, and R is the rainfall rate in mm/hour. For a typical vertically polarized satellite TV transmission at say 12 GHz those coefficients would be k=0.0168 and alpha=1.200 . Your path length through the rain is dependent on your location and is somewhere around 5 km in the southern US. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6393696",
"title": "Cell Broadcast",
"section": "Section::::Emergency communication system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Cell Broadcast is not affected by traffic load; therefore, it is usable during a disaster when load spikes of data (social media and mobile app), regular SMS and voice calls usage (mass call events) tend to significantly slowdown mobile networks, as multiple events have shown. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6242833",
"title": "Hong Kong rainstorm warning signals",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "The rainstorm warning signals are a set of signals used in Hong Kong to alert the public about the occurrence of heavy rain which is likely to bring about major disruptions such as traffic congestion and floods. They also ensure a state of readiness within the essential services to deal with emergencies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13913552",
"title": "Mobile phone signal",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 886,
"text": "In addition, the weather may affect the strength of a signal, due to the changes in radio propagation caused by clouds (particularly tall and dense thunderclouds which cause signal reflection), precipitation, and temperature inversions. This phenomenon, which is also common in other VHF radio bands including FM broadcasting, may also cause other anomalies, such as a person in San Diego \"roaming\" on a Mexican tower from just over the border in Tijuana, or someone in Detroit \"roaming\" on a Canadian tower located within sight across the Detroit River in Windsor, Ontario. These events may cause the user to be billed for \"international\" usage despite being in their own country, though mobile phone companies can program their billing systems to re-rate these as domestic usage when it occurs on a foreign cell site that is known to frequently cause such issues for their customers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1509271",
"title": "Angeles Crest Highway",
"section": "Section::::Access and closures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Cell phone reception can be sporadic and, when available, signal strength and clarity is poor. Although the surrounding mountainous terrain is the primary reason for this, the limited presence of, and/or proximity to, cellular communication antennas to receive and transmit signals along the route contributes to the problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "300427",
"title": "NOAA Weather Radio",
"section": "Section::::Radio frequencies used.:Coverage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "According to NOAA, reliable signal reception typically extends in about a 40-mile radius from a full-power (1000 W) transmitter, assuming level terrain. However, signal blockages can occur, especially in mountainous areas. As of 2016, there are over a thousand NWR transmitters across the United States, covering 95% of the population. Because each transmitter can cover several counties, typically a person will program their weather radio to receive only the alerts for their county or nearby surrounding counties where weather systems are most likely to move in from.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38473300",
"title": "Coronal cloud",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "Specific reasons as to why these clouds are dangerous to electronic and communication equipment include the overloading of large power transformers, which can cause lengthy power outages over wide geographical areas. Long, metallic structures like oil and gas pipes, water pipes, and communications antennae can also carry excessive electric current from the air, causing them to corrode faster than normal. This can possibly lead to early, unexpected ruptures. These signals also create anomalies in the ionosphere, disrupting wireless technologies such as GPS, cellular phones, television, and radio.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "767065",
"title": "Rain fade",
"section": "Section::::Uplink power control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 775,
"text": "The simplest way to compensate the rain fade effect in satellite communications is to increase the transmission power: this dynamic fade countermeasure is called uplink power control (UPC). Until more recently, uplink power control had limited use, since it required more powerful transmitters - ones that could normally run at lower levels and could be increased in power level on command (i.e. automatically). Also uplink power control could not provide very large signal margins without compressing the transmitting amplifier. Modern amplifiers coupled with advanced uplink power control systems that offer automatic controls to prevent transponder saturation make uplink power control systems an effective, affordable and easy solution to rain fade in satellite signals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3cpo5l
|
How/why did the tribes who took over areas of the old Roman empire go from speaking Germanic languages to Romance ones? And why not in England?
|
[
{
"answer": "One must remember that when Rome fell, the people in the provinces did not simply disappear. They, for the most part, stayed right where they were. The people of Gaul spoke a vulgar form of Latin, but it had become region specific, displacing much of the Celtic languages that were there before. \n\nA linguist might be better suited to answer this question.\n\nHowever, once Rome fell, the provinces were open for invasion. Here is where your tribes come in. Let's take, for example, the Franks. The Franks raided into Gaul even before Rome fell. Some of them stayed. Various people who were called Franks were some times enemies and some times allies of the Roman. When Rome fell there were Franks in the Roman army. Thus it can be assumed they spoke vulgar Latin, or something very similar.\n\nSlowly the Franks gained control of much of Gaul and there developed Old French, which was based completely in Latin, thus a Romance language. \n\nEngland did not have as long a period of assimilation with Rome. Rome was not as entrenched and so Latin did not become as wide spread. The same goes with Germany. If the average person did not speak it, it did not last. \n\nOf course Latin remains an important language in England, as in the rest of Europe, partially because of its ties with the Catholic Church.\n\n\n------------------------------------------\n[_URL_1_](_URL_1_)\n\n[Gregory of Tours History of the Franks](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33115621",
"title": "Germani cisrhenani",
"section": "Section::::Later history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "The \"cisrhenane Germani\" eventually ceased to be restricted to a band of occupation near the border, and all Roman provinces west of the Rhine were eventually conquered by Germanic tribes, speaking Germanic languages: the Franks (Germania inferior, Francia), the Alemanni (Germania superior, Alemannia), the Burgundians (Burgundy), the Visigoths (Visigothic Kingdom), and so on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60915618",
"title": "Germanisation of Gaul",
"section": "Section::::Germanisation during the post-classical history period and Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 865,
"text": "Towards the end of the post-classical history period and the onset of the Middle Ages, there were various invasions, which led to the settlement of a large and collective body of Germans in Roman Gaul. One of the earliest invasions of the Roman Empire was conducted by the Visigoths, that were a major group of Germanic peoples. However, this invasion was very far from affecting the Romans who held on strong until the year 9 A.D. when the Romans were defeated and Germanisation seemed imminent as the Romans were pushed into defence against various Germanic peoples who were impatient to push the boundary and enter Roman territory. Many scholars agree that if there had not been a sudden and alarming influx of populations from the Germanic peoples into Gaul and other regions, the Roman Empire might have collapsed completely much earlier than it actually did.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2102521",
"title": "Walton, Warwickshire",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "There is strong evidence that in many areas of England taken over by Germanic speaking settlers, the native British (Wealas) remained undisturbed, farming the same land they did when the Romans left. Over time they just adapted to the new conditions and forgot their Celtic tongue (similar to Old Welsh/Cornish) for the language and culture of the newcomers in order to climb the social ladder, or were coerced to do so. It was in the Anglo Saxon interest that the native British carry on as usual to ensure the economy produced food and goods for the new landowners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23915",
"title": "Portuguese language",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 940,
"text": "Between AD 409 and AD 711, as the Roman Empire collapsed in Western Europe, the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Germanic peoples of the Migration Period. The occupiers, mainly Suebi, Visigoths and Buri who originally spoke Germanic languages, quickly adopted late Roman culture and the Vulgar Latin dialects of the peninsula and over the next 300 years totally integrated into the local populations. After the Moorish invasion beginning in 711, Arabic became the administrative and common language in the conquered regions, but most of the remaining Christian population continued to speak a form of Romance commonly known as Mozarabic, which lasted three centuries longer in Spain. Like other Neo-Latin and European languages, Portuguese has adopted a significant number of loanwords from Greek, mainly for technical and scientific terminology. These borrowings occurred via Latin, and later during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2232123",
"title": "Prehistory and protohistory of Poland",
"section": "Section::::Antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "Germanic peoples lived in what is now Poland for several centuries, during which many of their tribes also migrated southward and eastward (see Wielbark culture). With the expansion of the Roman Empire, the Germanic tribes came under Roman cultural influence. Some written remarks by Roman authors that are relevant to developments on Polish lands have been preserved; they provide additional insights in conjunction with the archeological record. In the end, as the Roman Empire was nearing its collapse and the nomadic peoples invading from the east destroyed, damaged or destabilized the various Germanic cultures and societies, the Germanic peoples left Eastern and Central Europe for the safer and wealthier southern and western parts of the European continent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12446",
"title": "Germanic peoples",
"section": "Section::::History.:Post-migration ethnogeneses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "The interactions of the migrating Germanic peoples and the deteriorating Roman empire formed the basis of the history and society of most of Western Europe from the Early Middle Ages and up to the present day. By the middle ages, Germanic tribes were no longer seen as a single ethnic grouping, and instead we can only speak of peoples who speak Germanic languages, though these are no longer mutually intelligible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "429487",
"title": "Old High German",
"section": "Section::::Territory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "At the beginning of the period, no Germanic language was spoken east of a line from Kieler Förde to the rivers Elbe and Saale, earlier Germanic speakers in the Northern part of the area having been displaced by the Slavs. This area did not become German-speaking again until the German eastward expansion (\"Ostkolonisation\") of the early 12th century, though there was some attempt at conquest and missionary work under the Ottonians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1xyzd4
|
how can someone survive a 3500ft fall and expect to make a full recovery?
