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akwq6y | If space is ever so expanding, do we seen new/farther everyday we take photos of the outer edges of space? Do we add on to “observable universe” everyday too? | [
{
"answer": "Kind of.\n\nSo, the universe as a whole does not have a boundary. The expansion of the universe is not the expansion of the *edge* of the universe, but rather everything getting further away from everything else - it's not expanding at the edges, it's expanding *everywhere*. In fact, the evidence is somewhat pointing towards the universe being *infinite* in size.\n\nHowever, the *observable* universe *is* expanding. The edge of the observable universe represents the distance that light could have travelled since the beginning of the universe. The universe is about 13 billion years old, so the light from the edge of the observable universe is the light that has travelled about 13 billion light years (although the universe has continued to expand since the light was emitted and the images we see from this light are from objects that are now much more than 13 billion light years away).\n\nThis means that the images we see of the very edge of the observable universe are images of the very very young universe. This is the universe before there was any structure - it was a dense, uniform, opaque fluid of energy and particles. Because the universe was opaque, we can't actually see the light from the very beginning of the universe. Instead, we see the light that was emitted just as the universe got cool enough and sparse enough to become transparent. This light forms a background behind everything else in the universe. It has been redshifted over billions of years into microwave frequencies, which is why we call it the Cosmic Microwave Background, or the CMB.\n\nSo, as the observable universe expands, what happens is that the CMB radiation that we see is from slightly further away. What's happening is that the CMB radiation was emitted *everywhere*, but because it takes time for light to reach us, every second we're seeing CMB radiation that was emitted from gas about a light-second more distant than what we received the previous second.\n\nThis means we are technically seeing new parts of the observable universe, but it's not like we're seeing new galaxies turn up - we're just seeing slightly more distant \"slices\" of the CMB. The CMB is far too uniform over time for us to really see any change over decades though.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Adding on, although we're seeing more of the observable universe as time passes, there will be a point where we are going to be seeing more and more of \"nothing\". \n\nIt is expected that much of what we can see today (anything outside our supercluster) will one day retreat out of our observable universe because those parts of the universe will be expanding faster than light speed away from us. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "27319586",
"title": "Artificial structures visible from space",
"section": "Section::::Popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Trivia questions and urban legends often claim certain constructed objects or effects are so large they are visible from outer space. For example, a giant beaver dam in Canada was described as \"so large it is visible from outer space.\" \"Field and Stream\", a Canadian Magazine, wrote, \"How big? Big enough to be visible ... from outer space.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5985207",
"title": "Expansion of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Topology of expanding space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 995,
"text": "Regardless of the overall shape of the universe, the question of what the universe is expanding into is one which does not require an answer according to the theories which describe the expansion; the way we define space in our universe in no way requires additional exterior space into which it can expand since an expansion of an infinite expanse can happen without changing the infinite extent of the expanse. All that is certain is that the manifold of space in which we live simply has the property that the distances between objects are getting larger as time goes on. This only implies the simple observational consequences associated with the metric expansion explored below. No \"outside\" or embedding in hyperspace is required for an expansion to occur. The visualizations often seen of the universe growing as a bubble into nothingness are misleading in that respect. There is no reason to believe there is anything \"outside\" of the expanding universe into which the universe expands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18287714",
"title": "Big Picture (magazine)",
"section": "Section::::Recent issues and topics.:22: Space Biology (June 2015).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Big Picture’s first 21 issues have been firmly grounded on planet Earth. Now we’d like to look at an even bigger picture – the universe. Space biology looks at life in space from several perspectives: how it began, where it might be, and the effects of space as a rather extreme habitat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31880",
"title": "Universe",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Size and regions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "The size of the Universe is somewhat difficult to define. According to the general theory of relativity, far regions of space may never interact with ours even in the lifetime of the Universe due to the finite speed of light and the ongoing expansion of space. For example, radio messages sent from Earth may never reach some regions of space, even if the Universe were to exist forever: space may expand faster than light can traverse it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5985207",
"title": "Expansion of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Understanding the expansion of the universe.:Topology of expanding space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Even if the overall spatial extent is infinite and thus the universe cannot get any \"larger\", we still say that space is expanding because, locally, the characteristic distance between objects is increasing. As an infinite space grows, it remains infinite.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31880",
"title": "Universe",
"section": "Section::::Physical properties.:Size and regions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Because we cannot observe space beyond the edge of the observable universe, it is unknown whether the size of the Universe in its totality is finite or infinite. Estimates for the total size of the universe, if finite, reach as high as formula_1 megaparsecs, implied by one resolution of the No-Boundary Proposal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4759382",
"title": "Cosmic View",
"section": "Section::::Summary and themes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "In his introduction Boeke says that the essay originated with a school project at his Werkplaats Children's Community in Bilthoven. The idea was to draw pictures that would include ever-growing areas of space, to show how the earth is located in an unfathomably enormous universe. Boeke then writes that he realized the reverse process—creating graphics of tinier and tinier bits of reality—would reveal a world \"as full of marvels\" as the most gigantic reaches of outer space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
35p93t | Any good non-Roman sources on the Roman military? Talking about tactics, formations, appearance, etc. | [
{
"answer": "In Plutarch's *Life of Crassus*, the author likely uses a first hand Mesopotamian source to describe the battle of Carrhae. This is because his account goes into great detail about the battle and aftermath in Ktesiphon. ",
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},
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"answer": "Polybius is a Greek writing to Greeks trying to explain how Rome came to dominate the Mediterranean. His 6th book is an analysis of Rome's political and military practices systematically including the structure of the legion, recruitment, provisioning, layout of the camp etc.\n\nThe rest of it is a military history starting with the 1st Punic War down to 146, the year in which Rome destroyed Carthage and Corinth.\n\nPolybius lived for years in Rome as a hostage in the house of Paulus and apparently traveled widely in Italy and was friends with Scipio Aemelianus, so he probably has a fairly good idea what he's talking about.\n\n[LacusCurtius](_URL_0_) has the Loeb translation up.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30855309",
"title": "Roman infantry tactics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "The focus below is primarily on Roman tactics – the \"how\" of their approach to battle, and how it stacked up against a variety of opponents over time. It does not attempt detailed coverage of things like army structure or equipment. Various battles are summarized to illustrate Roman methods with links to detailed articles on individual encounters. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30855309",
"title": "Roman infantry tactics",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 242,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 242,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "BULLET::::- Ross Cowan, \"Roman Battle Tactics, 109 BC - AD 313\". Osprey, Oxford 2007. — The book clearly explains and illustrates the mechanics of how Roman commanders — at every level — drew up and committed their different types of troops for open-field battles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30855309",
"title": "Roman infantry tactics",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 245,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 245,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "BULLET::::- — One volume history covering the Roman Army, which was the biggest most important part of its military. Goldsworthy covers the early Republican days down to the final Imperial era demise, tracing changes in tactics, equipment, strategy, organization etc. He notes the details of the military system such as training and battlefield tactics, as well as bigger picture strategy, and changes that impacted Roman arms. He assesses what made the Romans effective, and ineffective in each of the various eras.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "753281",
"title": "Roman army",
"section": "Section::::Historical overview.:Palaiologan Byzantine army (1261–1453).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 230,
"text": "This article contains the summaries of the detailed linked articles on the historical phases above, Readers seeking discussion of the Roman army by theme, rather than by chronological phase, should consult the following articles:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8049650",
"title": "Strategy of the Roman military",
"section": "Section::::Infantry tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "Roman armies of the Republic and early empire worked from a set tactical 'handbook', a military tradition of deploying forces that provided for few variations and was ignored or elaborated only on occasion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "291940",
"title": "Legio III Augusta",
"section": "Section::::Tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "The tactics of the Roman military depended on the discipline of the soldiers, the equipment of the soldiers, the formation of the cohorts of a legion on the battlefield, and the terrain of the battlefield.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "867792",
"title": "Battle of the Allia",
"section": "Section::::Size of the belligerent forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 2201,
"text": "The figures given by ancient historians for the size of the Roman army engaged in the battle are unlikely, as they are notorious for exaggerating figures. Contrary to Berresford Ellis's assertion, at the time, the Romans had only two legions. The number of legions was not increased to four until later in the century, during the Second Samnite War (326-304 BC), and the first record of four legions is for 311 BC. At that point, the Romans also had additional military commanders: the praetor, who had been instituted in 366 BC, and the proconsul, who was a consul who received an extension of his term of military command (the practice started in 327 BC). The first historical hints of the consuls leading more than one legion were for 299 BC (during a war with the Etruscans) and 297 BC, during the Third Samnite War (298-290 BC). The first explicit mention of a consul with two legions is for 296 BC. In 295 BC, the Romans deployed six legions; four led by the two consuls, fought a coalition of four peoples (the Samnites, Etruscans, Umbrians and Senone Gauls) in the huge Battle of Sentinum. Two were led to another front by a praetor. The battle of the Allia took place in the early days of Rome, when the Roman army was much smaller and its command structure was much simpler. The Roman army had only two legions, and the two consuls were the sole military commanders; each headed one legion. In addition, the battle occurred in the early history of the Roman Republic, while the consulship alternated with years when Rome was headed by military tribunes with consular power, often referred to as consular tribunes, instead, and 390 BC was a year in which six consular tribunes were in charge. Therefore, Berresford Ellis's assertion that the Romans at the battle of Allia had four legions, two for each of the two consuls, is doubly anachronistic. Moreover, the Roman legions had 6,000 men in only a few exceptional occasions. In the early days of the Republic, when the Battle of the Allia took place, it was 4,200. Later, it was 5,200 when at full strength (the legions were often under-strength). Accordingly, the Roman force at the battle was likely substantially smaller than estimated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3hpgv2 | why do cuts get white when you take a shower? | [
{
"answer": "It's a bodily fluid that mostly contains white blood cells and vitamins. It's to help speed the process of tissue/skin repair.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Osmosis is happening here. The shower water is hypotonic compared to the fluids in your tissues. Certain cellular solutes therefore leave your tissues and rinse away with the water. This leaves the tissue with less color than before. Also, since the shower water is hypotonic, water will enter the tissues that are exposed to it, thus swelling the de-colorized tissues.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "147699",
"title": "Laundry",
"section": "Section::::Common problems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Another common problem is color bleeding. For example, washing a red shirt with white underwear can result in pink underwear. Often only similar colors are washed together to avoid this problem, which is lessened by cold water and repeated washings. Sometimes this blending of colors is seen as a selling point, as with madras cloth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2770318",
"title": "Training pants",
"section": "Section::::Disposable pants.:Wetness indicator.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "This is a set of designs printed in special ink that evaporates from liquid that is absorbed from the wearer-specifically urine, near the area that is most commonly urinated. When the child does wet the pants, these designs smudge to the point that they fade completely to white. This is intended to be an incentive for staying dry and a way to discourage wetting, and to identify when he or she is wet. Such a feature was first sold to consumers in 2000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11501704",
"title": "Textile bleaching",
"section": "Section::::Bleaching.:Optical whiteners.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "After scouring and bleaching, optical brightening agents (OBAs) are applied to make the textile material appear a more brilliant white. These OBAs are available in different tints such as blue, violet and red.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3655000",
"title": "Doneness",
"section": "Section::::Drying.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Well done cuts, in addition to being brown, are drier and contain few or no juices. Note that searing (cooking the exterior at a high temperature) in no way \"seals in the juices\" – water evaporates at the same or higher rates as unseared meat. Searing does play an important role, however, in browning, a crucial contributor to flavor and texture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38970302",
"title": "Wet processing engineering",
"section": "Section::::Pre-treatment.:Bleaching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Bleaching improves whiteness by removing natural coloration and remaining trace impurities from the cotton; the degree of bleaching necessary is determined by the required whiteness and absorbency. Being a vegetable fiber, cotton will be bleached using an oxidizing agent, such as dilute sodium hypochlorite or dilute hydrogen peroxide. If the fabric is to be dyed a deep shade, then lower levels of bleaching are acceptable. However, for white bed sheets and medical applications, the highest levels of whiteness and absorbency are essential.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3140268",
"title": "Bluing (fabric)",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "White fabrics acquire a slight color cast after use (usually grey or yellow). Since blue and yellow are complementary colors in the subtractive color model of color perception, adding a trace of blue color to the slightly off-white color of these fabrics makes them appear whiter. Laundry detergents may also use fluorescing agents to similar effect. Many white fabrics are blued during manufacturing. Bluing is not permanent and rinses out over time leaving dingy or yellowed whites. A commercial bluing product allows the consumer to add the bluing back into the fabric to restore whiteness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18802785",
"title": "Finishing (textiles)",
"section": "Section::::Finishing of cotton.:Purification and preliminary processes.:Bleaching.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Bleaching improves whiteness by removing natural coloration and remaining trace impurities from the cotton; the degree of bleaching necessary is determined by the required whiteness and absorbency. Cotton being a vegetable fibre will be bleached using an oxidizing agent, such as dilute sodium hypochlorite or dilute hydrogen peroxide. If the fabric is to be dyed a deep shade, then lower levels of bleaching are acceptable, for example. However, for white bed sheetings and medical applications, the highest levels of whiteness and absorbency are essential.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
31iard | why are firefighters called to the scene of an emergency even if there is no fire involved? | [
{
"answer": "You could almost call firefighters the engineers of the emergency services. They carry ladders, lifting gear, cutting tools, winches etc...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They offer safety, rescue, and medical needs. \n\nMany departments train their firefighters to be firefighter/EMTs, so they are a valuable asset to have at a scene that could possibly need any of the three things mentioned above.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also in addition to the high level EMT training, at least in Finland, all fire trucks carry the same first response equipment that ambulances do, so they can start giving first aid possibly sooner than ambulance can be dispatched.\n\nPlus in many cases (e.g. car accidents) fire can start as a secondary incident, so having the people and equipment on site already is a good idea.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Fire or not, they are always outfitted with a vast array of tools which can be useful in any emergency situation.\n\nThey are also trained in minor field medical treatment.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "as everyone else has already stated, they are trained in the Basic Life Support response. If they are close to it, they go and provide care to ones in need while an ambulance is still on its way. Also they are trained for rescue situations. Car accident for example where a patient needs to be extricated, they have the tools and knowledge to get that person out so the ambulance can then take the patient away. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "146303",
"title": "Firefighter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Firefighters work closely with other emergency response agencies such as the police and emergency medical service. A firefighter's role may overlap with both. Fire investigators or fire marshals investigate the cause of a fire. If the fire was caused by arson or negligence, their work will overlap with law enforcement. Firefighters also frequently provide some degree of emergency medical service, in addition to working with full-time paramedics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "855608",
"title": "Firefighting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "Firefighting is the act of attempting to prevent the spread of and extinguish significant unwanted fires in buildings, vehicles, woodlands, etc. A firefighter suppresses fires to protect lives, property and the environment. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5722819",
"title": "Wildfire suppression",
"section": "Section::::Tactics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Operating in the U.S. within the context of fire use, firefighters may only suppress fire that has become uncontrollable. Conversely, fires or portions of a fire that have previously been engaged by firefighters may be treated as fire use situation and be left to burn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1632386",
"title": "Fire station",
"section": "Section::::Facilities.:Unoccupied stations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "Some fire stations are not regularly occupied, with the firefighting carried out by volunteer or retained firefighters. In this case, the firefighters are summoned to the fire station by siren, radio or pagers, where they will then deploy the fire engine. These fire stations may still have office space for the firefighters, a library of reference and other materials, and a \"trophy wall\" or case where the firefighters display memorabilia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146303",
"title": "Firefighter",
"section": "Section::::Occupational health and safety.:Direct risks.:Violence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Firefighters have sometimes been assaulted by members of the public while responding to calls. These kinds of attacks can cause firefighters to fear for their safety and may cause them to not have full focus on the situation which could result in injury to their selves or the patient.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "15850580",
"title": "Index of firefighting articles",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "Firefighting is the act of extinguishing destructive fires. A firefighter fights these fires with the intent to prevent destruction of life, property and the environment. Firefighting is a highly technical profession, which requires years of training and education in order to become proficient. A fire can rapidly spread and endanger many lives; however, with modern firefighting techniques, catastrophe can usually be avoided. To help prevent fires from starting, a firefighter's duties include public education and conducting fire inspections. Because firefighters are often the first responders to victims in critical conditions, firefighters often also provide basic life support as emergency medical technicians or advanced life support as licensed paramedics. Firefighters make up one of the major emergency services, along with the emergency medical service, the police, and many others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40429999",
"title": "Beaver Creek Fire",
"section": "Section::::Effects of the 2013 fire.:Impact on humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1574,
"text": "Many areas had to be evacuated due to the fire as it approached populated areas. The fire was also fought by thousands of firefighters and some groups of specialized firefighters, called hot shotshot shots. Hot Shots are groups brought into an area to contain a wildfire. Eight helicopters with buckets attached filled with water mixed with a retardant were used to contain the fire, along with helitankers, helicopters with a built in container for water. Humans fighting the fire tried to contain the fire and prevent \"slop over\", where the fire crosses a control line to an unburned side. Lines of trees were cleared or \"sawcut\" so the fire had less fuel and by digging a fire line down into the mineral soil to stop the fire whenever it reached the ditch helped with containment. Firefighters even used the paths of past wildfires to help slow down the Beaver Creek Fire. They accomplished this by forcing the fire towards the boundary of the past fire and into a natural barrier. The last resort to stop the fire implemented by humans was the Governor of Idaho, Butch Otter, who declared the Beaver Creek Fire a state disaster area on August 14. This allowed the area more financial funds to fight the fire and more human resources, such as firefighters. The fire entered the Wood River Valley through Greenhorn Gulch, a canyon halfway between the towns of Hailey and Ketchum, and to some extent, through Deer Creek Canyon, just to the south. One home in Greenhorn was destroyed by the fire but more than 25 other homes were saved by the efforts of firefighting crews.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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]
| null |
201rqg | How much of an impact did the ending of slavery have for the emancipation of women and women's rights in general? (USA) | [
{
"answer": "Well, the idea of giving black *men* the vote gained traction pretty quickly; this was actually used to try and suppress the Women's Rights groups by telling them that they should be quiet and wait as this was \"the Negro's hour.\" Elizabeth Cady Stanton took a somewhat dim view of this idea on the grounds that black *women* were going to be denied their rights, and expressed her views on the matter in [a letter to the National Anti-Slavery Standard](_URL_0_) (scroll down; it's the third document in the PDF.) ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "40318770",
"title": "Abolitionism in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Abolitionist women.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "Even as women played crucial roles in abolitionism, the movement simultaneously helped stimulate women's-rights efforts. A full 10 years before the Seneca Falls Convention, the Grimkés were travelling and lecturing about their experiences with slavery. As Gerda Lerner says, the Grimkés understood their actions' great impact. \"In working for the liberation of the slave,\" Lerner writes, \"Sarah and Angelina Grimké found the key to their own liberation. And the consciousness of the significance of their actions was clearly before them. 'We Abolition Women are turning the world upside down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "40318770",
"title": "Abolitionism in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Abolitionist women.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
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"end_paragraph_id": 61,
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"text": "Other luminaries such as Lydia Maria Child, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, Harriet Tubman, and Sojourner Truth all played important roles in abolitionism. But even beyond these well-known women, abolitionism maintained impressive support from white middle-class and some black women. It was these women who performed many of the logistical, day-to-day tasks that made the movement successful. They raised money, wrote and distributed propaganda pieces, drafted and signed petitions, and lobbied the legislatures. Though abolitionism sowed the seeds of the women's rights movement, most women became involved in abolitionism because of a gendered religious worldview, and the idea that they had feminine, moral responsibilities. For example, in the winter of 1831–1832, three women's petitions were written to the Virginia legislature, advocating emancipation of the state's slave population. The only precedent for such action was Catharine Beecher's organization of a petition protesting the Cherokee removal. The Virginia petitions, while the first of their kind, were by no means the last. Similar backing increased leading up to the Civil War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "469034",
"title": "History of women in the United States",
"section": "Section::::1800–1900.:Abolitionists.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 1764,
"text": "Women continued to be active in reform movements in the second half of the 19th century. In 1851, former slave Sojourner Truth gave a famous speech, called \"Ain't I a Woman?,\" at the Women's Convention in Akron, Ohio. In this speech she condemned the attitude that women were too weak to have equal rights with men, noting the hardships she herself had endured as a slave. In 1852, Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote the abolitionist book \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\". Begun as a serial for the Washington anti-slavery weekly, the National Era, the book focused public interest on the issue of slavery, and was deeply controversial for its strong anti-slavery stance at the time it was written. In writing the book, Stowe drew on her personal experience: she was familiar with slavery, the antislavery movement, and the Underground Railroad because Kentucky, across the Ohio River from Cincinnati, Ohio, where Stowe had lived, was a slave state. \"Uncle Tom's Cabin\" was a best-seller, selling 10,000 copies in the United States in its first week; 300,000 in the first year; and in Great Britain, 1.5 million copies in one year. Following publication of the book, Harriet Beecher Stowe became a celebrity, speaking against slavery both in America and Europe. She wrote \"A Key to Uncle Tom's Cabin\" in 1853, extensively documenting the realities on which the book was based, to refute critics who tried to argue that it was inauthentic; and published a second anti-slavery novel, \"Dred\", in 1856. Later, when she visited President Abraham Lincoln, the family's oral tradition states that he greeted her as \"the little lady who made this big war.\" Campaigners for other social changes, such as Caroline Norton who campaigned for women's rights, respected and drew upon Stowe's work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27954",
"title": "Susan B. Anthony",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Early social activism.:Anti-slavery activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 1001,
"text": "The relatively small women's rights movement of that time was closely associated with the American Anti-Slavery Society led by William Lloyd Garrison. The women's movement depended heavily on abolitionist resources, with its articles published in their newspapers and some of its funding provided by abolitionists. There was tension, however, between leaders of the women's movement and male abolitionists who, although supporters of increased women's rights, believed that a vigorous campaign for women's rights would interfere with the campaign against slavery. In 1860, when Anthony sheltered a woman who had fled an abusive husband, Garrison insisted that the woman give up the child she had brought with her, pointing out that the law gave husbands complete control of children. Anthony reminded Garrison that he helped slaves escape to Canada in violation of the law and said, \"Well, the law which gives the father ownership of the children is just as wicked and I'll break it just as quickly.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22225645",
"title": "National Women's Rights Convention",
"section": "Section::::Civil War and beyond.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "The coming of the American Civil War ended the annual National Women's Rights Convention and focused women's activism on the issue of emancipation for slaves. The New York state legislature repealed in 1862 much of the gain women had made in 1860. Susan B. Anthony was \"sick at heart\" but could not convince women activists to hold another convention focusing solely on women's rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1075686",
"title": "United States labor law",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 3789,
"text": "Throughout the early 20th century, states enacted labor rights to advance social and economic progress. But despite the Clayton Act, and abuses of employers documented by the \"Commission on Industrial Relations\" from 1915, the Supreme Court struck labor rights down as unconstitutional, leaving management powers virtually unaccountable. In this \"Lochner era\", the Courts held that employers could force workers to not belong to labor unions, that a minimum wage for women and children was void, that states could not ban employment agencies charging fees for work, that workers could not strike in solidarity with colleagues of other firms, and even that the federal government could not ban child labor. It also imprisoned socialist activists, who opposed the fighting in World War One, meaning that Eugene Debs ran as the Socialist Party's candidate for President in 1920 from prison. Critically, the courts held state and federal attempts to create social security to be unconstitutional. Because they were unable to save in safe public pensions, millions of people bought shares in corporations, causing massive growth in the stock market. Because the Supreme Court precluded regulation for good information on what people were buying, corporate promoters tricked people into paying more than stocks were really worth. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 wiped out millions of people's savings. Business lost investment and fired millions of workers. Unemployed people had less to spend with businesses. Business fired more people. There was a downward spiral into the Great Depression. This led to the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt for President in 1932, who promised a \"New Deal\". Government committed to create full employment and a system of social and economic rights enshrined in federal law. But despite the Democratic Party's overwhelming electoral victory, the Supreme Court continued to strike down legislation, particularly the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933, which regulated enterprise in an attempt to ensure fair wages and prevent unfair competition. Finally, after Roosevelt's second overwhelming victory in 1936, and Roosevelt's threat to create more judicial positions if his laws were not upheld, one Supreme Court judge switched positions. In \"West Coast Hotel Co v Parrish\" the Supreme Court found that minimum wage legislation was constitutional, letting the New Deal go on. In labor law, the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 guaranteed every employee the right to unionize, collectively bargain for fair wages, and take collective action, including in solidarity with employees of other firms. The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 created the right to a minimum wage, and time-and-a-half overtime pay if employers asked people to work over 40 hours a week. The Social Security Act of 1935 gave everyone the right to a basic pension and to receive insurance if they were unemployed, while the Securities Act of 1933 and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 ensured buyers of securities on the stock market had good information. The Davis–Bacon Act of 1931 and Walsh–Healey Public Contracts Act of 1936 required that in federal government contracts, all employers would pay their workers fair wages, beyond the minimum, at prevailing local rates. To reach full employment and out of depression, the Emergency Relief Appropriation Act of 1935 enabled the federal government to spend huge sums of money on building and creating jobs. This accelerated as World War II began. In 1944, his health waning, Roosevelt urged Congress to work towards a \"Second Bill of Rights\" through legislative action, because \"unless there is security here at home there cannot be lasting peace in the world\" and \"we shall have yielded to the spirit of Fascism here at home.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7533345",
"title": "Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade",
"section": "Section::::Mission and support.:Related societies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "Women had increasingly played a larger role in the anti-slavery movement but could not take a direct role in Parliament. They sometimes formed their own anti-slavery societies. Many women were horrified that, under slavery, women and children were taken away from their families. In 1824, Elizabeth Heyrick published a pamphlet titled \"Immediate not Gradual Abolition\", in which she urged the immediate emancipation of slaves in the British colonies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
4ownwr | how does a strong currency affect a country's economy? | [
{
"answer": "a strong currency makes your exports comparably more expensive. and vice versa. \n\nConsider this. The canadian dollar is currently in the shitter. but canadians have not all had their annual salary adjusted. So their product cost in canadian dollars is the same. But to americans, due to the favorable exchange, you can buy a canadian product for less US dollars.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "180311",
"title": "Exchange rate",
"section": "Section::::Factors affecting the change of exchange rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "BULLET::::7. Economic strength of a country: In general, high economic growth rates are not conducive to the local currency's performance in the foreign exchange market in the short term, but in the long run, they strongly support the strong momentum of the local currency.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1374830",
"title": "Strong dollar policy",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Strong vs. weak dollar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "A strong currency helps domestic importers as their currency buys more, benefits foreign exporters as their exports garner more, hurts domestic exporters as there are not as many foreign buyers, and harms foreign importers as they cannot buy as much. A weak currency does the opposite of the above. They are summed up in the tables below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55551",
"title": "Tariff",
"section": "Section::::Arguments in favor of tariffs.:Protection against dumping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "BULLET::::- Monetary dumping: a currency undergoes a devaluation when monetary authorities decide to intervene in the foreign exchange market to lower the value of the currency against other currencies. This makes local products more competitive and imported products more expensive (Marshall Lerner Condition), increasing exports and decreasing imports, and thus improving the trade balance. Countries with a weak currency cause trade imbalances: they have large external surpluses while their competitors have large deficits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42132249",
"title": "Asset price channel",
"section": "Section::::Exchange rate channel.:Exchange rate effects on exports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 870,
"text": "Mainly in export-oriented economies, the effects of monetary policy transmission operating through exchange rate effects has been a major concern of their central banks. Expansionary monetary policy will cause the interest rate in a country to fall and deposits that are denominated in that domestic currency become less attractive than their foreign equivalents. As a result, the value of domestic deposits will fall compared to foreign deposits, which leads to a depreciation of the domestic currency. Since the value of the domestic currency is falling compared to foreign currencies, it now takes more of the domestic currency to buy a same amount in the foreign currency, and thus a depreciation of a currency is denoted be ↑e. As a result of this depreciation (domestic products become cheaper), net exports will rise and consequently so will aggregate spending. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1769925",
"title": "Commodity currency",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Positive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "A currency that is naturally tied to a country’s major commodities can be beneficial if global demand for a commodity increases, naturally strengthening the value of the currency. As seen in Figure 1, as the demand for a commodity shifts out (higher demand) the price increases to p’. This increased demand also is likely to increase GDP, as more exports take place as demonstrated by the equation for GDP below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "180311",
"title": "Exchange rate",
"section": "Section::::Manipulation of exchange rates.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "Other nations, including Iceland, Japan, Brazil, and so on have had a policy of maintaining a low value of their currencies in the hope of reducing the cost of exports and thus bolstering their economies. A lower exchange rate lowers the price of a country's goods for consumers in other countries, but raises the price of imported goods and services for consumers in the low value currency country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29018342",
"title": "Currency war",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Reasons for intentional devaluation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1153,
"text": "However, when a country is suffering from high unemployment or wishes to pursue a policy of export-led growth, a lower exchange rate can be seen as advantageous. From the early 1980s the International Monetary Fund (IMF) has proposed devaluation as a potential solution for developing nations that are consistently spending more on imports than they earn on exports. A lower value for the home currency will raise the price for imports while making exports cheaper. This tends to encourage more domestic production, which raises employment and gross domestic product (GDP). Such a positive impact is not guaranteed however, due for example to effects from the Marshall–Lerner condition. Devaluation can be seen as an attractive solution to unemployment when other options, like increased public spending, are ruled out due to high public debt, or when a country has a balance of payments deficit which a devaluation would help correct. A reason for preferring devaluation common among emerging economies is that maintaining a relatively low exchange rate helps them build up foreign exchange reserves, which can protect against future financial crises.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1vf4s2 | What did the ancient people that built Stonehenge do when it was cloudy on the Solstices? | [
{
"answer": "Since this involves a time before written records, this may not be the best subreddit for the question. At the same time, since it is involves a time before written records, it is largely impossible to answer your question. I can say that with my experience involving winter in Britain and Ireland, the average day was indeed cloudy, but the sun more often than not appeared on the horizon as it rose, shined for a few minutes, and then rose into the bank of clouds. Stonehenge only \"works\" at the solstices at the moments of sunrise and sunset; not later when the sun is behind the clouds. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3151382",
"title": "Archaeoastronomy and Stonehenge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "The prehistoric monument of Stonehenge has long been studied for its possible connections with ancient astronomy. The site is aligned in the direction of the sunrise of the summer solstice and the sunset of the winter solstice. Archaeoastronomers have made a range of further claims about the site's connection to astronomy, its meaning, and its use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3151382",
"title": "Archaeoastronomy and Stonehenge",
"section": "Section::::Later theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 437,
"text": "Although Stonehenge has become an increasingly popular destination during the summer solstice, with 20,000 people visiting in 2005, scholars have developed growing evidence that indicates prehistoric people visited the site only during the winter solstice. The only megalithic monuments in the British Isles to contain a clear, compelling solar alignment are Newgrange and Maeshowe, which both famously face the winter solstice sunrise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8521120",
"title": "Winter solstice",
"section": "Section::::History and cultural significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "This is attested by physical remains in the layouts of late Neolithic and Bronze Age archaeological sites, such as Stonehenge in England and Newgrange in Ireland. The primary axes of both of these monuments seem to have been carefully aligned on a sight-line pointing to the winter solstice sunrise (Newgrange) and the winter solstice sunset (Stonehenge). It is significant that at Stonehenge the Great Trilithon was oriented outwards from the middle of the monument, i.e. its smooth flat face was turned towards the midwinter Sun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1859275",
"title": "Petroform",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 364,
"text": "The first stone phase at Stonehenge has been dated to about 2600 BCE. Stone circles are still being made in Wales as part of the Eisteddfod movement, which incorporates this among other elements from the Druidic revival. Desert kites were used possibly by 3000 BCE; they fell out of use in the Neolithic as prey populations declined and the human population rose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10346280",
"title": "The Sun in culture",
"section": "Section::::Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Many ancient monuments were constructed with the passing of the solar year in mind; for example, stone megaliths accurately mark the summer or winter solstice (some of the most prominent megaliths are in Nabta Playa, Egypt; Mnajdra, Malta and at Stonehenge, England); Newgrange, a prehistoric human-built mount in Ireland, was designed to detect the winter solstice; the pyramid of El Castillo at Chichén Itzá in Mexico is designed to cast shadows in the shape of serpents climbing the pyramid at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60313219",
"title": "Terence Meaden",