|
[
{
"answer": "Perhaps the chute was partially open?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The article says the parachute malfuctioned, not that it didn't open at all. The full story is that the parachute partially opened and that she hit the ground at 50 mph instead of terminal velocity. Also, she landed in a way in which her legs absorbed the power of the fall.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34666187",
"title": "SpaceX reusable launch system development program",
"section": "Section::::Test program.:Fairing reuse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "In October 2018, at least two fairing recovery tests were performed, involving \"Mr. Steven\" and a helicopter, which would drop a fairing half from the height of about 3300 meters. The actual outcome of the tests is unclear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13115554",
"title": "Hugh DeHaven",
"section": "Section::::Crash Injury Research (CIR).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "In 1942, DeHaven started the Crash Injury Research project at Cornell, and published the classic \"Mechanical analysis of survival in falls from heights of fifty to one hundred and fifty feet\". He concluded:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20731352",
"title": "Lead climbing injuries",
"section": "Section::::Falling correctly.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 839,
"text": "While these injuries happen, the authors imply they did not happen often. However, someone who climbs 3-4 days a week might take 1000 lead falls a year. With that in mind, Schöffl and Küpper suggest climbers should fall with their hands up and slightly forward and with feet down and slightly forward as well. They explain that this method of falling would allow the climber to make contact with the wall with limbs that can absorb force, rather than with other less-absorbent parts of the body. After impact, Schöffl and Küpper instruct the climber to grab the rope (it is completely stretched out and unable to cause injury) in order to refrain from tipping upside down. This method of falling will eliminate injuries caused by prematurely grabbing the rope or other pieces of protection, as well as virtually eliminating neck injuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58144872",
"title": "Marek Holeček",
"section": "Section::::Gasherbrum I SW Face, Piolet d'Or Award 2018.:\"Satisfaction!\" Journey.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "In 2016, together with Ondřej Mandula, they reached 7,700 m, but they were pinned down at 7,500 m with no way to escape for eight days. By the time they got down, Holeček sustained frostbite on his feet, resulting in more than six months of recovery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18498968",
"title": "Falling (accident)",
"section": "Section::::Height and severity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "The severity of injury increases with the height of the fall but also depends on body and surface features and the manner of the body's impacts against the surface. The chance of surviving increases if landing on a highly deformable surface (a surface that is easily bent, compressed, or displaced) such as snow or water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9736",
"title": "Empire State Building",
"section": "Section::::Incidents.:Suicide attempts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Two people have survived falls by not falling more than a floor. On December 2, 1979, Elvita Adams jumped from the 86th floor, only to be blown back onto a ledge on the 85th floor by a gust of wind and left with a broken hip. On April 25, 2013, a man fell from the 86th floor observation deck, but he landed alive with minor injuries on an 85th-floor ledge where security guards brought him inside and paramedics transferred him to a hospital for a psychiatric evaluation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "80825",
"title": "Free fall",
"section": "Section::::Surviving falls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "The severity of injury increases with the height of a free fall, but also depends on body and surface features and the manner that the body impacts on to the surface. The chance of surviving increases if landing on a soft surface, such as snow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1jchu2
|
How much would the Roman Colosseum cost if it were to be built today?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm not qualified to answer this but are you asking what it would cost to build with modern equipment, techniques and resources or an exact replication of the way that the Romans did it(obviously without real slaves)? \n\nThere is also the added problem I believe of the exact formula used for the concrete that the Romans used, still needs to be rediscovered for a perfect replica to be constructed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You might want to post this to [r/estimation](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The book *The Colosseum* by Kieth Hopkins and Mary Beard apparently has an estimate from a surveying company on how much it would cost today to build the foundations alone for the Colosseum. Came in at $57 million. \n\nHere's the [review](_URL_0_) of the book where I found the figure.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "We don't know how much marble was used in the seating and facade, which would be a large part of the cost if you were to build one today.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the more interesting question would be the following:\n\n\"In terms of relative cost, what modern sports stadium is roughly equivalent to the Roman Colosseum?\"\n\nThe underlying question would be how exceptional is something like Wembley Stadium in England compared to that classic beauty",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Woah something I can answer. I work at an architecture firm, so I can give some insight but I've never worked on a stadium. I mostly work on large higher ed. and hospital projects.\n\nThe Colosseum is a load bearing masonry structure. Large scale projects stopped being built this way around 1900. The last great examples in my city, Chicago, are the [Monadnock Building](_URL_1_) and the [Auditorium Theater](_URL_4_) (bonus trivia, this is where Frank Llyod Wright started practicing architecture under Louis Sullivan).\n\nThe reason almost no one builds this way anymore is that it requires a lot of labor and as a very rough rule of thumb labor makes up about 2/3's of the cost of a building project (applies in US anyways, in China it's 1/3 labor 2/3 material). I mention this because the final number I come to will be lower than it would be to build this out of brick and stone. I'm not sure what the premium would be, 50% maybe?\n\nHere's the size from [Wikipedia](_URL_2_):\n\n > It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 6 acres (24,000 m2). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an oval 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.\n\nThat gives you an area of about 246,340 SF or 22,900 m^2 . This completely ignores the fact that the actual area is not two dimensional (multi-story). I can't find a resource to provide this info which is definitely a limitation of this answer.\n\nI'm taking the area:cost ratio for recently constructed stadiums from this article in [The Atlantic](_URL_3_). I made a [quick spreadsheet](_URL_0_) to come up with a cost of $473/SF or about $5,100/m^2.\n\n246,340 SF x $473 = ~$166,500,000\n\nAgain, this ignores the fact that the area is much larger than this. The Colosseum held 50,000 people which is about the size of a modern baseball park in the US. The ranges in the spreadsheet go from about 1 million to 1.3 million SF (about 93,000 - 120,000 m^2). This would give us:\n\nLow\n1,000,000 SF x $473 = ~$473,000,000\n\nHigh\n1,300,000 SF x $473 = ~$615,000,000\n\nSo $500-600 million plus a huge premium for the fact that it's load bearing masonry. You're probably looking at a **$750 million to $1 billion building** (570-750 million euros) if you were to build this today.\n\n**Edit:** formatting and forgot to divide by four for the equation of an ellipse which is (A x B x 3.14)/4 with A and B being half the long and short axis.\n\nAt the risk of being incredibly facile I will mention that, to a large extent, the construction process and methods used to build the Colosseum would be very familiar to us today. Obviously the tools have changed but the guy laying the stones? Basically the same. On a much smaller scale this is how many buildings are still built today in the developing world.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sorry if this was already asked but I didn't see it in the existing comments. Do we know how much the Colosseum cost to build in Roman currency at the actual time it was built? I can't imagine records weren't kept for its costs somewhere. If we do know, just out of interest how does that translate to, say, present day Euros?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Can I ask a similar question? Was the arena used after Rome's collapse? Today it's just sitting there, when was it stop being used?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3616797",
"title": "Gladiator (2000 film)",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Filming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "In Malta, a replica of about one-third of Rome's Colosseum was built, to a height of 52 feet (15.8 meters), mostly from plaster and plywood (the other two-thirds and remaining height were added digitally). The replica took several months to build and cost an estimated $1 million. The reverse side of the complex supplied a rich assortment of Ancient Roman street furniture, colonnades, gates, statuary, and marketplaces for other filming requirements. The complex was serviced by tented \"costume villages\" that had changing rooms, storage, armorers, and other facilities. The rest of the Colosseum was created in computer-generated imagery using set-design blueprints and textures referenced from live action, and rendered in three layers to provide lighting flexibility for compositing in Flame and Inferno software.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49603",
"title": "Colosseum",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion Italian lire ($19.3m / €20.6m at 2000 prices).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157232",
"title": "1990 FIFA World Cup",
"section": "Section::::Venues.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Most of the construction cost in excess of their original estimates and total costs ended up being over £550 million (approximately $935 million). Rome's Stadio Olimpico which would host the final was the most expensive project overall, while Udine's Stadio Friuli, the newest of the existing stadia (opened 14 years prior), cost the least to redevelop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57830969",
"title": "List of FIFA World Cup stadiums",
"section": "Section::::All-time stadiums.:1990.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Most of the construction cost in excess of their original estimates and total costs ended up being over £550 million (approximately $935 million). Rome's Stadio Olimpico which would host the final was the most expensive project overall, while Udine's Stadio Friuli, the newest of the existing stadia (opened 14 years prior), cost the least to redevelop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11729954",
"title": "Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Construction of the amphitheatre.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Construction of the Colosseum started under Vespasian in a low valley surrounded by the Caelian, Esquiline and Palatine hills. The site became available to Nero by the Great Fire of Rome in AD 64 and redeveloped for his personal enjoyment with the construction of a huge artificial lake in the Domus Aurea, and a colossal statue of himself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1240700",
"title": "Harvard–Yale football rivalry",
"section": "Section::::Stadiums.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "the Colosseum of Pompeii in Italy was the only other known structure in the world engineered by digging a hole then using the displaced dirt to build the surrounding wall or berm. The Bowl had the largest seating capacity for a stadium in the world upon completion of construction. Head coach Carm Cozza likened the feeling of running through the tunnel then onto the Bowl's to a gladiator entering the arena.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18046116",
"title": "The Colosseum (Manhattan)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "The Colosseum was designed by Schwartz & Gross and built by the Paterno Brothers, Charles and Joseph, in 1909-1910. The luxury four-bedroom apartments with sweeping views of the Hudson River rented for $150 to $175 a month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
9fibn1
|
how much of the sky do we see at any given moment in time? (lying on a beach on at night, what percentage of the sky am i currently seeing with a naked eye)?
|
[
{
"answer": "Human vision is 210 degrees wide and 150 degrees high. But if you lay on the ground you are on a flat plane so you can only see 180 degrees wide. 150 degrees is 150/360=0.41 of a circle. So you can see maximum of 41% of the sky without moving your eyes.\n\nA more complex question if that mound of that field of view you can process and notice. We usually move our eyes and look directly at what we are interested in.\n\nThe the percentage of what is out there we can see with a naked eye is small. \nThere is a estiamtion of 43000 object that is possible to see with a naked eye but most o them are hard to see.\n\nThere is a estimation of 200-400 billion stars in out galaxy but the majority cant be observed by any human telescope.\n\nThere is a estimation of 100 billion galaxies observable universe. We can see a 9 with a naked eye byt the look like a fuzzy small object or like a star.\n\nSo the percentage of what is out there we can see is close to 0%",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "41079",
"title": "Dynamic range",
"section": "Section::::Human perception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "A human can see objects in starlight or in bright sunlight, even though on a moonless night objects receive 1/1,000,000,000 of the illumination they would on a bright sunny day; a dynamic range of 90 dB.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3231202",
"title": "Pan-STARRS",
"section": "Section::::Instruments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "The very large field of view of the telescopes and the short exposure times enable approximately 6000 square degrees of sky to be imaged every night. The entire sky is 4π steradians, or 4π × (180/π)² ≈ 41,253.0 square degrees, of which about 30,000 square degrees are visible from Hawaii, which means that the entire sky can be imaged in a period of 40 hours (or about 10 hours per night on four days). Given the need to avoid times when the Moon is bright, this means that an area equivalent to the entire sky will be surveyed four times a month, which is entirely unprecedented. By the end of its initial three-year mission in April 2014, PS1 had imaged the sky 12 times in each of 5 filters (g,r,i,z,y).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6663",
"title": "Clyde Tombaugh",
"section": "Section::::Interest in UFOs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "I have never seen anything like it before or since, and I have spent a lot of time where the night sky could be seen well. This suggests that the phenomenon involves a comparatively rare set of conditions or circumstances to produce it, but nothing like the odds of an interstellar visitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "859122",
"title": "Alpha Andromedae",
"section": "Section::::Observation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The location of α Andromedae in the sky is shown on the left. It can be seen by the naked eye and is theoretically visible at all latitudes north of 60° S. During evening from August to October, it will be high in the sky as seen from the northern midlatitudes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11740016",
"title": "HD 2039",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Distance and visibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "The star's magnitude as observed from Earth is 9; this signifies that the body is not visible with the naked eye, but can be seen with a telescope. HD 2039 lies roughly 280 light years from the Sun, which is about as far from the Sun as the second brightest star in the night sky, Canopus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37647138",
"title": "Iota1 Librae",
"section": "Section::::Visibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "The best time for observation in the evening sky falls in the months between May and September; from both hemispheres of the period of visibility remains approximately the same, thanks to the position of the star not far from the celestial equator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35043403",
"title": "Globe at Night",
"section": "Section::::Conversion of measurements into other units.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Globe at Night observations identify the dimmest stars that are visible given the surrounding conditions. Assuming normal visible acuity and clear skies, it is possible to approximately convert Globe at Night naked eye limiting maximum estimates into other units:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
5k9n6s
|
the sign on the utility pole says "we buy houses, cash" - who are these guys and why do they advertise this way?
|
[
{
"answer": "Rich investors with lots of cash buy houses for cheap, from desperate sellers who need the money fast. Then they can take their time, fix them up a bit, and sell them at full price when ready.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "575216",
"title": "Garage sale",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "Typically the goods in a garage sale are unwanted items from the household with its owners conducting the sale. The conditions of the goods vary, but they are usually usable. Some of these items are offered for sale because the owner does not want or need the item to minimize their possessions or to raise funds. Popular motivations for a garage sale are for \"spring cleaning,\" moving or earning extra money. The seller's items are displayed to the passers-by or those responding to signs, flyers, classified ads or newspaper ads. In some cases, local television stations will broadcast a sale on a local public channel. The venue at which the sale is conducted is typically a garage; other sales are conducted at a driveway, carport, front yard or inside a house. Some vendors, known as \"squatters,\" will set up in a high-traffic area rather than on their own property.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25037329",
"title": "The 3/50 Project",
"section": "Section::::What's an Independent?:Refined terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "As a catch phrase, “Buy Local” has become generic to the point of being easily manipulated. In some circles, “buy local” refers to the producer or manufacturer of goods. In others, however, the term is used interchangeably with “shop local,” which refers to point-of-purchase but excludes business models that are service-oriented. In 2009, numerous national chains (also known as “big-box stores”) began advertising themselves as “buy local” options if they sold even a small amount of produce grown nearby.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56274988",
"title": "Shop A Docket",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Shop A Docket is an Australian coupon company, founded in 1986, based in Brisbane, Australia. It is a provider of coupons that appear on the back of receipts in supermarkets and variety stores and outlets including Woolworths Supermarkets, Target Australia, Kmart, Big W and IGA. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13510524",
"title": "Honesty box",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "An honesty box is a method of charging for a service such as admission or car parking, or for a product such as home-grown produce and flowers, which relies upon each visitor paying at a box using the honour system. Tickets are not issued and such sites are usually unattended. When used in camping sites and other park settings, they are sometimes referred to as an iron ranger as there is often an iron cash box instead of an actual park ranger. Some stores also use them for selling newspapers to avoid queues at a Cash Register.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30809563",
"title": "Buy As You View",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Buy As You View (BAYV) is a retail and consumer finance company, selling a range of electrical goods and home furniture. It provides a coin meter repayment and credit facility for products bought on a hire purchase, weekly payment basis with no deposit or credit checks. Hire purchase contracts are regulated by the Consumer Credit Act 1974.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "575216",
"title": "Garage sale",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "A garage sale (also known as a yard sale, tag sale, moving sale and by many other names) is an informal event for the sale of used goods by private individuals, in which sellers are not required to obtain business licenses or collect sales tax (though, in some jurisdictions, a permit may be required).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13912390",
"title": "Cash and carry (wholesale)",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "In a retail context, the term has a similar meaning: customers pay cash for the goods they purchase (the retailer does not offer credit accounts) and carry them away themselves (the retailer does not offer delivery service).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
b5gx62
|
How stable is the planetary orbital structure of our system?
|
[
{
"answer": "Highly stable. Looking at the surface geology and chemical composition of the planets, there's no evidence that they've moved significantly in the past few billion years. All the movement happened at the very beginning of the solar system.\n\nWithout gravity, planets would move in straight lines. Gravity pulls them toward the sun, bending their path into nearly-circular orbits, but does not make them spiral in closer and closer. Sun + gravity + one planet is a stable system. For a planet to move closer to the sun, it must trade energy and angular momentum with other nearby objects, through collisions or close fly-bys.\n\nThe various planetary migration hypotheses, including your article, are talking about the very earliest history of the solar system, when the planets were surrounded by a cloud of gas and tiny bits of rock called planetisimals. In that time, there was plenty of mass for Jupiter to trade energy with: its gravity pulled on planetisimals, throwing them farther from the Sun: by action vs reaction, this pushed Jupiter closer in.\n\nBut eventually, almost all the planetisimals got swept up to build the planets, or ejected out of the solar system. Now there's nothing left for planets to push against, so they're locked in place. Now it's true they could push against *each other*, but they're far enough apart that their pull on each other is too weak to do much... and Jupiter, being the biggest, is especially hard to move.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30745",
"title": "Titius–Bode law",
"section": "Section::::Theoretical explanations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "Orbital resonance from major orbiting bodies creates regions around the Sun that are free of long-term stable orbits. Results from simulations of planetary formation support the idea that a randomly chosen stable planetary system will likely satisfy a Titius–Bode law.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "865267",
"title": "5261 Eureka",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Long-term numerical integration shows that the orbit is stable. Kimmo A. Innanen and Seppo Mikkola note that \"contrary to intuition, there is clear empirical evidence for the stability of motion around the and points of all the terrestrial planets over a timeframe of several million years\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28520193",
"title": "HD 10180",
"section": "Section::::Planetary system.:Orbital arrangement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Since the inclination of the planets' orbits is unknown, only minimum planetary masses can presently be obtained. Dynamical simulations suggest that the system cannot be stable if the true masses of the planets exceed the minimum masses by a factor of greater than three (corresponding to an inclination of less than 20°, where 90° is edge-on).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "878461",
"title": "Earth's orbit",
"section": "Section::::Future.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Mathematicians and astronomers (such as Laplace, Lagrange, Gauss, Poincaré, Kolmogorov, Vladimir Arnold, and Jürgen Moser) have searched for evidence for the stability of the planetary motions, and this quest led to many mathematical developments and several successive \"proofs\" of stability for the Solar System. By most predictions, Earth's orbit will be relatively stable over long periods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22444",
"title": "Orbital resonance",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Since the discovery of Newton's law of universal gravitation in the 17th century, the stability of the Solar System has preoccupied many mathematicians, starting with Pierre-Simon Laplace. The stable orbits that arise in a two-body approximation ignore the influence of other bodies. The effect of these added interactions on the stability of the Solar System is very small, but at first it was not known whether they might add up over longer periods to significantly change the orbital parameters and lead to a completely different configuration, or whether some other stabilising effects might maintain the configuration of the orbits of the planets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1211905",
"title": "HD 74156",
"section": "Section::::Planetary system.:Claims of a third planet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Given the two-planet configuration of the system under the assumption that the orbits are coplanar and have masses equal to their minimum masses, an additional Saturn-mass planet would be stable in a region between 0.9 and 1.4 AU between the orbits of the two known planets. Under the \"packed planetary systems\" hypothesis, which predicts that planetary systems form in such a way that the system could not support additional planets between the orbits of the existing ones, the gap would be expected to host a planet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13390918",
"title": "HD 221287",
"section": "Section::::Planetary system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "Stability analysis reveals that the orbits of Earth sized planets in HD 221287 b's Trojan points, located 60 degrees ahead and behind the planet in its orbit, would be stable for long periods of time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3wmo73
|
multiple life sentences.
|
[
{
"answer": "The murderer was charged with and convicted of two crimes each carrying a life imprisonment sentence. The sentencing judge ruled that the sentences not be served concurrently. \nThe two charges now exist independently of one another, and can be appealed and removed independently. This means that if the murderer can later prove he didn't do one of the crimes in an appeal, he's still got another life sentence. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sometimes a life sentence is capped, say at 20 years. So two life sentences can make sense. However if the accused is sufficiently old, multiple life sentences could result in imprisonment until death. In that case the sentencing is just a formality to ensure that the law is upheld (plus there's always the low but non zero chance the prisoner might survive the sentence)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15549479",
"title": "Life imprisonment in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 773,
"text": "The laws in the United States divide life sentences between \"determinate life sentences\" and \"indeterminate life sentences.\" For example, sentences of \"15 years to life,\" \"25 years to life,\" or \"life with mercy\" may be given, which is called an \"indeterminate life sentence.\" A sentence of \"life without the possibility of parole\" or \"life without mercy\" is called a \"determinate life sentence\" because a sentence of \"15 years to life\" means that it is a life sentence with a non-parole period of 15 years. Parole is not guaranteed but discretionary and so that is an indeterminate sentence. Even if a sentence specifically denies the possibility of parole, government officials may have the power to grant an amnesty, to reprieve, or to commute a sentence to time served.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3275619",
"title": "Life imprisonment in England and Wales",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 460,
"text": "In England and Wales, life imprisonment is a sentence which lasts until the death of the prisoner, although in most cases the prisoner will be eligible for parole (officially termed \"early release\") after a fixed period set by the judge. This period is known as the \"minimum term\" (previously known as the whole life \"tariff\"). In some exceptionally grave cases, however, a judge may order that a life sentence should mean life by making a \"whole life order.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38444374",
"title": "Life imprisonment in Greece",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Life imprisonment is legal under the Greek penal code, and is the most severe punishment available under the law. It can be imposed for multiple murders, mass murder, treason, terrorism, aircraft hijacking, and aggravated hostage taking. Such life sentence is mandatory for multiple murders and any act of terrorism, including aircraft hijacking. For a single life sentence, an inmate can become eligible for parole after serving 16 years. For those who receive multiple life sentences, parole eligibility can begin after 20 years. Parole is not mandatory, and if rejected, the inmate can reapply every 2 years. There are an average of 25 life sentences per year. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6046554",
"title": "Back-to-back life sentences",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Other countries either allow multiple concurrent life sentences which can be served at the same time (e.g. Russia), or allow multiple consecutive life sentences with a single minimum term (e.g. Australia), thus allowing earlier release of the prisoner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3275619",
"title": "Life imprisonment in England and Wales",
"section": "Section::::Whole life order.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "The whole life order (formerly a whole life tariff) is a court order whereby a prisoner who is being sentenced to life imprisonment is ordered to serve that sentence without any possibility of parole or conditional release. This order may be made in cases of aggravated murders committed by anyone who was aged 21 or above at the time of the crime. The purpose of a whole life order is for a prisoner to be kept in prison until he or she dies with almost no chance of eventual release, although parole can be granted in exceptional circumstances. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197767",
"title": "Radioactive decay",
"section": "Section::::Radioactive decay rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "In principle a half-life, a third-life, or even a (1/)-life, can be used in exactly the same way as half-life; but the mean life and half-life have been adopted as standard times associated with exponential decay.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18878202",
"title": "Greek Junta Trials",
"section": "Section::::The instigators.:Verdict.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "On 28 August 1975 Konstantinos Karamanlis declared: \"When we say life [sentence], we mean life [sentence]\", meaning that the commutation of the sentences from death to life imprisonment would not be followed by further reductions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1e4ujc
|
Why was the center of the Arabian Peninsula ignored by so many conquerors?