"section": "Section::::Hieros Gamos.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "At Stonehenge on midsummer morning, a phallic shadow is cast from the \"Heel\" stone; this penetrates to the centre of the monument where its tip touches the \"Goddess\" stone. In his book, \"Stonehenge, Avebury and Drombeg Stone Circle Deciphered\", he wrote that most stone circles were planned as sunrise fertility monuments, and so need to be studied at sunrise.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3151382",
"title": "Archaeoastronomy and Stonehenge",
"section": "Section::::Early work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Early efforts to date Stonehenge exploited changes in astronomical declinations and led to efforts such as H. Broome’s 1864 theory that the monument was built in 977 BC, when the star Sirius would have risen over Stonehenge's Avenue. Sir Norman Lockyer proposed a date of 1680 BC based entirely on an incorrect sunrise azimuth for the Avenue, aligning it on a nearby Ordnance Survey trig point, a modern feature. Petrie preferred a later date of 730 AD. The relevant stones were leaning considerably during his survey, and it was not considered accurate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2t7biz | if pets require protective collars to allow wounds to heal properly how do wild animals repair wounds? | [
{
"answer": "They die a lot of the time from those types of wounds. The cones are generally used so the animal won't pick out the sutures. Any animal in the wild would probably die from a wound that needed sutures anyway.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The simple answer is that they don't. They die, but enough of the population survives to not go extinct. The thing is, you're only concerned about your own pet's life, so you protect it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3716026",
"title": "Elizabethan collar",
"section": "Section::::Medical reasons for Elizabethan collars.:Injury or surgery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "In order to prevent the animal from irritating a wound or removing stitches while self grooming, Elizabethan collars are used to either prevent the animal from licking/biting its wound or using its limbs to scratch their head or ears. The collar can also be used to restrain animals with self destructing habits, either from poor training or mental illness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18722789",
"title": "Wound licking",
"section": "Section::::Licking of people's wounds by animals.:Risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "As with the licking of wounds by people, wound licking by animals carries a risk of infection. Allowing pet cats to lick open wounds can cause cellulitis and sepsis due to bacterial infections. Licking of open wounds by dogs could transmit rabies if the dog is infected with rabies, although this is said by the CDC to be rare. Dog saliva has been reported to complicate the healing of ulcers. Another issue is the possibility of an allergy to proteins in the saliva of pets, such as Fel d 1 in cat allergy and Can f 1 in dog allergy. Cases of serious infection following the licking of wounds by pets include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1145788",
"title": "Extension cord",
"section": "Section::::Hazards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Animals may chew on the wires and remove some of the insulation. In any of these cases if the damage is not noticed and the cord is not repaired or taken out of service, the damage can lead to arcing or a short circuit between the wires, which can ignite nearby materials. The exposed wires of an extension cord with damaged insulation can also present a shock hazard to people and animals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "636017",
"title": "Cairn Terrier",
"section": "Section::::Grooming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Cairn terriers shed very little, but should always be hand stripped. Using scissors or shears can ruin the dog's rugged outer coat after one grooming. Hand stripping involves pulling the old dead hair out by the roots. If done incorrectly, this can cause discomfort to the dog, causing it to shy away from future hand stripping. Removing the dead hair in this manner allows new growth to come in. This new growth helps protect the dog from water and dirt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3248252",
"title": "Collar (animal)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "Collars can be dangerous for pets that live in crates or which might get stuck in tree branches and that is why safety collars have been developed. There is a particular type of safety collar which is intended for both dogs and cats. Breakaway collars are especially designed to prevent the pet from choking or getting stuck because of their collar. They feature a clever design that releases quickly when a small amount of pressure is applied, such as the cat hanging from a tree branch. The clasp will release, which quickly gets the pet out of a possibly desperate situation. However, it is recommended that pets have their collar removed before sleeping in a wired crate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1524906",
"title": "Animal bite",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Antibiotics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Antibiotics to prevent infection are recommended for dog and cat bites of the hand, and human bites if they are more than superficial. They are also recommended in those who have poor immune function. Evidence for antibiotics to prevent infection in bites in other areas is not clear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18722789",
"title": "Wound licking",
"section": "Section::::In animals.:Risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Wound licking is beneficial but too much licking can be harmful. An Elizabethan collar may be used on pet animals to prevent them from biting an injury or excessively licking it, which can cause a lick granuloma. These lesions are often infected by pathogenic bacteria such as \"Staphylococcus intermedius\". Horses that lick wounds may become infected by a stomach parasite, \"Habronema\", a type of nematode worm. The rabies virus may be transmitted between animals, such as the kudu antelopes by wound licking of wounds with residual infectious saliva.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
aebvc0 | Why did the crafters of the various U.S. State Constitutions (except Nebraska) choose to create bicameral legislatures? Was this simply a matter of mirroring the federal Congress, or was there a prevailing political theory that suggested bicameralism was better than unicameralism? | [
{
"answer": "Political Science major, worked in my college's Political Science Department performing spatial analyses of electoral data for professors studying electoral malapportionment. \n\nOriginally state legislatures were designed similarly to the federal legislature, with lower house districts based on population while upper house district based on territory. For example, the 1901 Alabama State Constitution divided the Alabama state legislature as such:\n\n > The legislature consisted of 106 representatives and 35 senators for the State's 67 counties and senatorial districts; each county was entitled to at least one representative; each senate district could have only one member; and no county could be divided between two senate districts. \n\nThis setup eventually led to some pretty egregious cases of malapportionment as rural areas depopulated and legislators proved unwilling to update electoral boundaries. In Alabama the most populous district was 41 times larger than the smallest district. These levels of malapportionment were by no means unique to Alabama, in an October 14, 1964 report to his constituents, Congressman Morris K. Udall of Arizona wrote of other outrageous cases of electoral malapportionment in other state legislatures:\n\n > \\*\\* In Connecticut one House district has 191 people; another, 81,000. \n > \n > \\*\\* In New Hampshire one township with 3 (three!) people has a state assemblyman; this is the same representation given another district with 3,244. The vote of a resident of the first town is 108,000 percent more powerful at the Capitol. \n > \n > \\*\\* In Utah the smallest district has 164 people, the largest 32,280 (28 times the population of the other). But each has one vote in the House. \n > \n > \\*\\* In Vermont the smallest district has 36 people, the largest 35,000 a ratio of almost 1,000 to 1. \n > \n > \\*\\* In California the 14,000 people of one small county have one State senator to speak for them; so do the 6 million people of Los Angeles County. It takes 430 Los Angelenos to muster the same influence on a State senator that one person wields in the smaller district. \n > \n > \\*\\* In Idaho the smallest Senate district has 951 people; the largest, 93,400. \n > \n > \\*\\* Nevada's 17 State senators represent as many as 127,000 or as few as 568 people -- a ratio of 224 to 1. \n > \n > \\*\\* In Arizona, Mohave County's 7,700 people have two State senators; so do the 663,000 people of Maricopa. The ratio is 86 to 1 \n\nThese state legislative districts were eventually overturned by the Supreme Court in *Reynolds v. Sims, 1964*. Following the principal of \"one man one vote\" previously established under *Baker v. Carr, 1962*, the Court found that \"legislators represent people, not trees or acres,\" and deemed that state legislative districts should be constructed to be roughly equal in population. \n\n[_URL_0_](_URL_0_) (Reynolds v. Sims, 1964)\n\n[_URL_1_](_URL_1_) (Rep. Morris K. Udall's report to his constituents)\n\n[_URL_3_](_URL_3_) (1901 Alabama State Constitution, Article IX concerns representation of the state legislature)\n\n[_URL_2_](_URL_2_) (A nice little summary of Reynolds v. Sims, 1964)\n\nEdit: Deleted the second instance of ‘egregious’",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "31756",
"title": "United States Congress",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
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"text": "Government powerlessness led to the Convention of 1787 which proposed a revised constitution with a two–chamber or \"bicameral\" congress. Smaller states argued for equal representation for each state. The two-chamber structure had functioned well in state governments. A compromise plan, the Connecticut Compromise, was adopted with representatives chosen by population (benefiting larger states) and exactly two senators chosen by state governments (benefiting smaller states). The ratified constitution created a federal structure with two overlapping power centers so that each citizen \"as an individual\" was subjected to both the power of state government and the national government. To protect against abuse of power, each branch of government—executive, legislative, and judicial—had a separate sphere of authority and could check other branches according to the principle of the separation of powers. Furthermore, there were checks and balances \"within\" the legislature since there were two separate chambers. The new government became active in 1789.\n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "24909346",
"title": "United States Senate",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "The drafters of the Constitution created a bicameral Congress primarily as a compromise between those who felt that each state, since it was sovereign, should be equally represented, and those who felt the legislature must directly represent the people, as the House of Commons did in Great Britain. This idea of having one chamber represent people equally, while the other gives equal representation to states regardless of population, was known as the Connecticut Compromise. There was also a desire to have two Houses that could act as an internal check on each other. One was intended to be a \"People's House\" directly elected by the people, and with short terms obliging the representatives to remain close to their constituents. The other was intended to represent the states to such extent as they retained their sovereignty except for the powers expressly delegated to the national government. The Senate was thus not designed to serve the people of the United States equally. The Constitution provides that the approval of both chambers is necessary for the passage of legislation.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "204299",
"title": "Bicameralism",
"section": "Section::::Subnational entities.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
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"end_paragraph_id": 75,
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"text": "During the 1930s, the Legislature of the State of Nebraska was reduced from bicameral to unicameral with the 43 members that once comprised that state's Senate. One of the arguments used to sell the idea at the time to Nebraska voters was that by adopting a unicameral system, the perceived evils of the \"conference committee\" process would be eliminated.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "24425155",
"title": "Comparison of U.S. state governments",
"section": "Section::::Legislative.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"end_paragraph_id": 5,
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"text": "With the exception of Nebraska, all American state legislatures are bicameral, meaning there is one legislative body separated into two units. Nebraska eliminated its lower house with a referendum during the 1936 elections. Also, some systems, such as New York's, have two legislative bodies while never technically referring to them in the state constitution as a single body. These dual systems are generally considered bicameral.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "30859221",
"title": "History of the United States Congress",
"section": "Section::::The formative era (1780s–1820s).:The Constitution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
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"text": "In May 1787, a Convention met in the Philadelphia State House for the purpose of resolving problems with the Articles of Confederation. Instead, the Articles were scrapped entirely and a new Constitution was drafted. All states agreed to send delegates, except Rhode Island. One of the most divisive issues facing the Convention was the way which structure of Congress would be defined. The practice of having \"two-house\" bicameral legislatures (bicameral from the Latin \"camera\" meaning chamber) was well established in state governments by 1787. Edmund Randolph's Virginia Plan argued for a bicameral Congress; the lower house would be elected directly by the people whereas the upper house would be elected by the lower house. The plan attracted support of delegates from large states as it called for representation based on population. The smaller states, however, favored the New Jersey Plan, which had a unicameral Congress with equal representation for the states. Arguments between federalists and anti-federalists about congressional scope, power, role, and authority happened before ratification of the Constitution and continue, to varying extents, to the present day. Generally, the Constitution gave more powers to the federal government, such as regulating interstate commerce , managing foreign affairs and the military, and establishing a national currency. These were seen as essential for the success of the new nation and to resolve the disputes that had arisen under the Articles of Confederation, but the states retained sovereignty over other affairs. Eventually, a \"compromise\", known as the Connecticut Compromise or the Great Compromise was settled; one house of Congress would provide proportional representation, whereas the other would provide equal representation.To preserve further the authority of the states, the compromise proposed that state legislatures, rather than the people, would elect senators.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "204299",
"title": "Bicameralism",
"section": "Section::::Rationale for bicameralism and criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
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"text": "There have been a number of rationales put forward in favour of bicameralism. Federal states have often adopted it, and the solution remains popular when regional differences or sensitivities require more explicit representation, with the second chamber representing the constituent states. Nevertheless, the older justification for second chambers—providing opportunities for second thoughts about legislation—has survived. For states considering a different constitutional arrangement that may shift power to new groupings, bicameralism could be demanded by currently hegemonic groups who would otherwise prevent any structural shift (e.g. military dictatorships, aristocracies).\n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "48940",
"title": "State legislature (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"text": "Nebraska originally had a bicameral legislature like the other states, but the lower house was abolished following a referendum, effective with the 1936 elections. The remaining unicameral (one-chamber) legislature is called the Nebraska Legislature, but its members continue to be called senators.\n",
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| null |
oh9rw | If time is nonexistent for a photon, how can it be emitted from something and never be absorbed? | [
{
"answer": "Time isn't quite non-existent for a photon. A photon simply has no perspective in the first place; there's no way of putting a coordinate system on the Universe to describe things as a photon would see it. In Science-Speak, there's no such thing as a photon's frame of reference, because there's no such thing as a frame in which a photon can be at rest. Photons are only able to exist in other observers' reference frames and in those frames, photons travel at a definitive speed, the speed of light.",
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"wikipedia_id": "396320",
"title": "Matrix mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical development.:Conservation of energy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 89,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "The process of emission and absorption of photons seemed to demand that the conservation of energy will hold at best on average. If a wave containing exactly one photon passes over some atoms, and one of them absorbs it, that atom needs to tell the others that they can't absorb the photon anymore. But if the atoms are far apart, any signal cannot reach the other atoms in time, and they might end up absorbing the same photon anyway and dissipating the energy to the environment. When the signal reached them, the other atoms would have to somehow recall that energy. This paradox led Bohr, Kramers and Slater to abandon exact conservation of energy. Heisenberg's formalism, when extended to include the electromagnetic field, was obviously going to sidestep this problem, a hint that the interpretation of the theory will involve wavefunction collapse.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1551135",
"title": "Absorption band",
"section": "Section::::Electromagnetic transitions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "When a photon is absorbed, the electromagnetic field of the photon disappears as it initiates a change in the state of the system that absorbs the photon. Energy, momentum, angular momentum, magnetic dipole moment and electric dipole moment are transported from the photon to the system. Because there are conservation laws, that have to be satisfied, the transition has to meet a series of constraints. This results in a series of selection rules. It is not possible to make any transition that lies within the energy or frequency range that is observed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "16133434",
"title": "Optically active additive",
"section": "Section::::Physics of optically active technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "If a single photon approaches an atom which is receptive to it, the photon can be absorbed by the atom in a manner very similar to a radio wave being picked up by an aerial. At the moment of absorption the photon ceases to exist and the total energy contained within the atom increases. This increase in energy is usually described symbolically by saying that one of the outermost electrons \"jumps\" to a \"higher orbit\". This new atomic configuration is unstable and the tendency is for the electron to fall back to its lower orbit or energy level, emitting a new photon as it goes. The entire process may take no more than 1 x 10 seconds. The result is much the same as with reflective colour, but because of the process of absorption and emission, the substance emits a glow. According to Planck, the energy of each photon is given by multiplying its frequency in cycles per second by a constant (Planck’s constant, 6.626 x 10 erg seconds). It follows that the wavelength of a photon emitted from a luminescent system is directly related to the difference between the energy of the two atomic levels involved.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "218628",
"title": "Chemical potential",
"section": "Section::::Systems of particles.:Sub-nuclear particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In the case of photons, photons are bosons and can very easily and rapidly appear or disappear. Therefore, the chemical potential of photons is always and everywhere zero. The reason is, if the chemical potential somewhere was higher than zero, photons would spontaneously disappear from that area until the chemical potential went back to zero; likewise if the chemical potential somewhere was less than zero, photons would spontaneously appear until the chemical potential went back to zero. Since this process occurs extremely rapidly (at least, it occurs rapidly in the presence of dense charged matter), it is safe to assume that the photon chemical potential is never different from zero.\n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "47515861",
"title": "NA63 experiment",
"section": "Section::::Emission times.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 891,
"text": "An electron entering an electric field is accelerated, and therefore must lose part of its energy in the form of a photon via the Bremsstrahlung effect - the process by which a charged particle emits electromagnetic radiation when being decelerated upon passing an atom, for instance in a solid material. By exploiting the relativistic phenomena of time dilatation and length contraction, the NA63 experiment has shown that this process of photon emission is not instantaneous, but rather, takes time. Because the process takes time, the photon production can be influenced experimentally. For non-relativistic particles this time is so short that investigations are very difficult, if not excluded. But for the relativistic particles used by NA63, their time is ‘slowed’ by a factor of about half a million due to the relativistic effect of time dilatation, making investigations possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "24065",
"title": "Population inversion",
"section": "Section::::The interaction of light with matter.:Absorption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "If light (photons) of frequency ν passes through the group of atoms, there is a possibility of the light being absorbed by electrons which are in the ground state, which will cause them to be excited to the higher energy state. The rate of absorption is proportional to the radiation intensity of the light, and also to the number of atoms currently in the ground state, \"N\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "84400",
"title": "Zero-point energy",
"section": "Section::::Quantum field theory.:The quantum electrodynamic vacuum.:Necessity of the vacuum field in QED.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "In a process in which a photon is annihilated (absorbed), we can think of the photon as making a transition into the vacuum state. Similarly, when a photon is created (emitted), it is occasionally useful to imagine that the photon has made a transition out of the vacuum state. An atom, for instance, can be considered to be \"dressed\" by emission and reabsorption of \"virtual photons\" from the vacuum. The vacuum state energy described by is infinite. We can make the replacement:\n",
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| null |
3yivel | Why have infirmaries at Auschwitz? | [
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"answer": "The same question was asked a few months ago where I answered the question.\n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": "I'm a licensed tour guide at the Sachsenhausen Concentration Camp Memorial. Not Auschwitz, but the general policy for the infirmaries was the same throughout the concentration camp system.\n\nThe purpose of the concentration camp infirmaries was multi-faceted, and they were used both as sites of convalescence and healing, as well as murder and torture.\n\nThe SS doctors who ran the infirmaries were often poorly trained or not very well qualified (a notable exception being Mengele, who was a respected figure in his field at the time), and in any case had little to no interest in treating ill or weak prisoners. The day-to-day seeing of patients was actually done by prisoner-doctors. In many concentration camps (certainly in Sachsenhausen), for a number of years it was strictly forbidden for any prisoner who had actually been a doctor to work in the infirmary as a prisoner-doctor. This meant that the \"prisoner-doctors\" often had absolutely no clue what they were doing. In Sachsenhausen and throughout the concentration camp system that policy would change in 1942, when the war was turning against Germany and the slave labour was suddenly not as disposable as it had once been. From 1942, prisoners who had been doctors before their lives in the camp (often much more competent and qualified than the SS doctors) were allowed to work in the infirmary. They had to tread a fine line between helping prisoners to survive and not being seen by the SS to be too soft on other prisoners, keeping them in the infirmary when they could be out doing slave labour. Even after 1942, the level of medical care was nowhere near adequate and the shelves were rarely stocked with enough essential medicines. Furthermore, in the second half of the war the camps became increasingly overcrowded, compounding the problems of unhygienic conditions, malnutrition and debilitating slave labour which caused the disease and illness within the camp to ratchet upwards. At this point, even if the SS had wanted to give proper medical care to all the prisoners (which they did not), it would have been very difficult to do so. The best care generally went to well-connected prisoners within the camp hierarchy, i.e. the Kapos who ran the camp. As Primo Levi mentioned, many prisoners did not necessarily want to go into the infirmary to get adequate medical care, but to get out of doing a day's slave labour - which could be life-saving.\n\nThe infirmaries also had a propaganda purpose for the Nazis, who would occasionally allow visitors into the camps, either from Axis nations or even from neutral or enemy countries. They would often carry out staged tours for visitors in which they would be led to select areas of the camp. The infirmary could be used to try to prove that, actually, these camps were \"normal\" places of detention where inmates could receive medical care.\n\nThe SS doctors were perhaps more likely to kill patients than they were to help them. As the camps became increasingly overcrowded, they became full with Muselmänner (the concentration camp slang for prisoners so ill and weak that they were no longer really human anymore but walking skeletons. The translation is \"Muslims,\" apparently in reference to the fact that hunched-over, crawling prisoners resembled Muslims at prayer). Heinrich Himmler's solution was Action 14f13, a program to murder prisoners that were, in Himmler's words, \"excess ballast.\" In other words no longer able to work because of the debilitating conditions within the camps. This operation began in 1941, originally carried out by the same doctors who had been murdering mentally ill and disabled Germans during Action T4. Later the Camp SS doctors carried on this procedure of their own initiative, murdering primarily through lethal injection.\n\nThe infirmaries were places of quarantine when deadly diseases broke out, e.g. typhus, tuberculosis, and other diseases which could affect not just the prisoners, but the SS guards as well. Often prisoners were shut away in a certain wing of the infirmary (although sometimes they were locked in a few specific barracks within the camp) and left there to die.\n\nThe infirmary would also be used by the SS to carry out gruesome medical experiments on human beings. They were additionally used to castrate homosexual prisoners.\n\nTo answer the question of \"why didn't the Nazis send all the sick people at Auschwitz to the gas chamber?\" The fact is that often they did. The SS would sometimes go to the infirmary and select every prisoner that was no longer capable of work and send them to their deaths. But policy fluctuated with the changing circumstances of war and the various (often contradictory) policy goals of leading figures in the SS, e.g. Himmler, Oswald Pohl, Theodor Eicke. Sometimes they were more worried about preserving their labour force, or at least keeping them alive to get just a bit more labour out of them. Sometimes they were even thinking about perhaps retaining some prisoners so they could hold them as hostages to make some sort of deal with the Allies. The fate of the prisoners inside the infirmary often depended on events that were taking place far outside of the infirmary's walls.\n\nThe best book about the concentration camp system, and one which spends a good deal of time talking about the infirmaries, is Nicholaus Wachsmann's \"KL: A History of the Nazi Concentration Camps.\" It just came out this year and I really can't recommend it highly enough. A more Sachsenhausen-specific source (not what you're asking for but where I've gotten some of my information for this post) is \"Medical Care and Crime: The Infirmary at Sachsenhausen Concentration Camp\" by Günter Morsch and Astrid Ley.",
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"wikipedia_id": "2204271",
"title": "Survivor guilt",
"section": "Section::::History.:Survivor syndrome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "\"Survivor syndrome\", also known as \"concentration camp syndrome\" (or \"KZ syndrome\" on account of the German term \"\"), are terms which have been used to describe the reactions and behaviors of people who have survived massive and adverse events, such as the Holocaust, the Rape of Nanking, and the HIV/AIDS epidemic. They are described as having a pattern of characteristic symptoms including anxiety and depression, social withdrawal, sleep disturbance and nightmares, physical complaints and mood swings with loss of drive. Commonly such survivors feel guilty that they have survived the trauma and others – such as their family, friends, and colleagues – did not.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "58479785",
"title": "Theresienstadt family camp",
"section": "Section::::Liquidation.:First liquidation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
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"text": "In February 1944, a delegation visited from the Reich Main Security Office and the German Red Cross. The visitors were most interested in the children's barracks, the only attempt to organize education at Auschwitz. The most notable visitor, Adolf Eichmann, commented favorably about the cultural activity of the children at Birkenau. Hirsch and other leaders at the family camp were informed in advance of the imminent liquidation by the Auschwitz resistance. Before the liquidation, there were about 8,000 surviving prisoners in the family camp, of whom the September arrivals were a bit less than half.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "26070125",
"title": "Hodonin concentration camp",
"section": "Section::::Situation of Romani people during German occupation.:Hodonín.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
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"text": "On December 7, 1942, 78 \"asocials\" were transported to Auschwitz. In December 1942, typhoid started to take its toll in the camp and by the next May, only 5-10% of internees were considered healthy. A lack of medicine to treat the disease, as well as the horrible hygienic conditions, kept the epidemic going for months. On October 21, 1943, 784 prisoners were transported to Auschwitz-Birkenau. Of the remaining 62 internees, some were released, and the rest were sent to Auschwitz in 1944.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "33538239",
"title": "Dario Gabbai",
"section": "Section::::Post-war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
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"text": "At the end of the war, Gabbai was one of around 90 surviving Auschwitz Sonderkommando members. He moved to the United States under the sponsorship of the Jewish community in Cleveland, and in 1951, relocated to California. Gabbai is now retired, but visits the gym daily, which he describes as therapeutic: \"When I'm sweating, everything goes away...my problems are over\". He has compared the \"lingering pain of what happened at Auschwitz to a virus that lies dormant [in him] until something triggers it\", and said that there were moments when his Sonderkommando cohorts would have preferred to die, but then reconsidered, knowing that if they survived they would be able to tell the world what they witnessed. He has been described as a survivor who \"combines incredible strength with a vulnerability and fragility that become apparent when he bears witness.\"\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "18409236",
"title": "Leonardo de Benedetti",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Leonardo de Benedetti (born September 15, 1898 in Turin, Italy; died October 16, 1983) was an Italian Jew and physician who was interned in the Auschwitz concentration camp from February 1944 until its liberation in January 1945. After the end of the Second World War he and fellow inmate Primo Levi wrote \"Auschwitz Report\", a factual report of conditions inside the camp.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "22319408",
"title": "Oskar Gröning",
"section": "Section::::SS career.:Auschwitz.:Arrival.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Upon arrival at the main camp, they were given provisional bunks in the SS barracks, warmly greeted by fellow SS men and provided with food. Gröning was surprised at the myriad food items available in addition to basic SS rations. The new arrivals were curious about what function Auschwitz served. They were told that they should find out for themselves because Auschwitz was a special kind of concentration camp. Immediately someone opened the door and shouted \"Transport!\", causing three or four people to leave the room.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "37364339",
"title": "Adolf Gawalewicz",
"section": "Section::::Life and work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
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"text": "During the post-War discussions on the stance that Auschwitz was to assume as a museum for posterity, he expressed the opinion that he believed would be shared by all former inmates that the camp should be left completely intact, without any decorative or modernizing changes, especially in the outdoor spaces, as opposed to those who never experienced the camp as it was in real life. He wrote for a former prisoner:Every perspective of the external structure, every stair, every brick or what might otherwise seem an insignificant detail is invested with the memory of the immeasurable immensity of suffering and dignity, of degradation and pride. Likewise the vision of dearest friends the fellow inmates is inextricably bound up with the camp as it was when \"they\" existed.\n",
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| null |
9mx5yt | Is the Revolt of 1857 a War of Independence or just a major insurrection? | [
{
"answer": "I recently wrote a multi part [answer on 1857, it's historiography and the different interpretations](_URL_0_) \n - hopefully it's interesting for you. Should questions remain let me know and I could get back to it a bit later today (due to travels).\n\n*Edit:* The very short takeaway would be that the rebellion of 1857 was a complex war that engulfed different parts of South Asia, and so can't be redused to only one interpretation. And that most later interpretations of the event reflect interests of the groups that put them forward : With e.g. the \"insurrection\" narrative tied to British colonial views, and the \"war of independence\" one to certain strands of Indian nationalism going back to the early 20th century.",
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"answer": "The problem with the violence of 1857 is that it had so many meanings, so many in fact that categorising it as one thing or another is almost impossible. Indeed, Chris Bayly, one of the most prominent historians of the mutiny has stated \"it was not one, it was many,\" which in some respects might seem to be an admission of defeat but does help to do justice to the sheer variety of the characterisations of the rebellion. It was constitutional, racial, religious, the first modern war of information and a way of economic dislocation all at the same time. \n\nThe first thing I will say is that one thing it certainly was not was a war of independence. The argument that the rebellion represents the first flowering of Indian nationalism and leads directly to the independence of India in 1947 is a long one. Probably the most influential statement of this would be from V.D. Savarkar in his history of the rebellion \"the First Indian War of Independence\". He argued as early as 1909 that the mutineers of 1857 might be regarded as noble patriots, fighting in a good cause, pro rege and pro patria, for the king and the motherland, for swaraj and swadesh,\" while drawing on the writings of European nationalists like Mazzini. He chose to see the mutiny as a moment when Indians regardless of race and caste recognised their Indian-ness chose to make common cause to drive the British from India. While that is all well and more recent historians have, in my view wisely, decided to look at the above statement as an ideological statement of the Indian independence movement in 1909 rather than a statement of historical reality.\n\n\n\nThis then begs the question, where did the impression of the mutiny as a nationalist struggle come from in the beginning. The answer is actually quite simple -- it came from the British themselves. The summation of the British judge at the trial of Badhur Shah (the last Mughal and leader of the rebellion) sums this up. That British rule had created the conditions for European style national consciousness -- \"Brahman and Mussulman met here as it were on neutral ground; they have had, in the army, one common brotherhood of profession, the same dress, the same rewards, the same objects to be arrived at by the same means”. This argument was then picked up by people like Sayyid Ahmad Khan (an Islamic Indian philosopher) amongst others.\n\n\n\nIt would therefore seem that we have reached an impasse. If the rebellion was not India's first nationalist uprising, then what was it? That is a question that any historian could write a very long book on, but I will put forward one interpretation made by Faisal Devji about what the rebellion meant to the troops that participated in it. He argues that the revolt of the sepoys was a legitimist revolt which can be attributed to the feeling that the British had broken their moral obligations as Indian rulers.One way that this can be viewed is through a concept called the “empire of Distinctions.” Whereby the just ruler was meant to preserve and contain the distinctions within a deeply heterogeneous but just society. The soldiers believed that the British were trying to impose cultural and religious homogeneity on them. One thing that particularly drew their ire was the aggressive Christian preaching – something that Charles Grant (a missionary) characterised as “the introduction of light,”to darkened Asiatic despotism. This, was received especially poorly by the soldiers, with one officer commenting that his troops believed that they would “be compelled to eat the same food… that they would likewise be compelled to embrace one faith.” Such a status which the soldiers viewed as being little different from slavery and at least partly explains the position of Bahadur Shah at the head of the revolt, as an exemplar of a religiously tolerant and therefore legitimate constitutional ruler. Therefore, the decision to revolt was based on the idea that they would suffer for each other even though they had no intention of sharing religious or cultural practices. An example of this can be seen in the probably apocryphal story about the greased gun cartridges, which, it could be argued, only exists so as to establish an equivalence and commonality between the Hindus and Muslims.\n\nThe final bit that I will discuss here is economic dislocation. British rule from men like James Mill (the father of J.S. Mill was predicated on improvement) and a large part of this assumed that if British conditions were introduced then the Indians would begin to behave more like the British -- i.e. rationally. One of the main ways they did this was through the introduction of British style single title to land. This often had interesting consequences for the Zamindar class in general. For instance when proprietary title was introduced in Bengal it paved the way for many Zamindar Rajputs to be unable to charge rents as they had before. The problem with this is that they did not have enough land themselves to live on comfortably, and if they began to farm they would sink in caste status. As such the rajput class of north India became increasingly dependent on remittances from their sons in the army, but even then this source of income was threatened by the introduction of Sikhs into the army after the annexation of Punjab in 1842. While this community was relatively small in number they are disproportionately important because they were the local magnates in their communities. They provided the organisational know how to make the rebellion self sustaining while at the same time providing a link to their sons who were involved in the Dehli mutiny.\n\nNow these are just two isolated but linked case studies, but there are many more out there, and an illustration of how the violence of 1857 defies categorisation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5519841",
"title": "Murree rebellion of 1857",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "The Murree Rebellion of 1857, sometimes termed a war of Independence, was part of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. It was a rebel skirmish between the tribes surrounding the Hill Station of Murree (in modern-day Pakistan) and the colonial government of British India. Resentment toward colonial rule had been mounting for many years following the British establishment in the subcontinent. There had been occasional isolated uprisings toward the British. The significance of the 1857 events was that, although not centrally coordinated, the uprisings had the feel of something much larger with real anticipation that colonial rule would be overthrown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "392078",
"title": "Awadh",
"section": "Section::::History.:British rule.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "In the Indian Rebellion of 1857 (also known as the First War of Indian Independence and the Indian Mutiny), the rebels took control of Awadh, and it took the British 18 months to reconquer the region, months which included the famous Siege of Lucknow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "835016",
"title": "1857 in India",
"section": "Section::::Events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "BULLET::::- 10 May (starting date of the revolt)- Indian rebellion of 1857 (also known as the Sepoy Mutiny) or The First War Of Indian Independence, widespread uprising in northern and central India against the rule of the British East India Company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10531259",
"title": "British rule in Himachal Pradesh",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the First War of Indian Independence and the Sepoy Mutiny was a prolonged period of armed uprisings in different parts of India, against British occupation of that part of the subcontinent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18382289",
"title": "Timeline of the Indian Rebellion of 1857",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "A timeline of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 which began as a mutiny of sepoys of British East India Company's army on 10 May 1857, in the town of Meerut, and soon erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions largely in the upper Gangetic plain and central India.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54016652",
"title": "Manikarnika: The Queen of Jhansi",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1085,
"text": "Meanwhile, the rebellion of 1857 by Indian Soldiers break out due to greased cartridges sent to India. The rebellion begins from Barrackpore to Lucknow and reaches Jhansi. The Revolutionaries led by Sangram Singh attack Jhansi Headquarters and kill General Gordon and attempt to kill their children and wife. But their attempts are thwarted by Lakshmi Bai who reaches the spot and saves the children. She plans to conquer the throne of Jhansi back while Sangram Singh and his men join the rebellion in Delhi. The company requests the British government to appoint Sir Hugh Rose to salvage the situation and remove Lakshmi Bai from the throne permanently. Knowing very well that she will soon be attacked again, Lakshmi Bai begins training her own army and especially women to fight. Meanwhile, Sadashiv conjures a mutiny resulting in the deaths of many innocent British women and children in addition to British officers and blames it on Rani Lakshmi Bai to prompt Hugh Rose to attack and crush her for good. On the way to Jhansi, Hugh hangs a girl simply because her name is Lakshmi.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16207734",
"title": "Names of the Indian Rebellion of 1857",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 666,
"text": "The Indian Rebellion of 1857 has been variously termed as a war of independence, a rebellion, and a mutiny. Several Indian writers, who consider it as a part of the Indian independence movement that ultimately led to the country's independence in 1947, have termed it as \"The First War of Independence\", the \"great revolution\", the \"great rebellion\", and the \"Indian freedom struggle\". Several British writers, who view it as a military disturbance, have termed it as \"sepoy revolt\", \"sepoy war\", \"Indian rebellion\", and the \"great revolt\". Since the 19th century, a section of British writers have challenged the choice of the word \"mutiny\" to describe the events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
13rtp4 | Coin from 1919; can somebody identify? | [
{
"answer": "That's a British 3 pence coin featuring king George V. It appears to be of fine condition and could probably fetch anything from a pound up to 3-4 pounds at the most. An uncirculated version of the same coin would have been worth around 10 pounds.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Looking at [this website](_URL_0_), it's probably not worth anything. (Scroll down to George V, 1919).\n\nIf it was extra fine or EF (in other words, barely touched) you could buy it for £3 from a dealer, and uncirculated or Unc would be about £10. Coins like this aren't normally particularly valuable: after all, nobody throws money away, and people always keep coins that go out of circulation if they've got any left over because they think they'll be valuable one day. They won't be, because people think like this.\n\nOn the other hand, decently old silver sixpences can be worth a bit.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "642267",
"title": "Romanian leu",
"section": "Section::::Coins.:Third leu.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "Coins were first issued in 1952 in denominations of 1, 3, 5, 10, 25, and 50 bani, with aluminum bronze for 1, 3, and 5 bani, and cupronickel for 10, 25, and 50 bani. These coins featured the state arms and name \"Republica Populara Româna\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4186369",
"title": "Tuvan akşa",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Coins were issued in 1934 in denominations of 1-, 2, 3-, 5-, 10-, 15 and 20 kɵpejek, a Tuvanized name for the Russian kopeck, with banknotes issued in 1935 and 1940 in denominations of 1 to 25 akşa. The names \"kɵpejek\" and \"akşa\" are spelled in Jaꞑalif.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "637219",
"title": "Maine penny",
"section": "Section::::Norse origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "The Maine State Museum website favors the view that the coin was found at the site and is therefore evidence of Norse presence on the North American continent, although the Museum states \"the most likely explanation for the coin's presence is that it was obtained by natives somewhere else, perhaps in Newfoundland where the only known New World Norse settlement has been found at L’Anse aux Meadows, and that it eventually reached the Goddard site through native trade channels\". The Maine State Museum describes it as \"the only pre-Columbian Norse artifact generally regarded as genuine found within the United States\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "43879631",
"title": "Nova Constellatio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "The Nova Constellatio coins are the first coins struck under the authority of the United States of America. These pattern coins were struck in early 1783, and are known in three silver denominations (1,000-Units, 500-Units, 100-Units), and one copper denomination (5-Units). All known examples bear the legend \"NOVA CONSTELLATIO\" with the exception of a unique silver 500-Unit piece.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18477017",
"title": "Bar Kokhba Revolt coinage",
"section": "Section::::Alternative attributions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The first group of these coins reviewed by numismatists were 10 silver pieces and one bronze piece found in the mid-nineteenth century. By 1881 the number of coins had grown to 43, and many more have been found since. These coins were first attributed to Bar Kokhba by Moritz Abraham Levy in 1862 and Frederic Madden in 1864.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27837161",
"title": "José Antonio de la Garza",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:The first coin in Texas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "In 1818, after acquiring permission from the Spanish government, he created the first coin that existed in Texas. On one side of the coin, Garza used his initials \"JAG\" (José Antonio de la Garza) along to the year of creation (1818). On the other side of the coin, he fixed a drawing of one star. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9145124",
"title": "Half union",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "The Half union (separate varieties known as J-1546 through J-1549) was a United States coin minted as a pattern, or a coin not approved for release, with a face value of fifty U.S. Dollars. It is often thought of as one of the most significant and well-known patterns in the history of the U.S. Mint. The basic design, featuring Liberty on the obverse, was slightly modified from the similar $20 \"Liberty Head\" Double Eagle, which was designed by James B. Longacre and minted from 1849 to 1907. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1l84p5 | A question about how colonization affected the languages of Africa. | [
{
"answer": "This is in reference to the \"how the languages are faring\" question only, and is currentish info; if it's violating the 20-year rule too badly, my apologies (I trust it will meet a speedy end in that case!):\n\nThere are many, *many* languages in Africa; some of them are thriving (e.g., Yoruba, Kinyarwanda), others not. For *basic* information about current language situation, you might find the [Ethnologue section for Africa](_URL_1_) useful -- while the specific population figures for many of the languages will be off a bit (because of sampling error, the agenda of the organization (missionaries), and some out-of-date-ness in some cases etc.), it'll give you a general idea. If you move the cursor over regions of the map, it'll give you pop-up boxes with relative \"vitality\" counts for languages, and you can drill down to individual countries, etc. The [World Atlas of Languages](_URL_0_) may be useful as well, although it's focused more on specific linguistic characteristics.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59556",
"title": "Languages of Africa",
"section": "Section::::Language in Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Throughout the long multilingual history of the African continent, African languages have been subject to phenomena like language contact, language expansion, language shift and language death. A case in point is the Bantu expansion, in which Bantu-speaking peoples expanded over most of Sub-Equatorial Africa, displacing Khoi-San speaking peoples from much of Southeast Africa and Southern Africa and other peoples from Central Africa. Another example is the Arab expansion in the 7th century, which led to the extension of Arabic from its homeland in Asia, into much of North Africa and the Horn of Africa.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "454015",
"title": "Urheimat",
"section": "Section::::Niger–Congo.:Benue-Congo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 1163,
"text": "Linguistic, archeological and genetic evidence also indicates that during the course of the Bantu expansion, \"independent waves of migration of western African and East African Bantu-speakers into southern Africa occurred.\" In some places, Bantu language, genetic evidence suggests that Bantu language expansion was largely a result of substantial population replacement. In other places, Bantu language expansion, like many other languages, has been documented with population genetic evidence to have occurred by means other than complete or predominant population replacement (e.g. via language shift and admixture of incoming and existing populations). For example, one study found this to be the case in Bantu language speakers who are African Pygmies or are in Mozambique, while another population genetic study found this to be the case in the Bantu language speaking Lemba of Zimbabwe. Where Bantu was adopted via language shift of existing populations, prior African languages were spoken, probably from African language families that are now lost, except as substrate influences of local Bantu languages (such as click sounds in local Bantu languages).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1815296",
"title": "Decolonisation of Africa",
"section": "Section::::Social legacy.:Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Scholars including Dellal (2013), Miraftab (2012) and Bamgbose (2011) have argued that Africa’s linguistic diversity has been eroded. Language has been used by western colonial powers to divide territories and create new identities which has led to conflicts and tensions between African nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5090455",
"title": "Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization",
"section": "Section::::Colonial actions and their impacts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1272,
"text": "In trying to assess the legacy of colonization, some researchers have focused on the type of political and economic institutions that existed before the arrival of Europeans. Heldring and Robinson conclude that while colonization in Africa had overall negative consequences for political and economic development in areas that had previous centralized institutions or that hosted white settlements, it possibly had a positive impact in areas that were virtually stateless, like South Sudan or Somalia. In a complementary analysis, Gerner Hariri observed that areas outside Europe which had State-like institutions before 1500 tend to have less open political systems today. According to the scholar, this is due to the fact that during the colonization, European liberal institutions were not easily implemented. Beyond the military and political advantages, it is possible to explain the domination of European countries over non-European areas by the fact that capitalism did not emerge as the dominant economic institution elsewhere. As Ugo Pipitone argues, prosperous economic institutions that sustain growth and innovation did not prevail in areas like China, the Arab world, or Mesoamerica because of the excessive control of these proto-States on private matters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "622746",
"title": "Columbian exchange",
"section": "Section::::Influence.:Disease.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "European exploration of tropical areas was aided by the New World discovery of quinine, the first effective treatment for malaria. Europeans suffered from this disease, but some indigenous populations had developed at least partial resistance to it. In Africa, resistance to malaria has been associated with other genetic changes among sub-Saharan Africans and their descendants, which can cause sickle-cell disease. In fact, the resistance of sub-Saharan Africans to malaria in the Southern United States contributed to the development of slavery in those regions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "430134",
"title": "Bantu expansion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "The primary evidence for this expansion is linguistic - a great many of the languages spoken across Sub-Equatorial Africa are remarkably similar to each other, suggesting the common cultural origin of their original speakers. The linguistic core of the Bantu languages, which comprise a branch of the Niger–Congo family, was located in the adjoining regions of Cameroon and Nigeria. However, attempts to trace the exact route of the expansion, to correlate it with archaeological evidence and genetic evidence, have not been conclusive; thus although the expansion is widely accepted as having taken place, many aspects of it remain in doubt or are highly contested.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61163932",
"title": "Detribalization",
"section": "Section::::Regional detribalized histories.:In Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "Because Indigenous nations were deemed to be \"uncivilized,\" European powers declared the territorial sovereignty of Africa as openly available, which initiated the Scramble for Africa in the late nineteenth century. With the continent of Africa conceptualized as effectively \"ownerless\" territory, Europeans positioned themselves as its redeemers and rightful colonial rulers. In the European colonial mindset, Africans were inferior and incapable of being \"civilized\" because they had failed to properly manage or exploit the natural resources available to them. As a result, they were deemed to be obstacles to capitalist investment, extraction, and production of natural resources in the construction of a new colonial empire and built environment. The immense diversity of the Indigenous peoples of Africa was flattened by this colonial perception, which labeled them instead as an \"unrepresentable nomadic horde of apprehensions that ran across European territories.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1c9dhe | how do people find out who a reddit user is in real life? | [
{
"answer": "Probably not unless you mention doing something very illegal that warrants notifying authorities who can seize ip logs & shit. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "786728",
"title": "South Korean web culture",
"section": "Section::::Major activities.:Q&A.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "When various users answer a question they are awarded a certain number of points, the person who asked the question can then select the best answer and will be awarded points. This user can then ask questions on the website using the points that he/she was awarded. The users with most points are ranked daily with the option to display their real identities, if they choose to do so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51443441",
"title": "Huggle (app)",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "To verify a profile, users must take multiple selfies which are then approved by a team of 5,000 moderators. The actual profile is generated with information from other social media sites including Facebook, Foursquare and Instagram. The user chooses whether they are looking for a date or a friend as well as ideal age range and how many places matches must have in contact before they can contact the user.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59336417",
"title": "Not the Same Person You Used to Know",
"section": "Section::::Format.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Acquaintances of a celebrity (friends, managers, parents, siblings, etc.) are invited to answer a quiz about the celebrity to see if they know him/her as well as they think they do. For instance, they will have to watch videos of the celebrity and predict his/her next actions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38981073",
"title": "SingleMuslim.com",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "The website allows users to create a profile with personal, faith-based, educational, and professional information, and upload pictures. Users can send instant messages to members of the opposite gender, and send them virtual gifts. Users can perform searches of the member database based on criteria such as age, religious sect, location, country of origin, piety, citizenship, language(s), marital status, education, and profession. The website also has a real time live chat feature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16731003",
"title": "Platinnetz",
"section": "Section::::Protection of Privacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "The users themselves determine their name, birthday, contacts, and address, and can choose who may see this information: everyone, registered users, only their contacts, or nobody. The username (first name and nickname) is for \"everyone\", \"contacts\" or \"nobody\" visible. Each user is informed about who has visited their profile. Anonymous visits are not possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3146035",
"title": "Personality quiz",
"section": "Section::::Types of personality quizzes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "BULLET::::- Ones that reveal personality directly, often seen as quizzes like \"What kind of person are you?\", \"What kind of boy\" or \"boyfriend are you?\", \"What kind of girl\" or \"girlfriend are you?\", \"What\" (insert popular entertainment series here) \"character are you?\" (series such as Star Wars, Gilmore Girls, Pokémon, Metroid, or South Park)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "805626",
"title": "Internet fraud",
"section": "Section::::Social media and fraud.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "People tend to disclose more personal information about themselves (e.g. birthday, e-mail, address, hometown and relationship status) in their social networking profiles (Hew 2011). This personally identifiable information could be used by fraudsters to steal users' identities, and posting this information on social media makes it a lot easier for fraudsters to take control of it. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
4en93t | Do Coronal Mass Ejections have a significant impact on the life of a star? | [
{
"answer": "I assume you mean in terms of mass lost, and the answer is a resounding \"NO\". The mass lost in a typical CME from our Sun is [of the order of 10^15 grams](_URL_0_), while the mass of our Sun is of the order 10^33 grams. So every CME from our Sun releases approx 0.000000000000000001% of the Sun's mass. \n\nIn human terms, if you weigh 100Kg (220lbs) then it would be like losing 1^-13 grams in mass... which, if my math is correct, is about 0.00000000015% the mass of the average human hair.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "54648",
"title": "Solar flare",
"section": "Section::::Observations.:Examples of large solar flares.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "The ultra-fast coronal mass ejection of August 1972 is suspected of triggering magnetic fuses on naval mines during the Vietnam War, and would have been a life-threatening event to Apollo astronauts if it had occurred during a mission to the Moon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23812495",
"title": "X-ray transient",
"section": "Section::::The Sun as an X-ray transient.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "The first detection of a Coronal mass ejection (CME) as such was made on Dec 1 1971 by R. Tousey of the US Naval Research Laboratory using the 7th Orbiting Solar Observatory (OSO 7). Earlier observations of coronal transients or even phenomena observed visually during solar eclipses are now understood as essentially the same thing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34269733",
"title": "List of coronal mass ejections",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "The following contains a list of coronal mass ejections. A coronal mass ejection (CME) is a massive burst of solar wind and magnetic fields rising above the solar corona or being released into space. Most ejections originate from active regions on the Sun's surface, such as groupings of sunspots associated with frequent flares.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44062",
"title": "X-ray astronomy",
"section": "Section::::Major questions in X-ray astronomy.:Solar X-ray astronomy.:Coronal mass ejection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 303,
"text": "The first detection of a Coronal mass ejection (CME) as such was made on December 1, 1971 by R. Tousey of the US Naval Research Laboratory using OSO 7. Earlier observations of coronal transients or even phenomena observed visually during solar eclipses are now understood as essentially the same thing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9763",
"title": "Exoplanet",
"section": "Section::::General features.:Magnetic field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "Although scientists previously announced that the magnetic fields of close-in exoplanets may cause increased stellar flares and starspots on their host stars, in 2019 this claim was demonstrated to be false in the HD 189733 system. The failure to detect \"star-planet interactions\" in the well-studied HD 189733 system calls other related claims of the effect into question.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11127278",
"title": "Pair-instability supernova",
"section": "Section::::Stellar behavior.:100 to 130 solar masses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "These stars are large enough to produce gamma rays with enough energy to create electron-positron pairs, but the resulting net reduction in counter-gravitational pressure is insufficient to cause the core-overpressure required for supernova. Instead, the contraction caused by pair-creation provokes increased thermonuclear activity within the star that repulses the inward pressure and returns the star to equilibrium. It is thought that stars of this size undergo a series of these pulses until they shed sufficient mass to drop below 100 solar masses, at which point they are no longer hot enough to support pair-creation. Pulsing of this nature may have been responsible for the variations in brightness experienced by Eta Carinae in 1843, though this explanation is not universally accepted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "548075",
"title": "Star lifting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Stars already lose a small flow of mass via solar wind, coronal mass ejections, and other natural processes. Over the course of a star's life on the main sequence this loss is usually negligible compared to the star's total mass; only at the end of a star's life when it becomes a red giant or a supernova is a large proportion of material ejected. The star lifting techniques that have been proposed would operate by increasing this natural plasma flow and manipulating it with magnetic fields.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
9kt809 | What did the diet of North American 19th century lumberjacks consist of? | [
{
"answer": "from Roy B. Clarkson's description of a logging camp in West Virginia circa 1909:\n\n > A typical evening meal consisted of boiled or roast beef or pork or steak, turnips, hanovers, tomatoes, potatoes, beans, hash, \"light\" bread or corn bread, and two different kinds of pie ( quartered) and cake and cookies. The men were encouraged to eat all they wanted, and at the end o a hard day's work their appetites were prodigious... \n > \n > A typical breakfast consisted of hot biscuits, steak ( well done or rare) fried eggs, fried potatoes, oatmeal, cake, donuts, prunes or other fruit, and coffee. It was not uncommon for a man to eat half a dozen eggs along with generous helps of other \"vittles\"... \n > \n > One of the ways the men had of relieving the boredom of their existence was to invent nicknames for each other and for the objects around them. Thus, biscuits were \"cat-heads\", donuts were \"fried holes\" or \"doorknobs\", meat was \"sow-belly\" or \"long-hog\", light bread was \"punk\", milk was \"cow\" or \"white line\", sugar was \"sand train\", prunes were \"Rocky Mt. Huckleberries\", coffee was \"java or \"Arbuckles\", apple butter was \"Pennsylvania Salve\", cooks were called \"boilers\", women cooks were rare but were called \"she-boilers\" or \"Open bottom cooks\". \n > \n > *Tumult on the Mountains* (1964) p.63-65\n\nClarkson said nothing about lunch, but you suspect that there was enough consumed in two meals to equal three, and that if a man stuffed something into his pocket at breakfast for a noon break nothing would be said.. He also noted that a good cook made about $3.00 a day, and the loggers $1.75 to $2.00: but the cook worked seven days a week.\n\n & #x200B;",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "57179",
"title": "Tohono Oʼodham",
"section": "Section::::Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 599,
"text": "The original Oʼodham diet consisted of regionally available wild game, insects, and plants. Through foraging, Oʼodham ate a variety of regional plants, such as: ironwood seed, honey mesquite, hog potato, and organ-pipe cactus fruit. While the Southwestern United States did not have an ideal climate for cultivating crops, Oʼodham cultivated crops of white tepary beans, papago peas, and Spanish watermelons. They hunted pronghorn antelope, gathered hornworm larvae, and trapped pack rats for sources of meat. Preparation of foods included steaming plants in pits and roasting meat on an open fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2175",
"title": "American cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Regional cuisines.:Southern United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 1846,
"text": "This section of the country has some of the oldest known foodways in the land, with some recipes almost 400 years old. Native American influences are still quite visible in the use of cornmeal as an essential staple and found in the Southern predilection for hunting wild game, in particular wild turkey, deer, woodcock, and various kinds of waterfowl; for example, coastal North Carolina is a place where hunters will seek tundra swan as a part of Christmas dinner; the original English and Scottish settlers would have rejoiced at this revelation owing to the fact that such was banned amongst the commoner class in what is now the United Kingdom, and naturally, their descendants have not forgotten. Native Americans also consumed turtles and catfish, specifically the snapping turtle and blue catfish. Catfish are often caught with one's bare hands, gutted, breaded, and fried to make a Southern variation on English fish and chips and turtles are turned into stews and soups. Native American tribes of the region such as the Cherokee or Choctaw often cultivated or gathered local plants like pawpaw, maypop and several sorts of squashes and corn as food and spicebush, sassafras as spices, and the aforementioned fruits are still cultivated as food in the South. Maize is to this day found in dishes for breakfast, lunch and dinner in the form of grits, hoecakes, baked cornbread, and spoonbread, and nuts like the hickory, black walnut and pecan are commonly included in desserts and pastries as varied as mince pies, pecan pie, pecan rolls and honey buns (both are types of sticky bun), and quick breads, which were themselves invented in the South during the American Civil War. Peaches have been grown in this region since the 17th century and are a staple crop as well as a favorite fruit, with peach cobbler being a signature dessert.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31593594",
"title": "The potlatch among Athabaskan peoples",
"section": "Section::::Food.:Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "The traditional wild food is supplemented by store-bought items, most notably black loose leaf tea, which was introduced to the Athabaskan by traders in the 1800s and remains a staple among present day potlatches. Bannock, also known as fry bread, rolls, and salads are also served.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18952853",
"title": "Agave",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "The agave, especially \"Agave murpheyi\", was a major food source for the prehistoric indigenous people of the Southwestern United States. The Hohokam of southern Arizona cultivated large areas of agave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2793067",
"title": "Native American cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Native American cuisine of North America.:Great Plains Native American cuisine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1441,
"text": "Indigenous peoples of the Great Plains and Canadian Prairies or Plains Indians relied heavily on American bison (American buffalo) as a food source. The meat was cut in thin slices and dried, either over a slow fire or in the hot sun, until it was hard and brittle which could last for months, making it a main ingredient to be combined with other foods, or eaten on its own. One such use could be pemmican, a concentrated mixture of fat and protein, and fruits such as cranberries, Saskatoon berries, blueberries, cherries, chokeberries, chokecherries, and currants were sometimes added. When asked to state traditional staple foods, a group of Plains elders identified \"prairie turnips, fruits (chokecherries, June berries, plums, blueberries, cranberries, strawberries, buffalo berries, gooseberries), potatoes, squash, dried meats (venison, buffalo, jack rabbit, pheasant, and prairie chicken), and wild rice\" as being these staple foods. Bison was a staple of Plains Indians' diets. Many parts were utilized and prepared in numerous ways, including: \"boiled meat, tripe soup perhaps thickened with brains, roasted intestines, jerked/smoked meat, and raw kidneys, liver, tongue sprinkled with gall or bile were eaten immediately after a kill. The animals that Great Plains Indians consumed, like bison, deer, and antelope, were grazing animals. Due to this, they were high in omega-3 fatty acids, an essential acid that many diets lack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "284741",
"title": "Pemmican Proclamation",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "Pemmican became the main source of food throughout the Bison trade nearing the end of the eighteenth century. The Hudson’s Bay Company relied on the food to provide a source of energy for their fur-traders who had relocated to areas that had a scarce food supply but plenty of fur. By the mid-1790s the first systems of small wintering posts had become massive food depots, with Montreal companies organizing depots in the Red River Valley. The Hudson’s Bay Company grew concerned during the turn of the century because their rival, the North West Company, was providing trappers in the north with enough Pemmican to allow them to specialize their hunting patterns to cater to the English trading posts rather than the HBC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51372",
"title": "History of South America",
"section": "Section::::Pre-Columbian era.:Agriculture and domestication of animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "South American cultures began domesticating llamas and alpacas in the highlands of the Andes circa 3500 BCE. These animals were used for both transportation and meat; their fur was shorn or collected to use to make clothing. Guinea pigs were also domesticated as a food source at this time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3o8vkd | If I was in the center between two planets with the exact same gravity, would I be ripped apart? Or would I experience weightlessness? | [
{
"answer": "Whether or not gravity can rip you apart depends on the tidal forces or differences in gravitational attraction across a body's length. So the answer is \"it depends.\" If you [make a graph](_URL_0_) of -1/(r+1)^2 - 1/(r-1)^2 you'd see the potential does have a maximum in between the two point sources which means you'd be safe if you were small enough. \n\nFor a single attractive source, the tidal force (for a target body of length L) is approximately L/r^3 and it would be interesting to see what modification to this you'd need for a body balanced in the center. Of course the center is unstable so a push or shove in any direction will make you fall one way or the other, then you can use the L/r^3 equation to figure it out ignoring the source you didn't fall into.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This depends on the gravitational gradient of the planets. In the case that you're likely talking about, where you are between two planets that are relatively far apart and not unusually dense, you'd simply experience weightlessness. \n\nHowever, if you were between two close super-dense planets or black holes, while the center of your body might experience weightlessness, the sides of your body would be strongly attracted to the closer planet and you would be ripped apart. (This is actually a really unfeasible scenario, as two closely orbiting very massive objects are thought to emit energy as gravitational waves.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47568",
"title": "Low Earth orbit",
"section": "Section::::Orbital characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "The pull of gravity in LEO is only slightly less than on the Earth's surface. This is because the distance to LEO from the Earth's surface is far less than the Earth's radius. However, an object in orbit is, by definition, in free fall, since there is no force holding it up. As a result objects in orbit, including people, experience a sense of weightlessness, even though they are not actually without weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1411100",
"title": "Introduction to general relativity",
"section": "Section::::From special to general relativity.:Tidal effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "A more basic manifestation of the same effect involves two bodies that are falling side by side towards the Earth. In a reference frame that is in free fall alongside these bodies, they appear to hover weightlessly – but not exactly so. These bodies are not falling in precisely the same direction, but towards a single point in space: namely, the Earth's center of gravity. Consequently, there is a component of each body's motion towards the other (see the figure). In a small environment such as a freely falling lift, this relative acceleration is minuscule, while for skydivers on opposite sides of the Earth, the effect is large. Such differences in force are also responsible for the tides in the Earth's oceans, so the term \"tidal effect\" is used for this phenomenon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15043",
"title": "International Space Station",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.:Scientific research.:Free fall.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Gravity at the altitude of the ISS is approximately 90% as strong as at Earth's surface, but objects in orbit are in a continuous state of freefall, resulting in an apparent state of weightlessness. This perceived weightlessness is disturbed by five separate effects:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "857235",
"title": "Equivalence principle",
"section": "Section::::Development of gravitational theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1119,
"text": "That is, being on the surface of the Earth is equivalent to being inside a spaceship (far from any sources of gravity) that is being accelerated by its engines. The direction or vector of acceleration equivalence on the surface of the earth is \"up\" or directly opposite the center of the planet while the vector of acceleration in a spaceship is directly opposite from the mass ejected by its thrusters. From this principle, Einstein deduced that free-fall is inertial motion. Objects in free-fall do not experience being accelerated downward (e.g. toward the earth or other massive body) but rather weightlessness and no acceleration. In an inertial frame of reference bodies (and photons, or light) obey Newton's first law, moving at constant velocity in straight lines. Analogously, in a curved spacetime the world line of an inertial particle or pulse of light is \"as straight as possible\" (in space \"and\" time). Such a world line is called a geodesic and from the point of view of the inertial frame is a straight line. This is why an accelerometer in free-fall doesn't register any acceleration; there isn't any.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18603506",
"title": "Weightlessness",
"section": "Section::::Weightlessness in Newtonian mechanics.:Weightlessness and proper acceleration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "A body in free fall (which by definition entails no aerodynamic forces) near the surface of the earth has an acceleration approximately equal to 9.8 m s with respect to a coordinate frame tied to the earth. If the body is in a freely falling lift and subject to no pushes or pulls from the lift or its contents, the acceleration with respect to the lift would be zero. If on the other hand, the body is subject to forces exerted by other bodies within the lift, it will have an acceleration with respect to the freely falling lift. This acceleration which is not due to gravity is called \"proper acceleration\". On this approach, weightlessness holds when proper acceleration is zero.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "516838",
"title": "Micro-g environment",
"section": "Section::::Absence of gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "At a distance relatively close to Earth (less than 3000 km), gravity is only slightly reduced. As an object orbits a body such as the Earth, gravity is still attracting objects towards the Earth and the object is accelerated downward at almost 1g. Because the objects are typically moving laterally with respect to the surface at such immense speeds, the object will not lose altitude because of the curvature of the Earth. When viewed from an orbiting observer, other close objects in space appear to be floating because everything is being pulled towards Earth at the same speed, but also moving forward as the Earth's surface \"falls\" away below. All these objects are in free fall, not zero gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18603506",
"title": "Weightlessness",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "When the gravitational field is non-uniform, a body in free fall experiences tidal effects and is not stress-free. Near a black hole, such tidal effects can be very strong. In the case of the Earth, the effects are minor, especially on objects of relatively small dimensions (such as the human body or a spacecraft) and the overall sensation of weightlessness in these cases is preserved. This condition is known as microgravity, and it prevails in orbiting spacecraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1o6u5e | why are some corn fields allowed to go brown before they are harvested? | [
{
"answer": "It wouldn't keep if it was harvested when it was soft. Also, some of it is probably made into corn meal for stuff like corn flakes, corn chips, etc. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Don't worry, you're not seeing waste, its perfectly normal. You're seeing the corn plant, not the corn ear. The plant dries down and turns brown before the grain moisture gets low enough to harvest and store. If you harvest corn while its wet and store it, it will rot. What you're seeing is perfectly normal. Most corn for cattle actually gets harvested early, while there's still some green on the plant.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > I'm guessing the corn is used for feed but have no idea why it would be better to allow the corn to go brown.\n\nThe majority of the corn grown is not for human consumption ( < 25% in the US).\n\nOnly the stuff consumed by humans needs to be picked \"fresh.\" Animal feed, or corn used for biofuels and other products does not need to be fresh and will is left to dry on the stalk so it is easier to transport and lasts longer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "330340",
"title": "Field corn",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Field corn primarily grown for livestock feed and ethanol production is allowed to mature fully before being shelled off the cob before being stored in silos, pits, bins or grain \"flats\". Field corn can also be harvested as high-moisture corn, shelled off the cob and piled and packed like silage for fermentation; or the entire plant may be chopped while still very high in moisture with the resulting silage either loaded and packed in plastic bags, piled and packed in pits, or blown into and stored in vertical silos. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "330340",
"title": "Field corn",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 322,
"text": "In North America, field corn also known as \"grain\" corn, is corn (\"Zea mays\") grown for livestock fodder (silage), ethanol, cereal and processed food products. The principal field corn varieties are dent corn, flint corn, flour corn (also known as soft corn) which includes blue corn (\"Zea mays amylacea\"), and waxy corn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "410783",
"title": "Cover crop",
"section": "Section::::Soil fertility management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Often, green manure crops are grown for a specific period, and then plowed under before reaching full maturity in order to improve soil fertility and quality. Also the stalks left block the soil from being eroded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "87791",
"title": "Corn tortilla",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "Maize kernels naturally occur in many colors, depending on the cultivar: from pale white, to yellow, to red and bluish purple. Likewise, corn meal and the tortillas made from it may be similarly colored. White and yellow tortillas are by far the most common, however.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28129244",
"title": "Blue corn",
"section": "Section::::Anthocyanins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Varieties of blue corn cultivated in the Southwestern United States vary in their respective contents of anthocyanins, the polyphenol pigment giving the corn its unique color. Anthocyanins having the highest contents are cyanidin 3-glucoside (most abundant), pelargonidin and peonidin 3-glucoside.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1115575",
"title": "Juglans nigra",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "Black walnut is primarily a pioneer species similar to red and silver maple and black cherry. Because of this, black walnut is a common weed tree found along roadsides, fields, and forest edges in the eastern US. It will grow in closed forests, but is classified as shade intolerant, this means it requires full sun for optimal growth and nut production.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16143090",
"title": "Nahuas of La Huasteca",
"section": "Section::::Subsistence and Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "To the Nahua, corn is known not only as a physical life sustainer, but also a spiritual sustainer. It is used at every meal and also feeds domesticated animals. It is the main source of income and is therefore an inevitable constituent in community *politics. Corn can be divided, by color, into four groups. White is superior for human consumption and is sold at the market. Yellow is resilient, thus grown in the dry season and is the corn of choice for domesticated animals. Black and red corns are grown in lesser amounts and are not preferred for eating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
7kyyha | why would we ever care about the distinction of a newtonian fluid and a non-newtonian fluid? (i put this with an engineering flair because i want to know if there’s any practical use, not theoretical) | [
{
"answer": "For one example, [liquid armor](_URL_0_) can be made only of a non-Newtonian fluid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Imagine you're trying to fill a mold with a material. You'd likely want to do that as fast as you can. Well, what happens if the material doesn't behave like a Newtonian fluid? It becomes much more difficult to predict how the mold will fill without extensive experimentation. \n\nYou can also get neat things like _URL_1_ which lets us do _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "363903",
"title": "Newtonian fluid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Newtonian fluids are the simplest mathematical models of fluids that account for viscosity. While no real fluid fits the definition perfectly, many common liquids and gases, such as water and air, can be assumed to be Newtonian for practical calculations under ordinary conditions. However, non-Newtonian fluids are relatively common, and include oobleck (which becomes stiffer when vigorously sheared), or non-drip paint (which becomes thinner when sheared). Other examples include many polymer solutions (which exhibit the Weissenberg effect), molten polymers, many solid suspensions, blood, and most highly viscous fluids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2684988",
"title": "Fluid mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Newtonian versus non-Newtonian fluids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 732,
"text": "A Newtonian fluid (named after Isaac Newton) is defined to be a fluid whose shear stress is linearly proportional to the velocity gradient in the direction perpendicular to the plane of shear. This definition means regardless of the forces acting on a fluid, it \"continues to flow\". For example, water is a Newtonian fluid, because it continues to display fluid properties no matter how much it is stirred or mixed. A slightly less rigorous definition is that the drag of a small object being moved slowly through the fluid is proportional to the force applied to the object. (Compare friction). Important fluids, like water as well as most gases, behave—to good approximation—as a Newtonian fluid under normal conditions on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "10656445",
"title": "Derivation of the Navier–Stokes equations",
"section": "Section::::Application to different fluids.:Non-Newtonian fluids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid whose flow properties differ in any way from those of Newtonian fluids. Most commonly the viscosity of non-Newtonian fluids is a function of shear rate or shear rate history. However, there are some non-Newtonian fluids with shear-independent viscosity, that nonetheless exhibit normal stress-differences or other non-Newtonian behaviour. Many salt solutions and molten polymers are non-Newtonian fluids, as are many commonly found substances such as ketchup, custard, toothpaste, starch suspensions, paint, blood, and shampoo. In a Newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear stress and the shear rate is linear, passing through the origin, the constant of proportionality being the coefficient of viscosity. In a non-Newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear stress and the shear rate is different, and can even be time-dependent. The study of the non-Newtonian fluids is usually called rheology. A few examples are given here.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "75367",
"title": "Non-Newtonian fluid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid that does not follow Newton's law of viscosity, i.e. constant viscosity independent of stress. In non-Newtonian fluids, viscosity can change when under force to either more liquid or more solid. Ketchup, for example, becomes runnier when shaken and is thus a non-Newtonian fluid. Many salt solutions and molten polymers are non-Newtonian fluids, as are many commonly found substances such as custard, honey, toothpaste, starch suspensions, corn starch, paint, blood, and shampoo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "363903",
"title": "Newtonian fluid",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "More precisely, a fluid is Newtonian only if the tensors that describe the viscous stress and the strain rate are related by a constant viscosity tensor that does not depend on the stress state and velocity of the flow. If the fluid is also isotropic (that is, its mechanical properties are the same along any direction), the viscosity tensor reduces to two real coefficients, describing the fluid's resistance to continuous shear deformation and continuous compression or expansion, respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52242569",
"title": "Biofluid dynamics",