|
[
{
"answer": "The other responses in this thread have it basically correct.\n\nThe interior of the Arabian peninsula is not a hospitable place. It is [very dry](_URL_0_), and isn't traversed by any permanent rivers. This affects both the *why* would people conquer it and the *how* would people conquer it.\n\nThe climate meant that the few people who did live in the interior of the peninsula were small groups of nomadic herders. These groups neither posed any significant threat to larger polities, nor had much in the way of cities and wealth worth taking. \n\nEven if people did want to add the peninsula to their domains, there really wasn't any feasible way to march or garrison any significant number of troops across/within the desert. The land isn't fertile enough for an army to forage or for a garrison town to plant gardens. There aren't rivers to drink out of or ship food to garrisons in the interior. \n\nConversely, the coasts of the Arabian peninsula have long supported agriculture, fishing, and mining economies. Coastal population centres were well integrated into East African and south Asian maritime trade networks, and the rise of Islam and its tradition of the Hajj provided major financial, political and religious incentives for empires to control Mecca and Medina.\n\n*Edit:* I see the other comments are now dropping like flies. If there's part of this answer that doesn't meet subreddit standards or needs elaborating, please mods, let me know and I'll do my best. But please keep in mind that this question is a counterfactual one, and it's difficult to provide sources, documentation, and explanation of things that *didn't* happen. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2169964",
"title": "Umayyad conquest of Hispania",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "The Iberian Peninsula was the westernmost tip of the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus and was under the rule of the governor of Ifriqiya. In 720, the caliph even considered abandoning the territory. The conquest was followed by a period of several hundred years during which most of the Iberian peninsula was known as Al-Andalus, dominated by Muslim rulers. Only a handful of new small Christian realms managed to reassert their authority across the faraway mountainous north of the peninsula.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26667",
"title": "Spain",
"section": "Section::::History.:Muslim era and Reconquista.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "In the 8th century, nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered (711–718) by largely Moorish Muslim armies from North Africa. These conquests were part of the expansion of the Umayyad Caliphate. Only a small area in the mountainous north-west of the peninsula managed to resist the initial invasion. Legend has it that Count Julian, the governor of Ceuta, in revenge for the violation of his daughter, Florinda, by King Roderic, invited the Muslims and opened to them the gates of the peninsula.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13584",
"title": "History of the Mediterranean region",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.:Islamic Golden Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "In Anatolia, the Muslim expansion was blocked by the still capable Byzantines with the help of the Bulgarians. The Byzantine provinces of Roman Syria, North Africa, and Sicily, however, could not mount such a resistance, and the Muslim conquerors swept through those regions. At the far west, they crossed the sea taking Visigothic Hispania before being halted in southern France by the Franks. At its greatest extent, the Arab Empire controlled 3/4 of the Mediterranean region, the only other empire besides the Roman Empire to control most of the Mediterranean Sea. Much of North Africa became a peripheral area to the main Muslim centers in the Middle East, but Al Andalus and Morocco soon broke from this distant control and became highly advanced societies in their own right.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18836",
"title": "Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::High Middle Ages.:Crusades.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 849,
"text": "In the 11th century, the Seljuk Turks took over much of the Middle East, occupying Persia during the 1040s, Armenia in the 1060s, and Jerusalem in 1070. In 1071, the Turkish army defeated the Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikert and captured the Byzantine Emperor Romanus IV (r. 1068–71). The Turks were then free to invade Asia Minor, which dealt a dangerous blow to the Byzantine Empire by seizing a large part of its population and its economic heartland. Although the Byzantines regrouped and recovered somewhat, they never fully regained Asia Minor and were often on the defensive. The Turks also had difficulties, losing control of Jerusalem to the Fatimids of Egypt and suffering from a series of internal civil wars. The Byzantines also faced a revived Bulgaria, which in the late 12th and 13th centuries spread throughout the Balkans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4331381",
"title": "Islam in Spain",
"section": "Section::::History.:Conquest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 492,
"text": "It is commonly held that the relative ease with which the Great Muslim armies conquered the Iberian Peninsula was due to the centralized nature of government under the rule of the Visigoths. After the defeat of Roderick, the Visigoth dominion over the Iberian peninsula folded and fell apart from the Northern coast of Spain, and the province of Septimania (an area of France going from the Pyrenees to Provence), all areas previously under the rule of the Visigoths were under Islamic rule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "489526",
"title": "History of the Middle East",
"section": "Section::::Post-classical Middle East.:Pre-Islam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 1092,
"text": "The Arabian peninsula already played a role in the power struggles of the Byzantines and Sasanians. While Byzantium allied itself with the Kingdom of Aksum in the horn of Africa, the Sasanian Empire assisted the Himyarite Kingdom in what is now Yemen (southwest Arabia). Thus the clash between the kingdoms of Aksum and Himyar in 525 displayed a higher power struggle between Byzantium and Persia for control of the Red Sea trade. Territorial wars soon became common, with the Byzantines and Sasanians fighting over upper Mesopotamia and Armenia and key cities that facilitated trade from Arabia, India, and China. Byzantium, as the continuation of the Eastern Roman Empire, continued control of the latter's territories in the Middle East. Since 527, this included Anatolia, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, and Egypt. But in 603 the Sasanians invaded, conquering Damascus and Egypt. It was Emperor Heraclius who was able to repel these invasions, and in 628 he replaced the Sasanian Great King with a more docile one. But the fighting weakened both states, leaving the stage open to a new power.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1918188",
"title": "Galley",
"section": "Section::::History.:Middle Ages.:Eastern Mediterranean.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "In the eastern Mediterranean, the Byzantine Empire struggled with the incursion from invading Muslim Arabs from the 7th century, leading to fierce competition, a buildup of fleet, and war galleys of increasing size. Soon after conquering Egypt and the Levant, the Arab rulers built ships highly similar to Byzantine dromons with the help of local Coptic shipwrights from former Byzantine naval bases. By the 9th century, the struggle between the Byzantines and Arabs had turned the Eastern Mediterranean into a no man's land for merchant activity. In the 820s Crete was captured by Andalusian Muslims displaced by a failed revolt against the Emirate of Cordoba, turning the island into a base for (galley) attacks on Christian shipping until the island was recaptured by the Byzantines in 960.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3ewfin
|
why doesn't everyone keep their money in tax haven accounts?
|
[
{
"answer": "Generally speaking you aren't taxed on your savings, you are taxed on your income. The only advantage to moving it overseas is to prevent a garnishing of your assets. For the most part tax haven accounts are more for companies and corporations. The idea being if it is cheaper to do business in another country and pay import/etc taxes many companies will do it. Not everyone can because it makes things more complicated from an accounting/structure standpoint which has costs and corporate structure associated.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It may simply not work for the vast majority of people--they have taxes withheld on their paychecks. The people who do get involved in off shore banking are usually wealthy/high earners. Further, they usually go about it in a legal way. This costs a lot of money though. CPAs and tax attorneys need to be hired and you'll be looking spending 10's of thousands annually making sure all your ducks are in a row. As you can tell, you'll need to be earning a lot of money to make this worthwhile. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You aren't taxed on the money you have, but the money you make. It's not enough to move money into some account off shore, the whole process is much more elaborate, and geared toward avoiding paying taxes on interest accrued or capital gains; income tax, too, sure, but rich people don't get rich on income tax.\n\nAnd to pull this off, you need a lot of money just to get started, and there are fees involved where you need to make enough money to make it worth while. Also, something like an equity swap, you need a mutual partner who is willing to go in with you to make it work. Poor people don't have friends like that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3786967",
"title": "Child Trust Fund",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "All of the funds in the account are exempt from income tax and capital gains tax, including at maturity. However, the 10% dividend tax payable on franked income (UK share dividends) cannot be reclaimed. The UK government has stated that at age 18 it will be possible to transfer the entire CTF into an ISA to keep the tax-free status of the investment. If the CTF is withdrawn as cash, the tax benefits will be permanently lost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24736677",
"title": "Address fraud",
"section": "Section::::Motives for address fraud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "Some wealthy people will set up their official address at a low rent location in a low tax jurisdiction to avoid paying taxes at a higher rate in the jurisdiction where they actually live. They will continue to be present most of the time in the place where they really wish to live but not pay taxes there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37400820",
"title": "Tax evasion in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Occurrence.:Illegal income.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "U.S. citizens are required to report unlawful gains as income when filing annual tax returns (see e.g., \"James v. United States\") although such income is typically not reported. Suspected lawbreakers, most famously Al Capone, have been successfully prosecuted for tax evasion when there was insufficient evidence to try them for their non-tax related crimes. Reporting illegal income as earned legitimately may be illegal money laundering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39197",
"title": "Corporate haven",
"section": "Section::::Aspects.:Conduits and Sinks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "However, corporate tax havens still retain close connections with traditional tax havens as there are instances where a corporation cannot \"retain\" the untaxed funds in the corporate tax haven, and will instead use the corporate tax haven like a \"conduit\", to route the funds to more explicitly zero-tax, and more secretive traditional tax havens. Google does this with the Netherlands to route EU funds untaxed to Bermuda (i.e. dutch sandwich to avoid EU withholding taxes), and Russian banks do this with Ireland to avoid international sanctions and access capital markets (i.e. Irish Section 110 SPVs).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55815932",
"title": "ABLE account",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Earnings from an ABLE account are exempt from federal income tax, so long as money spent from the account is used for qualified expenses, such as education, housing, transportation, and job training. Some states make contributions to an ABLE account deductible from state income tax.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33565350",
"title": "Republic, Lost",
"section": "Section::::Lobbying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "One almost trivial example relates to tax simplification: A large group of companies and individuals make money from helping their clients negotiate the complexity of the US income tax system—and would lose money if it were simpler. The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) gets most of the information needed to complete an income tax return for most citizens and could send taxpayers a draft return. Taxpayers could either accept the IRS bill as is, submit it with modifications (similar to how consumers challenge charges on a credit card they didn't make), or create a new one completely from scratch. Intuit, the developer of tax preparation software TurboTax, spent over $1.7 million to kill a program like this in California (ReadyReturn).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49114549",
"title": "Form 1099-MISC",
"section": "Section::::Significance for payee.:Withholding and estimated tax payment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "Even those who don't need to pay income tax may still owe some social security or Medicare taxes. So very low-income individuals who are self-employed may need to file returns whereas comparable individuals who work as an employee (whose income is withheld) may not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
28doqs
|
Why do lipophilic molecules diffuse THROUGH membranes?
|
[
{
"answer": "If a molecule is too lypophilic it will get stuck in the membrane and won't come out. Certain membrane dyes used in molecular biology work this way and are used to label the membrane for imaging. A good drug has a balance of hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups.\nIn general, a drugs preference for where to go can be measured by determining its partition coefficient. In pharmacology the partition is usually measured between octanol and water. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11712",
"title": "Facilitated diffusion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "Polar molecules and large ions dissolved in water cannot diffuse freely across the plasma membrane due to the hydrophobic nature of the fatty acid tails of the phospholipids that make up the lipid bilayer. Only small, non-polar molecules, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, can diffuse easily across the membrane. Hence, no nonpolar molecules are transported by proteins in the form of transmembrane channels. These channels are gated, meaning that they open and close, and thus deregulate the flow of ions or small polar molecules across membranes, sometimes against the osmotic gradient. Larger molecules are transported by transmembrane carrier proteins, such as permeases, that change their conformation as the molecules are carried across (e.g. glucose or amino acids). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33051527",
"title": "Cell membrane",
"section": "Section::::Structures.:Lipid bilayer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Lipid bilayers are generally impermeable to ions and polar molecules. The arrangement of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent polar solutes (ex. amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins, and ions) from diffusing across the membrane, but generally allows for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules. This affords the cell the ability to control the movement of these substances via transmembrane protein complexes such as pores, channels and gates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "340440",
"title": "Fluid mosaic model",
"section": "Section::::Historical timeline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "BULLET::::- 1935 – Hugh Davson and James Danielli proposed that lipid membranes are layers composed by proteins and lipids with pore-like structures that allow specific permeability for certain molecules. Then, they suggested a model for the cell membrane, consisting of a lipid layer surrounded by protein layers at both sides of it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21818683",
"title": "Plant lipid transfer proteins",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Ordinarily, most lipids do not spontaneously exit membranes because their hydrophobicity makes them poorly soluble in water. LTPs facilitate the movement of lipids between membranes by binding, and solubilising them. LTPs typically have broad substrate specificity and so can interact with a variety of different lipids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8871770",
"title": "Membrane fluidity",
"section": "Section::::Heterogeneity in membrane physical property.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Discrete lipid domains with differing composition, and thus membrane fluidity, can coexist in model lipid membranes; this can be observed using fluorescence microscopy. The biological analogue, 'lipid raft', is hypothesized to exist in cell membranes and perform biological functions. Also, a narrow annular lipid shell of membrane lipids in contact with integral membrane proteins have low fluidity compared to bulk lipids in biological membranes, as these lipid molecules stay stuck to surface of the protein macromolecules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9927",
"title": "Endomembrane system",
"section": "Section::::History of the concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "The first proposal that the membranes within cells form a single system that exchanges material between its components was by Morré and Mollenhauer in 1974. This proposal was made as a way of explaining how the various lipid membranes are assembled in the cell, with these membranes being assembled through \"lipid flow\" from the sites of lipid synthesis. The idea of lipid flow through a continuous system of membranes and vesicles was an alternative to the various membranes being independent entities that are formed from transport of free lipid components, such as fatty acids and sterols, through the cytosol. Importantly, the transport of lipids through the cytosol and lipid flow through a continuous endomembrane system are not mutually exclusive processes and both may occur in cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27075922",
"title": "Natural computing",
"section": "Section::::Nature as information processing.:Systems biology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Some lipids can self-assemble into biological membranes. A lipid membrane consists of a lipid bilayer in which proteins and other molecules are embedded, being able to travel along this layer. Through lipid bilayers, substances are transported between the inside and outside of membranes to interact with other molecules. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1pm1dg
|
Why does burnt food like milk stick to the bottom of the pot and why is it almost impossible to remove?