"section": "Section::::Basic Principles of Fluid Dynamics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "A Non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid which is different from the Newtonian fluid as the viscosity of non-Newtonian fluids is dependent on shear rate or shear rate history. In a non-Newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear stress and the shear rate is different and can even be time-dependent (Time Dependent Viscosity). Therefore, a constant coefficient of viscosity cannot be defined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18963754",
"title": "Viscosity",
"section": "Section::::Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 557,
"text": "Newton's law of viscosity is not a fundamental law of nature, but rather a constitutive equation (like Hooke's law, Fick's law, and Ohm's law) which serves to define the viscosity formula_10. Its form is motivated by experiments which show that for a wide range of fluids, formula_10 is independent of strain rate. Such fluids are called Newtonian. Gases, water, and many common liquids can be considered Newtonian in ordinary conditions and contexts. However, there are many non-Newtonian fluids that significantly deviate from this behavior. For example:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
]
| null |
4yfnr4 | Would supersonic air flowing across a wing fixed to the floor in a lab produce a constant sonic boom? | [
{
"answer": "A sonic boom is the perceptual phenomenon caused by the passage of a shock wave over the human ear. Every object that is going faster than the speed of sound in a medium has an associated shock wave attached to or very near the object. This shock wave is always there once the object reaches a speed faster than Mach 1. In a stationary wind tunnel, with an object exposed to supersonic flow, the shock wave would be stationary relative to the object and therefore relative to the observer. If the observer were inside the tunnel, they would not hear a sonic boom unless they deliberately walked through the shock.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2454160",
"title": "Supersonic aircraft",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "The aerodynamics of supersonic flight is called compressible flow because of the compression (physics) associated with the shock waves or \"sonic boom\" created by any object travelling faster than sound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "183824",
"title": "Sonic boom",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "The later shock waves are somewhat faster than the first one, travel faster and add to the main shockwave at some distance away from the aircraft to create a much more defined N-wave shape. This maximizes both the magnitude and the \"rise time\" of the shock which makes the boom seem louder. On most aircraft designs the characteristic distance is about , meaning that below this altitude the sonic boom will be \"softer\". However, the drag at this altitude or below makes supersonic travel particularly inefficient, which poses a serious problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40478099",
"title": "Crescent wing",
"section": "Section::::Basic concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "As an aircraft enters the transonic region close to the speed of sound, the acceleration of air over curved areas can cause the flow to go supersonic. This generates a shock wave and creates considerable drag, known as wave drag. The increase in drag is so rapid and powerful that it gives rise to the concept of a sound barrier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146253",
"title": "Shock wave",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "For the purpose of comparison, in supersonic flows, additional increased expansion may be achieved through an expansion fan, also known as a Prandtl–Meyer expansion fan. The accompanying expansion wave may approach and eventually collide and recombine with the shock wave, creating a process of destructive interference. The sonic boom associated with the passage of a supersonic aircraft is a type of sound wave produced by constructive interference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "215930",
"title": "Supersonic transport",
"section": "Section::::Challenges of supersonic passenger flight.:Sonic boom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 991,
"text": "If the intensity of the boom can be reduced, then this may make even very large designs of supersonic aircraft acceptable for overland flight. Research suggests that changes to the nose cone and tail can reduce the intensity of the sonic boom below that needed to cause complaints. During the original SST efforts in the 1960s, it was suggested that careful shaping of the fuselage of the aircraft could reduce the intensity of the sonic boom's shock waves that reach the ground. One design caused the shock waves to interfere with each other, greatly reducing sonic boom. This was difficult to test at the time, but the increasing power of computer-aided design has since made this considerably easier. In 2003, a Shaped Sonic Boom Demonstration aircraft was flown which proved the soundness of the design and demonstrated the capability of reducing the boom by about half. Even lengthening the vehicle (without significantly increasing the weight) would seem to reduce the boom intensity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "227086",
"title": "Waverider",
"section": "Section::::History.:Viscous optimized waveriders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "One of the many differences between supersonic and hypersonic flight concerns the interaction of the boundary layer and the shock waves generated from the nose of the aircraft. Normally the boundary layer is quite thin compared to the streamline of airflow over the wing, and can be considered separately from other aerodynamic effects. However, as the speed increases and the shock wave increasingly approaches the sides of the craft, there comes a point where the two start to interact and the flowfield becomes very complex. Long before that point, the boundary layer starts to interact with the air trapped between the shock wave and the fuselage, the air that is being used for lift on a waverider.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34036",
"title": "Area rule",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "At high-subsonic flight speeds, the local speed of the airflow can reach the speed of sound where the flow accelerates around the aircraft body and wings. The speed at which this development occurs varies from aircraft to aircraft and is known as the critical Mach number. The resulting shock waves formed at these points of sonic flow can result in a sudden increase in drag, called wave drag. To reduce the number and power of these shock waves, an aerodynamic shape should change in cross sectional area as smoothly as possible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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| null |
646k1q | What is the connection between Majorana Mass and a Majorana Particle? | [
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"answer": "If you give a Majorana mass to a \"normal\" four-component spinor, so making it satisfy the Majorana *equation*, you obtain *two* particles. They are antiparticles of eachother and must be electrically neutral.\n\nOnly when you supplement the Majorana *condition*, that is that the spinor is its own charge conjugate, you get one single Majorana particle, neutral and its own antiparticle.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4643400",
"title": "Majorana fermion",
"section": "Section::::Elementary particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 671,
"text": "However, the right-handed sterile neutrinos introduced to explain neutrino oscillation could have Majorana masses. If they do, then at low energy (after electroweak symmetry breaking), by the seesaw mechanism, the neutrino fields would naturally behave as six Majorana fields, with three of them expected to have very high masses (comparable to the GUT scale) and the other three expected to have very low masses (below 1 eV). If right-handed neutrinos exist but do not have a Majorana mass, the neutrinos would instead behave as three Dirac fermions and their antiparticles with masses coming directly from the Higgs interaction, like the other Standard Model fermions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2024795",
"title": "Mathematical formulation of the Standard Model",
"section": "Section::::Lagrangian formalism.:Mass terms and the Higgs mechanism.:Neutrino masses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "It is possible to include both Dirac and Majorana mass terms in the same theory, which (in contrast to the Dirac-mass-only approach) can provide a “natural” explanation for the smallness of the observed neutrino masses, by linking the right-handed neutrinos to yet-unknown physics around the GUT scale (see seesaw mechanism).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21485",
"title": "Neutrino",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Mass.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "If the neutrino is a Majorana particle, the mass may be calculated by finding the half-life of neutrinoless double-beta decay of certain nuclei. The current lowest upper limit on the Majorana mass of the neutrino has been set by KamLAND-Zen: 0.060–0.161 eV.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12610",
"title": "Grand Unified Theory",
"section": "Section::::Neutrino masses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Since Majorana masses of the right-handed neutrino are forbidden by symmetry, GUTs predict the Majorana masses of right-handed neutrinos to be close to the GUT scale where the symmetry is spontaneously broken in those models. In supersymmetric GUTs, this scale tends to be larger than would be desirable to obtain realistic masses of the light, mostly left-handed neutrinos (see neutrino oscillation) via the seesaw mechanism. These predictions are independent of the Georgi–Jarlskog mass relations, wherein some GUTs predict other fermion mass ratios.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7215216",
"title": "Enriched Xenon Observatory",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "EXO measures the rate of neutrinoless decay events above the expected background of similar signals, to find or limit the double beta decay half-life, which relates to the effective neutrino mass using nuclear matrix elements. A limit on effective neutrino mass below 0.01 eV would determine the neutrino mass order. The effective neutrino mass is dependent on the lightest neutrino mass in such a way that that bound indicates the normal mass hierarchy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5352899",
"title": "KATRIN",
"section": "Section::::Importance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "The precise mass of the neutrino is important not only for particle physics, but also for cosmology. The observation of neutrino oscillation is strong evidence in favor of massive neutrinos, but gives only a weak lower bound.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "628198",
"title": "Majoron",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 233,
"text": "In particle physics, majorons (named after Ettore Majorana) are a hypothetical type of Goldstone boson that are theorized to mediate the neutrino mass violation of lepton number or \"B\" − \"L\" in certain high energy collisions such as\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
engu40 | Floating Feature: Close Up Shop and Celebrate History Coming to an End as 'The Story of Humankind' Concludes With Volume XIII from 1947 to 2000 CE! | [
{
"answer": "**The Agony and Exidy** \n\n\nVery few people know the name of Harold Ray \"Pete\" Kauffman. He ran what was a relatively obscure video arcade company who's heyday was in the 1970s, failing to make a major impact even as it persisted into 1999. However, the very fact that it persisted so long is one of the most fascinating stories in the history of the coin-op industry. Amidst rapid rises and falls all around them, the story of Exidy is an exemplary story of doing a lot out of passion in the face of horrid market conditions.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nExidy was always a technologist-driven company. Kaufmann himself was an engineer, and he first got his taste of video games from their very beginning. When Atari placed it's first unit of Pong on location in California in 1972, one of the owners of that bar was a man named Tom Adams, financial officer of a monitor company called Ramtek. Kaufmann was among the people who saw that very first unit there and he was behind the idea of Ramtek entering the business, which they did shortly thereafter. However, for reasons of ambition, Kaufmann decided that he could go it alone. With a few co-founders he started Exidy in October 1973, possibly the very first company post-Atari founded largely (though not exclusively) to create video games.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nSomething which isn't well remarked on by some scholars of the early video game period is just how much of a shakeup the video game was in personell terms. While many companies were able to create video games, a sustained output depended largely on having a solid state engineering staff. California had become one of the centers of the military industrial complex in the United States - largely due to it's advantageous location for aircraft operations against the Japanese during WWII. Out of that came not only Silicon Valley but hundreds of second generation engineers stifled by the purpose of that work which they saw as directly immoral. Many of them would not move from California either, meaning that much of the new opportunity for this coin-op business was rooted in California.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nBeing a new company wasn't all great however. One thing which Exidy never did was seek outside investment which would diminish Pete Kauffman's personal majority ownership in the company. This in part is why the company lasted for so long, and also why it never was able to achieve major success, lacking capitalization. In the very beginning, Exidy decided to supplement it's own light manufacturing by selling some game designs to the venerable Chicago Coin, who had far greater capacity and connections than they. The relationship was quite fruitful, and so it was proposed by top CC salesman Ken Anderson that the larger company could purchase Exidy and make the video game arm of the company. However, Chicago Coin could only see video games as a fad. They didn't want to invest in anymore than they had to in order to ride the wave. Solid state was not seen as the future.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe last positive benefit of this relationship was a co-design between the two companies on a driving game called Destruction/Demolition Derby (the game was named differently by both of them for release). Chicago Coin's machine shop helped create a cabinet with two sets of driving controls where players would mow down other vehicles for score. The agreement allowed both companies to sell their own version, but Chicago Coin started not paying Exidy as their mounting bankruptcy began to build. It's not quite clear as to why they needed to change the game - something to do with the contract - but they made a slight alteration and created a new game: The infamous Death Race. \n\n\n [_URL_0_](_URL_0_) \n\n & #x200B;\n\nDeath Race probably didn't sell more than 3,000 units - in a time when Atari's Breakout sold 11,000 - yet this boost created a ten fold increase to the company's sales. Even without robust capitalization, Exidy started exploring new areas for expansion. They began creating non-video arcade games like Old Time Basketball and even took on the idea of releasing a home computer: The Exidy Sorceror. They weren't the only arcade company to do this as Gremlin Industries had released the Noval desk computer, but the Sorceror was an actual personal computer and one they intended to support as a separate business. Programmers were hired in for both creating arcade games and stocking the Sorceror library, with ports and original games. This was further supplemented with contract development in the form of the hit Star Fire and even purchasing the flagging Vectorbeam company.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nWith great success though came a necessary weight to carry. Pete Kauffman was renowned through the industry as a gregarious personality, a true stand-out figure comparable to a Nolan Bushnell in terms of his likeability and drive. Unfortunately, he also had a love for the bottle. In the later hours of the day he was an absentee CEO hooked to the bar in his office. These stupors were impossible for anyone to penetrate through and so the company simply had to support itself during his absences. While a man who made many brilliant decisions and connections, Kauffman didn't know when to stop with anything.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nForward through the 80s, Exidy never had any monumental hits, but they always had interesting games. Chief among these were their light gun series of video games starting with Crossbow. They created the technology necessary for a non-cheatable light gun which established the way to do it through the entire CRT era as well as the gameplay one could get out of that.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nDespite surviving the massive downturn in the arcades suffered in the mid-80s, after the flagging period was over Exidy found itself on it's last ropes. While there was company investment from outside sources, Kauffman maintained his majority and did not bow to outside forces looking to acquire him. Sega was looking at making Exidy it's American arm at one point, but that deal did not happen (though people from Exidy would migrate to Sega over time). The competitive arm of video games had shifted to the Japanese and they simply could not compete anymore.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nKaufmann - who by this point had brought in his daughter Virginia - moved to the newly emerging field of redemption games. They mainly severed their ties with the fast excitement to fill the increasing needs of ski-ball, basketball, and novelty amusements which had less intense play value but more utility for the new arcade model. Exidy always remained small though, and the frequent offset of high-level work due to Pete's personal problems were always an impediment to staying ahead of the larger competition.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nAbout 26 years on from the company's founding, before the dawning of the new millennium, Exidy finally wrapped up it's operations. Kaufmann went to a quiet retirement before passing away in 2015. Exidy never had a name brand or solid franchise potential to keep itself relevant or memorable through the ages. It was a company built on new experiences and technology, sometimes decently successful and other times just behind the curve. It showcased the true relevance of the arcade at a critical juncture for the industry and what California truly meant for the emerging video game scene.\n\n & #x200B;\n\n\\----\n\n & #x200B;\n\nI hope this was a decent post. I hope I brought in greater relevant points rather than just point to point. The variety in these Features is very broad so I can only hope I made something with useful questions to further explore. Best of to all!",
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"answer": "So I thought I'd contribute a fascinating piece of history which highlights the relationship between academia and the \"real world\". It also gives me a way to discuss palimpsests of history.\n\nOn the 17th of May 1980 members of the Maoist group Shining Path (Sendero Luminoso) burned ballot boxes in their first major public appearance. This date was the 199th anniversary of the death of Tupac Amaru, leader of the largest indigenous revolt against Spanish colonial rule in the Andes. The importance of this date is paramount as it shapes the ideology of many in the region even today; for example during the reign of Evo Morales in Bolivia he would reference myths surrounding Tupac Katari (one of Amaru's generals).\n\nSendero Luminoso operated from 1980 to 1999 until internal divisions caused by the arrest of their leadership in 1992 split the group. At their peak in 1991 they controlled almost all of south and central Peru, and almost all of the highlands; effectively more of the country was in Shining Path's hand than the Government's. \n\nThe issue here is that the region before it became a hotbed for revolutionaries is that it was a hotbed for anthropologists. Key figures like Zuidema and Isbell had been working the region in the years before the revolt yet their works mention nothing of hostility towards the government or any Marxist influence. So why then did they fail to predict this? After living for years in these villages why did they fail to report on what was happening? \n\nI think its' worth approaching these questions from several angles. Firstly, to what extent was Shining Path actually present?, Secondly, was there methodological restrictions that failed to produce the information?",
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"answer": "**The 1980s neo-liberal reforms as an attempt to eliminate the military-industrial complex: part 1**\n\nNow that should be a provocative title!\n\nOver the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s, there were pro-market reforms across much of the world. These reforms were and are highly controversial. My purpose in this post is to give a high-level description of the reforms and of the economic theory and practical experiences that motivated them, followed by what I think are the strongest criticisms of them. \n\nA bit of background, I’m a New Zealander, and thus this description will be somewhat biased towards New Zealand as an example. My interests are in economic history and the history of economic thought. Combined, this means that I don’t know much about the politics behind the reforms in most countries, including the USA, so I will probably struggle to answer follow-up questions that focus on the politics. \n\n*What we can agree on*\n\nThey say that when writing a persuasive essay on a provocative topic, you should start with outlining areas of agreement. (I will be a bit lazy and use terms like 'no one' 'everyone' and 'all' in a loose sense, I’m sure you can find someone on reddit who disagrees on something!)\n\nWe all agree that markets fail from time to time. We all agree that governments fail from time to time. No one has blind faith in markets, no one has blind faith in governments. And, while we're at it, we all agree that non-government, non-profit institutions have their uses. Different people do tend to be more inclined to view particular institutions as useful in more situations than other people do, but even Communists agree that people should be able to hold personal possessions as their own property, and only the most thorough-going libertarian would deny a role for government in services like military defence, or, to pick a NZ example, biosecurity (keeping out foreign pests). The relevant question is, for a given economic problem, which type of institution is best at solving it, or, for a more pessimistic view, least-bad. I presume a thorough pessimist would declare that it doesn't matter, whatever the problem, the worst possible institution will be picked for it. \n\nWe all agree that people do not always behave rationally, and people always have limited information to base their decisions on, and that this is true both of people acting in markets and people acting in government. \n\nWe also, I think, mainly agree, that within the things that fall in the scope of government, different types of structures might be useful for different problems. Most democracies insulate judges of criminal and civil matters from direct democratic pressures (the USA is unusual in that many states elect at least some judges). Public healthcare systems like the UK’s NHS mainly leave medical treatment to be decided by the relevant doctors and their patients. Etc.\n\nEveryone agrees? Onto the history.",
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"answer": "**The Later Life and Works of Ding Ling: Controversy in the Field of Feminism**\n\n[Ding Ling](_URL_5_) (Born Jiang Bingzhi, 1904-1986) was a Chinese writer and socialist revolutionary, but above all, an avowed feminist. She rose to international fame among the socialist states in the East first, and then her works became famous during the counter-culture movement in the West during the 1970s. Yet in 1942 fellow feminists decried her beliefs and unwavering support for the male-dominated CCP as traitorous, and in 1957 she was labelled as a \"righist\" by the CCP. Then, in the later 1960s to her death, she was labelled as a traitor to feminism as a movement. What led to Ding Ling's fall from grace as one of the greatest feminists of the 20th century? This post will explain the early life of Ding Ling, with the second part discussing how her life took a turn towards controversy.\n\n**Ding Ling the Feminist**\n\nDing Ling was born like many other [May Fourthers](_URL_4_); into a declining gentry class in the middle of an identity crisis for the Chinese people. When she was three her father died, leaving large sums of money to her mother. This would change Ding Ling's life forever. Her mother proved to be unusually rebellious and after the father's death she used the money to educate herself in teaching, and began a career shortly after in one of China's newly reformed schools. Nothing of note happens in Ding Ling's life next until 1922 when Ding Ling comes of age. In order to escape a pre-arranged marriage to her cousin, Ding Ling's mother helps her escape Hunan to Shanghai, giving her enough money to survive on her own and enroll in a newly established women's school founded by Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao (the founders of the CCP).\n\nWhile in Shanghai, Ding Ling fell in love with Western literature. By the 1850s a new genre of literature became somewhat popular in the West, and that was the feminism found in works such as *Madame Bovary* by Gustave Flaubert, and most importantly for many Chinese literati, Henrik Ibsen's *A Doll House*. By the 1890s artists and writers such as Aubrey Beardsley began popularizing more erotic works. All these would come to influence Ding Ling tremendously.\n\nIn 1927 Ding Ling published two successful short stories, the first was *Mengke*, and the second was *Miss Sophie's Diary.* Both works focused on the psyche of young educated and urban women, and *Miss Sophie's Diary* especially focuses on the issues of women's erotic thoughts and perverted behavior of men towards women in public. In a revolutionary act, Ding Ling wrote about such controversial things like bisexuality, free-willed sex, and other erotic topics that could lead towards the psychological liberation of women.\n\n**Ding Ling the Socialist Revolutionary**\n\nThroughout the 1930s, Ding Ling becomes heavily involved in several left-wing writing circles. As early as 1931 her husband, Hu Yepin, was captured and then executed by the KMT. In 1933, she herself was captured and put under house arrest in Nanjing. She escaped in 1936 and fled to Ya'nan, smack dab in the middle of the Communist movement lead under Mao. She began teaching Chinese literature at the Red Army Academy. Yet despite her allure towards the legendary aura surrounding the CCP at this time, she quickly became critical of the treatment of women in the CCP. It was quite clear that despite all the theory and speeches given by prominent Party members, there were really no high ranking women. Women were still treated with contempt by men. It was all wrong, and not what Ding Ling envisioned true socialist feminism to be. She set herself to work, writing two of her most famous leftist works in 1941, \"[When I was in Xia Village](_URL_1_),\" and \"[In the Hospital](_URL_2_),\" both critiques of the treatment of women in the CCP. In 1942 she suffered her first serious censorship from the party after writing \"[Thoughts on March Eighth](_URL_0_),\" a critique that even in areas where class oppression has been lifted, gender inequality still existed. The essay did however have one lasting influence: along with other critical works, Mao responded by convening the \"[Yan'an Talks](_URL_3_),\" in 1942, a forum where all cultural critiques of the party would be solved once and for all. There a lot of stuff in this, but whats important for us is that Mao urged writers to \"overcome their petit-bourgeoisiness\" and place literature and art subordinate to politics. \n\n**Ding Ling the Controversial Figure**\n\nOK, SO, here's where the 1947+ dates become relevant (sorry about that long intro). \n\nIn 1948, Ding Ling wrote her first major socialist-realist novel: *The Sun Shines over Sanggan River* (the novel would take second place in the 1951 Stalin Prize for Literature). Her novels stopped focusing on one main, disenfranchised female character. Rather, they focused more heavily on how individuals could help **the state.** After the founding of the PRC, she held a high place in many literary cliques in Beijing and enjoyed a career writing propaganda and literature for the CCP. She expressed a love of China's new socialist policies and life under the CCP.\n\nIt is under these circumstances that Ding Ling becomes a controversial figure. Many fellow feminists were perplexed as to how one of the greatest feminist figures of the 20th century could have made such a deep 180 in writing and opinions. Everyone knew that the ill treatment of women didn't stop overnight with the Yan'an forum, so what led to her deciding to act as a female mouthpiece for Mao and the CCP afterwards? We don't exactly know, as she never came out and told anyone. During the Great Leap Forward she was labelled as an anti-Party leader and sent to Northeastern China to partake in hard labor on a farm due to her earlier anti-Party writings in the 1930s. \n\nUpon returning, she was once again imprisoned in Beijing for five years as she landed right in the middle of the Cultural Revolution. Through it all, however, she survived, and after her release and \"rehabilitation\" in 1976, she began to write essays and voice opinions again. She publishes her only work since Yan'an focusing on an individual woman, the novella *Du Wanxiang.* The story focuses on a model socialist woman, influenced by Ding Ling's years on the Northeastern farm, who selflessly works hard and is both considerate and accommodating. Again, a total 180 from the independent and rebellious women of her pre-1942 works. Instead of the main character focusing on destroying traditional values, this one works to reinforce them. \n\nThe work was also heavily criticized by Western feminists as well. Feminism in the West at its very core was individualist. And here was a once prominent feminist writer telling the tale of a conformist woman who sacrificed herself for the betterment of the commune/the state. It was totally against the basic principles of feminism. It was, to them, a total joke. \n\nIn the later years of her life, Ding Ling fought against what she saw as the encroachment of Westernism on Chinese society. In 1983 she supported the CCP's campaign against \"spiritual pollution\" in China. It puzzled many people as she remained a consistent vocal opponent to her death in 1986. \n\nBut some historians argue Ding Ling never fundamentally changed. Once introduced to communism, Ding Ling disregarded the individualism of feminism, and believed that true female liberation could only be achieved through national liberation. Feminist literature was a conduit for her to fulfill important political and social goals for women. In this sense, Ding Ling's various imprisonments and mistreatment by the CCP did not outweigh their contribution to the nation and to females all across China. In the words of [Jingyuan Zhang](_URL_6_), \"Ding Ling remained committed to the cause of revolution and feminism, a path on which she traveled and suffered, sometimes alone, sometimes with others, for more than sixty years, insisting to the end that in comparison with her cause, her personal sufferings were insignificant.\"",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "24050637",
"title": "Half a Life (short story collection)",
"section": "Section::::Content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The longest of the stories is also called \"Half a Life\" and tells the story of a Russian woman kidnapped by an alien spacecraft in the years following the second world war. In a distant, but unspecified future, human cosmonauts discover the alien ship floating in space, a derelict. Entering the ship, they soon realize that it was automated - run by robots with the apparent mission of collecting biologic specimens from different planets. (The purpose of this exploration remains undetermined, but one of the humans speculate that it may have been a lucky break for mankind that the ship never returned home.) One of the cosmonauts finds bits of a journal written in Russian, a diary of life aboard the spacecraft written by the abducted Russian woman, the ship's sole human occupant. Compiling the journal, the cosmonauts learn of the human author's attempts to bond with the ship's other intelligent specimens, and of their plot to escape the ship's crew of automatons. When the cosmonauts find the journal incomplete, they are forced to learn for themselves the fate of the author.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "10925268",
"title": "Space Museum (comics)",
"section": "Section::::Publication history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "\"Space Museum\" first appeared in the story \"The World of Doomed Spacemen\" in \"Strange Adventures\" #104 (May 1959), written by creator Gardner Fox under the editorship of Julius Schwartz. The series of 8-page stories was published in rotation with two others, \"The Atomic Knights\" and \"Star Hawkins\", and appeared in every third issue of \"Strange Adventures\" from #106 - 157 (July 1959 - October 1963), with one last story, \"Space Museum of the Dead World,\" in issue #161 (February 1964) - a total of 20 stories. With the exception of the first tale, which was drawn by Mike Sekowsky and Bernard Sachs, all the other Space Museum stories were drawn by Carmine Infantino. Only the initial story featured on the cover of \"Strange Adventures\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "10925268",
"title": "Space Museum (comics)",
"section": "Section::::Fictional history.:\"Strange Adventures\" - 1959 - 1964.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "\"Space Museum\" in \"Strange Adventures\" was an anthology series set in the 25th century featuring mainly unlinked heroic tales of outer space adventure; with a regular framing sequence that opens and closes each episode with the only continuing characters - Howard Parker and his young son Tommy (and on three occasions his mother) making their monthly visit to the Space Museum, later established as being in Metropolis. It is a museum dedicated to showcasing the history of five centuries of human space travel, and features many exhibits in transparent display cases, each artifact from an adventure an Earth space traveller had had in outer space. The objects in the display cases are often ordinary, although somehow they were used to either save the Earth or some other planet from disaster: \"Behind every object in the Space Museum there's a tale of heroism, daring, self sacrifice.\" During these visits Tommy always asks his father about one exhibit in particular, and Howard Parker then tells his son the story behind that exhibit, including:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1816950",
"title": "The Space Museum",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The Space Museum is the seventh serial of the second season in the British science fiction television series \"Doctor Who\", which was first broadcast in four weekly parts from 24 April to 15 May 1965. Set in a space museum on the planet Xeros, the serial has the time traveller the First Doctor (William Hartnell) and his travelling companions Ian Chesterton (William Russell), Barbara Wright (Jacqueline Hill), and Vicki (Maureen O'Brien) looking for a way to change their fate after seeing themselves turned into museum exhibits in the future.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "48803265",
"title": "Roger Zelazny bibliography",
"section": "Section::::Bibliography.:Anthologies edited by Zelazny.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 123,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 123,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "Zelazny created and edited a shared world anthology called \"Forever After\". The frame story uses preludes, written by Roger, to connect the stories. This shared world involved stories by Robert Asprin, David Drake, Jane Lindskold, and Michael A. Stackpole. \"Forever After\" was published by Baen Books posthumously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "6376714",
"title": "Time portal",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.:Television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "In the 1967 \"\" episode \"The City on the Edge of Forever\", a temporarily deranged Dr. Leonard McCoy runs into a time portal, an ancient sentient stone-like ring which calls itself the Guardian of Forever, and is transported back to 1930s Depression-era Earth and history is changed as shown when the Enterprise disappears from orbit. Captain James T. Kirk and Mr. Spock follow through the time portal to set things right.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "18279656",
"title": "Goodbye, 20th Century!",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "\"Goodbye, 20th Century!\" consists of three stories of extreme violence and emotional despair. The first takes place in the year 2019, where the world has become an environment of apocalyptic wreckage and ruin. A man named Kuzman is sentenced to death by a nomadic tribe, but their attempts to fatally shoot the condemned man are a failure. Fated to live forever, Kuzman wanders the wasteland until he encounters an enigmatic figure who offers him information on how he can escape eternal life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
iwewz | Can theories be proven or is it that they have just failed to be disproved? | [
{
"answer": "You are correct.\n\nThe general answer for the scientific method is that nothing can be proven, only disproven. \n\nHowever, once a hypothesis has passed enough experimental tests that the only other competing hypothesizes are clearly wrong, then the hypothesis becomes a \"theory\" meaning it has a great deal of acceptance in the scientific community.",
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"answer": "If one's using [Bayesian Inference](_URL_0_), one can indeed accumulate evidence that supports a hypothesis. As a caveat, however, since one can't really compute the implications of all possible hypotheses and shove that through the calculation each time, you can't, strictly speaking, be sure the evidence isn't supporting another hypothesis more strongly. (If one has a more restricted hypothesis space, one can at times effectively do the full computation over it)\n\nAlternately, it can be easier sometimes to spot outcomes that emphatically knock down the probability of a hypothesis relative to _at least one_ other hypothesis vs outcomes that would strongly raise the probability relative to _all_ other hypotheses.\n\nBut yes, there is such a thing as supporting evidence, not just refuting evidence.",
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"answer": "I think it's worth pointing out that you can prove theorems for the theory side of subjects like economics and physics (much like in pure mathematics), but you cannot prove that this is how the real world works. That is, theorems and scientific theories are not the same thing.",
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"answer": "Given axioms, theories can be \"proven\", but the axioms themselves are by definition not proven themselves.\n\nYou can have conditional proof \"If X then Y\" but not absolute proof \"Y is true\".",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "48966861",
"title": "Ajñana",
"section": "Section::::Jain account.:On knowledge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
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"text": "To the Sceptics, none of the contending theories, proposed by limited intellect, can be known to be true, since they are mutually contradictory. Also, any new theory is bound to contradict existing theories, and hence cannot be true. Hence nothing can be known to be true. Thus the Sceptics conclude that the contradictions of metaphysics and the impossibility of omniscience leads them to accept Scepticism.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "16119131",
"title": "Vokil",
"section": "Section::::Theories regarding origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
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"text": "However, such theories are controversial and cannot be all true. Conclusive evidence proving or disproving them has never been presented and there is no consensus amongst scholars on whether or not such links exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "3130055",
"title": "Duhem–Quine thesis",
"section": "Section::::The substance of the thesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "The Duhem–Quine thesis argues that no scientific hypothesis is by itself capable of making predictions. Instead, deriving predictions from the hypothesis typically requires background assumptions that several other hypotheses are correct; for example, that an experiment works as predicted or that previous scientific theory is sufficiently accurate. For instance, as evidence against the idea that the Earth is in motion, some people objected that birds did not get thrown off into the sky whenever they let go of a tree branch. Later theories of physics and astronomy, such as classical and relativistic mechanics could account for such observations without positing a fixed Earth, and in due course they replaced the static-Earth auxiliary hypotheses and initial conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "3710507",
"title": "Proof of impossibility",
"section": "Section::::In natural science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
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"text": "In natural science, impossibility assertions (like other assertions) come to be widely accepted as overwhelmingly probable rather than considered proved to the point of being unchallengeable. The basis for this strong acceptance is a combination of extensive evidence of something not occurring, combined with an underlying theory, very successful in making predictions, whose assumptions lead logically to the conclusion that something is impossible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "16623",
"title": "Karl Popper",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 89,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The Quine-Duhem thesis argues that it's impossible to test a single hypothesis on its own, since each one comes as part of an environment of theories. Thus we can only say that the whole package of relevant theories has been collectively falsified, but cannot conclusively say which element of the package must be replaced. An example of this is given by the discovery of the planet Neptune: when the motion of Uranus was found not to match the predictions of Newton's laws, the theory \"There are seven planets in the solar system\" was rejected, and not Newton's laws themselves. Popper discussed this critique of naïve falsificationism in Chapters 3 and 4 of \"The Logic of Scientific Discovery\". For Popper, theories are accepted or rejected via a sort of selection process. Theories that say more about the way things appear are to be preferred over those that do not; the more generally applicable a theory is, the greater its value. Thus Newton's laws, with their wide general application, are to be preferred over the much more specific \"the solar system has seven planets\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1678145",
"title": "Underdetermination",
"section": "Section::::Arguments involving underdetermination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Arguments involving underdetermination attempt to show that there is no reason to believe some conclusion because it is underdetermined by the evidence. Then, if the evidence available at a particular time can be equally well explained by at least one other hypothesis, there is no reason to believe it rather than the equally supported rival, which can be considered observationally equivalent (although many other hypotheses may still be eliminated).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "198507",
"title": "Scientific theory",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Acceptance of a theory does not require that all of its major predictions be tested, if it is already supported by sufficiently strong evidence. For example, certain tests may be unfeasible or technically difficult. As a result, theories may make predictions that have not yet been confirmed or proven incorrect; in this case, the predicted results may be described informally with the term \"theoretical\". These predictions can be tested at a later time, and if they are incorrect, this may lead to the revision or rejection of the theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
5bgez4 | Are there any examples of animals practicing medicine in the wild? | [
{
"answer": "There are parrots in the amazon that eat fruit that is toxic to them. Every evening they fly to a riverbank with an exposed clay cliff and eat some of the clay. The minerals in the clay neutralise the poison. I wish I could remember more details, like the species of parrot and the specific type of fruit.",
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"answer": "I'm not sure if this is quite what you're looking for, but Leafcutter Ants famously cultivate Actinobacteria which secrete antibiotics that the ants use to protect their fungal farms from bacterial infection. So, more pesticide than medicine per se, but still.\n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": "The word you're looking for is zoopharmacognosy. \n\n It's strongly theorized that domestic dogs eat grass when they have stomach irritation to facilitate vomiting and soothe their stomachs.\n\nNonhuman primates have a wide variety of self-medicating behaviors including eating kaolin-rich clay or charcoal to soothe their stomachs, and using plants or bugs to rub down their fur as insecticides. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "5992",
"title": "Traditional Chinese medicine",
"section": "Section::::Herbal medicine.:Raw materials.:Animal substances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 176,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 176,
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"text": "Some animal parts used as medicinals can be considered rather strange such as cows' gallstones, hornet's nests, leeches, and scorpion. Other examples of animal parts include horn of the antelope or buffalo, deer antlers, testicles and penis bone of the dog, and snake bile. Some TCM textbooks still recommend preparations containing animal tissues, but there has been little research to justify the claimed clinical efficacy of many TCM animal products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "79666",
"title": "Economics of biodiversity",
"section": "Section::::Medication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Animals may also play a role, in particular in research. In traditional remedies, animals are extensively used as drugs. Many animals also medicate \"themselves\". Zoopharmacognosy is the study of how animals use plants, insects and other inorganic materials in self-medicatation. In an interview with the late Neil Campbell, Eloy Rodriguez describes the importance of biodiversity:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "19374",
"title": "Model organism",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 752,
"text": "Other 20th-century medical advances and treatments that relied on research performed in animals include organ transplant techniques, the heart-lung machine, antibiotics, and the whooping cough vaccine. Treatments for animal diseases have also been developed, including for rabies, anthrax, glanders, feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), tuberculosis, Texas cattle fever, classical swine fever (hog cholera), heartworm, and other parasitic infections. Animal experimentation continues to be required for biomedical research, and is used with the aim of solving medical problems such as Alzheimer's disease, AIDS, multiple sclerosis, spinal cord injury, many headaches, and other conditions in which there is no useful \"in vitro\" model system available.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1520448",
"title": "Sukuma people",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Traditional Medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 645,
"text": "There is not much information on the Sukuma tribes use of animals in their medicine.This is mostly because a lot of the research that has been done on the medicinal practices of this tribe have been plant based. A study was conducted in the Busega District of Tanzania, an area comprising the Serengeti Game Reserve and Lake Victoria, to determine which faunal resources healers use to treat illnesses within the community. 98 Community members (farmers, healers, fisherman, and cultural officers), aged 55 and older, were interviewed to obtain their knowledge on which animals were used to treat illnesses. These were the results of the study:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "7800672",
"title": "History of animal testing",
"section": "Section::::In medicine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "Throughout the 20th century, research that used live animals has led to many other medical advances and treatments for human diseases, such as: organ transplant techniques and anti-transplant rejection medications, the heart-lung machine, antibiotics like penicillin, and whooping cough vaccine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "32587",
"title": "Veganism",
"section": "Section::::Animal products.:Avoidance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "An important concern is the case of medications, which are routinely tested on animals to ensure they are effective and safe, and may also contain animal ingredients, such as lactose, gelatine, or stearates. There may be no alternatives to prescribed medication or these alternatives may be unsuitable, less effective, or have more adverse side effects. Experimentation with laboratory animals is also used for evaluating the safety of vaccines, food additives, cosmetics, household products, workplace chemicals, and many other substances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "11039790",
"title": "Animal",
"section": "Section::::In human culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Animals such as the fruit fly \"Drosophila melanogaster\" serve a major role in science as experimental models. Animals have been used to create vaccines since their discovery in the 18th century. Some medicines such as the cancer drug Yondelis are based on toxins or other molecules of animal origin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
szd6q | Can someone lend a neutral analysis of Mao, the Cultural Revolution, and the Great Leap Forward? | [
{
"answer": "Well I will be honest I don't have anything more than an undergraduate's understanding of China, having taken a few classes on the subject, but I have a few things to say here.\n\nFirst the problem with the article you linked is that it is overwhelmingly arguing from a position of \"well the evidence that this happened might not be true.\" The problem with that tactic is that it is sort of a rabbit hole, you can basically argue almost anything from that position but it doesn't prove the reverse happened.\n\nAdditionally, even if the numbers of people who died in the famine are disputed (they typically range from 30-50 million in most things I've seen), there does seem to be a general agreement that such a famine occurred. \n\nBasically I would say that unless some smoking gun evidence appears that suggests this massive famine didn't occur, it would be reasonable to assume it did.\n\nOh and Mao is still on the hook for the nightmare that was the Cultural Revolution. \n",
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"answer": "While I cannot really answer your question, what I will say is that you are specifically looking for evidence to show something that supports your ideology, and that is a terrible idea. You shouldn't let your beliefs influence the evidence that exists. You don't have to be maoist or stalinist to be communist, in fact, I would imagine Marx would be horrified with the \"communism\" of the 20th century and view it for the totalitarian horror that it was. So I would ask you to accept that yes Mao was terrible, and that Stalin was terrible and because of Soviet influence most communist regimes of the 20th century were terrible. But this doesn't mean communism as an ideology is terrible.\n\nAlso I just checked out /r/communism again, and wow, that place is probably the worst political community on Reddit, I mean most political subreddits are filled with rhetoric and circlejerkery but the people posting there truly terrify me.",
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"answer": "Disclaimer: I am no historian and my only credential is being a younger generation Chinese whose parents lived through that era. I am a little surprised that you used the word \"genocide\". I have always viewed the great leap forward and cultural revolution as major fcukups, especially the former. It's not like Mao was out to systematically eradicate millions of his own countrymen, is it? The famine is very real but I don't know if we will have an accurate death toll. A lot of atrocities were committed during the cultural revolution and obviously Mao is responsible. But from my understanding, the situation is very different from the Holocaust where the higher level officials laid out a plan to kill people and the soldiers just carried out orders. My impression is that a lot of ordinary Chinese people, swept up in a frenzy, made conscious decisions to actually commit cruelties against their neighbors, coworkers, etc. For example, there were large scale armed conflicts between different factions of revolutionary guards and many people died from this. I honestly think this is more human stupidity than genocide. On a side note, the article you linked mentioned a book by Jung Chang(author of Wild Swan). I'd be cautious about any claim she makes because I recently saw the play Wild Swan and got the impression that the author is a little disingenuous. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "45311",
"title": "Cultural Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:China.:Communist Party opinions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 155,
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"text": "The official view aimed to separate Mao's actions during the Cultural Revolution from his \"heroic\" revolutionary activities during the Chinese Civil War and the Second Sino-Japanese War. It also separated Mao's personal mistakes from the correctness of the theory that he created, going as far as to rationalize that the Cultural Revolution contravened the spirit of Mao Zedong Thought, which remains an official guiding ideology of the Party. Deng Xiaoping famously summed this up with the phrase \"Mao was 70% good, 30% bad.\" After the Cultural Revolution, Deng affirmed that Maoist ideology was responsible for the revolutionary success of the Communist Party, but abandoned it in practice to favour \"Socialism with Chinese characteristics\", a very different model of state-directed market economics.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "37794044",
"title": "Mao: A Reinterpretation",
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"text": "Mao: A Reinterpretation is a biography of the Chinese communist revolutionary and politician Mao Zedong written by Lee Feigon, an American historian of China then working at Colby College. It was first published by Ivan R. Dee in 2002, and would form the basis of Feigon's 2006 documentary \"Passion of the Mao\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60766489",
"title": "Claude Cadart",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "In the early 1960s, Cadart became a researcher at the (CERI) of Sciences Po and dedicated himself to the study of contemporary China. At a time when many sinologists considered Mao Zedong a visionary leader, Cadart cautioned that Mao's political campaigns, most notably the Cultural Revolution, were not the liberation movements that many European leftists had envisioned, but were merely political machinations for maintaining his own power. This was before Simon Leys published \"Les Habits neufs du président Mao\" in 1971, the famous work that exposed the destructions of Mao's Cultural Revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45311",
"title": "Cultural Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:China.:Communist Party opinions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 153,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 153,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "To make sense of the mass chaos caused by Mao's leadership in the Cultural Revolution while preserving the Party's authority and legitimacy, Mao's successors needed to lend the event a \"proper\" historical judgment. On June 27, 1981, the Central Committee adopted the \"\"Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party Since the Founding of the People's Republic of China\",\" an official assessment of major historical events since 1949.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45311",
"title": "Cultural Revolution",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:China.:Communist Party opinions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 154,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 154,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "The Resolution frankly noted Mao's leadership role in the movement, stating that \"chief responsibility for the grave 'Left' error of the 'Cultural Revolution,' an error comprehensive in magnitude and protracted in duration, does indeed lie with Comrade Mao Zedong.\" It diluted blame on Mao himself by asserting that the movement was \"manipulated by the counterrevolutionary groups of Lin Biao and Jiang Qing,\" who caused its worst excesses. The Resolution affirmed that the Cultural Revolution \"brought serious disaster and turmoil to the Communist Party and the Chinese people.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "752599",
"title": "Joan Robinson",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "\"The Cultural Revolution in China\" is written from the perspective of trying to understand the thinking that lay behind the revolution, particularly Mao Zedong's preoccupations. Mao is seen as aiming to recapture a revolutionary sense in a population that had known only, or had grown used to, stable Communism, so that it could \"re-educate the Party\" (pp. 20, 27); to instill a realisation that the people needed the guidance of the Party and much as the other way round (p. 20); to re-educate intellectuals who failed to see that their role in society, like that of all other groups, was to 'Serve the People' (pp. 33, 43); and finally to secure a succession, not stage-managed by the Party hierarchy or even by Mao himself but the product of interaction between a revitalised people and a revitalised Party (p. 26).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14240590",
"title": "8th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China",
"section": "Section::::Chronology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "BULLET::::- Significance: The meeting repeated Mao Zedong's assessment that Chinese economy was to take agriculture as basis to develop industry. The session's official communique also started to outline Mao Zedong's \"theory of continued revolution under proletarian dictatorship\" which led to the Cultural Revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
enjhs0 | Is there any peculiarity about the places a supercontinent splits (e.g. the Atlantic coastlines of Africa and South America) or is it just about the subterranean magma flow? | [
{
"answer": "There are a couple of things that (potentially) contribute to where the rift system that breaks up a supercontinent will localize, but all of them will generally lead to the rift system initiating broadly in the center of the supercontinent and roughly coincident with where the supercontinent was joined together in the first place. \n\nIn detail, the presence of the supercontinent contributes to (1) an accumulation of heat beneath the supercontinent from insulation of the mantle by the thick continental crust, which will be greatest roughly near the center of the continental mass and (2) the development of a [geoid](_URL_1_) high within the supercontinent (and a corresponding geoid low in the surrounding ocean basin). In a very general sense, warmer earth materials mean weaker earth materials, so the first property would tend to make areas in the center of the supercontinent weaker. The geoid high represents an instability that likely drives (or at least contributes to) the breakup of the supercontinent. Once there is a force driving supercontinent breakup, the resulting rifts will localize where the continental crust is the weakest (i.e. if you start deforming any heterogeneous material, the weakest portion will start deforming first). As mentioned earlier, the center of the supercontinent may be warmer and weaker due to the insulation effect, but anything that contributes to a reduction in strength in a particular area may help to initiate a rift in that region. One of the primary sources of weakness are preexisting structures, meaning that the [sutures](_URL_0_) marking the locations where the constituent continental portions of plates were joined during supercontinent assembly likely are important 'guides' for the localization of rifts during breakup. Pangea is a good example, at least in the North America - Europe portion, as the rifting largely followed the location of the mountain ranges (e.g. the Appalachians, etc) that were formed during the assembly of Pangea. For those interested in more details, there are a variety of review papers about the supercontitent cycle which discuss the breakup and assembly processes (and the variety of ideas related to them) in great detail, e.g. these papers [1](_URL_2_), [2](_URL_3_), or [3](_URL_4_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1514751",
"title": "Triple junction",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "In plate tectonics theory during the breakup of a continent, three divergent boundaries form, radiating out from a central point (the triple junction). One of these divergent plate boundaries fails (see aulacogen) and the other two continue spreading to form an ocean. The opening of the south Atlantic Ocean started at the south of the South American and African continents, reaching a triple junction in the present Gulf of Guinea, from where it continued to the west. The NE-trending Benue Trough is the failed arm of this junction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2113608",
"title": "Supercontinent cycle",
"section": "Section::::Relation to global tectonics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "During break-up of the supercontinent, rifting environments dominate. This is followed by passive margin environments, while seafloor spreading continues and the oceans grow. This in turn is followed by the development of collisional environments that become increasingly important with time. First collisions are between continents and island arcs, but lead ultimately to continent-continent collisions. This is the situation that was observed during the Paleozoic supercontinent cycle and is being observed for the Mesozoic–Cenozoic supercontinent cycle, still in progress.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "497007",
"title": "Rift valley",
"section": "Section::::Earth's rift valleys.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Many existing continental rift valleys are the result of a failed arm (aulacogen) of a triple junction, although there are two, the East African Rift and the Baikal Rift Zone, which are currently active, as well as a third which may be, the West Antarctic Rift. In these instances, not only the crust, but also entire tectonic plates, are in the process of breaking apart to create new plates. If they continue, continental rifts will eventually become oceanic rifts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6235399",
"title": "Sclavia Craton",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 482,
"text": "The break-up of Sclavia, and possibly other continents or supercratons, can be linked to a global pulse of magmatic activity around 2.33–2.1 Gya probably caused by increased mantle plume activity. Related results of this mantle activity include the 2.3 Ga-old Precambrian dyke swarms in the Dharwar Craton in southern India which were emplaced in only five million years. Similar swarms have been found in what is today Antarctica, Australia, Finland, Greenland, and North America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25706228",
"title": "Paleocontinent",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Rodinia.:Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "It was the first supercontinent to form on Earth, all the continental crust on Earth came together and formed one giant land mass. This land mass was surrounded by an even larger ocean, known as Mirovia. There were about four smaller continents that collided and came together to form Rodinia. This event is called the Grenville Orogeny. This caused there to be mountain building along the areas of were continents collided. This is because the continental crust is not very dense so neither continent would sink or sub duct. This causes the formation of Fold and Thrust belts, similar to the Himalayas today.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "826017",
"title": "Pangaea Ultima",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 573,
"text": "Supercontinents describe the merger of all, or nearly all, of the Earth's landmass into a single contiguous continent. In the Pangaea Ultima scenario, subduction at the western Atlantic, east of the Americas, leads to the subduction of the Atlantic mid-ocean ridge followed by subduction destroying the Atlantic and Indian basin, causing the Atlantic and Indian Oceans to close, bringing the Americas back together with Africa and Europe. As with most supercontinents, the interior of Pangaea Proxima would probably become a semi-arid desert prone to extreme temperatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63503",
"title": "Duluth, Minnesota",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Geological history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "The geology of Duluth demonstrates the Midcontinent Rift, formed as the North American continent (Laurentia) began to split apart about 1.1 billion years ago. Continental rifting is a recurring process in the history of the earth that leads to break-up of continents and the formation of ocean basins. In the Lake Superior region, the upwelling of molten rock may have been the result of a hot spot that produced a dome over the Lake Superior area. As the earth's crust thinned, magma rose toward the surface. When insulated by overlying roof rock, the upwelling magma cooled slowly, and is therefore coarse-grained. These intrusions formed a sill some thick, primarily of gabbro, which is known as the Duluth Complex. In the areas where the rising magma erupted to the surface and cooled rapidly, basalt, the extrusive equivalent of gabbro, was formed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
8dkde5 | studying vs fun | [
{
"answer": "Feel good now many times or feel good once later in the future? Your brain prefers the former.\n\nIt comes down to gratification frequency in your brain. The frequency of dopamine release you get from video games is shorter in video games since you can get instantly rewarded for your tasks, feeding into a cycle. Think about it each time you pick up treasure or beat a hard boss. Whereas studying has a long-term dopamine award that you won't see without seeing your exam grade. That's why people often suggest creating your own dopamine awards when you've finished a study period (e.g., I can continue watching my TV show if I finish writing this report or finish studying).\n\nThe same analogy can be applied to diets too. Eating a bag of chips is highly addictive for the average person, but following a healthy diet is better for your body. Unfortunately, your brain prefers the former earlier. The mentality of preference over instant gratification probably stems from primitive times when instant gratification was necessary to ensure immediate survival in a time before modern civilization and technology.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22751659",
"title": "Fun School",
"section": "Section::::Fun School Specials.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 327,
"text": "\"Fun School Specials\" is a set of educational games, created in 1993 by Europress Software, consisting of four different games. Upon demand, Europress designed each game specifically with a certain major topic to add depth to spelling, maths, creativity and science, respectively and comply fully with the National Curriculum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46433",
"title": "Fun",
"section": "Section::::Psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1006,
"text": "It has been suggested that games, toys, and activities perceived as fun are often challenging in some way. When a person is challenged to think consciously, overcome challenge and learn something new, they are more likely to enjoy a new experience and view it as fun. A change from routine activities appears to be at the core of this perception, since people spend much of a typical day engaged in activities that are routine and require limited conscious thinking. Routine information is processed by the brain as a \"chunked pattern\": \"We rarely look at the real world\", according to game designer Raph Koster, \"we instead recognize something we have chunked, and leave it at that. [...] One might argue that the essence of much of art is in forcing us to see things as they really are rather than as we assume them to be\". Since it helps people to relax, fun is sometimes regarded as a \"social lubricant\", important in adding \"to one's pleasure in life\" and helping to \"act as a buffer against stress\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46433",
"title": "Fun",
"section": "Section::::Etymology and usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "The pleasure of fun can be seen by the numerous efforts to harness its positive associations. For example, there are many books on serious subjects, about skills such as music, mathematics and languages, normally quite difficult to master, which have \"fun\" added to the title.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46433",
"title": "Fun",
"section": "Section::::Psychology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 266,
"text": "For children, fun is strongly related to play and they have great capacity to extract the fun from it in a spontaneous and inventive way. Play \"involves the capacity to have fun – to be able to return, at least for a little while, to never-never land and enjoy it.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "217777",
"title": "Educational entertainment",
"section": "Section::::History.:Concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Interest in combining education with entertainment, especially in order to make learning more enjoyable, has existed for hundreds of years, with the Renaissance and Enlightenment being movements in which this combination was presented to students. Komenský in particular is affiliated with the “school as play” concept, which proposes pedagogy with dramatic or delightful elements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22751659",
"title": "Fun School",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "Fun School is a series of educational packages developed and published in the United Kingdom by Europress Software, initially as \"Database Educational Software\". The original Fun School titles were sold mostly by mail order via off-the-page adverts in the magazines owned by Database Publications. A decision was made to create a new set of programs, call the range Fun School 2, and package them more professionally so they could be sold in computer stores around the UK. Every game comes as a set of three versions, each version set to cater for a specific age range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35529150",
"title": "Flipped classroom",
"section": "Section::::With other educational approaches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "A step forward in the flipped-mastery model would be to include gamification elements in the learning process. Gamification is the application of game mechanisms in situations not directly related to games. The basic idea is to identify what motivates a game and see how it can be applied in the teaching-learning model (in this case it would be Flipped-Mastery). The results of the Fun Theory research showed that fun can significantly change people's behavior in a positive sense, in the same way that it has a positive effect on education (Volkswagen, 2009).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
gxuyk | Would it be possible to make a device to see radio/TV/cell phone signals, the same way an infrared camera can "see" heat? | [
{
"answer": "This is used a lot in astronomy [pic](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is very difficult to resolve an image using large wavelengths. A cell phone operates around 900 MHz, which has a 33 cm wavelength. You can use the formula for [angular resolution](_URL_0_) to calculate the aperture size of the \"camera\" you are using. As the wavelength of the signal increases, the camera size increases. For radio signals, the size becomes unrealistically high for small objects like cell phones.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "667206",
"title": "Touchscreen",
"section": "Section::::Construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "There are two infrared-based approaches. In one, an array of sensors detects a finger touching or almost touching the display, thereby interrupting infrared light beams projected over the screen. In the other, bottom-mounted infrared cameras record heat from screen touches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5096985",
"title": "Wii Remote",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Sensing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1184,
"text": "The use of an infrared sensor to detect position can cause some detection problems in the presence of other infrared sources, such as incandescent light bulbs or candles. This can be alleviated by using fluorescent or LED lights, which emit little to no infrared light, around the Wii. Innovative users have used other sources of IR light, such as a pair of flashlights or a pair of candles, as Sensor Bar substitutes. The Wii Remote picks up traces of heat from the sensor, then transmits it to the Wii console to control the pointer on your screen. Such substitutes for the Sensor Bar illustrate the fact that a pair of non-moving lights provide continuous calibration of the direction that the Wii Remote is pointing and its physical location relative to the light sources. There is no way to calibrate the position of the cursor relative to where the user is pointing the controller without the two stable reference sources of light provided by the Sensor Bar or substitutes. Third-party wireless sensor bars have also been released, which have been popular with users of Wii emulators since the official Sensor Bar utilizes a proprietary connector to connect to the Wii console.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48446867",
"title": "Assistive Technology for Deaf and Hard of Hearing",
"section": "Section::::Hearing Technology.:Assistive Listening Devices.:Infrared.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "These systems utilize light waves to transmit sound from the transmitter to a special light sensitive receiver. The signal can be broadcast to a whole room through speakers or a person who wears an individual receiver. There must be a clear line of connection between the transmitter and receiver so that the light signal is not interrupted. The benefit of infrared systems is that they only work in the room where the transmitter and receiver are located resulting in significantly fewer issues with cross-over. These systems can be sensitive to external light sources or interfering objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23604",
"title": "Photography",
"section": "Section::::Techniques.:Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Modified digital cameras can detect some ultraviolet, all of the visible and much of the near infrared spectrum, as most digital imaging sensors are sensitive from about 350 nm to 1000 nm. An off-the-shelf digital camera contains an infrared hot mirror filter that blocks most of the infrared and a bit of the ultraviolet that would otherwise be detected by the sensor, narrowing the accepted range from about 400 nm to 700 nm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15022",
"title": "Infrared",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Night vision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The use of infrared light and night vision devices should not be confused with thermal imaging, which creates images based on differences in surface temperature by detecting infrared radiation (heat) that emanates from objects and their surrounding environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1054632",
"title": "Infrared photography",
"section": "Section::::Digital Cameras.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "Remote sensing and thermographic cameras are sensitive to longer wavelengths of infrared (see ). They may be multispectral and use a variety of technologies which may not resemble common camera or filter designs. Cameras sensitive to longer infrared wavelengths including those used in infrared astronomy often require cooling to reduce thermally induced dark currents in the sensor (see Dark current (physics)). Lower cost uncooled thermographic digital cameras operate in the Long Wave infrared band (see Thermographic camera#Uncooled infrared detectors). These cameras are generally used for building inspection or preventative maintenance but can be used for artistic pursuits as well, such as this image of a cup of coffee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15022",
"title": "Infrared",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "law enforcement, and medical applications. Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected. Infrared astronomy uses sensor-equipped telescopes to penetrate dusty regions of space such as molecular clouds, detect objects such as planets, and to view highly red-shifted objects from the early days of the universe. Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, to observe changing blood flow in the skin, and to detect overheating of electrical apparatus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2bbdxo | why is it difficult for the investigators to find the flight recorder from the downed malaysia flight 17 , when there is supposed to be a beacon pin-pointing its location ? | [
{
"answer": "Finding the proverbial black box is simple if it's left where it is. The moment someone picks it up, removes the pinger, and sticks it on a truck -- it becomes hard to find. Rebels (or Russians, I don't know that there's a practical way to distinguish) have been all over the site removing \"stuff\".\n\nThe working hypothesis, based on the fact that rebels or Russians aiding rebels, have shot down several aircraft in the past couple of weeks is that whoever shot the missile downing the plane probably thought that it was a Ukrainian transport plane (probably rebels, since I think it's unlikely a professional Russian soldier would make such a stupid mistake). Ukraine intelligence even offered up something they claim to be an intercepted communiqué between rebels and Russian forces indicating as much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38022771",
"title": "Air Bagan Flight 11",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "The aircraft's flight recorders were sent to the Australian Transport Safety Bureau for analysis. Initial statements by the authorities suggested that the pilots mistook a road for the airport's runway in low visibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "108257",
"title": "Korean Air Lines Flight 007",
"section": "Section::::Investigations.:Interim developments.:Soviet memoranda.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "However in case the flight recorders shall become available to the western countries their data may be used for: Confirmation of no attempt by the intercepting aircraft to establish a radio contact with the intruder plane on 121.5 MHz and no tracers warning shots in the last section of the flight\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "266875",
"title": "CommutAir",
"section": "Section::::Incidents and accidents.:CommutAir Flight 4821.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The aircraft was not required to be equipped with a flight data recorder, therefore a flight data recorder was not present. The cockpit voice recorder was burned to the point that the data inside was not usable. The National Transportation Safety Board used aircraft position data from air traffic control, the aircraft wreckage, survivor interviews, and weather information to find its probable cause.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48722105",
"title": "1977 Gary Powers helicopter crash",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath and investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "the helicopter was the video recorder and four video cassettes. The aircraft was not equipped with a flight data recorder (FDR) or a cockpit voice recorder (CVR) and investigators had hoped the tapes might have clues to the reason for the crash but apparently the recorder was not operating at the time of the incident.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23201284",
"title": "List of unrecovered flight recorders",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Flight data recorders (FDRs) and cockpit voice recorders (CVRs) in commercial aircraft continuously record information and can provide key evidence in determining the causes of an aircraft loss. The greatest depth from which a flight recorder has been recovered is , for the CVR of South African Airways Flight 295. Most flight recorders are equipped with Underwater locator beacons to assist searchers in recovering them from offshore crash sites, however these beacons run off a battery and eventually stop transmitting. For various reasons, a flight recorder cannot always be recovered, and many recorders that are recovered are too damaged to provide any data.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14494300",
"title": "Atlasjet Flight 4203",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.:Flight recorders.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "Contrary to initial news reports, which stated that both flight recorders had been successfully read-out, the investigation team determined that the flight recorders could not be analyzed because the CVR had been inoperative for nine days leading up to the crash and the FDR was mysteriously found to have only recorded the first 14 minutes of the flight. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15461948",
"title": "Florida Commuter Airlines crash",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "Wreckage from the aircraft was not recovered, except for seat cushions and plywood bulkheads found floating near the accident site. Regulations at the time did not require flight recorders to be installed on the aircraft, and no cockpit voice recorder or flight data recorder was installed. Due to lack of evidence, the NTSB was unable to determine the probable cause of the accident. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2ue67t | Foggy London vs polluted Beijing | [
{
"answer": "fyi, you'll find some previous discussions on this in the FAQ\n\n* [Air pollution](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18603746",
"title": "Beijing",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Environmental issues.:Air quality.:Readings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 588,
"text": "Due to Beijing's high-level of air pollution, there are various readings by different sources on the subject. Daily pollution readings at 27 monitoring stations around the city are reported on the website of the Beijing Environmental Protection Bureau (BJEPB). The American Embassy of Beijing also reports hourly fine particulate (PM2.5) and ozone levels on Twitter. Since the BJEPB and US Embassy measure different pollutants according to different criteria, the pollution levels and the impact to human health reported by the BJEPB are often lower than that reported by the US Embassy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45695023",
"title": "APEC blue",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Air quality in China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "In Jan 2013, only five days were not occupied by haze and fog. In Oct 2014, the air quality index in Beijing reached a peak of 470, far beyond the severe pollution level of 300; meanwhile, the situation was even more serious in the neighboring province of Hebei, whose PM2.5 particles climbed above 500 micrograms per cubic meter—northern China was blanketed by the heavy air pollution, forcing the Chinese authorities to raise its pollution alert from yellow to orange, which was the second highest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40982246",
"title": "Beijing bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics",
"section": "Section::::Pollution issue.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "The issue of air pollution, which was widely discussed during the 2008 Summer Olympics, was cited as a likely factor in Beijing's bid. Beijing and Zhangjiakou suffer from severe air pollution which is worse during the winter. As of February 26, 2014, Beijing hit a dangerous particulate concentration of 537. A rate of 301-500 is marked as hazardous. An anti-pollution body expressed a concern that Beijing companies failing to meet regulations were moving their factories to Tianjin and Hebei.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2638286",
"title": "Xingtai",
"section": "Section::::Geography and climate.:Air pollution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 630,
"text": "As air pollution in China is at an all-time high, several Hebei cities are among one of the most polluted cities and has one of the worst air quality in China. Reporting on China's airpocalypse has been accompanied by what seems like a monochromatic slideshow of the country's several cities smothered in thick smog. According to a survey made by \"Global voices China\" in February 2013, 7 cities in Hebei including Xingtai, Shijiazhuang, Baoding, Handan, Langfang, Hengshui and Tangshan, are among China's 10 most polluted cities. Xingtai ranked 1st in the list and is referred to has the worst air quality in all Chinese cities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "294378",
"title": "Great Smog of London",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "Atmospheric scientists at Texas A&M University investigating the haze of polluted air in Beijing realized that their research led to a possible cause for the London event in 1952. \"By examining conditions in China and experimenting in a lab, the scientists suggest that a combination of weather patterns and chemistry could have caused London fog to turn into a haze of concentrated sulfuric acid.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "478443",
"title": "Tangshan",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Air pollution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "As air pollution in China is at an all-time high, several Hebei cities are among the most polluted in the country and Tangshan has some of the worst air quality in China. Reporting on China's airpocalypse has been accompanied by what seems like a monochromatic slideshow of the country's several cities smothered in thick smog. According to a survey made by \"Global voices China\" in February 2013, 7 cities in Hebei including Xingtai, Shijiazhuang, Baoding, Handan, Langfang, Hengshui and Tangshan, are among China's 10 most polluted cities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51545978",
"title": "1966 New York City smog",
"section": "Section::::The 1966 smog in cultural memory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 939,
"text": "Other major air pollution, particularly in China, has been compared to the 1966 smog. Elizabeth M. Lynch, a New York City legal scholar, said that images of visible air pollution in Beijing from 2012 were \"gross\" but not \"that much different from pictures of New York City in the 1950s and 1960s\", specifically referring to the 1952, 1962, and 1966 smog events. Lynch wrote that the Chinese government's increased transparency on the issue was an encouraging sign that pollution in China could be regulated and abated just as it had in the United States. Similar comparisons between the 1966 smog and Chinese pollution in late 2012 appeared in \"Business Insider\" and \"Slate\". \"USA Today\" cited the 1966 smog after China issued its first \"red alert\" air quality warning in December 2015; the same month, an article in \"The Huffington Post\" used the 1966 smog to argue that China could follow the United States' model to regulate pollution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1dnk8z | Did the Barbarians of the Classical Roman Era field any navies and if so was there ever any engagements between them and the Roman Empire? | [
{
"answer": "The Veneti, a Gallic tribe from Brittany in modern France, posed quite a naval threat to Caesar during the Gallic Wars. They had several coastal citadels that couldn't be sieged out, as the strong Venetian (no, not *that* Venetian) navy protected the supply ships from across the channel in Britain. A fascinating aspect of these coastal cities was the fact that at high tide, they were islands, and at low tide, peninsulas, creating a problem for Caesar.\n\nAt this point, the Romans had absolutely no naval power in the English Channel. To combat this, Caesar constructed a navy. However, the stormy seas of the English Channel and the oak ships of the Veneti were difficult to overcome for the Romans. The Romans did eventually, in the Battle of Morbihan, defeat the Venetians by cutting their halyards, causing their mainsails to fall, in turn leaving the ships as sitting ducks for the Romans' excellent boarding capabilities. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes! Sort of. During the Third Century Crisis the Goths, who had settled on the north shore of the Black Sea, attacked mainland Greece and Aegean Anatolia by sea. They had probably managed this by commandeering the vessels from the Hellenistic cities on the north shore.\n\nTo give an idea of the effect of this, it had been well over three centuries since any of those regions had seen war.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "'naval doctrine' and 'barbarian states' are fairly strong (and teleological) terms to describe what existed, particularly in north-west Europe. The Cultures of the late Hallstatt and early La Tene are complex but archaeological theory cannot place them into the modern conceptions of a politically centralised or ethnically organised group in that way.\n\nAnyway...\n\nCaesar's Gallic War 3.8 references to the Veneti (see here: _URL_0_), and as has already been mentioned, they posed the greatest naval difficulty to the Roman expansion into that area. Apart form that, the Roman's were generally pretty shocking at the whole naval shinannigans as a whole. Sextus Pompey, son of Pomey Magnus did cause some trouble for the new principate for some time, before being eventually captured. The Egyptian navy was also impressive (but did them little good at Actium). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2090427",
"title": "Barbarian Invasion",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "The barbarians comprised war bands or tribes of 10,000 to 20,000 people,[5] but in the course of 100 years they numbered not more than 750,000 in total, compared to an average 39.9 million population of the Roman Empire at that time. Although invasion was common throughout the time of the Roman Empire,[6] the period in question was, in the 19th century, often defined as running from about the 5th to 8th centuries AD.[7][8] The first invasions of peoples were made by Germanic tribes such as the Goths (including the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths), the Vandals, the Anglo-Saxons, the Lombards, the Suebi, the Frisii, the Jutes, the Burgundians, the Alemanni, the Scirii and the Franks; they were later pushed westward by the Huns, the Avars, the Slavs and the Bulgars.[9]\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "103155",
"title": "Migration Period",
"section": "Section::::Discussions.:Viewpoints.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "Historians have postulated several explanations for the appearance of \"barbarians\" on the Roman frontier: weather and crops, population pressure, a \"primeval urge\" to push into the Mediterranean or the \"domino effect\" of the Huns falling upon the Goths who, in turn, pushed other Germanic tribes before them. Entire barbarian tribes (or nations) flooded into Roman provinces, ending classical urbanism and beginning new types of rural settlements. In general, French and Italian scholars have tended to view this as a catastrophic event, the destruction of a civilization and the beginning of a \"Dark Age\" that set Europe back a millennium. In contrast, German and English historians have tended to see Roman/Barbarian interaction as the replacement of a \"tired, effete and decadent Mediterranean civilization\" with a \"more virile, martial, Nordic one\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2024951",