|
[
{
"answer": "The bottom of your pan is actually semi porous with grooves, scrapes etc, and when food burns, it's carbonized or caramelized in those pores. Glass may be more forgiving. There's no replacement for scrubbing in my experience, but \"easy off\" oven cleaner has helped a shit ton for my stainless steel pots after the elbow grease runs out, just do it outside and don't get it on your skin. Also soaking for a night or two in soapy water can help. Just arm yourself with the tools for removal, and it shouldn't be too bad:heavy duty scraper, green scrubby, metal scrubby, soap and easy off. Easy off is acid based, but maybe someone out there knows of something enzymatic that works better? Interested in hearing the other responses.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The milk contains proteins and sugar. The excessive heat applied to the pan caused the proteins to coagulate and bind to the source of the heat. The first amount of protein has thermal insulating properties that allow the pan to get even hotter, since less of the heat gets transferred to the water content of the milk. The higher heat of the pan causes the proteins and sugars to brown then burn through partial pyrolysis and caramelisation (Maillard reaction). You can remove the protein without scraping several ways. You can remove the liquid and heat the pan even more, generating huge amounts of smoke and stink until the pyrolysis is complete and the proteins turn to ash. Ash is easy to wash and rince away. Or you can use solvents and heat to dissolve the proteins and sugars. Water is a good solvent. Leaving the pan soaking overnight in water will hydrate most of food particles enough to clean the pan with light scrubbing. You can also alternate soaking, heating, and light scrubbing for several repeated cycles. You can also use an acid like vinegar or home strength hydrogen peroxide to soak for a while. The acid will react and dissolve the protein very well. That's why hydrogen peroxide is used in a lot of soft contact lens cleaners - to dissolve proteins that have built up. Acids are a bit less safe to use around kids, pets, and ignorant adults.\n\nDon't heat milk over excessive heat. Heat slowly and continue to stir constantly, not leaving it unattended for a second. When you're heating milk, what else is so goddamned important that you have to leave it? Pretty much nothing. If someone needs emergency assistance while you're heating milk, turn off the heat source, move the pan off the heat to a safe place to cool, then go administer the aid and call 911. Better yet, microwave the milk in a microwave safe container for one minute. At least it has a timer to shut itself off.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Heat denatures protein. Denatured proteins have lost their shape and will mold to almost any tiny surface. This makes them \"sticky\". On a pan, tiny strands get into all the microscopic crevices and then harden with the heat and localized dehydration in the burn.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The reason is protein. There is a lot of protein in milk. Eggs stick like hell to pans, if you don't use some kind of oil or teflon. Fish sticks like hell if no oil or teflon is used. Meat does too.\n\nVegetables don't stick, as they are mostly carbs. Nor does fat, obviously.\n\nProtein.\n\n*Why* does protein stick? \n\nI'm sure it has to do with protein being a much more complex molecule than fat or carbs. The protein gets into the little scratches and holes in the pan, and then forms chemical bonds. And protein has iron in it. So the whole iron bonding. The stuff that is difficult to get off is not the burned milk that is above the pan. It is the stuff directly on the pan, therefore it MUST be some kind of milk protein to pan bonding.\n\nI can't tell you that it is the C-Fe-O7 (I made that up) part of the protein that bonds with the Fe2-PDQ9 part of the pan. So if anyone knows that part, jump on in.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1381161",
"title": "Clay pot cooking",
"section": "Section::::Cooking techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "The food inside the pot loses little to no moisture because it is surrounded by steam, creating a tender, flavorful dish. Water absorbed within the walls of the pot prevents burning so long as the pot is not allowed to dry completely. Because no oil needs to be added with this cooking technique, food cooked in clay is often lower in fat than food prepared by other methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3672150",
"title": "Vacuum evaporation",
"section": "Section::::Food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "When the process is applied to food and the water is evaporated and removed, the food can be stored for long periods of time without spoiling. It is also used when boiling a substance at normal temperatures would chemically change the consistency of the product, such as egg whites coagulating when attempting to dehydrate the albumen into a powder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5267764",
"title": "Economic importance of bacteria",
"section": "Section::::Harmful bacteria.:Food spoilage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Saprotrophic bacteria attack and decompose organic matter. This characteristic has posed a problem to mankind as food such as stored grains, meat, fish, vegetable and fruits are attacked by saprotrophic bacteria and spoiled. Similarly milk and products are easily contaminated by bacteria and spoiled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Varieties and brands.:Spoilage and fermented milk products.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 219,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 219,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "When raw milk is left standing for a while, it turns \"sour\". This is the result of fermentation, where lactic acid bacteria ferment the lactose in the milk into lactic acid. Prolonged fermentation may render the milk unpleasant to consume. This fermentation process is exploited by the introduction of bacterial cultures (e.g. \"Lactobacilli sp., Streptococcus sp., Leuconostoc sp.\", etc.) to produce a variety of fermented milk products. The reduced pH from lactic acid accumulation denatures proteins and causes the milk to undergo a variety of different transformations in appearance and texture, ranging from an aggregate to smooth consistency. Some of these products include sour cream, yogurt, cheese, buttermilk, viili, kefir, and kumis. \"See Dairy product\" for more information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25620501",
"title": "Milk skin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "When milk is boiled, soluble milk proteins are denatured and then coagulate with milk's fat and form a sticky film across the top of the liquid, which then dries by evaporation. The layer does not need to be discarded and can be consumed, as protein's nutritional value is unaffected by the denaturation process. Milk film is often considered to be desirable and is used in several recipes for various foods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1120742",
"title": "Artichoke",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Salt may be added to the water if boiling artichokes. Covered artichokes, in particular those that have been cut, can turn brown due to the enzymatic browning and chlorophyll oxidation. Placing them in water slightly acidified with vinegar or lemon juice can prevent the discoloration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15477004",
"title": "Milk bag",
"section": "Section::::Drawbacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "On occasion, the top of the bag can turn over while pouring, causing the milk to spill. Spillage can be avoided by cutting a secondary hole at the other side of the bag for air intake, by pinching the top of the bag while pouring, or by using a pitcher with a lid to keep the milk bag in place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1sec5n
|
Was Mao's "Let One Hundred Flowers Bloom" campaign a genuine attempt to engage the intellectual community, or a means to flush out dissidents?