"title": "Byzantine army",
"section": "Section::::Foreign and mercenary soldiers.:Barbarian tribes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "During the beginning of the 6th century, several barbarian tribes who eventually destroyed the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century eventually were recruited in the armies of the Eastern Roman Empire. Among them were the Heruli, who had deposed the last Western Roman Emperor Romulus Augustulus under their leader Odoacer in 476. Other barbarians included the Huns, who had invaded the divided Roman Empire during the second quarter of the 5th century under Attila, and the Gepids, who had settled in the Romanian territories north of the Danube River.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201948",
"title": "Naval warfare",
"section": "Section::::History.:Europe, West Asia and North Africa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "While the barbarian invasions of the 4th century and later mostly occurred by land, some notable examples of naval conflicts are known. In the late 3rd century, in the reign of Emperor Gallienus, a large raiding party composed by Goths, Gepids and Heruli, launched itself in the Black Sea, raiding the coasts of Anatolia and Thrace, and crossing into the Aegean Sea, plundering mainland Greece (including Athens and Sparta) and going as far as Crete and Rhodes. In the twilight of the Roman Empire in the late 4th century, examples include that of Emperor Majorian, who, with the help of Constantinople, mustered a large fleet in a failed effort to expel the Germanic invaders from their recently conquered African territories, and a defeat of an Ostrogothic fleet at Sena Gallica in the Adriatic Sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5462249",
"title": "Lex Burgundionum",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1591,
"text": "The Romans consistently allied themselves with certain barbarian groups outside the Empire, playing them out against rival barbarian tribes as a policy of \"divide and rule\", the barbarian allies being known as \"foederati\". Sometimes these groups were allowed to live within the Empire. Barbarians could also be settled within the Empire as \"dediticii\" or \"laeti\". The Romans could henceforth rely on these groups for military support or even as legionary recruits. One such group were the Burgundians, whom the Roman Emperor Honorius in 406 had invited to join the Roman Empire as foederati with a capital at Worms . The Burgundians were soon defeated by the Huns, but once again given land near Lake Geneva for Gundioc (r. 443-474) to establish a second federate kingdom within the Roman Empire in 443. This alliance was a contractual agreement between the two peoples. Gundioc's people were given one-third of Roman slaves and two-thirds of the land within Roman territory. The Burgundians were allowed to establish an independent federate kingdom within the Empire and received the nominal protection of Rome for their agreement to defend their territories from other outsiders. This contractual relationship between the guests, Burgundians, and hosts, Romans, supposedly provided legal and social equality. However, Drew argues that the property rights and social status of the guests may have given them disproportionate leverage over their hosts. More recently, Henry Sumner Maine argues that the Burgundians exercised \"tribe-sovereignty\" rather than complete territorial sovereignty.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "923406",
"title": "Fall of the Western Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Height of power, crises, and recoveries.:Reunification and political division.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "Until late in the fourth century the united Empire retained sufficient power to launch attacks against its enemies in Germania and in the Sassanid Empire. \"Receptio\" of barbarians became widely practiced: imperial authorities admitted potentially hostile groups into the Empire, split them up, and allotted to them lands, status, and duties within the imperial system. In this way many groups provided unfree workers (\"coloni\") for Roman landowners, and recruits (\"laeti\") for the Roman army. Sometimes their leaders became officers. Normally the Romans managed the process carefully, with sufficient military force on hand to ensure compliance, and cultural assimilation followed over the next generation or two.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1299849",
"title": "Irregular military",
"section": "Section::::Historical reliance on irregulars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "During the decline of the Roman Empire, irregulars made up an ever-increasing proportion of the Roman military. At the end of the Western Empire, there was little difference between the Roman military and the barbarians across the borders. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2a6t7j | if everyone says girls mature more quickly than boys, why do boys seem to have a higher sex drive than girls while teenagers? | [
{
"answer": "because sex drive and maturity have nothing to with each other?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39693193",
"title": "Hookup culture",
"section": "Section::::Adolescents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "Studies have shown that most high school girls are more interested in a relationship compared to high school boys, who are mostly interested in sex. Young women tend to be honest about their sexual encounters and experiences, while young men tend to lie more often about theirs. Another study shows that once a person has sex for their first time, it becomes less of an issue or big deal to future relationships or hook ups. During this study, it was shown that girls in high school do not care as much as boys do on having sex in a relationship. But, on the contrary, girls will have sex with their partner in order to match them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "651370",
"title": "Precocious puberty",
"section": "Section::::Prognosis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Though boys face fewer problems upon early puberty than girls, early puberty is not always positive for boys; early sexual maturation in boys can be accompanied by increased aggressiveness due to the surge of hormones that affect them. Because they appear older than their peers, pubescent boys may face increased social pressure to conform to adult norms; society may view them as more emotionally advanced, although their cognitive and social development may lag behind their appearance. Studies have shown that early maturing boys are more likely to be sexually active and are more likely to participate in risky behaviours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35025241",
"title": "Media and American adolescent sexuality",
"section": "Section::::Effects of the media on sexual behavior.:Early sexual activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Some studies have also found that adolescents whose media diet was rich in sexual content were more than twice as likely as others to have had sex by the time they were 16. In a Kaiser Family Foundation study, 76 percent of teens said that one reason young people have sex is because TV shows and movies make it seem normal for teens. In addition to higher likelihoods that an adolescent exposed to sexual content in the media will engage in sexual behaviors, they are also have higher levels of intending to have sex in the future and more positive expectations of sex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18488",
"title": "Libido",
"section": "Section::::Factors that affect libido.:Physical factors.:Impact of age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "Males reach the peak of their sex drive in their teens, while females reach it in their thirties. (speculation) The surge in testosterone hits the male at puberty resulting in a sudden and extreme sex drive which reaches its peak at age 15–16, then drops slowly over his lifetime. In contrast, a female's libido increases slowly during adolescence and peaks in her mid-thirties. Actual testosterone and estrogen levels that affect a person's sex drive vary considerably.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8842553",
"title": "Adolescent sexuality",
"section": "Section::::Societal influence.:Social learning and the sexual self-concept.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1359,
"text": "When comparing the sexual self-concepts of adolescent girls and boys, researchers found that boys experienced lower sexual self-esteem and higher sexual anxiety. The boys stated they were less able to refuse or resist sex at a greater rate than the girls reported having difficulty with this. The authors state that this may be because society places so much emphasis on teaching girls how to be resistant towards sex, that boys do not learn these skills and are less able to use them when they want to say no to sex. They also explain how society's stereotype that boys are always ready to desire sex and be aroused may contribute to the fact that many boys may not feel comfortable resisting sex, because it is something society tells them they should want. Because society expects adolescent boys to be assertive, dominant and in control, they are limited in how they feel it is appropriate to act within a romantic relationship. Many boys feel lower self-esteem when they cannot attain these hyper-masculine ideals that society says they should. Additionally, there is not much guidance on how boys should act within relationships and many boys do not know how to retain their masculinity while being authentic and reciprocating affection in their relationships. This difficult dilemma is called the double-edged sword of masculinity by some researchers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8842553",
"title": "Adolescent sexuality",
"section": "Section::::Views on sexual activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 902,
"text": "One study from 1996 documented the interviews of a sample of junior high school students in the United States. The girls were less likely to state that they ever had sex than adolescent boys. Among boys and girls who had experienced sexual intercourse, the proportion of girls and boys who had recently had sex and were regularly sexually active was the same. Those conducting the study speculated that fewer girls say they have ever had sex because girls viewed teenage parenthood as more of a problem than boys. Girls were thought to be more restricted in their sexual attitudes; they were more likely than boys to believe that they would be able to control their sexual urges. Girls had a more negative association in how being sexually active could affect their future goals. In general, girls said they felt less pressure from peers to begin having sex, while boys reported feeling more pressure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17710437",
"title": "Co-rumination",
"section": "Section::::Developmental psychology and gender differences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Girls are more likely than boys to co-ruminate with their close friends, and co-rumination increases with age in children. Female adolescents are more likely to co-ruminate than younger girls, because their social worlds become increasingly complex and stressful. This is not true for boys, however as age differences are not expected among boys because their interactions remain activity focused and the tendency to extensively discuss problems is likely to remain inconsistent with male norms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2o0iow | If a person gains weight gradually, will their leg muscles (quadriceps, hamstrings, calves etc) grow proportionally to support the added weight? | [
{
"answer": "They would have to, otherwise you wouldn't be able to walk. On the other hand, it depends on what kind of weight you are gaining. Obviously gaining muscle mass will cause your muscles to grow. On the other hand, gaining a lot of weight in the form of fat has other consequences. The fat gets deposited all over the place, including within the muscle, and certainly within the walls of your blood vessels, limiting blood flow. \n\nYour muscles may get stronger to carry the weight, but the restricted blood flow limits the ability of the muscle to perform for long periods of time, because it doesn't get enough oxygen for oxidative phosphorylation. While overweight people may have an increased amount of glycogen providing the muscle with a larger \"fuel tank\" if you will, the muscle still will quickly be forced to switch to anaerobic metabolism. This is less efficient, and causes lactic acid to build up (which gives you cramps). Your heart beats faster to deliver more blood to the tissue, but it isn't getting there effectively because of the fat clogging up the blood vessels. You start to hyperventilate (technically speaking this is a misnomer, it would likely be hyperpnea in this case) to compensate for the increased oxygen demand and the increased acid load created by lactic acid. **You will tire out more quickly**\n\nThe consequence of this is that you walk less, and of course, without using the muscle, it gets weaker again, and you may end up with a weaker muscle as well as body fat that you cannot carry. **Your muscle ends up weaker in the long run, if you gain enough weight**. \n\nSee: [*Muscle strength is inversely related to prevalence and incidence of obesity in adult men*](_URL_0_)\n\nIn [this paper](_URL_1_), the results conclude that obese women are stronger than their lean counterparts, but only in terms of absolute strength. When you control for body weight, every muscle is weaker on a pound for pound basis in the obese women, with the exception of trunk flexors, which were stronger. Presumably, this might be because many obese women carry the weight in the abdomen and chest. \n\n\nEdit: tl;dr: Yes, gaining weight makes your legs stronger. But there is a diminishing return on this, and the growth is not linearly proportional. This does more harm than good. \n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1024404",
"title": "Becker muscular dystrophy",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "Individuals with this disorder typically experience progressive muscle weakness of the leg and pelvis muscles, which is associated with a loss of muscle mass (wasting). Muscle weakness also occurs in the arms, neck, and other areas, but not as noticeably severe as in the lower half of the body. Calf muscles initially enlarge during the ages of 5-15 (an attempt by the body to compensate for loss of muscle strength), but the enlarged muscle tissue is eventually replaced by fat and connective tissue (pseudohypertrophy) as the legs become less used (with use of wheelchair).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6140080",
"title": "Progressive overload",
"section": "Section::::Scientific principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "Conversely, decreased use of the muscle results in incremental loss of mass and strength, known as muscular atrophy (see atrophy and muscle atrophy). Sedentary people often lose a pound or more of muscle annually.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21290714",
"title": "Proprioception",
"section": "Section::::Clinical relevance.:Impairment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 895,
"text": "Temporary loss or impairment of proprioception may happen periodically during growth, mostly during adolescence. Growth that might also influence this would be large increases or drops in bodyweight/size due to fluctuations of fat (liposuction, rapid fat loss or gain) and/or muscle content (bodybuilding, anabolic steroids, catabolisis/starvation). It can also occur in those that gain new levels of flexibility, stretching, and contortion. A limb's being in a new range of motion never experienced (or at least, not for a long time since youth perhaps) can disrupt one's sense of location of that limb. Possible experiences include suddenly feeling that feet or legs are missing from one's mental self-image; needing to look down at one's limbs to be sure they are still there; and falling down while walking, especially when attention is focused upon something other than the act of walking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4441182",
"title": "Weighted clothing",
"section": "Section::::Lower body.:Thighs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "Thigh weights are the most reasonable form of resistance. The location of the mass more readily duplicates the natural fat-storage mechanism of the human body and being closer to the core. In leg raise exercises, it allows more activation of the hip flexors (and abdominals) without putting more strain on the quadriceps muscles for extension, making it good for sports-specific training on movements like knees and jumping. The greater area and safe location allow it to handle much more weight. For those with wide thighs, such as bodybuilders with large quadriceps, or people with large amounts of fat stores on the inner thigh, it may cause chafing. If worn on both legs, however, the chafing would be between the weights and only damage them, possibly only chafing with a lack of tightness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53661259",
"title": "Gait deviations",
"section": "Section::::Influential Factors.:Prosthetic weight and distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1112,
"text": "A common trend in modern technology is the push to create lightweight devices. A 1981 collection of studies on amputees showed a 30% increase in metabolic cost of walking for an able-bodied subject with 2-kg weights fixed to each foot. Correspondingly, transfemoral prostheses are on average only about one third of the weight of the limb they are replacing. However, the effect of added mass appears to be less significant for amputees. Small increases in mass (4-oz and 8-oz) of a prosthetic foot had no significant effect and, similarly, adding 0.68-kg and 1.34-kg masses to the center of the shank of transfemoral prostheses did not alter metabolic cost at any of the tested walking speeds (0.6, 1.0, and 1.5 m/s). In another study, muscular efforts were significantly increased with added mass, yet there was no significant impact on walking speeds and over half of the subjects preferred a prosthetic that was loaded to match 75% weight of the sound leg. In fact, it has been reported in several articles that test subjects actually prefer heavier prostheses, even when the load is completely superficial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19723734",
"title": "Muscle",
"section": "Section::::Clinical significance.:Hypertrophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Independent of strength and performance measures, muscles can be induced to grow larger by a number of factors, including hormone signaling, developmental factors, strength training, and disease. Contrary to popular belief, the number of muscle fibres cannot be increased through exercise. Instead, muscles grow larger through a combination of muscle cell growth as new protein filaments are added along with additional mass provided by undifferentiated satellite cells alongside the existing muscle cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6140080",
"title": "Progressive overload",
"section": "Section::::Scientific principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "The loss of 10 pounds of muscle per decade is one consequence of a sedentary lifestyle. The adaptive processes of the human body will only respond if continually called upon to exert greater force to meet higher physiological demands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
300ilp | why do people's voices sound higher pitched in older recordings? were the vocal tastes for higher pitched voice in the past or was it due to the recording equipment used? | [
{
"answer": "Bass frequencies require more energy to record and reproduce than do higher ranges of audio. Old recording equipment didn't have the types of improvements we've made since then. The diaphragm in a modern microphone is much more sensitive to input and can record a sound with much less intensity than older equipment. The primary factor is production. Most music made these days is mixed for use on smaller speakers, like headphones, laptops, smartphones, etc. And is adjusted to try and be \"louder\" then the other guys. They butcher old recordings, strip out the dynamic range, and level-match everything for a \"digitally remastered\" sound that ruins classic albums, also. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Loudness War: \n_URL_0_\n\nAn excellent visual example of what I described.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14714507",
"title": "Vocal fry register",
"section": "Section::::In speech.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Some evidence exists of vocal fry becoming more common in the speech of young female speakers of American English in the early 21st century, but its frequency's extent and significance are disputed. Researcher Ikuko Patricia Yuasa suggests that the tendency is a product of young women trying to infuse their speech with gravitas by means of reaching for the male register and found that \"college-age Americans [...] perceive female creaky voice as hesitant, nonaggressive, and informal but also educated, urban-oriented, and upwardly mobile.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "695896",
"title": "Bone conduction",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Bone conduction is one reason why a person's voice sounds different to them when it is recorded and played back. Because the skull conducts lower frequencies better than air, people perceive their own voices to be lower and fuller than others do, and a recording of one's own voice frequently sounds higher than one expects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145712",
"title": "Les Paul",
"section": "Section::::Career.:Les Paul and Mary Ford.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 594,
"text": "Like Crosby, they used the recording technique known as close miking where the microphone is less than from the singer's mouth. This produces a more intimate, less reverberant sound than when a singer is or more from the microphone. When using a pressure-gradient (uni- or bi-directional) microphone, it emphasizes low-frequency sounds in the voice due to the microphone's proximity effect and gives a more relaxed feel because the performer is not working as hard. The result is a singing style which diverged from the unamplified theater style of the musical comedies of the 1930s and 1940s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1206315",
"title": "SATB",
"section": "Section::::Early music.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "In early music, particularly that of the Renaissance, the use of the terms soprano, alto, tenor and bass for the voice parts should not be taken in the modern sense of defining which voices are to be used. This is because much 4-voice vocal music of the time possesses the narrower overall range typical of men's voice music with a countertenor on the top (soprano) part. Appropriate downward transposition based on chiavette should always be considered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "521571",
"title": "Laryngitis",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.:Voice quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Aside from a hoarse-sounding voice, changes to pitch and volume may occur with laryngitis. Speakers may experience a lower or higher pitch than normal, depending on whether their vocal folds are swollen or stiff. They may also have breathier voices, as more air flows through the space between the vocal folds (the glottis), quieter volume and a reduced range.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "194253",
"title": "Boy",
"section": "Section::::Boys in art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "In music, boys' voices, before they 'break' being of a soprano register (specifically known as treble) unlike adult men (in a choir usually tenor and bass), have been most sought-after, especially where female voices were considered inappropriate as often in church and certain theatrical music - this even led to the practice of physically trying to prevent their 'angelical' voices ever to break by surgically cutting short the hormonal drive to manhood: for centuries, castrato singers, who coupled adult strength and experience with a treble register, starred in contratenor parts, mainly in operatic styles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "333274",
"title": "Concert pitch",
"section": "Section::::History of pitch standards in Western music.:Pre-19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "During historical periods when instrumental music rose in prominence (relative to the voice), there was a continuous tendency for pitch levels to rise. This \"pitch inflation\" seemed largely a product of instrumentalists competing with each other, each attempting to produce a brighter, more \"brilliant\", sound than that of their rivals. (In string instruments, this is not all acoustic illusion: when tuned up, they actually sound objectively brighter because the higher string tension results in larger amplitudes for the harmonics.) This tendency was also prevalent with wind instrument manufacturers, who crafted their instruments to play generally at a higher pitch than those made by the same craftsmen years earlier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
8e1d9p | Do mental illnesses run in families? Will they be the same mental illness or can they vary between each offspring? | [
{
"answer": "There is a genetic role in some forms of mental illness like schizophrenia for example. There's also a lot of environmental factors that cause or worsen mental illness, like physical/emotional abuse/neglect, malnutrition, traumatic life events, etc. There are usually many factors at play and no case is exactly the same.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes. Autism, ADHD, bipolar disorder, major depression and schizophrenia have remarkable heritability [(article)](_URL_0_). If the offsprings share the pathological phenotype depends upon whether the causal gene/genes are homozygous or heterozygous in the parental genome.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "226109",
"title": "Single parent",
"section": "Section::::Impact on parents.:Single mothers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "A similar study on the mental health of single mothers attempted to answer the question, \"Are there differences in the prevalence of psychiatric disorders, between married, never-married, and separated/divorced mothers?\" Statistically, never married, and separated/divorced mothers had the highest regularities of drug abuse, personality disorder and PTSD. The family structure can become a trigger for mental health issues in single mothers. They are especially at risk for having higher levels of depressive symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19356",
"title": "Mental disorder",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.:Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "A number of psychiatric disorders are linked to a family history (including depression, narcissistic personality disorder and anxiety). Twin studies have also revealed a very high heritability for many mental disorders (especially autism and schizophrenia). Although researchers have been looking for decades for clear linkages between genetics and mental disorders, that work has not yielded specific genetic biomarkers yet that might lead to better diagnosis and better treatments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "990505",
"title": "Mental health",
"section": "Section::::Perspectives.:Children and young adults.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1254,
"text": "The most common mental illnesses in children include, but are not limited to, ADHD, autism and anxiety disorder, as well as depression in older children and teens. Having a mental illness at a younger age is much different from having one in your thirties. Children's brains are still developing and will continue to develop until around the age of twenty-five. When a mental illness is thrown into the mix, it becomes significantly harder for a child to acquire the necessary skills and habits that people use throughout the day. For example, behavioral skills don’t develop as fast as motor or sensory skills do. So when a child has an anxiety disorder, they begin to lack proper social interaction and associate many ordinary things with intense fear. This can be scary for the child because they don’t necessarily understand why they act and think the way that they do. Many researchers say that parents should keep an eye on their child if they have any reason to believe that something is slightly off. If the children are evaluated earlier, they become more acquainted to their disorder and treating it becomes part of their daily routine. This is opposed to adults who might not recover as quickly because it is more difficult for them to adapt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8406655",
"title": "Introduction to genetics",
"section": "Section::::Inherited diseases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Some diseases are hereditary and run in families; others, such as infectious diseases, are caused by the environment. Other diseases come from a combination of genes and the environment. Genetic disorders are diseases that are caused by a single allele of a gene and are inherited in families. These include Huntington's disease, Cystic fibrosis or Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Cystic fibrosis, for example, is caused by mutations in a single gene called \"CFTR\" and is inherited as a recessive trait.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12437",
"title": "Genetic disorder",
"section": "Section::::Multifactorial disorder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1110,
"text": "Genetic disorders may also be complex, multifactorial, or polygenic, meaning they are likely associated with the effects of multiple genes in combination with lifestyles and environmental factors. Multifactorial disorders include heart disease and diabetes. Although complex disorders often cluster in families, they do not have a clear-cut pattern of inheritance. This makes it difficult to determine a person’s risk of inheriting or passing on these disorders. Complex disorders are also difficult to study and treat, because the specific factors that cause most of these disorders have not yet been identified. Studies which aim to identify the cause of complex disorders can use several methodological approaches to determine genotype-phenotype associations. One method, the genotype-first approach, starts by identifying genetic variants within patients and then determining the associated clinical manifestations. This is opposed to the more traditional phenotype-first approach, and may identify causal factors that have previously been obscured by clinical heterogeneity, penetrance, and expressivity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251487",
"title": "Genetic counseling",
"section": "Section::::Reasons for testing and sub-specialties.:Detecting conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 543,
"text": "Any reproductive risks (e.g. a chance to have a child with the same diagnosis) can also be explored after a diagnosis. Many disorders cannot occur unless both the mother and father pass on their genes, such as cystic fibrosis; this is known as autosomal recessive inheritance. Other autosomal dominant diseases can be inherited from one parent, such as Huntington disease and DiGeorge syndrome. Yet other genetic disorders are caused by an error or mutation occurring during the cell division process (e.g. aneuploidy) and are not hereditary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "226109",
"title": "Single parent",
"section": "Section::::Impact on children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "In Sweden, Emma Fransson et al. have shown that children living with one single parent have worse well-being in terms of physical health behavior, mental health, peer friendships, bullying, cultural activities, sports, and family relationships, compared to children from intact families. As a contrast, children in a shared parenting arrangement that live approximately equal amount of time with their divorced mother and father have about the same well-being as children from intact families and better outcomes than children with only one custodial parent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2ee2d0 | How did Polar Bears survive the Medieval Warm Period? | [
{
"answer": "It [wasn't that warm](_URL_0_) compared to today.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12206720",
"title": "Fauna of Ireland",
"section": "Section::::Vertebrates by class.:Mammals.:Megafaunal extinctions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "In the Ice Age (which included warm spells), mammals such as the woolly mammoth, wild horse, giant deer, brown bear, spotted hyena, Arctic lemming, Norway lemming, Arctic fox, European beaver, wolf, Eurasian lynx, and reindeer flourished or migrated depending on the degree of coldness. The Irish brown bear was a genetically distinct (clade 2) brown bear from a lineage that had significant polar bear mtDNA. The closest surviving brown bear is Ursus arctos middendorffi in Alaska.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52476",
"title": "History of Greenland",
"section": "Section::::Norse failure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 1394,
"text": "To investigate the possibility of climatic cooling, scientists drilled into the Greenland ice cap to obtain core samples, which suggested that the Medieval Warm Period had caused a relatively milder climate in Greenland, lasting from roughly 800 to 1200. However, from 1300 or so the climate began to cool. By 1420, the \"Little Ice Age\" had reached intense levels in Greenland. Excavations of middens from the Norse farms in both Greenland and Iceland show the shift from the bones of cows and pigs to those of sheep and goats. As the winters lengthened, and the springs and summers shortened, there must have been less and less time for Greenlanders to grow hay. A study of North Atlantic seasonal temperature variability showed a significant decrease in maximum summer temperatures beginning in the late 13th century to early 14th century—as much as 6-8 °C lower than modern summer temperatures. The study also found that the lowest winter temperatures of the last 2,000 years occurred in the late 14th century and early 15th century. By the mid-14th century deposits from a chieftain’s farm showed a large number of cattle and caribou remains, whereas, a poorer farm only several kilometers away had no trace of domestic animal remains, only seal. Bone samples from Greenland Norse cemeteries confirm that the typical Greenlander diet had increased by this time from 20% sea animals to 80%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24408",
"title": "Polar bear",
"section": "Section::::Life history and behaviour.:Reproduction and lifecycle.:Life expectancy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Polar bears rarely live beyond 25 years. The oldest wild bears on record died at age 32, whereas the oldest captive was a female who died in 1991, age 43. The causes of death in wild adult polar bears are poorly understood, as carcasses are rarely found in the species's frigid habitat. In the wild, old polar bears eventually become too weak to catch food, and gradually starve to death. Polar bears injured in fights or accidents may either die from their injuries or become unable to hunt effectively, leading to starvation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18783051",
"title": "Quaternary extinction event",
"section": "Section::::Climate change hypothesis.:Increased temperature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 688,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 688,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "According to this hypothesis, a temperature increase sufficient to melt the Wisconsin ice sheet could have placed enough thermal stress on cold-adapted mammals to cause them to die. Their heavy fur, which helps conserve body heat in the glacial cold, might have prevented the dumping of excess heat, causing the mammals to die of heat exhaustion. Large mammals, with their reduced surface area-to-volume ratio, would have fared worse than small mammals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15673",
"title": "Jan Mayen",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th and 20th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Polar bears appear on Jan Mayen, although in diminished numbers compared with earlier times. Between 1900 and 1920, there were a number of Norwegian trappers spending winters on Jan Mayen, hunting Arctic foxes in addition to some polar bears. But the exploitation soon made the profits decline, and the hunting ended. Polar bears are genetically distinguishable in this region of the Arctic from those living elsewhere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "295764",
"title": "Norse colonization of North America",
"section": "Section::::Norse Greenland.:Climate and Norse Greenland.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 989,
"text": "A portion of the time the Greenland settlements existed was during the Little Ice Age and the climate was, overall, becoming cooler and more humid. As climate began to cool and humidity began to increase, this brought longer winters and shorter springs, more storms and affected the migratory patterns of the harp seal. Pasture space began to dwindle and fodder yields for the winter became much smaller. This combined with regular herd culling made it hard to maintain livestock, especially for the poorest of the Greenland Norse. In spring, the voyages to where migratory harp seals could be found became more dangerous due to more frequent storms, and the lower population of harp seals meant that \"Nordrsetur\" hunts became less successful, making subsistence hunting extremely difficult. The strain on resources made trade difficult, and as time went on, Greenland exports lost value in the European market due to competing countries and the lack of interest in what was being traded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12193070",
"title": "Dye 3",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with other Greenland ice cores.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "To investigate the possibility of climatic cooling, scientists drilled into the Greenland ice caps to obtain core samples. The oxygen isotopes from the ice caps suggested that the Medieval Warm Period had caused a relatively milder climate in Greenland, lasting from roughly 800 to 1200. However, from 1300 or so the climate began to cool. By 1420, we know that the \"Little Ice Age\" had reached intense levels in Greenland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1rllwb | Who were Turkish Sultans descended from? | [
{
"answer": "As strange as it may seem, your story is essentially correct. Ottoman Sultans didn't marry, and instead had lowborn concubines. I'm not sure how many of the Sultan's mothers were European, but some were, yes. And indeed since only the direct male line is the family of the Sultans, the vast majority of later Sultans' ancestors would have been commoners.\n\nAs to whether the Sultans were white... I think this sort of shows your nationality, if I'm guessing right that you're American. In the Old World Turks would generally be considered white. And to those who don't agree with that, they wouldn't really think Bulgarians or Romanians are white either! As the old proverb says after all, the \"wogs start at Calais\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The House of Osman was certainly very ethnically diverse. \n\nLet's look at Sultan Mustafa II (1664-1703) as a random example. His [mother](_URL_4_) was a Greek from Crete and his [grandmother](_URL_2_) was Ukrainian. \n\nThe mother of Mustafa's grandson, Osman III, was a [Serb](_URL_0_), and the mother of Osman's successor was [French](_URL_1_)\n\nSo after taking a random sample of just three generations we've found French, Greek, Serbian and Ukrainian 'blood'. \n\nI know what you're trying to say and I'll spare you the lecture on why 'Were the emperors white?' isn't a historically sound thing to say. Yes, of course some would have been rather 'European' in appearance, though the turban and beard is going to throw you off if you look up some of their portraits. [Look at Abdülmecid I for example](_URL_3_) - ignore the costume and you'd have a hard time telling me where in the world this guy is from.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "29686767",
"title": "List of mothers of the Ottoman sultans",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "This is a list of the biological mothers of Ottoman sultans. There were thirty-six sultans of the Ottoman Empire in twenty-one generations. (During early days the title \"Bey\" was used instead of \"Sultan\") Throughout 623-years history the sultans were the members of the same house, namely the House of Ottoman (Turkish: \"Osmanlı Hanedanı\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "539602",
"title": "State organisation of the Ottoman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Central government.:House of Osman.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The Ottoman dynasty or \"House of Osman\" ( 1280–1922) was unprecedented and unequaled in the Islamic world for its size and duration. The Ottoman sultan, pâdişâh or \"lord of kings\", served as the empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Ottoman family was originally Turkish in its ethnicity, as were its subjects; however the kingship quickly acquired many different ethnicities through intermarriage with slaves and European nobility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29203249",
"title": "Çandarlı family",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "The Çandarlı family was a prominent Turkish political family which provided the Ottoman Empire with five grand viziers during the 14th and 15th centuries. At the time, it was the second most important family after the Ottoman dynasty itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "535239",
"title": "History of the Ottoman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Ottoman dynasty after dissolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "In 1974, descendants of the dynasty were granted the right to acquire Turkish citizenship by the Grand National Assembly, and were notified that they could apply. Mehmed Orhan, son of Prince Mehmed Abdul Kadir of the Ottoman Empire, died in 1994, leaving the grandson of Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II, Ertuğrul Osman, as the eldest surviving member of the deposed dynasty. Osman for many years refused to carry a Turkish passport, calling himself a citizen of the Ottoman Empire. Despite this attitude, he put the matter of an Ottoman restoration to rest when he told an interviewer \"no\" to the question of whether he wished the Ottoman Empire to be restored. He was quoted as saying that \"democracy works well in Turkey.\" He returned to Turkey in 1992 for the first time since the exile, and became a Turkish citizen with a Turkish passport in 2002.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50217",
"title": "Mehmed VI",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "Mehmed VI Vahideddin ( \"Meḥmed-i sâdis\", \"Vahideddin\", or ), who is also known as \"Şahbaba\" (meaning \"Emperor-father\") among his relatives, (14 January 1861 – 16 May 1926) was the 36th and last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, reigning from July 4, 1918 until November 1, 1922 when the Ottoman Empire dissolved after World War I and became the nation of the Republic of Turkey on October 29, 1923. The brother of Mehmed V, he became heir to the throne after the 1916 suicide of Abdülaziz's son Şehzade Yusuf Izzeddin as the eldest male member of the House of Osman. He acceded to the throne after the death of Mehmed V. He was girded with the Sword of Osman on 4 July 1918, as the thirty-sixth \"padishah\". His father was Sultan Abdulmejid I and mother was Gülüstü Hanım (1830 – 1865), an ethnic Abkhazian, daughter of Prince Tahir Bey Çaçba and his wife Afişe Lakerba, originally named Fatma Çaçba. Mehmed was removed from the throne when the Ottoman sultanate was abolished in 1922.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32766416",
"title": "Osmanoğlu family",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "There were 36 Ottoman Sultans who ruled over the Empire, and each one was a direct descendant through the male line of the first Ottoman Sultan, Sultan Osman I. After the deposition of the last Sultan, Mehmet VI, in 1922, and the subsequent abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924, members of the Imperial family were forced into exile. Their descendants now live in many different countries throughout Europe, as well as in the United States, the Middle East, and since they have now been permitted to return to their homeland, many now also live in Turkey. When in exile, the family adopted the surname of Osmanoğlu\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33338098",
"title": "Mustafa Kemal Kurdaş",
"section": "Section::::Youth: A free education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "His parents were descendents of Turkish and Albanian settlers in Macedonia. The ancestors had arrived in the Balkans with Ottoman armies several centuries ago, and established themselves in farming and trade. They belonged to a culturally distinct group, different from the Christians among whom they lived but highly westernized compared to the Turkish population that remained in Anatolia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
]
| null |
5nc6h6 | The origins of the Abrahamic religions. | [
{
"answer": "Can I ask a clarification question before my answer gets deleted? Are we allowed to use religious texts such as the old testament or Koran as sources while we acknowledge the disputed historicity? In particular, the book of Joshua?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53132",
"title": "Humanities",
"section": "Section::::Fields.:Religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
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"text": "Abrahamic religions are those religions deriving from a common ancient tradition and traced by their adherents to Abraham (circa 1900 BCE), a patriarch whose life is narrated in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament, where he is described as a prophet (Genesis 20:7), and in the Quran, where he also appears as a prophet. This forms a large group of related largely monotheistic religions, generally held to include Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, and comprises over half of the world's religious adherents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "13906453",