|
[
{
"answer": "I'm cautious to comment, because my main impression of this period of Chinese history was formed through reading Jung Chang's autobiographical/biographical *Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China*, and her later work with Jon Halliday, *Mao: The Unknown Story* (both are available from Amazon). You need to understand that Chang did not have a pleasant experience during the Cultural Revolution, and developed a strong antipathy towards Mao as a result of this. That said, her work in *Wild Swans* is sourced directly from interviews with her mother - it is primary material.\n\nWith that in mind, Chang relays the experience of her mother, then a ranking official in the Communist Party's Chengdu Education administration when she was told of the Hundred Flowers campaign:\n\n > When my mother’s level was told about Mao’s speech soliciting criticism of officers, they were not informed about some other remarks he had made around the same time, about enticing snakes out of their lairs - to uncover anyone who dared to oppose him or his regime.\n\nAfter about a month of the campaign, in June, \"Mao’s speech about ‘enticing snakes out of their lairs’ was relayed down orally to [Chang's] mother’s level.\"\n\nBoth of those extracts are from *Wild Swans*. In *The Unknown Story* Chang and Halliday are direct:\n\n > On 27 February 1957, Mao delivered a four-hour speech to the rubber-stamp Supreme Council announcing that he was inviting criticisms of the Communist Party. The Party, he said, needed to be accountable and ‘under supervision’. He sounded reasonable, criticising Stalin for his ‘excessive’ purges, and giving the impression there were going to be no more of these in China. In this context, he cited an adage, ‘Let a hundred flowers bloom’. \n > Few guessed that Mao was setting a trap, and that he was inviting people to speak out so that he could then use what they said as an excuse to victimise them. Mao’s targets were intellectuals and the educated, the people most likely to speak up.\n\nChang and Halliday then tell us that\n\n > On 12 June, Mao issued a circular to the Party, to be read to all members ‘except unreliable ones’, in which he made it explicit that he had set a trap. He did not want his Party to think he was a liberal – in case they themselves should turn liberal. In this circular, Mao set a quota for victims: between 1 and 10 per cent of ‘intellectuals’ (which meant the better-educated), who numbered some 5 million at the time. As a result, at least 550,000-plus people were labelled as ‘Rightists’. While many had spoken out, some had not said anything against the regime, and were pulled in just to fill Mao’s quota.\n\nIn *Wild Swans*, Chang notes that her mother faced enormous pressure to make the quota of around 5% of intellectual dissenters.\n\nBased on this, especially the timing of Mao's speeches and the selective way in which the circular was distributed, it's fairly apparent that Mao's only goal with the Hundred Flowers campaign was to tease out potential dissidents and then neutralise them. But if I was you, I'd check additional sources besides Chang/Chang and Halliday.\n\nRelating to your second question, Mao made a lot of noise about Marxist/Marxist-Leninist thought - I have a copy of the *Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse-tung* (the famous \"Little Red Book\") somewhere (for a political history course at University), and there were quite a few lines about how Marxism or Marxism-Leninism was the foundation of all their efforts and ideals, as well as numerous references anyone familiar with communism would recognise; this book was studied assiduously in China during his life. Chang notes in Wild Swans that her brother was praised by his commanding officer in the People's Liberation Army for having \"studied Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong Thought conscientiously.\"\n\nChang and Halliday also contend that his disdain for intellectuals was selective:\n\n > To Mao, writers, artists and historians were superfluous. Scientists and technicians, however, were largely exempted from persecution – ‘especially those who have major achievements’, a September 1957 order decreed; these ‘must be absolutely protected’. Scientists who had returned from Europe and America, in particular, were to be ‘neither labelled nor denounced’. Nuclear physicists and rocket scientists were treated extra well. (Throughout Mao’s reign, top scientists were given privileges superior even to those enjoyed by very senior officials.)\n\nBased on this, it seems that Mao reconciled his distaste for intellectuals with Marxism by turning the latter into a doctrine - \"Mao Tse-Tung Thought\" - a sort of sanitised, approved, orthodox intellectualism, where critical thought is reserved for criticism and condemnation of \"class enemies\". There's no conflict there at all - that kind of constrained thinking is the opposite of intellectualism.\n\nHope that provides you with some clarification; like I said, I'm drawing on two sources, and although one is direct primary material, they are both subject to a certain bias. With luck, someone here with a wider background will be able to provide better insight.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "140687",
"title": "Hundred Flowers Campaign",
"section": "Section::::Discussion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "The first part of the phrase is often remembered as \"let a hundred flowers bloom\". It is used to refer to an orchestrated campaign to flush out dissidents by encouraging them to show themselves as critical of the regime, and then subsequently imprison them. This view is supported by authors Clive James and Jung Chang, who posit that the campaign was, from the start, a ruse intended to expose rightists and counter-revolutionaries, and that Mao Zedong persecuted those whose views were different from the party's. For instance, in Jung Chang and Jon Halliday's text \"\", Chang asserts that \"...Mao was setting a trap, and...was inviting people to speak out so that he could use what they said as an excuse to victimise them.\" The prominent critic Harry Wu, who as a teenager was a victim, later wrote that he \"could only assume that Mao never meant what he said, that he was setting a trap for millions...\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "140687",
"title": "Hundred Flowers Campaign",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "The beginning of the Hundred Flowers Movement was marked by a speech titled \"On the Correct Handling of the Contradictions Among the People\", in which Mao displayed open support for the campaign, saying \"Our society cannot back down, it could only progress... criticism of the bureaucracy is pushing the government towards the better.\" The speech, published on February 27, 1957, encouraged people to vent their criticisms as long as they were \"constructive\" (\"among the people\") rather than \"hateful and destructive\" (\"between the enemy and ourselves\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "140687",
"title": "Hundred Flowers Campaign",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 820,
"text": "The campaign made a lasting impact on Mao's ideological perception. Mao, who is known historically to be more ideological and theoretical, less pragmatic and practical, continued to attempt to solidify socialist ideals in future movements, and in the case of the Cultural Revolution, employed more violent means. Another result of the Hundred Flowers Campaign was that it discouraged dissent and made intellectuals reluctant to criticize Mao and his party in the future. The Anti-Rightist Movement, that shortly followed and was possibly caused by the Hundred Flowers Campaign, resulted in the persecution of intellectuals, officials, students, artists and dissidents labeled \"rightists\". The campaign led to a loss of individual rights, especially for any Chinese intellectuals educated in Western centers of learning.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "140687",
"title": "Hundred Flowers Campaign",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "The Hundred Flowers Campaign, also termed the Hundred Flowers Movement (), was a period in 1956 in the People's Republic of China during which the Communist Party of China (CPC) encouraged its citizens to express openly their opinions of the communist regime. Differing views and solutions to national policy were encouraged based on the famous expression by Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong: \"The policy of letting a hundred flowers bloom and a hundred schools of thought contend is designed to promote the flourishing of the arts and the progress of science\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14159669",
"title": "Chinese intellectualism",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "In mid-1956 the Chinese Communist Party felt secure enough to launch the Hundred Flowers Campaign soliciting criticism under the classical \"double hundred\" slogan \"Let a hundred flowers bloom, let the hundred schools of thought contend.\" \"Let a hundred flowers bloom\" applied to the development of the arts, and \"let the hundred schools of thought contend\" encouraged the development of science. The initiation of this campaign was followed by the publication in early 1957 of Mao Zedong's essay \"On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People,\" in which he drew a distinction between \"constructive criticisms among the people\" and \"hateful and destructive criticism between the enemy and ourselves.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "140687",
"title": "Hundred Flowers Campaign",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "The Hundred Flowers Movement was the first of its kind in the history of the People's Republic of China in that the government opened up to ideological criticisms from the general public. Although its true nature has always been questioned by historians, it can be generally concluded that the events that took place alarmed the central communist leadership. The movement also represented a pattern that has emerged from Chinese history wherein free thought is promoted by the government, and then suppressed by it. A similar surge in ideological thought would not occur again until the late 1980s, leading up to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. The latter surge, however, did not receive the same amount of government backing and encouragement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14159669",
"title": "Chinese intellectualism",
"section": "Section::::Post-Mao Zedong development.:\"Ten Changes in Contemporary Chinese Economic Research\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 834,
"text": "In a July 1986 interview with \"Beijing Review\", Wang Meng, the newly appointed minister of culture, held out great expectations for a new Hundred Flowers Campaign that he said \"could arouse the enthusiasm of writers and artists and give them the leeway to display their individual artistic character.\" During the summer of 1986, expectations were raised for a resolution to come out of the Sixth Plenum of the Twelfth National Party Congress Central Committee in September, a resolution that General Secretary Hu Yaobang promised would have a \"profound influence on the development of spiritual civilization.\" The actual document, however, was a watered-down compromise that fell far short of expectations. It became clear that intellectual policy was not a matter to be easily resolved in the short-term but required lengthy debate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
6knat3
|
What is this weapon? Are there any historical records of it's usage?Any famous historical or mythological users?
|
[
{
"answer": "It looks like [a guandao](_URL_0_). According a legend it was invented Guan Yu (~200 AD), but there is no evidence it existed before the 11th century.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, it is real. However, it's not sure if it's practical weapon or just ceremonial weapon like other oversized weapons in history. In the historical book of three kingdoms, Guan Yu used a spear, not this thing. Here is the 500 years old Vietnamese guandao belonged to an emperor:\n\n_URL_1_\n\nIts length is 2.55 meters. Human for scale:\n\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2070064",
"title": "Tonbokiri",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "The weapon, along with and , is listed as one of \"three great spears\" in the \"Kyōhō Meibutsucho\", a listing of famous Koto blades made before the Nanbokucho period and compiled by the Hon'ami family during the Kyōhō era (1716–1735).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58011125",
"title": "Boar Spear with Double Barrel Wheellock Pistol (Metropolitan Museum of Art)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "The Metropolitan Museum of Art holds a 16th-century combination weapon in its armaments collection. The weapon is an 89 3/4 inch boar spear with two wheellock pistol barrels fused to both flat sides of the spear's head; the intent of this design was to provide the wielder with the extra stopping power of two .41 caliber musket balls that could be fired at targets out of the reach of the spear. Some sources posit that such weapons were instead experimental pieces or curiosities. The 9 lb, German-made weapon was donated to the Met's collection by the Roger's fund in 1904.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1016790",
"title": "Glanshammar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Glanshammar may also refer to a mythic weapon wielded by Oden, and later by Thor. The weapon was never clearly described in Norse mythology, but is often referred to in vague, and almost reverential, terms. Oral tradition in Icelandic and Norwegian lineages indicates that the weapon may have resembled a spade or even a small, wide obelisk. It may have been used in conjunction with the more widely known Hammer of Thor, but in and of itself, it was a said to be a formidable implement, and in some ancient traditions, was considered to bestow invincibility upon its master.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26246260",
"title": "Viking halberd",
"section": "Section::::Instances in literature.:Atgeir.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "The \"atgeir\" was a type of bill or halberd, from Old Norse \"geirr\", \"spear\". The \"atgeirr\" is thought to have been a foreign weapon and is rarely mentioned in the sagas, but is famous as the favorite weapon of Gunnar of Hlíðarendi. In Njál's saga this weapon is shown as used mostly for thrusting, but also for hewing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181576",
"title": "Dao (sword)",
"section": "Section::::Yuan, Ming and Qing.:Niuweidao.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "The \"niuweidao\" or \"oxtail saber\" is a heavy bladed weapon with a characteristic flaring tip. It is the archetypal \"Chinese broadsword\" of kung fu movies today. It is first recorded in the early 19th century (the latter half of the Qing dynasty) and only as a civilian weapon: there is no record of it being issued to troops, and it does not appear in any listing of official weaponry. Its appearance in movies and modern literature is thus often anachronistic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11133816",
"title": "Flying guillotine",
"section": "Section::::Etymology, history and description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "The weapon supposedly comes from the time of the Yongzheng Emperor during the Qing Dynasty. There are stories and crude drawings detailing the appearance, but no clear instructions on the use or method of production are known to exist. The consensus is that it resembled a hat or flattened dome with a bladed rim and a long chain or cord attached to the weapon's top.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8796670",
"title": "Swordstaff",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Evidence of the weapon in use at the Battle of Elfsborg (Alvesborg) 1502 is provided by Paul Dolnstein, a landsknecht mercenary who fought in the battle, who refers to the Swedes carrying \"good pikes made from swords\". He also provides sketches of the weapon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
bt9kb0
|
why do flatscreen/lcd monitors display random colours and bizzare shapes or patterns upon being cracked?