"title": "Abrahamic religions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Abrahamic religion spread globally through Christianity being adopted by the Roman Empire in the 4th century and Islam by the Islamic Empires from the 7th century. Today the Abrahamic religions are one of the major divisions in comparative religion (along with Indian, Iranian, and East Asian religions). The major Abrahamic religions in chronological order of founding are Judaism (the base of the other two religions) in the 7th century BCE, Christianity in the 1st century CE, and Islam in the 7th century CE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "265452",
"title": "List of religious sites",
"section": "Section::::Abrahamic religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Abrahamic religions are those monotheistic faiths emphasizing and tracing their common origin to Abraham or recognizing a spiritual tradition identified with him. They constitute one of three major divisions in comparative religion, along with Indian religions (Dharmic) and East Asian religions (Taoic).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "186861",
"title": "Comparative religion",
"section": "Section::::Geographical classification.:Middle Eastern religions.:Abrahamic or Western Asian religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 375,
"text": "In the study of comparative religion, the category of Abrahamic religions consists of the three monotheistic religions, Christianity, Islam and Judaism, which claim Abraham (Hebrew \"Avraham\" אַבְרָהָם; Arabic \"Ibrahim\" إبراهيم ) as a part of their sacred history. Smaller religions such as Bahá'í Faith that fit this description are sometimes included but are often omitted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13906453",
"title": "Abrahamic religions",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The Abrahamic religions, also referred to collectively as Abrahamism, are a group of Semitic-originated religious communities of faith that claim descent from the Judaism of the ancient Israelites and the worship of the God of Abraham. The Abrahamic religions are monotheistic, with the term deriving from the patriarch Abraham (a major biblical figure from the Old Testament, which is recognized by Jews, Christians, Muslims, and others).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18864968",
"title": "Rajiv Malhotra",
"section": "Section::::Infinity Foundation.:\"Being Different\" (2011).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 743,
"text": "According to Malhotra, Abrahamic religions are history-centric in that their fundamental beliefs are sourced from history – that God revealed his message through a special prophet and that the message is secured in scriptures. This special access to God is available only to these intermediaries or prophets and not to any other human beings. History-centric Abrahamic religions claim that we can resolve the human condition only by following the lineage of prophets arising from the Middle East. All other teachings and practices are required to get reconciled with this special and peculiar history. By contrast, the dharmic traditions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism—do not rely on history in the same absolutist and exclusive way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265452",
"title": "List of religious sites",
"section": "Section::::Abrahamic religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "The three major Abrahamic faiths (in chronological order of revelation) are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Some strict definitions of what constitutes an Abrahamic religion include only these three faiths. However, there are many other religions incorporating Abrahamic doctrine, theology, genealogy and history into their own belief systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
]
| null |
519law | Is the Multiverse a "God of the Gaps"-type explanation for something we don't understand? | [
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"answer": "I think that this links directly to the question of the place of falsifiability in science more broadly, which is something that physicists are currently fighting over. [Some have argued](_URL_1_) that the multiverse theory, among others, fails a basic test of scientific rigor in being falsifiable. [Others](_URL_0_) have argued that falsifiability is unrelated to whether something is real or not, and that an idea shouldn't be rejected out of hand just because it's unfalsifiable. So some professional scientists would answer your question with a resounding \"Yes!\" while others would say \"Of course not!\" (My personal view is that the theories and their consequences should be explored, but held in suspicion until falsified or not, so both camps have a valid point. The ability to live with the tension of uncertainty is a virtue.)",
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"answer": "It seems some people think the multiverse is some extra assumption added to quantum mechanics. While it does make different assumptions than the CI (the wave function is real), the multiverse is not an assumption made by the mwi. It's simply a prediction that comes out of that view.\n\nNow, it's true it makes predictions we (probably) have no way of investigating. So how seriously should we take a theory's predictions that lie beyond what can be tested is the issue. The ironic part of your question is that if the multiverse actually did explain something we couldn't otherwise understand, that would be a strong argument in *favor* of it. ",
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"answer": "In short, yes. By the nature of that sort of multiverse, we can't run experiments on it. Which means it's just an idea, and if you believe in it, you're doing so more as a feat of imagination or faith rather than via any scientific process. \n\nThere are some examples of more rigorous attempts at arriving at the multiverse, such as [M-theory](_URL_0_). Even that, as /u/lmxbftw mentioned, is often questioned for its legitimacy by the scientific community, as doubts exist as to whether it will ever be falsifiable. ",
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"answer": "No. An important part about quantum physics is entanglement. You can't think of particles as each being independent waveforms. If they interact, you have to think of them as components of a single higher-dimensional waveform. Early on, it was assumed that the waveform would collapse into a single state after measurement, but eventually Everett realized it could be explained as the waveform never collapsing and all particles being entangled all the time. The multiverse theory is just the Copenhagen interpretation with waveform collapse taken out. It's the strictly simpler theory.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "46680050",
"title": "Multiverse (Michael Moorcock)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The multiverse is a series of parallel universes in many of the science fiction and fantasy novels and short stories written by Michael Moorcock. (Many other fictional settings also have the concept of a multiverse.) Central to these works is the concept of an Eternal Champion who has potentially multiple identities across multiple dimensions. The multiverse contains a legion of different versions of Earth in various times, histories, and occasionally, sizes. One example is the world in which his Elric Saga takes place. The multiplicity of places in this collection of universes include London, Melniboné, Tanelorn, the Young Kingdoms, and the Realm of Dreams.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "6742252",
"title": "Multiverse (religion)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The concept of a multiverse is explored in various religious cosmologies that propose that the totality of existence comprises multiple or infinitely many universes, including our own. Usually, such beliefs include a creation myth, a history, a worldview and a prediction of the eventual fate or destiny of the world. The worldview discusses the current organizational form of our universe and may contain references to other supernatural world or worlds. These references have aided several esoteric practices, including contacts with spirit worlds, and activities concerning personal or inner spiritual development.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2148329",
"title": "Mathematical universe hypothesis",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms and responses.:Observability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "Stoeger, Ellis, and Kircher (sec. 7) note that in a true multiverse theory, \"the universes are then completely disjoint and nothing that happens in any one of them is causally linked to what happens in any other one. This lack of any causal connection in such multiverses really places them beyond any scientific support\". Ellis (p29) specifically criticizes the MUH, stating that an infinite ensemble of completely disconnected universes is \"completely untestable, despite hopeful remarks sometimes made, see, e.g., Tegmark (1998).\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "573880",
"title": "Fine-tuned Universe",
"section": "Section::::Possible naturalistic explanations.:Multiverse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The Multiverse hypothesis proposes the existence of many universes with different physical constants, some of which are hospitable to intelligent life (see multiverse: anthropic principle). Because we are intelligent beings, it is unsurprising that we find ourselves in a hospitable universe if there is such a multiverse. The Multiverse hypothesis is therefore thought to provide an elegant explanation of the finding that we exist despite the required fine-tuning. (See for a detailed discussion of the arguments for and against this suggested explanation.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28264928",
"title": "Initiation (Theosophy)",
"section": "Section::::Levels of initiation beyond the tenth level.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "If the concept of the Multiverse is true, then other hierarchies exist in other Universes. It is believed in Theosopy that the concept of the Multiverse is true because Theosophists have stated that the Universal Logos has created many other cosmoses besides our own.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177216",
"title": "Eternal Champion (character)",
"section": "Section::::About.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "The fictional Moorcock Multiverse, consisting of several universes, many layered dimensions, spheres, and alternative worlds, is the place where the eternal struggle between Law and Chaos, the two main forces of Moorcock's worlds, takes place. In all these dimensions and worlds, these forces constantly war for supremacy. Since the victory of Law or Chaos would cause the Multiverse either to become permanently static or totally formless, the Cosmic Balance enforces certain limits which the powers of Law and Chaos violate at their peril. Law, Chaos, and the Balance are active, but seemingly non-sentient, forces which empower various champions and representatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "573880",
"title": "Fine-tuned Universe",
"section": "Section::::Possible naturalistic explanations.:Multiverse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Critics of the multiverse-related explanations argue that there is no independent evidence that other universes exist. Some criticize the inference from fine-tuning for life to a multiverse as fallacious, whereas others defend it against that challenge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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| null |
ekvw4f | why can't i, a nearsighted person, use a vr headset without my glasses? shouldn't everything still be clear since it's just a screen close to my eyes? | [
{
"answer": "The computer screen for each eye IS close to your eyes. But there are lenses in front of it that make it appear further away. Yes your near sighted eyes are better at seeing things closer than farther. But even if you're near sighted (or not), your eyes are also bad at seeing things super duper close. So the lenses make the image appear as if the screen was like 7 feet away instead of two inches away.\n\nYou want the computer screen to be super close to your face so that your headset is compact rather than bulkier and bigger.\n\nBut you're eyes are actually bad at focusing on things when they are that close. It gets uncomfortable for the eye to focus so close for so long. You don't normally look at things right in front of your eye. You'd have a much harder time reading a book with tiny text if it was an inch or two from your eyes than you would with normal sized text at normal book reading distance. Even though the text size would appear the same at your distance.\n\nThe lenses are fragmented into different parts to help create the illusion that the screen is wrapping around your field of view instead of just a flat screen in front of you.",
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},
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"answer": "I am nearsighted and it doesn't matter whether I do or do not wear my glasses with a VR headset. It looks fine either way. \n\nBlew my goddamn mind.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know if this is against the rules, please remove it if it is\n\nFor yourself and anyone else who needs it - [VR Lens Lab](_URL_0_) makes prescription lenses for VR. If your glasses are too large/fragile/ or it's just uncomfortable to wear them",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The lenses in the headset simulate vision at a specific distance. If I recall that is 6 to 10 feet. Most nearsighted people have vision loss at this range.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Glasses refocus light to correctly hit misshapen eyes. Each person, sometimes each eye, will have different corrections that need to be made. If a \"normal\" sighted person wears someones prescription glasses everything will look distorted.\n\nThe lenses in a VR set also refocus light, but are designed to simulate distance rather than correct for eye shape. Wearing your glasses or contacts with the vr headset will add the corrections needed for your eyes.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "VR headsets have unglasses (like glasses but the opposite) so that normal vision people feel like they're looking far away.\n\nSo then you have to wear glasses to get it closer again which is what your eyes think is far away.\n\nYou could maybe take out the unglasses (lenses) and be fine if you were really really nearsighted (like legally blind from it.)",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "32612",
"title": "Virtual reality",
"section": "Section::::Concerns and challenges.:Health and safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "VR headsets may regularly cause eye fatigue, as does all screened technology, because people tend to blink less when watching screens, causing their eyes to become more dried out. There have been some concerns about VR headsets contributing to myopia, but although VR headsets sit close to the eyes, they may not necessarily contribute to nearsightedness if the focal length of the image being displayed is sufficiently far away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20044858",
"title": "Predictions made by Ray Kurzweil",
"section": "Section::::Future predictions.:\"The Age of Spiritual Machines\" (1999).:2019.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "BULLET::::- People experience 3-D virtual reality through glasses and contact lenses that beam images directly to their retinas (retinal display). Coupled with an auditory source (headphones), users can remotely communicate with other people and access the Internet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53901120",
"title": "Holoverse",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The technology differs from standard Virtual Reality. With standard Virtual Reality, people wear screens over their eyes, the headsets through which they are unable to see their own torso, arms or legs. Whereas in a VR CAVE, instead of going into the computer game, the person wears clear glasses and can see their own body, the computer-generated objects appearing to be in the real world with them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20044858",
"title": "Predictions made by Ray Kurzweil",
"section": "Section::::Future predictions.:\"The Age of Spiritual Machines\" (1999).:2019.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "BULLET::::- These special glasses and contact lenses can deliver \"augmented reality\" and \"virtual reality\" in three different ways. First, they can project \"heads-up-displays\" (HUDs) across the user's field of vision, superimposing images that stay in place in the environment regardless of the user's perspective or orientation. Second, virtual objects or people could be rendered in fixed locations by the glasses, so when the user's eyes look elsewhere, the objects appear to stay in their places. Third, the devices could block out the \"real\" world entirely and fully immerse the user in a virtual reality environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18841002",
"title": "Virtual reality cue reactivity",
"section": "Section::::How it works.:Visual senses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
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"text": "Arguably the most important facet in making a virtual environment seem real is an appeal to sight. A virtual reality headset, incorporating a head-mounted display (HMD) is placed in front of the eyes of a patient like a pair of sunglasses, enabling for complete visual attention. A virtual environment is then displayed. A system of motion sensors tracks movement of the patient's head. If the patient tilts, or turns his head to view another part of the room, the environment adjusts accordingly. This allows for a more realistic experience by limiting restrictions of the head.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7769856",
"title": "Video remote interpreting",
"section": "Section::::Method of use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 905,
"text": "Using VRI for medical, legal and mental health settings is seen as controversial by some in the deaf community, where there is an opinion that it does not provide appropriate communication access—particularly in medical settings where the patient's ability to watch the screen or sign clearly to the camera may be compromised. This is balanced by many in the services and public services sectors who identify with the benefits of being able to communicate in otherwise impossible (and sometimes life-threatening) situations without having to wait hours for an interpreter to turn up, even if this initial contact is used just to arrange a further face-to-face appointment. Therefore, businesses and organizations contend that it meets or exceeds the minimum threshold for reasonable accommodation as its principle is built around offering \"reasonable adjustment\" through increasing initial accessibility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20044858",
"title": "Predictions made by Ray Kurzweil",
"section": "Section::::Future predictions.:Other sources.:2006 C-SPAN interview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 283,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 283,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "BULLET::::- By the same year, practical virtual reality glasses will be in use. The devices will work by beaming images directly onto the retinas of their users, creating large, three-dimensional floating images in the person's field of view. Such devices would provide a visual experience on par with a very large television, but would be highly portable, combining the best features of a portable video player and a widescreen TV. The glasses will deliver full-immersion virtual reality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
b7ol6u | why, when watching a live tv program, is there a delay on a screen in the shot when it shows the same program as being broadcast | [
{
"answer": "Because there is a time delay in capturing video and displaying it.\n\nThe live view is capturing a display of itself. At one frame in time, that light information from the camcorder gets converted to electrical signals, decoded, then sent to be displayed elsewhere. This will take several frames of time before it pops up on screen for the live view to see. This time difference is the delay you see.\n\nYou can get the same effect by pointing a webcam to look at a screen with its own video feed, you'll get a repeating image of what you see but they will pop up one at a time due to the delay.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1136392",
"title": "Broadcast delay",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "In radio and television, broadcast delay is an intentional delay when broadcasting live material. Such a delay may be short (often seven seconds) to prevent mistakes or unacceptable content from being broadcast. Longer delays lasting several hours can also be introduced so that the material is aired at a later scheduled time (such as the prime time hours) to maximize viewership.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1136392",
"title": "Broadcast delay",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 532,
"text": "Tape delay may also refer to the process of broadcasting an event at a later scheduled time because a scheduling conflict prevents a live telecast, or a broadcaster seeks to maximize ratings by airing an event in a certain timeslot. That can also be done because of time constraints of certain portions, usually those that do not affect the outcome of the show, are edited out or the availability of hosts or other key production staff only at certain times of the day, and it is generally applicable for cable television programs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1829495",
"title": "Chase play",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "If a user is interrupted while watching television, they can use Chase Play to 'pause' the television until they can keep watching. Initiating 'Chase Play' means that the user no longer has to wait until the show is over before finding out what they have missed. When returning from the interruption, 'Chase Play' allows the user to start viewing the program from precisely where they left off. The recording device will continue to capture the program in 'real time' until instructed to stop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8734100",
"title": "Latency (audio)",
"section": "Section::::Digital television audio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "Many modern digital television receivers, such as standalone TV sets and set-top boxes use sophisticated audio processing, which can create a delay between the time when the audio signal is received and the time when it is heard on the speakers. Since many of these TVs also cause delays in processing the video signal this can result in the two signals being sufficiently synchronized to be unnoticeable by the viewer. However, if the difference between the audio and video delay is significant, the effect can be disconcerting. Some TVs have a \"lip sync\" setting that allows the audio lag to be adjusted to synchronize with the video, and others may have advanced settings where some of the audio processing steps can be turned off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165331",
"title": "Kinescope",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 724,
"text": "Because television is a field- rather than frame-based system, however, not all the information in the picture can be retained on film in the same way as it can on videotape. The time taken physically to move the film on by one frame and stop it so that the gate can be opened to expose a new frame of film to the two fields of television picture is much longer than the vertical blanking interval between these fields—so the film is still moving when the start of the next field is being displayed on the television screen. It is not possible to accelerate the film fast enough to get it there in time without destroying the perforations in the film stock—and the larger the film gauge used, the worse the problem becomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14426270",
"title": "Breaking Bad",
"section": "Section::::Retrospective conversations.:Writers reunion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "\"Screen time was precious, and infusing every moment with the emotion [was the point], not just forming the pieces of the puzzle to tell the story, which is hard enough. If you’re going to take five seconds of screen time, you’d better damn well be sure that there’s an emotion there. It may be very, very subtle, but trust the audiences to pick up on that, because audiences do.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2358470",
"title": "Moxi",
"section": "Section::::Retail DVR products.:Moxi Menu.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "By default, users can view program titles for multiple TV channels simultaneously, but, except for the currently selected or displayed channel, only for one time slot at a time. For the currently selected or displayed channel, the next three shows and their times are displayed in a \"paddle\" off to the right side of the vertical list. To see more time slots, users can use the BACK and NEXT buttons on the remote to scroll through time slots (this works on all menus) or can double press the askew 'square' button on the top row of the remote to view a more traditional TV channel grid guide (this only works for the Channels menu). While watching full-screen TV (with the Moxi Menu hidden), the Moxi Flip Bar (a bar that pops up on the bottom of the screen) provides programming information and ability to change channels by using the arrow keys on the remote.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3m9r3t | why do people's ears tend to get hot when they drink alcohol? | [
{
"answer": "Alcohol causes your blood vessels to expand which increases circulation. This is more noticeable where there is very little skin and muscle to hide the changes. Like your ears. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44905",
"title": "Asthma",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Classification.:Alcohol-induced asthma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Alcohol may worsen asthmatic symptoms in up to a third of people. This may be even more common in some ethnic groups such as the Japanese and those with aspirin-induced asthma. Other studies have found improvement in asthmatic symptoms from alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25788721",
"title": "Alcoholic lung disease",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 707,
"text": "Alcohol abuse can cause a susceptibility to infection after major trauma to the lungs / respiratory system. It creates an increased risk of aspiration of gastric acid, microbes from the upper part of the throat, decreased mucous-facilitated clearance of bacterial pathogens from the upper airway and impaired pulmonary host defenses. This increased colonization by pathogenic organisms, combined with the acute intoxicating effects of alcohol and the subsequent depression of the normally protective gag and cough reflexes, leads to more frequent and severe pneumonia from gram-negative organisms. Defects in the function of the upper airway's clearance mechanisms in alcoholic patients have been detected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146879",
"title": "Hypothermia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Alcohol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "Alcohol consumption increases the risk of hypothermia in two ways: vasodilation and temperature controlling systems in the brain. Vasodilation increases blood flow to the skin, resulting in heat being lost to the environment. This produces the effect of an individual \"feeling\" warm, when they are actually losing heat. Alcohol also affects the temperature-regulating system in the brain, decreasing the body's ability to shiver and use energy that would normally aid the body in generating heat. The overall effects of alcohol lead to a decrease in body temperature and a decreased ability to generate body heat in response to cold environments. Alcohol is a common risk factor for death due to hypothermia. Between 33% and 73% of hypothermia cases are complicated by alcohol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1741326",
"title": "Fatty alcohol",
"section": "Section::::Safety.:Human health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "Repeated exposure to fatty alcohols produce low-level toxicity and certain compounds in this category can cause local irritation on contact or low-grade liver effects (essentially linear alcohols have a slightly higher rate of occurrence of these effects). No effects on the central nervous system have been seen with inhalation and oral exposure. Tests of repeated bolus dosages of 1-hexanol and 1-octanol showed potential for CNS depression and induced respiratory distress. No potential for peripheral neuropathy has been found. In rats, the no observable adverse effect level (NOAEL) ranges from 200 mg/kg/day to 1000 mg/kg/day by ingestion. There has been no evidence that fatty alcohols are carcinogenic, mutagenic, or cause reproductive toxicity or infertility. Fatty alcohols are effectively eliminated from the body when exposed, limiting possibility of retention or bioaccumulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26685784",
"title": "Effects of alcohol on memory",
"section": "Section::::Mode of actions.:Effects on other brain regions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Alcohol also impairs and alters the functioning in the cerebellum, which affects both motor function and coordination. It has a notable inhibitory effect on the neurons of the cerebral cortex, affecting and altering thought processes, decreasing inhibition, and increasing the pain threshold. It also decreases sexual performance by depressing nerve centers in the hypothalamus. Alcohol also has an effect on urine excretion via inhibition of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) secretion of the pituitary gland. Lastly, it depresses breathing and heart rate by inhibiting neuronal functioning of the medulla.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337566",
"title": "Long-term effects of alcohol consumption",
"section": "Section::::Other systems.:Rheumatoid arthritis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Regular consumption of alcohol is associated with an increased risk of gouty arthritis and a decreased risk of rheumatoid arthritis. Two recent studies report that the more alcohol consumed, the lower the risk of developing rheumatoid arthritis. Among those who drank regularly, the one-quarter who drank the most were up to 50% less likely to develop the disease compared to the half who drank the least.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18080825",
"title": "Loud music",
"section": "Section::::Consequences.:Excessive drinking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "A study conducted by French scientists showed that loud music leads to more alcohol consumption in less time. For three Saturday evenings researchers observed customers of two bars situated in a medium-sized city in the west of France. Participants included forty males aged between 18 and 25, who were unaware that they were subjects of a research. The study featured only those who ordered a glass of draft beer (25 cl. or 8 oz.). The lead researcher, Nicolas Guéguen, said that each year more than 70,000 people in France die from an increased level of alcohol consumption, which also leads to fatal car accidents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
21i732 | Why are older geological layers at the bottom and newer ones at the top? | [
{
"answer": "An important concept is that of [isostatic subsidence](_URL_0_). Let's imagine a really simple scenario. Imagine a lake whose level is around sea-level. It is receiving sediment from rivers draining mountains and other surrounding upland areas. Let's say that we deposit 1 cm of sediment in that lake. That 1 cm of sediment has a mass associated with it which now adds to the total mass of the column of crust beneath it. This addition of mass causes a little more of the aesthenosphere (a part of the mantle beneath the lithosphere which is weaker, behaves plastically and is able to \"flow\" on a geologic timescale) to be displaced beneath this column so the column sinks a tiny bit, thus creating more space, referred to as \"accommodation space\" within this lake. Continue this process for a long time and you will progressively end up with a column of sediments that increases in age downward, but the surface of the earth (where sediment is being deposited in your simple lake) is about the same absolute elevation referenced to some external datum (like sea level). \n\nThere is also some amount of recycling that is happening as some areas are uplifted due to processes like mountain building. So you may have millions of years of deposition in an area and eventually this area may be involved in the formation of a mountain range and then a decent portion of those rocks will be uplifted, eroded and then deposited in a basin. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the simplest sense, it's because there's gravity and tectonics. Large-scale forces of the earth, such as tectonics and volcanics, cause masses of rock to be moved up. At the same time, wind and water erode them and gravity pulls the eroded material down.\n\nThe result is that loose (eroded) sediment flows downhill, and settles in low areas. Over time, more and more sediment accumulates as erosion of the high areas continues. So the first-deposited sediment is oldest, and eventually hardens into the bottom-most layer of rock.\n\nIn a planet with no tectonics, eventually there would be equilibrium, with an essentially flat surface (disturbed only by the occasional meteor impact), under which there would be successively older layers of sedimentary rock. But on earth, tectonics keep pushing rocks up and aside, changing their relationship, and creating new high places for erosion to bring down. Hence, continuous formation of new sedimentary layers, new upon old.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44412",
"title": "Sedimentary rock",
"section": "Section::::Stratigraphy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 110,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 110,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "That new rock layers are above older rock layers is stated in the principle of superposition. There are usually some gaps in the sequence called unconformities. These represent periods where no new sediments were laid down, or when earlier sedimentary layers were raised above sea level and eroded away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12207",
"title": "Geology",
"section": "Section::::Geological development of an area.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 1342,
"text": "When rock units are placed under horizontal compression, they shorten and become thicker. Because rock units, other than muds, do not significantly change in volume, this is accomplished in two primary ways: through faulting and folding. In the shallow crust, where brittle deformation can occur, thrust faults form, which causes deeper rock to move on top of shallower rock. Because deeper rock is often older, as noted by the principle of superposition, this can result in older rocks moving on top of younger ones. Movement along faults can result in folding, either because the faults are not planar or because rock layers are dragged along, forming drag folds as slip occurs along the fault. Deeper in the Earth, rocks behave plastically and fold instead of faulting. These folds can either be those where the material in the center of the fold buckles upwards, creating \"antiforms\", or where it buckles downwards, creating \"synforms\". If the tops of the rock units within the folds remain pointing upwards, they are called anticlines and synclines, respectively. If some of the units in the fold are facing downward, the structure is called an overturned anticline or syncline, and if all of the rock units are overturned or the correct up-direction is unknown, they are simply called by the most general terms, antiforms and synforms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2992637",
"title": "Relative dating",
"section": "Section::::Geology.:Principles of relative dating.:Superposition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "The \"law of superposition\" states that a sedimentary rock layer in a tectonically undisturbed sequence is younger than the one beneath it and older than the one above it. This is because it is not possible for a younger layer to slip beneath a layer previously deposited. The only disturbance that the layers experience is bioturbation, in which animals and/or plants move things in the layers. however, this process is not enough to allow the layers to change their positions. This principle allows sedimentary layers to be viewed as a form of vertical time line, a partial or complete record of the time elapsed from deposition of the lowest layer to deposition of the highest bed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71070",
"title": "Derbyshire",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Geology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "The oldest rocks are Lower Carboniferous limestones of Dinantian age, which form the core of the White Peak within the Peak District National Park. Because northern Derbyshire is effectively an uplifted dome of rock layers which have subsequently eroded back to expose older rocks in the centre of that dome, these are encircled by progressively younger limestone rocks until they in turn give way on three sides to Upper Carboniferous shales, gritstones and sandstones of Namurian age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26125403",
"title": "Inliers and outliers (geology)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "An inlier is an area of older rocks surrounded by younger rocks. Inliers are typically formed by the erosion of overlying younger rocks to reveal a limited exposure of the older underlying rocks. Faulting or folding may also contribute to the observed outcrop pattern. A classic example from Great Britain is that of the inlier of folded Ordovician and Silurian rocks at Horton in Ribblesdale in North Yorkshire which are surrounded by the younger flat-lying Carboniferous Limestone. The location has long been visited by geology students and experts. Another example from South Wales is the Usk Inlier in Monmouthshire where Silurian age rocks are upfolded amidst Old Red Sandstone rocks of Devonian age.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1672151",
"title": "Ogmore-by-Sea",
"section": "Section::::Geology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "The oldest rocks are hard, grey limestones that make up the Carboniferous Limestone. These were laid down in a warm, shallow, subtropical sea and are rich in fossils, especially corals, crinoids and brachiopods. About 300 million years ago movements in the Earth's crust deformed and folded the rocks, as a result of which the rocks above the Carboniferous Limestone were worn away. Deposition resumed during the Triassic Period when the area was a desert with hills of limestone, and a dry plain where the Bristol Channel is now. Short violent storms caused flash-floods which carried debris down the hillsides and deposited it as alluvial fans of coarse, red conglomerate at the edge of the plain. These Triassic lie unconformably on the Carboniferous Limestone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19461794",
"title": "Porosity",
"section": "Section::::Porosity in earth sciences and construction.:Porosity of rocks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Rocks normally decrease in porosity with age and depth of burial. Tertiary age Gulf Coast sandstones are in general more porous than Cambrian age sandstones. There are exceptions to this rule, usually because of the depth of burial and thermal history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
d302ov | What was the journey to Auschwitz like? | [
{
"answer": "What they were referring to as \"goods wagons\" were likely the trucks which were in this case used to take people from factories to centers from which they were deported to Auschwitz in cattle cars. The Nazis usually deported Jews to extermination camps such as Auschwitz Birkenau in cattle cars with very horrible conditions. Auschwitz was a large camp complex with concentration camp, labor camp, and extermination camp sections. Most of the German Jews deported in February of 1943 were murdered in the gas chambers in the Birkenau section of Auschwitz. About 4000 people escaped the Aktion, and about 1500 of these people survived in hiding. However there were no escapees once people were put on the trains. Some of the deportees from the Fabrikaktion survived because in Auschwitz they were selected for forced labor, a very small number of people, mostly able bodied young men and young women without children were chosen for forced labor and so were not immediately gassed as most of the deportees were. Most of these forced laborers were eventually killed, but some did survive.\n\nMost of the other Jews in Berlin had already been deported and murdered, most of the people deported in the Fabrikaktion were the spouses of non-Jews or were children of interfaith couples, or else were skilled workers or forced laborers in war production. Up until then these people had avoided deportation, however at the end of 1942 the Nazis decided to deport and murder these last Jews in Berlin by the end of March of 1943. This particular Aktion is well known historically because it was the day of the Rosenstrasse protests of women married to Jewish men occurred. This was particularly significant because it was the only mass demonstration against the deportation of Jews in Germany. \n\nThe deportations were ordered by the RSHA, and were organized by various groups, mainly the SS but also others, including local police. The deportations themselves were extraordinarily brutal. Usually between 75 to 100 people were stuffed in a cattle car, without windows, with no food, with no room to move or even sit down. Some cars had a bucket of water and an empty bucket for a toilet, but many did not even have these. The trip from Berlin to Auschwitz usually took a a day or two, sometimes longer. Many people died during the journey. These trains were heavily guarded, often with a guard with a machine gun on top of each car. Very few people escaped and almost all who did were murdered. Thousands of railway workers, and the Deutsche Reichsban were also complicit. The trains then arrived at Auschwitz and the prisoners underwent selection, a few able bodied prisoners were chosen to live and the rest were murdered and their bodies burned within a few hours. \n\n\"The Factory Action and the Events at the Rosenstrasse in Berlin: Facts and Fictions about 27 February 1943: Sixty Years Later\" by Wolf Gruner and Ursula Marcum \n\n [_URL_1_](_URL_1_) \n\n\"An Underground Life\" by Gad Beck, Beck's description of the Aktion is particularly heart wrenching because he remembers losing his first love, Manfred during the Aktion (though not the one on feb. 27).\n\n [_URL_0_](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1102553",
"title": "Peace walk",
"section": "Section::::International.:The Interfaith Pilgrimage for Peace and Life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The trip was organized to both commemorate the 50th anniversary of the end of World War II as well as to be witness to the suffering in contemporary war zones. The group walked from Auschwitz to Vienna, then travelled through Croatia, Bosnia and Serbia. They crossed the front lines of the Bosnian war in Mostar and held a day of vigil, fasting and prayer there. The next leg took them through Israel, the Gaza Strip, the West Bank, Jordan and Iraq.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5043162",
"title": "Rudolf Vrba",
"section": "Section::::Vrba–Wetzler report.:Walking to Slovakia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "According to Henryk Swiebocki of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum, local people, including members of the Polish underground who lived near the camp, did what they could to help escapees. Vrba wrote that there was no organized help for them on the outside. At first the men avoided contact with other people, moving only at night; they ate bread they'd taken from Auschwitz and drank water from streams. On 13 April, lost in Bielsko-Biala, they knocked on the door of a farmhouse and a Polish woman took them in for a day. Feeding them bread, potato soup and \"ersatz\" coffee, she explained that most of the area had been \"Germanized\" and that Poles helping Jews risked death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36757902",
"title": "Fossoli camp",
"section": "Section::::History.:Concentration camp.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "The purpose of the camp was to act as a transit camp and it was to be filled to capacity with Italian Jews and, once full, these were to be deported predominately to Auschwitz for extermination. It was during this period that the first two trains left for Auschwitz on 19 and 22 February 1944, with the camp still under Italian control. The second convoy left with 650 other prisoners (which Primo Levi recalls in the first pages of the famous book \"If This is a Man\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26522536",
"title": "Kazimierz Piechowski",
"section": "Section::::Imprisonment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "They left through the main Auschwitz camp through the Arbeit Macht Frei gate. They had taken a cart and passed themselves off as a \"Rollwagenkommando\"\"haulage detail\"a work group which consisted of between four and twelve inmates pulling a freight cart instead of horses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2378869",
"title": "History of the Jews in Hungary",
"section": "Section::::The Holocaust.:Deportation to Auschwitz.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 163,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 163,
"end_character": 1316,
"text": "The first transports to Auschwitz began in early May 1944, and continued, even as Soviet troops approached. The Hungarian government was solely in charge of the Jews' transportation up to the northern border. The Hungarian commander of the Kassa (Košice) railroad station meticulously recorded the trains heading to Auschwitz with their place of departure and the number of people inside them. The first train went through Kassa on May 14. On a typical day, there were three or four trains, with between 3,000 and 4,000 people on each train, for a total of approximately 12,000 Jews delivered to the extermination facilities each day. There were 109 trains during these 33 days through June 16. (There were days when there were as many as six trains.) Between June 25 and 29, there were 10 trains, then an additional 18 trains on July 5–9. The 138th recorded train (with the 400,426th victim) heading to Auschwitz via Kassa was on July 20. Another 10 trains were sent to Auschwitz via other routes (24,000+ people) (the first two left Budapest and Topolya on April 29, and arrived at Auschwitz on May 2), while 7 trains with 20,787 people went to Strasshof between June 25 and 28 (2 each from Debrecen, Szeged, and Baja; 1 from Szolnok). The unique Kastner train left for Bergen-Belsen with 1,685 people on June 30.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2006",