|
[
{
"answer": "Like others have mentioned, it can be the glass breaking and causing rainbows (from diffraction). You asked specially about Liquid Crystal Displays, the liquid can flow around when the display is (more accurately, the pixels are) broken.\n\n“Flatscreen” is a physical shape and not a method of building a display - these can have many methods. LCD is one type, the others will have different reasons for weird behaviors when they break.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The LCD panel in your monitor has way more electronics on it than just liquid crystals! The circuits to control the pixels are etched into the panel too, along with millions of wires to connect everything together. These are so small that you don't even notice them.\n\nWhen you crack the display, some of these wires and circuits are broken. Some areas are partially damaged - for instance, the red pixels may be destroyed but the green and blue still work fine. Other areas might have power but no signal - these areas turn random colors because the pixels interpret random noise as commands from the system. \n\nThe way the engineers distribute the wires, pixels, and drivers on the panel influence what happens when it breaks. Usually, pixels and other parts are connected in lines or rectangles. When you crack the panel, the entire line or block fails together.\n\nIt's also possible for the cable that connects the panel to the device to break, or the circuit that translates images into instructions to fail. These are the coolest-looking failures, because the panel is still working, but the data are damaged! When this happens, colors can get all mixed up, weird sparkly fringes can appear around details, different pictures can blend together, and more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25921282",
"title": "List of flat panel display manufacturers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1133,
"text": "Flat panel displays are thin panels of glass or plastic used for electronically displaying text, images, or video. LCD (liquid-crystal displays) and OLED (organic light emitting diode) displays are largely the same, except that an LCD uses a liquid crystal that reacts to an electric current blocking light or allowing it to pass through the panel, where as an OLED display consists of electroluminescent organic materials (that include carbon, thus the name organic) that generate light when a current is passed through the material. LCD and OLED displays are driven using TFT, LTPS, IGZO, and A-SI transistor technologies as their backplane using ITO to supply current to the transistors and in turn to the liquid crystal or electroluminesent material. Segment and passive OLED and LCD displays do not use a backplane but use Indium tin oxide(ITO), a transparent conductive material, to pass current to the electroluminescent material or liquid crystal. In LCD displays, there is an even layer of liquid crystal throughout the panel where as an OLED display has the electroluminescent material only where it is meant to light up. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "919057",
"title": "Field-emission display",
"section": "Section::::Competing technologies.:LCD.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 987,
"text": "Flat-panel LCDs use a bright light source and filter out half of the light with a polarizer, and then filter most of the light to produce red, green and blue (RGB) sources for the sub-pixels. That means that, at best, only 1/6 (or less in practice) of the light being generated at the back of the panel reaches the screen. In most cases the liquid crystal matrix itself then filters out additional light in order to change the brightness of the sub-pixels and produce a color gamut. So in spite of using extremely efficient light sources like cold-cathode fluorescent lamps or high-power white LEDs, the overall efficiency of an LCD is not very high. Although the lighting process used in the FED is less efficient, only lit sub-pixels require power, which means that FEDs are more efficient than LCDs. Sony's 36\" FED prototypes have been shown drawing only 14 W when displaying brightly lit scenes, whereas a conventional LCD screen of similar size would normally draw well over 100 W.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "425408",
"title": "Test Card F",
"section": "Section::::Technical information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "The blocks of colour on the sides would cause the picture to tear horizontally if the sync circuits were not adjusted properly. The closely spaced lines in various parts of the screen allowed focus to be checked from centre to edge; mistuning would also blur the lines. All parts of the greyscale would not be distinct if contrast and brightness (both internal preset settings and user adjustments) were not set correctly. The black bar on a white background revealed ringing and signal reflections. The castellations along the top and bottom also revealed possible setup problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17932",
"title": "Liquid-crystal display",
"section": "Section::::Active-matrix technologies.:Vertical alignment (VA).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "Vertical-alignment displays are a form of LCDs in which the liquid crystals naturally align vertically to the glass substrates. When no voltage is applied, the liquid crystals remain perpendicular to the substrate, creating a black display between crossed polarizers. When voltage is applied, the liquid crystals shift to a tilted position, allowing light to pass through and create a gray-scale display depending on the amount of tilt generated by the electric field. It has a deeper-black background, a higher contrast ratio, a wider viewing angle, and better image quality at extreme temperatures than traditional twisted-nematic displays.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7785134",
"title": "Hebereke's Popoon",
"section": "Section::::Gameplay.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "In each round, pairs of Popoons of various colors (the set of colors varying with the character(s) chosen by the player(s)) descend from the top of the screen. These can be rotated and placed by the player. The immediate aim is to create groups of three blocks of the same color arranged either horizontally, vertically, or diagonally. When such a group is created, the member blobs blow up, disappearing from the screen. Any blobs above the disappearing group then drop to fill any resulting empty space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "429191",
"title": "Gamut",
"section": "Section::::Comparison of various systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "BULLET::::- Liquid crystal display (LCD) screens filter the light emitted by a backlight. The gamut of an LCD screen is therefore limited to the emitted spectrum of the backlight. Typical LCD screens use cold-cathode fluorescent bulbs (CCFLs) for backlights. LCD Screens with certain LED or wide-gamut CCFL backlights yield a more comprehensive gamut than CRTs. However, some LCD technologies vary the color presented by viewing angle. In Plane Switching or Patterned vertical alignment screens have a wider span of colors than Twisted Nematic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42170895",
"title": "Curved screen",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "The screen technologies used to create curved LCD screens are Vertical Alignment, which helps to reduce any white glow that may affect an angular view, and IPS Panels, which are more susceptible to distortion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
llqqh
|
the front page of reddit
|
[
{
"answer": "Your front page is made up of the top topics from the subreddits to which you subscribe. Each person starts with default subreddits to which they subscribe, but subscriptions can be changed simply by hitting subscribe or unsubscribe on the right side of a subreddit topic's screen. \n\nWhen someone refers to the front page in a general sense, they mean the front page of r/all, the \"subreddit\" that includes all subreddits. The link to r/all is at the top left of the screen, next to to \"my reddits\". This is the front page for all reddits and is considered to have the most important front page.\n\nSo, how does reddit decide which posts get listed in the top 25? [Here's a good explanation.](_URL_0_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Your front page is made up of the top topics from the subreddits to which you subscribe. Each person starts with default subreddits to which they subscribe, but subscriptions can be changed simply by hitting subscribe or unsubscribe on the right side of a subreddit topic's screen. \n\nWhen someone refers to the front page in a general sense, they mean the front page of r/all, the \"subreddit\" that includes all subreddits. The link to r/all is at the top left of the screen, next to to \"my reddits\". This is the front page for all reddits and is considered to have the most important front page.\n\nSo, how does reddit decide which posts get listed in the top 25? [Here's a good explanation.](_URL_0_)\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26107862",
"title": "Cornwall Seaway News",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "The front page is often an important community related news story, featuring a large captioned picture. The pages that follow contain an assortment of columnists' contributions, local news stories, community bulletins, and business advertisements. Beyond these pages, the newspaper has several sections including an education page, horoscopes, classified advertisements, a service directory, police files, a community calendar, celebrations/announcements, and obituaries. The final pages are usually titled \"Scuttlebutt,\" and are intended for jokes and community gossip.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Reddit (, stylized in its logo as reddit) is an American social news aggregation, web content rating, and discussion website. Registered members submit content to the site such as links, text posts, and images, which are then voted up or down by other members. Posts are organized by subject into user-created boards called \"subreddits\", which cover a variety of topics including news, science, movies, video games, music, books, fitness, food, and image-sharing. Submissions with more up-votes appear towards the top of their subreddit and, if they receive enough up-votes, ultimately on the site's front page. Despite strict rules prohibiting harassment, Reddit's administrators spend considerable resources on moderating the site.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46791871",
"title": "Timeline of Reddit",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "This is a timeline of Reddit, an entertainment, social networking, and news website where registered community members can submit content, such as text posts or direct links, making it essentially an online bulletin board system.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::Site overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Front-page rank—for both the general front page and for individual subreddits—is determined by a combination of factors, including the age of the submission, positive (\"upvoted\") to negative (\"downvoted\") feedback ratio, and the total vote-count.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::Site overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all does not filter topics. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::Site overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Reddit is a website comprising user-generated content—including photos, videos, links, and text-based posts—and discussions of this content in what is essentially a bulletin board system. The name \"Reddit\" is a play-on-words with the phrase \"read it\", i.e., \"I read it on Reddit.\" , there are approximately 330 million Reddit users, called \"redditors\". The site's content is divided into categories or communities known on-site as \"subreddits\", of which there are more than 138,000 active communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177124",
"title": "Microsoft FrontPage",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "As a \"WYSIWYG\" (What You See Is What You Get) editor, FrontPage is designed to hide the details of pages' HTML code from the user, making it possible for novices to create web pages and web sites easily.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1zyjdo
|
Why do frogs hatch from eggs as tadpoles and not baby frogs?
|
[
{
"answer": " > I was never taught why frogs are born as tadpoles instead of miniature frogs.\n\nSome frogs do have direct development: \n_URL_1_\n\nMany salamanders do too, like many of the Plethodontid salamanders like Redbacks.\n\n > Other than insects such as butterflies\n\nThat \"other than\" covers [most animals](_URL_0_). \n\n > I can't think of any other species that aren't born as tiny versions of the adult form. \n\nTunicates, Cnidarians, marine crustaceans like lobsters and barnacles, many marine fishes (flounders, eels), etc. flukes, echinoderms (starfish, urchins, and sea cucumbers), many salamanders, etc.\n\nHaving a larval stage is typical of animals, not unusual. A tiny animal is unlikely to occupy the same ecological niche as a large animal: it experiences the physical environment differently, it must eat different prey, it will have more and different predators. So why should a tiny individual have the same body plan as a big inidividual? Individuals also must disperse at some point. Sessile organisms like barnacles and tunicates must have motile larvae the same way plants must have motile seeds. Butterflies that are good dispersers as adults but do not grow have larvae that are poor dispersers but very good at growing. \n\nLosing the larval stage tends to happen in organisms that are mobile as adults and those that invest more resources in a few offspring rather than spreading them out over many offspring (these have a direct trade-off, if an animal has many offspring they cannot be large). Having large offspring (relatively speaking) means that a specialised fast-growth-from-tiny-size stage can be skipped. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "812186",
"title": "Poison dart frog",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Adult frogs lay their eggs in moist places, including on leaves, in plants, among exposed roots, and elsewhere. Once the eggs hatch, the adult piggybacks the tadpoles, one at a time, to suitable water, either a pool, or the water gathered in the throat of bromeliads or other plants. The tadpoles remain there until they metamorphose, fed by unfertilized eggs laid at regular intervals by the mother.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39043",
"title": "African clawed frog",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "They reproduce by fertilizing eggs outside of the female's body (see frog reproduction). Of the seven amplexus modes (positions in which frogs mate), these frogs are found breeding in inguinal amplexus, where the male clasps the female in front of the female's back legs and squeezes until eggs come out. The eggs are then fertilized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19653966",
"title": "Spawn (biology)",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Amphibious animals.:Frogs and toads.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 109,
"end_character": 1599,
"text": "While the length of the egg stage depends on the species and environmental conditions, aquatic eggs generally hatch within one week. Unlike salamanders and newts, frogs and toads never become sexually mature while still in their larval stage. The hatched eggs continue life as tadpoles, which typically have oval bodies and long, vertically flattened tails. As a general rule, free living larvae are fully aquatic. They lack eyelids and have a cartilaginous skeleton, a lateral line system, gills for respiration (external gills at first, internal gills later) and tails with dorsal and ventral folds of skin for swimming. They quickly develop a gill pouch that covers the gills and the front legs; the lungs are also developed at an early stage as an accessory breathing organ. Some species which go through the metamorphosis inside the egg and hatch to small frogs never develop gills; instead there are specialised areas of skin that take care of respiration. Tadpoles also lack true teeth, but the jaws in most species usually have two elongate, parallel rows of small keratinized structures called keradonts in the upper jaw while the lower jaw has three rows of keradonts, surrounded by a horny beak, but the number of rows can be lower (sometimes zero), or much higher. Tadpoles feed on algae, including diatoms filtered from the water through the gills. Some species are carnivorous at the tadpole stage, eating insects, smaller tadpoles, and fish. Cannibalism has been observed among tadpoles. Early developers who gain legs may be eaten by the others, so the late bloomers survive longer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38498",
"title": "Frog",
"section": "Section::::Life history.:Parental care.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 1343,
"text": "Some frogs protect their offspring inside their own bodies. Both male and female pouched frogs (\"Assa darlingtoni\") guard their eggs, which are laid on the ground. When the eggs hatch, the male lubricates his body with the jelly surrounding them and immerses himself in the egg mass. The tadpoles wriggle into skin pouches on his side, where they develop until they metamorphose into juvenile frogs. The female gastric-brooding frog (\"Rheobatrachus\" sp.) from Australia, now probably extinct, swallows her fertilized eggs, which then develop inside her stomach. She ceases to feed and stops secreting stomach acid. The tadpoles rely on the yolks of the eggs for nourishment. After six or seven weeks, they are ready for metamorphosis. The mother regurgitates the tiny frogs, which hop away from her mouth. The female Darwin's frog (\"Rhinoderma darwinii\") from Chile lays up to 40 eggs on the ground, where they are guarded by the male. When the tadpoles are about to hatch, they are engulfed by the male, which carries them around inside his much-enlarged vocal sac. Here they are immersed in a frothy, viscous liquid that contains some nourishment to supplement what they obtain from the yolks of the eggs. They remain in the sac for seven to ten weeks before undergoing metamorphosis, after which they move into the male's mouth and emerge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1811237",
"title": "Midwife toad",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "Midwife toads (\"Alytes\") are a genus of frogs in the family Alytidae (formerly Discoglossidae), and are found in most of Europe and northwestern Africa. Characteristic of these toad-like frogs is their parental care: the males carry a string of fertilised eggs on their back, hence the name \"midwife\". The female expels a strand of eggs, which the male fertilizes externally. He then wraps them around his legs to protect them from predators in the water. When they are ready to hatch, the male wades into shallow water, where he allows the tadpoles to leap out of their eggs. Five separate species of midwife toad are found across western Europe, northern Africa, and Majorca.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19653966",
"title": "Spawn (biology)",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Amphibious animals.:Frogs and toads.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
"end_character": 1105,
"text": "Female frogs and toads usually spawn gelatinous egg masses containing thousands of eggs in water. Different species lay eggs in distinctive and identifiable ways. For example, the American toad lays long strings of eggs. The eggs are highly vulnerable to predation, so frogs have evolved many techniques to ensure the survival of the next generation. In colder areas the embryo is black to absorb more heat from the sun, which speeds up development. Most commonly, this involves synchronous reproduction. Many individuals will breed at the same time, overwhelming the actions of predators; the majority of the offspring will still die due to predation, but there is a greater chance some will survive. Another way in which some species avoid predators and the pathogens eggs are exposed to in ponds is to lay eggs on leaves above the pond, with a gelatinous coating designed to retain moisture. In these species the tadpoles drop into the water upon hatching. The eggs of some species laid out of water can detect vibrations of nearby predatory wasps or snakes, and will hatch early to avoid being eaten.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4001755",
"title": "Breviceps",
"section": "Section::::Ecology and behaviour.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "These frogs emerge after rain to feed on small arthropods such as ants, termites, beetles, moths, woodlice, amphipods, juvenile millipedes, and caterpillars. Reproduction also occurs during the rainy season. Choruses start immediately after heavy rains, although this may be delayed in colder areas. Eggs are laid in chambers below the surface of the soil, rocks, or fallen logs. After hatching, the movements of the tadpoles make the remains of the egg mass into a froth. The female remains close to the egg chamber until the tadpoles are fully developed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
1158g8
|
Why do popping noises sound the way they do?
|
[
{
"answer": "There has been a [related investigation.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The way certain things \"sound\" is known as timbre (pronounced \"tamber\"). The timbre of an instrument is determined by the which frequencies the instrument has. For example, plucking a properly tuned violin's A string produces a sound with a base frequency of 440 Hz. On top of this frequency are multiples of this fundamental (880 Hz, 1760 Hz, etc...). You can greatly vary the timbre of this sound by altering the \"amounts\" of the frequencies (such as instead of using 3 units of 440 Hz, 2 units of 880, 1 of 1760, you can use 5 units of 440, 1 of 880, and 3 of 1760. Each of these combinations will produce a vastly different sound).\n\nApplying this to popping sounds: Popping sounds also have a certain timbre to them that involve a multitude of frequencies, with their own certain combinations of these frequencies that produce the popping sound.\n\nAdditional notes: You can play around with sound and frequency by installing Audacity. [Vi Hart](_URL_0_) has a video that demonstrates how this is done (as well as having a very good lesson about sounds).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "483289",
"title": "Humming",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "A hum is a sound made by producing a wordless tone with the mouth opened or closed, forcing the sound to emerge from the nose. To hum is to produce such a sound, often with a melody. It is also associated with thoughtful absorption, 'hmm'.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18303771",
"title": "Pharyngeal teeth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Many popular aquarium fish such as goldfish and loaches have these structures. Members of the genus \"Botia\" such as clown loaches are known to make distinctive clicking sounds when they grind their pharyngeal teeth. Grunts (family Haemulidae) are so called because of the sound they make when they grind them. Molas are said to be able to produce sound by grinding their long, claw-like pharyngeal teeth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1869241",
"title": "Pop filter",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "Popping sounds occur particularly in the pronunciation of aspirated plosives (such as the first 'p' in the English word \"popping\"). Pop filters are designed to attenuate the energy of the plosive, which otherwise might exceed the design input capacity of the microphone, leading to clipping. In effect, the plosive's discrete envelope of sound energy is intercepted and broken up by the strands of the filter material before it can impinge on, and momentarily distort, the sensitive diaphragm of the microphone. Pop filters do not appreciably affect hissing sounds or sibilance, for which de-essing is used.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202352",
"title": "Sibilant",
"section": "Section::::Sibilant types.:Tongue shape.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "BULLET::::- Hollow (e.g. ): This hollow accepts a large volume of air that is forced through a typically narrow aperture that directs a high-velocity jet of air against the teeth, which results in a high-pitched, piercing \"hissing\" sound. Because of the prominence of these sounds, they are the most common and most stable of sibilants cross-linguistically. They occur in English, where they are denoted with a letter \"s\" or \"z\", as in \"soon\" or \"zone\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30707",
"title": "Temporomandibular joint dysfunction",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.:Mechanisms of main signs and symptoms.:Joint noises.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1595,
"text": "Noises from the TMJs are a symptom of dysfunction of these joints. The sounds commonly produced by TMD are usually described as a \"click\" or a \"pop\" when a single sound is heard and as \"crepitation\" or \"crepitus\" when there are multiple, grating, rough sounds. Most joint sounds are due to internal derangement of the joint, which is a term used to describe instability or abnormal position of the articular disc. Clicking often accompanies either jaw opening or closing, and usually occurs towards the end of the movement. The noise indicates that the articular disc has suddenly moved to and from a temporarily displaced position (disk displacement with reduction) to allow completion of a phase of movement of the mandible. If the disc displaces and does not reduce (move back into position) this may be associated with locking. Clicking alone is not diagnostic of TMD since it is present in high proportion of the general population, mostly in people who have no pain. Crepitus often indicates arthritic changes in the joint, and may occur at any time during mandibular movement, especially lateral movements. Perforation of the disc may also cause crepitus. Due to the proximity of the TMJ to the ear canal, joint noises are perceived to be much louder to the individual than to others. Often people with TMD are surprised that what sounds to them like very loud noises cannot be heard at all by others next to them. However, it is occasionally possible for loud joint noises to be easily heard by others in some cases and this can be a source of embarrassment e.g. when eating in company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7816",
"title": "Click consonant",
"section": "Section::::Notation and sound description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "BULLET::::- With the alveolar clicks, written with an exclamation mark, , the tip of the tongue is pulled down abruptly and forcefully from the roof of the mouth, sometimes using a lot of jaw motion, and making a hollow \"pop!\" like a cork being pulled from an empty bottle. These sounds can be quite loud.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34990664",
"title": "Rattle (percussion beater)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Rattles may be the primary cause of the instrument's sound, as in the maraca, or they may modify its sound, as in the sizzle cymbal, or they may be used for both purposes depending on how it is played, as in the tambourine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
3af32j
|
how do squatters take over homes.
|
[
{
"answer": "You can evict them of course, but usually they just sneak in when nobody is there, in the middle of the night for example. \n\nAnd sometimes it is even legal and the squater has actual legal right, saying that you cant just evict them yourself, but first have to go to court. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The reasoning behind it is, for the most part, to prevent honest people from being made homeless because of dishonest landlords/owners. In theory, you could get a gullible person to pay rent without a lease, and the moment the cash is in hand, the landlord calls the cops and gets them hauled out. Without a paper trail saying that they were truly tenants and paid rent, there's nothing stopping this from happening. Honest people are now homeless and without the money they paid because they were taken advantage of. So instead of dragging them out by the ankles, the cops leave it to the courts to decide who is actually in the right, and then act accordingly.\n\nIt's not a perfect system, and people certainly take advantage, but not as many as you would think. There's a reason these stories are newsworthy, they're the exception. It's also not true that you can't do anything about it, you can. You just have to file with the courts to get them removed. It's inconvenient and you're unlikely to get your filing fee back as they're probably just going to disappear, but it works. \n\nTL;DR - The justice system would rather have an honest property owner be inconvenienced than for an honest tenant to be homeless because they were taken advantage of.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1178306",
"title": "Bundle of rights",
"section": "Section::::Applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Squatting presents a non-economic way for people to transfer parts of the bundle of rights. Depending on the applicable laws, a squatter can acquire property rights by simply occupying vacant land for an extended period of time. Areas with high concentrations of squatters are sometimes thought of as \"informal settlements.\" Squatters face great instability due to their lack of title and governmental efforts at \"blight removal\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244056",
"title": "Free party",
"section": "Section::::Squat party.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Squat 'eviction' parties occur when the squatters residing in a building have been given a final date for their eviction, and as a final act of resistance organise a large scale party and protest in order to try to withstand the police or bailiffs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28685",
"title": "Squatting",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:United Kingdom.:Scotland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 112,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "Squatting is a criminal offence in Scotland, punishable by a fine or even imprisonment, see Trespass (Scotland) Act 1865. The owner or lawful occupier of the property has the right to evict squatters without notice or applying to the court for an eviction order, although when evicting, they cannot do anything that would break the law, for example, use violence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31869291",
"title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
"section": "Section::::History.:1970s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Local Authority Housing Departments, facing rising court costs when evicting squatters, often resorted to taking out the plumbing and toilets in empty buildings to deter squatters. In the 1970s, some housing councils would attempt to deter squatters from entering their properties by \"gutting\" the houses, rendering them uninhabitable by pouring concrete into toilets and sinks or smashing the ceilings and staircases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28685",
"title": "Squatting",
"section": "Section::::Europe.:Netherlands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Squatting gained a legal basis in the Netherlands in 1971, when the Supreme Court ruled that the concept of domestic peace (\"huisvrede\") (which means a house cannot be entered without the permission of the current user) also applied to squatters. Since then, the owner of the building must take the squatters to court (or take illegal action) in order to evict them. A law was passed in 1994 which made it illegal to squat a building which was empty for less than one year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38387206",
"title": "Owen Hill",
"section": "Section::::Legislative career.:2018 Legislative Session.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "During the fall of 2017 the Gazette had multiple articles about \"squatting\" (a practice that involves people moving into vacant homes and claiming residency there despite not owning or renting the property). Hill cosponsored the \"Protecting Homeowners And Deployed Military Personnel Act\", which made it easier for homeowners to remove squatters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31869291",
"title": "Squatting in England and Wales",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Squatting in England and Wales usually refers to a person who is not the owner, taking possession of land or an empty house. People squat for a variety of reasons which include needing a home, protest, \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
] | null |
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