"title": "Auschwitz concentration camp",
"section": "Section::::Life in the camps.:Transports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1063,
"text": "Deportees were brought to Auschwitz crammed in wretched conditions into goods or cattle wagons, arriving near a railway station or at one of several dedicated trackside ramps, including one next to Auschwitz I. The \"Altejudenrampe\" (old Jewish ramp), part of the Oświęcim freight railway station, was used from 1942 to 1944 for Jewish transports. Located between Auschwitz I and Auschwitz II, arriving at this ramp meant a 2.5 km journey to Auschwitz II and the gas chambers. Most deportees were forced to walk, accompanied by SS men and a car with a Red Cross symbol that carried the Zyklon B, as well as an SS doctor in case officers were poisoned by mistake. Inmates arriving at night, or who were too weak to walk, were taken by truck. Work on another railway line and \"Judenrampe\" \"(pictured right)\" between sectors BI and BII in Auschwitz II, was completed in May 1944 for the arrival of Hungarian Jews, who between May and early July 1944 were deported to Auschwitz II at a rate of 12,000 a day. The rails led directly to the area around the gas chambers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3136897",
"title": "Jane Haining",
"section": "Section::::Arrest.:Mass deportations to Auschwitz.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "From May 1944 the trains into Auschwitz II arrived on a new train spur that had been built to carry the Hungarian Jews directly into the camp. The three-track line, which stopped near the gas chambers, meant that a new train could arrive while a previous one was being unloaded. The crematoria could barely cope; the \"Sonderkommando\" (prisoners forced to work there) had to start burning bodies in open fire pits. About 90 percent of the Hungarian Jews who survived the journey to Auschwitz were sent to the gas chambers on arrival; the rest were selected for slave labour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3kbt3w | Was American Artillery more effective and decisive than German Artillery in WW2? If so, why? | [
{
"answer": "I'll let others cover all of the other reasons why it was so, underlying everything was simple logistical superiority. The Americans not only had the capacity to lean on artillery heavily as a weapon of war, they had the willingness to do so. Artillery is expensive, and getting artillery shells from a US factory shipped to the Western Front even more so. But the US had the industrial capacity, the logistical capability, the wealth, and above all that the knowledge that they had such and the willingness to make use of it.\n\nThe US built more *new* merchant tonnage during the war than, for example, the Japanese had at the start of the war. Despite incredible losses of merchant marine sailors and ships the US was able to pump more artillery rounds into Western Europe (logistically and literally) from across an Ocean than the Germans could across a much shorter supply chain.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[This response by /u/vonadler is exactly what you are looking for.](_URL_0_)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8851707",
"title": "Army Ground Forces",
"section": "Section::::Organization of Ground Troops.:Artillery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "Although also frequently out-ranged by their German counterparts, American artillery built up a reputation for effectiveness and the infantry increasingly relied on the artillery to get them forward. The War Department General Staff ignored the Army Ground Force's recommendations for a powerful heavy artillery arm, authorizing only 81 medium and 54 heavy non-divisional artillery battalions instead of the 140 and 101 recommended by Army Ground Forces, only to have combat experience in Italy prove that air power could not substitute for heavy artillery. As a result, over 100 medium and heavy artillery battalions were activated in 1944, mostly through the conversion of coast artillery units.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9554623",
"title": "M3 Gun Motor Carriage",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "After the fall of France, the U.S. Army studied the reasons behind the effectiveness of the German campaign against the French and British forces. One aspect that was highlighted by this study was the use of self propelled artillery, however by 1941 there was little available in the U.S. Army's arsenal that could be used in such a role. The Army had a number of M1897A5 guns, sufficient for the mass-production for such a weapon, and the M3 half-track was coming into production. After some debate, the Army decided to place M1897A5 guns on the M3 half-track chassis, which was designated the T12 GMC. The M1897A5 gun was originally adapted for the M3 chassis by placing it in a welded box riveted to the chassis behind the driver's compartment. It was accepted by the Army on 31 October 1941.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7053",
"title": "Cannon",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th and 21st centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 824,
"text": "By the early 20th century, infantry weapons had become more powerful, forcing most artillery away from the front lines. Despite the change to indirect fire, cannon proved highly effective during World War I, directly or indirectly causing over 75% of casualties. The onset of trench warfare after the first few months of World War I greatly increased the demand for howitzers, as they were more suited at hitting targets in trenches. Furthermore, their shells carried more explosives than those of guns, and caused considerably less barrel wear. The German army had the advantage here as they began the war with many more howitzers than the French. World War I also saw the use of the Paris Gun, the longest-ranged gun ever fired. This calibre gun was used by the Germans against Paris and could hit targets more than away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "449734",
"title": "8.8 cm Flak 18/36/37/41",
"section": "Section::::Development history.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "Initially, anti-aircraft artillery guns of World War I were adaptations of existing medium-caliber weapons, mounted to allow fire at higher angles. By 1915, the German command realized that these were useless for anything beyond deterrence, even against the vulnerable balloons and slow-moving aircraft of the period. With the increase of aircraft performance, many armies developed dedicated AA guns with a high muzzle velocity – allowing the projectiles to reach greater altitudes. It was this muzzle velocity, combined with a projectile of high weight, that made the 8.8 cm Flak one of the great World War II anti-tank guns. The first such German gun was introduced in 1917, and it used the 8,8 cm caliber, common in the \"Kaiserliche Marine\" (navy).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1765190",
"title": "Elevation (ballistics)",
"section": "Section::::Pre-WWI and WWI.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "But changes have been made since past wars and in World War I, artillery was more accurate than before, although not as accurate as artillery one century newer. The tactics of artillery from previous wars were carried on, and still had similar success. Warships and battleships also carried large caliber guns that needed to be elevated to certain degrees to accurately hit targets, and they also had the similar drawbacks of land artillery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11357697",
"title": "History of cannon",
"section": "Section::::20th and 21st centuries.:Artillery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "By the early 20th century, infantry weapons became more powerful and accurate, forcing most artillery away from the front lines. Despite the change to indirect fire, cannon still proved highly effective during World War I, causing over 75% of casualties. The onset of trench warfare after the first few months of World War I greatly increased the demand for howitzers, as they fired at a steep angle, and were thus better suited than guns at hitting targets in trenches. Furthermore, their shells carried larger amounts of explosives than those of guns, and caused considerably less barrel wear. The German army took advantage of this, beginning the war with many more howitzers than the French. World War I also marked the use of the Paris Gun, the longest-ranged gun ever fired. This caliber gun was used by the Germans to bombard Paris, and was capable of hitting targets more than away.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1646026",
"title": "Battle of Albert (1916)",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.:Analysis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 842,
"text": "Soon after the war, Ernst von Hoeppner wrote that German air units were overwhelmed by the number and aggression of British and French air crews, who gained air supremacy and reduced the \"to a state of impotence\". Hoeppner wrote that Anglo-French artillery-observation aircraft were their most effective weapon, operating in \"perfect accord\" with their artillery and \"annihilating\" the German guns, although the French aviators were superior to the British. Low-altitude flying for machine-gun attacks on German infantry had little practical effect but the depression of German infantry morale was much greater, leading to a belief that return fire had no effect on Allied aircraft and that all aeroplanes seen were British or French, which led to more demands from the infantry for air protection by the , despite their unsuitable aircraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2jp937 | Why does it seem like early American civilizations' (Maya, Olmec, Aztec) art/architecture is much less developed or much less impressive than that of early Europe and Asia? | [
{
"answer": "This is a common misconception, in truth mesoamerican and south american cultures were very advanced, just in ways that were different than what is typically thought of as \"advanced\". Early American civilizations had very complex construction and architecture techniques as well as metallurgy and textiles. \n\nWhen people say that \"they weren't that advanced\" people are usually referring to the fact that the Incas didn't use wheels. Long story short; They did. But American cultures didn't use extensively for a couple of reasons, namely they didn't have any draft animals. Cattle and horses simply didn't exist in the american continents at the time. [Llamas](_URL_0_) aren't very strong, and the [American Bison](_URL_4_) was never tamed. This, in combination with the many steep, rocky, mountainous regions of the american continents meant that the wooden cart wheels of the time simply weren't useful to them on a large scale.\n\nAnother reason they tend to be thought of as less advanced is that the american cultures tended to favor natural defenses instead of the artificial method of castle building. See [Machu Picchu](_URL_1_) and the [Cliffdwellers](_URL_5_). Those, and many construction sites like them had very advanced construction and carving techniques employed throughout them. \n\nThere was also [Tenochtitlan](_URL_2_) the capital city of the Aztecs that was built in the middle of a lake using a combination of natural and artificial islands, complete with huge drawbridges that could be raised in case of an attack. This wasn't just one fortress either, the entire city was built like this. And in some places there was even running water thanks to two large aqueducts flowing into the city.\n\nAnd then we come to [Teotihuacan](_URL_3_) a *massive* city that existed centuries before the aztecs built Tenochtitlan. It is thought to have housed at least 125,000 people during its height making it the 6th largest city in the world at the time. These were the people the Aztecs worshipped as gods!\n\nThere are a couple of other reasons why they aren't thought of as \"advanced\" including their highly fragmentized cultures, their lack of large scale warfare (there are exceptions, but most ancient american conflicts were relatively small and over pretty quickly compared to the grand battles of european military history), and the difficulty of obtaining certain materials made certain tasks more difficult for the people of the american continents. \n\nTL;DR The many American cultures were advanced, in some cases just as much or moreso than their european counterparts. But due to differing circumstances and environments, they never developed, or never needed to develop those technologies in the first place. \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33915362",
"title": "Mexican art",
"section": "Section::::History.:Pre-Columbian art.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "They were a forerunner of later cultures such as Teotihuacan, north of Mexico City, the Zapotecs in Oaxaca and the Mayas in southern Mexico, Belize and Guatemala. While empires rose and fell, the basic cultural underpinnings of the Mesoamerica stayed the same until the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire. These included cities centered on plazas, temples usually built on pyramid bases, Mesoamerican ball courts and a mostly common cosmology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50884460",
"title": "Women in Muisca society",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Famous is their well-elaborated Muisca art, especially their goldworking. Different from the other three well-known civilisations of the Americas; the Maya, Aztec and Inca, they did not construct grand architecture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "399215",
"title": "Mesoamerican chronology",
"section": "Section::::Cultural horizons of Mesoamerica.:Postclassic period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 983,
"text": "There were many cultural changes during that time. One of them was the expansion of metallurgy, imported from South America, and whose oldest remnants in Mesoamerica come from the West, as is the case also with ceramics. The Mesoamericans did not achieve great facility with metals; in fact, their use was rather limited (a few copper axes, needles, and above all jewellery). The most advanced techniques of Mesoamerican metallurgy were developed by the mixtecos, who produced fine, exquisitely handcrafted articles. Remarkable advances were made in architecture as well. The use of nails in architecture was introduced to support the sidings of the temples, mortar was improved, the use of columns and stone roofs was widespread — something that only the Maya had used during the Classic period. In agriculture, the system of irrigation became more complex; in the Valley of Mexico especially, chinampas were used extensively by the Mexica, who built a city of 200,000 around them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27406894",
"title": "Musical instrument",
"section": "Section::::History.:Antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "Although civilizations in Central America attained a relatively high level of sophistication by the eleventh century AD, they lagged behind other civilizations in the development of musical instruments. For example, they had no stringed instruments; all of their instruments were idiophones, drums, and wind instruments such as flutes and trumpets. Of these, only the flute was capable of producing a melody. In contrast, pre-Columbian South American civilizations in areas such as modern-day Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile were less advanced culturally but more advanced musically. South American cultures of the time used pan-pipes as well as varieties of flutes, idiophones, drums, and shell or wood trumpets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7844976",
"title": "Mayan Revival architecture",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "Though the term refers specifically to the Maya civilization of southern Mexico and Central America, in practice this revivalist style frequently blends Maya architectural and artistic motifs, a \"playful pilferings of the architectural and decorative elements\" with those of other Mesoamerican cultures, particularly the Central Mexican Aztec architecture styling from the pre-contact period as exhibited by the Mexica and other Nahua groups. Although there were mutual influences between these original and otherwise distinct and richly varied pre-Columbian artistic traditions, the syncretism of these modern reproductions is often an ahistorical one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "435268",
"title": "History of the world",
"section": "Section::::Ancient history.:Cradles of civilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 738,
"text": "As complex civilizations arose in the Eastern Hemisphere, the indigenous societies in the Americas remained relatively simple and fragmented into diverse regional cultures. During the formative stage in Mesoamerica (about 1500 BCE to 500 CE), more complex and centralized civilizations began to develop, mostly in what is now Mexico, Central America, and Peru. They included civilizations such as the Olmec, Maya, Zapotec, Moche, and Nazca. They developed agriculture, growing maize, chili peppers, cocoa, tomatoes, and potatoes, crops unique to the Americas, and creating distinct cultures and religions. These ancient indigenous societies would be greatly affected, for good and ill, by European contact during the early modern period.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10446622",
"title": "Aztec architecture",
"section": "Section::::Architectural styles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "The Aztec civilization originated in Central America. Likewise, the architecture of the ancient Aztec architecture reflects that of the natives' traditions, culture, religion, and everyday life. The ancient Aztecs relied on cosmology, astronomy, and religion as their main sources of inspiration. The most prominent of features are the Aztec temples which were built for the purpose of appeasing the gods, so many of their features reflect that goal. The temples were terraced pyramids with steep stairs leading up to the main temple. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1lfhfr | Neutron Star Density question. (Chemistry/Astrophysics) | [
{
"answer": "The mass density of a neutron star is comparable to the mass density of the nucleus of an atom.\n\nIn ordinary matter, the density is much less, because the mass of an atom is almost all in the nucleus, but the nucleus takes up only a tiny fraction of the volume of an atom, so the density of ordinary matter is vastly less than the density of the nucleus.\n\nIn a neutron star, you basically have density comparable to what you'd get if you piled a bunch of nuclei as close to each other as you could.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Neutron stars are incredibly densely packed. The reason why a teaspoon of neutron star would have so much weight associated with it opposed to a teaspoon of salt, for example, is because the neutrons in a neutron star are as densely packed as they can be. In salt (halite, for example), the crystalline structure allows for large, empty spaces between each of the Na^+ and Cl^- ions within the structure. Each salt crystal is then separated by more space through bonds to other crystals. \n\nFor a star undergoing the transformation into a neutron star, it has to undergo a process called electron degeneracy. This is the process which drives all electrons out of the core of a star while the star expels it's outer layers (keep in mind, this has to be a large star that doesn't under-go the black hole route). \n\nWhat remains is the densely-packed, neutron star, made almost entirely of neutrons (the remnant core of the large star that underwent electron degeneracy).\n\n[[Source]](_URL_0_)\n\nEdit: added a few words.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21869",
"title": "Neutron star",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Density and pressure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "Neutron stars have overall densities of to ( to times the density of the Sun), which is comparable to the approximate density of an atomic nucleus of . The neutron star's density varies from about in the crust—increasing with depth—to about or (denser than an atomic nucleus) deeper inside. A neutron star is so dense that one teaspoon (5 milliliters) of its material would have a mass over , about 900 times the mass of the Great Pyramid of Giza. In the enormous gravitational field of a neutron star, that teaspoon of material would weigh , which is 15 times what the Moon would weigh if it were placed on the surface of the Earth. The entire mass of the Earth at neutron star density would fit into a sphere of 305m in diameter (the size of the Arecibo Observatory). The pressure increases from to from the inner crust to the center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21869",
"title": "Neutron star",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Gravity and equation of state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "The equation of state for a neutron star is not yet known. It is assumed that it differs significantly from that of a white dwarf, whose equation of state is that of a degenerate gas that can be described in close agreement with special relativity. However, with a neutron star the increased effects of general relativity can no longer be ignored. Several equations of state have been proposed (FPS, UU, APR, L, SLy, and others) and current research is still attempting to constrain the theories to make predictions of neutron star matter. This means that the relation between density and mass is not fully known, and this causes uncertainties in radius estimates. For example, a neutron star could have a radius of 10.7, 11.1, 12.1 or 15.1 kilometers (for EOS FPS, UU, APR or L respectively).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8111079",
"title": "Gravitational wave",
"section": "Section::::Sources.:Spinning neutron stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "As noted above, a mass distribution will emit gravitational radiation only when there is spherically asymmetric motion among the masses. A spinning neutron star will generally emit no gravitational radiation because neutron stars are highly dense objects with a strong gravitational field that keeps them almost perfectly spherical. In some cases, however, there might be slight deformities on the surface called \"mountains\", which are bumps extending no more than 10 centimeters (4 inches) above the surface, that make the spinning spherically asymmetric. This gives the star a quadrupole moment that changes with time, and it will emit gravitational waves until the deformities are smoothed out.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21869",
"title": "Neutron star",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Gravity and equation of state.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Neutron star relativistic equations of state describe the relation of radius vs. mass for various models. The most likely radii for a given neutron star mass are bracketed by models AP4 (smallest radius) and MS2 (largest radius). BE is the ratio of gravitational binding energy mass equivalent to the observed neutron star gravitational mass of \"M\" kilograms with radius \"R\" meters,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18984956",
"title": "The Magnificent Seven (neutron stars)",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "The seven objects seem to be the best laboratory to study neutron star atmospheres and, probably, internal structure. The holy grail of neutron star astrophysics is the determination of the equation of state (EOS) of matter at supra-nuclear densities. The most direct way of constraining the EOS is to measure simultaneously the neutron star mass and radius. If a neutron star emits blackbody radiation from its surface of radius formula_1 at homogeneous temperature formula_2, the received flux at distance formula_3 is:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21869",
"title": "Neutron star",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Neutron stars that can be observed are very hot and typically have a surface temperature of around . They are so dense that a normal-sized matchbox containing neutron-star material would have a weight of approximately 3 billion metric tons, the same weight as a 0.5 cubic kilometre chunk of the Earth (a cube with edges of about 800 metres). Their magnetic fields are between 10 and 10 (100 million to 1 quadrillion) times stronger than Earth's magnetic field. The gravitational field at the neutron star's surface is about (200 billion) times that of Earth's gravitational field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32891045",
"title": "Euler–Heisenberg Lagrangian",
"section": "Section::::Experiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 618,
"text": "A team of astronomers from Italy, Poland, and the U.K. has reported in 2016 observations of the light emitted by a neutron star (pulsar RX J1856.5−3754). The star is surrounded by a very strong magnetic field (10G), and one expects birefringence from the vacuum polarization described by the Euler–Heisenberg Lagrangian. A degree of polarization of about 16% was measured and was claimed to be \"large enough to support the presence of vacuum birefringence, as predicted by QED\". Fan et al. pointed that their results are uncertain due to low accuracy of star model and the direction of the neutron magnetization axis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2bou44 | why are addresses depicted the way they are, and not postcode/zipcode first? surely this would be easier? | [
{
"answer": "Pretty much you answered it yourself.\nIt's done that way because it's traditional.\nPeople haven't felt a need for change because there were no problems with the old way.\nThe cost to promote the change, and the cost of potential delays or disruptions from confusion or inconsistency, would outweigh the negligible benefits.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The postcode *is* written first. Well, it is [for us here](_URL_0_) so if it isn't for you, that's just the way your country does it? Traditions are a strong thing, I suppose.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think the deliverer and receiver would need to know the name and address much more than they would the zip code.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The machines that read the addresses are programmed to read from bottom up, so they read the zip code first. Then sort it to correct post office for delivery or to another sorting plant. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51550",
"title": "ZIP Code",
"section": "Section::::Structure and allocation.:By geography.:Preferred place names: ZIP Codes and previous zoning lines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "Postal designations for place names become \"de facto\" locations for their addresses, and as a result, it is difficult to convince residents and businesses that they are located in another city or town different from the \"preferred\" place name associated with their ZIP Codes. Because of issues of confusion and lack of identity, some cities, such as Signal Hill, California, (an enclave located entirely inside the separate city of Long Beach) have successfully petitioned the Postal Service to change ZIP Code boundaries or create new ZIP Codes so their cities become the \"preferred\" place name for addresses within the ZIP Code.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51549",
"title": "Postal code",
"section": "Section::::History.:Criticism from the 2010s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "The classic postal codes of the 1970s are not fine-grained, can't be used as location (converted to approximated latitude/longitude of the address). But modern digital maps can generate geocodes (e.g. Geohash), it can be used as a finer location code with the same number of digits, and without administrative cost. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "214971",
"title": "North American Numbering Plan",
"section": "Section::::Numbering plan.:Initial numbering system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1039,
"text": "Initially, states divided into multiple area codes were assigned area codes with a \"1\" in the second position, while areas that covered entire states or provinces received codes with \"0\" as the middle digit; however, this rule was abandoned by the early 1950s. In order to distinguish seven-digit dialing from ten-digit dialing, central office codes were restricted to not having a \"0\" or \"1\" in the middle position. This was already common practice, because the system of using the initial letters of central office names did not assign letters to digits \"1\" and \"0\". Furthermore, area codes and central office codes could not start with \"0\" or \"1\", because \"0\" was used for operator assistance and a leading single pulse (\"i.e.\", the digit \"1\") was automatically ignored by most switching equipment of the time. In addition, the eight codes of the form \"N11\" (\"N = 2–9\") were reserved as service codes. The easily recognizable codes of the form \"N00\" were available in the numbering plan, but were not initially included in assignments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51549",
"title": "Postal code",
"section": "Section::::Presentation.:Character sets.:Alphanumeric postal codes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Most of the postal code systems are numeric; only a few are alphanumeric (i.e., use both letters and digits). Alphanumeric systems can, given the same number of characters, encode many more locations. For example, while a 2 digit numeric code can represent 100 locations, a 2 character alphanumeric code using ten numbers and twenty letters can represent 900 locations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "150178",
"title": "X86 memory segmentation",
"section": "Section::::Real mode.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "Because of the way the segment address and offset are added, a single linear address can be mapped to up to 2 = 4096 distinct segment:offset pairs. For example, the linear address 08124h can have the segmented addresses 06EFh:1234h, 0812h:0004h, 0000h:8124h, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51550",
"title": "ZIP Code",
"section": "Section::::Structure and allocation.:By geography.:Preferred place names: ZIP Codes and previous zoning lines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "\"Acceptable\" place names are usually added to a ZIP Code in cases where the ZIP Code boundaries divide them between two or more cities, as in the case of Centennial. However, in many cases, only the \"preferred\" name can be used, even when many addresses in the ZIP Code are in another city. People sometimes must use the name of a post office rather than their own city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39641481",
"title": "Mapcode",
"section": "Section::::Design principles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "The mapcode system was designed specifically as a free, brand-less, international standard for representing any location on the surface of the Earth by a short, easy to recognize and remember “code”, usually consisting of between 4 and 7 letters and digits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
6wrafd | In late medieval England, how were MPs chosen for the House of Commons? | [
{
"answer": "Ah the pre reform house of commons.\n\nAs always the answer is it depends which ones. \n\nEssentially you had 2 main forms of MPs. The knights of the shires that represented counties and those that represented urban centres. Then you had varies other MPs such as those that represented the Cinque Ports (University constituencies though cam rather later.\n\nNow we've got that out of the way it depends on the date. 1430 is a critical year as is when the 40 shilling freeholders act was passed. After that date you needed to have a freehold worth 40 shillings a year in rent in order to vote in county elections (prior to that point is possible that all freeholders had the vote in theory). One big catch was that you had to vote in the county court. This meant if you didn't live near it voting wouldn't be very practical. An exception was Hampshire where you could vote in Newport on the Isle of Wight as well as Winchester. Voting was public so you might want to stick to candidates that the great and good of Winchester were happy with. So in practice such MPs were selected by who met the voting requirements, were able to get to the county town and were prepared to openly support them.\n\nFor MPs that represented towns the system was largely left up to the authorities of the town in question and a range of approaches were taken from giving the vote to most householders through just those that paid certain taxes to just the members of the borough corporation.\n\nOf course this assumes that any MP was chosen at all. Southampton for example repeatedly failed to provide an MP (at the time it was expected to produce two). This makes more sense when you realise that Southampton was frequently a poor town and parliaments could be held in some fairly random places.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "216091",
"title": "House of Commons",
"section": "Section::::History and naming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "The House of Commons of the Kingdom of England evolved from an undivided parliament to serve as the voice of the tax-paying subjects of the counties and of the boroughs. Knights of the shire, elected from each county, were usually landowners, while the borough members were often from the merchant classes. These members represented subjects of the Crown who were not Lords Temporal or Spiritual, who themselves sat in the House of Lords. The House of Commons gained its name because it represented communities (\"communes\"). Members of the Commons were all elected, while members of the upper house were summoned to parliament by the monarch, usually on the basis of a title which would be inherited after the holder's death, or because they held a position in the realm that warranted special recognition, such as the bishops of the English and Welsh dioceses. After the Reformation, these bishops were those of the Church of England. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24913928",
"title": "House of Commons of England",
"section": "Section::::Development of independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1157,
"text": "The division of the Parliament of England into two houses occurred during the reign of Edward III: in 1341 the Commons met separately from the nobility and clergy for the first time, creating in effect an Upper Chamber and a Lower Chamber, with the knights and burgesses sitting in the latter. They formed what became known as the House of Commons, while the clergy and nobility became the House of Lords. Although they remained subordinate to both the Crown and the Lords, the Commons did act with increasing boldness. During the Good Parliament of 1376, the Commons appointed Sir Peter de la Mare to convey to the Lords their complaints of heavy taxes, demands for an accounting of the royal expenditures, and criticism of the King's management of the military. The Commons even proceeded to impeach some of the King's ministers. Although Mare was imprisoned for his actions, the benefits of having a single voice to represent the Commons were recognized, and the office which became known as Speaker of the House of Commons was thus created. Mare was soon released after the death of King Edward III and in 1377 became the second Speaker of the Commons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "378033",
"title": "Parliament of England",
"section": "Section::::History.:The emergence of parliament as an institution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "In 1341 the Commons met separately from the nobility and clergy for the first time, creating what was effectively an Upper Chamber and a Lower Chamber, with the knights and burgesses sitting in the latter. This Upper Chamber became known as the House of Lords from 1544 onward, and the Lower Chamber became known as the House of Commons, collectively known as the Houses of Parliament.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6367592",
"title": "Duration of English parliaments before 1660",
"section": "Section::::List of parliaments from 1241.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Montfort's Parliament of 1265 was the first parliament of England to include representatives chosen by the counties (or shires), the cities, and the boroughs, groups who eventually became the House of Commons, although to begin with Lords and Commons met all together, \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1798103",
"title": "Salisbury (UK Parliament constituency)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "From 1295, (the Model Parliament) a form of this constituency on a narrower area, the Parliamentary borough of Salisbury, returned two MPs to the House of Commons of England Elections were held using the bloc vote system. This afforded the ability for wealthy male townsfolk who owned property rated at more than £2 a year liability in Land Tax to vote in the county and borough (if they met the requirements of both systems). The franchise (right to vote) in the town was generally restricted to male tradespersons and professionals within the central town wards, however in medieval elections would have been the aldermen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155434",
"title": "By-election",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The procedure for filling a vacant seat in the House of Commons of England was developed during the Reformation Parliament of the 16th century by Thomas Cromwell; previously a seat had remained empty upon the death of a member. Cromwell devised a new election that would be called by the king at a time of the king's choosing. This made it a simple matter to ensure the seat rewarded an ally of the crown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13658",
"title": "House of Lords",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "The House of Lords developed from the \"Great Council\" (\"Magnum Concilium\") that advised the King during medieval times. This royal council came to be composed of ecclesiastics, noblemen, and representatives of the counties of England and Wales (afterwards, representatives of the boroughs as well). The first English Parliament is often considered to be the \"Model Parliament\" (held in 1295), which included archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, and representatives of the shires and boroughs of it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1rjkfk | how can monsanto get away with virtually suing any farmer? how can the non-gmo farmer protect him/herself? | [
{
"answer": " > I am basing my understanding of this situation on the various articles I have read here on reddit, and Food INC (feel free to tell me this is an accurate/inaccurate documentary too). \n \nIt's not accurate, Monsanto does not sue farmers over accidental cross pollination, only willful and intentional isolation of their seed and the planting/selling of it. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "I'm going to take you up on your \"feel free to tell me this is an inaccurate documentary\" clause. Listing all of the errors would take far too long, but they were definitely biased in their presentation.\n\nI'll paste an excerpt from Monsanto's FAQ:\n\n > **What is Monsanto’s standard policy if we discover a farmer is violating his or her seed contract? **\n\n > If there is evidence of seed piracy, we work with the farmer to confirm the facts and discuss how to resolve the issue quickly, amicably and professionally in accordance with our Commitment on Farmers and Patents. This commitment clearly outlines a strict code of conduct we must operate under if we are investigating possible violations. In particular, we do not threaten farmers, we respect their privacy, we do not trespass, and we do not pursue farmers for the accidental presence of our patented technology in their fields or crops.\n\n\nFrom my knowledge (I worked on a farm for quite some time), the vast majority of farmers sued by Monsanto and similar companies are for what is known as \"saving seed.\" Under the contract for using the GM seeds, the farmer promises not to save seeds from the harvested crop to plant the next year. This is so that farmers cannot expand the seeds they bought earlier and is the farming equivalent of saying that you cannot pirate music.\n\nIn the case of Food Inc., one of the main farmers interviewed claimed to run a small family farm to have been harassed by Monsanto unfairly. Despite this, his farm was worth several million (I could be in the wrong range, but it was by no means small), and there was audio evidence of him trying to convince his neighbors to save seed.\n\nThere is a reason why those in the farming community have a significantly more positive viewpoint on average than the average member of the public.",
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"answer": "You have to go out of your way to get sued. Here's what happens...\n\nIt's suspected that you have GMO crops on your land, this is usually reported by other farmers or by seed elevators that buy crops from farmers.\n\nThe owners of the technology (Monsanto, usually (thanks to their patent portfolio)...but can be Dupont/Dow/BASF/Bayer/etc depending on the crop or technology) will approach the farmer/farm and ask for voluntary documentation on their seed source and/or a sample of their seed/crops.\n\nThings can go a couple ways from here...either they comply or they resist. If they resist, things can go into legal wrangling (especially since pretty much everyone who denies to comply in order to investigate the issue is in the wrong). If they comply (or once compliance is legally won) then they send the samples off to labs to test for priority genes. Sometimes it gets to the point where it's a case of \"well, go ahead and harvest and then we'll take samples\" when farmers are adamant they're doing nothing wrong...they will be busted or cleared once sampled after harvest without any impact to the value of the farmer's crop or harvest if in the clear.\n\nHere's the thing about GMO accidentally ending up on your land...Monsanto/etc. have programs in place which will pay for the contaminated crop, it's clean-up, and the labor/chemicals used to remove it from your land...even in border lands like ditches and runoff-protection areas that aren't in production fields.\n\nHere's the other thing...there is no way on this planet someone accidentally has 70-80-90%+ GMO contaminated seed in their fields. This only happens when buying illegal seed or (more commonly) cultivating, selecting, and saving GMO seed when you notice it's shown up on your property. If I happen to be driving a truck holding 10,000 copies of MS Windows and a copy falls off the back of my truck you don't have the right to install that on 1000 computers at your business or go around installing copies on other people's computers because you found it on the ground.\n\nMonsanto has never lost a case they've sued a farmer over...and it's only been a few dozen farmers in the past 18-ish years...and well over 1/2 of them happened in the early years of GMO adoption before a lot of people knew exactly what was up with the legal limits of using this technology.\n\nIf you're farming 100s-1000s of acres, you know exactly what you're getting into when you choose to cross the line into stealing intellectual property. The only farmers that have gone up against this system were either testing the system for it's limits and/or were simply trying to steal intellectual property. It's a very deliberate act in either case.\n\nBeyond all this, it's a case of farmers who WANT to crop GMO crops without actually paying the higher seed price for GMO seed. They are no different than GMO seed purchasing farmers, use no more or less chemicals, nor are they somehow saintly or innocent for wanting to do this...they just want to cut out the \"paying for it\" part that helps brings this intellectual property to market.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Food, INC's presentation of this issue is somewhere between \"grossly simplified\" and \"intentionally deceptive.\" \n\nSeed piracy is common because [Monsanto doesn't use terminator genes](_URL_1_). The small fraction of these farmers that Monsanto brings to court are [guilty as fuck](_URL_0_). There is no way the contamination was accidental, and the court agrees. US Courts do not hold farmers liable for accidental contamination and the burden of proof lies with Monsanto. Proceeds from the lawsuits are donated to charity, so Monsanto only has negative incentives (court costs) to sue innocent farmers. The only benefit they expect to get from the lawsuits is increased compliance from other farmers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38955454",
"title": "Farmer Assurance Provision",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "Those who opposed the provision referred to it as the \"Monsanto Protection Act\", on the premise that it \"effectively bars federal courts from being able to halt the sale or planting of controversial genetically modified (aka GMO) or genetically engineered (GE) seeds, no matter what health issues may arise concerning GMOs in the future\". Fox News reported that by lobbying Washington lawmakers, Monsanto \"short-circuited\" the process. According to Al Jazeera, the provision was drafted in part by Monsanto representatives, and added to the bill without review from Congress' Agricultural or Judiciary committees, angering many who said the Act was \"snuck\" through government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39437200",
"title": "Organic Seed Growers and Trade Association",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "OSGATA presents this case as protecting members against prosecution following \"accidental contamination\" with Monsanto patented crops, but Monsanto's chief counsel clarified that \"Monsanto never has and has committed it never will sue if our patented seed or traits are found in a farmer's field as a result of inadvertent means.\" For example, in Monsanto Canada Inc v Schmeiser, an initial claim of accidental contamination is balanced against a finding of fact that 95%-98% of the crop was actually infringing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45341506",
"title": "Monsanto legal cases",
"section": "Section::::Patent litigation.:As plaintiff.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1414,
"text": "Since the mid‑1990s, Monsanto indicates that it has filed suit against 145 individual U.S. farmers for patent infringement and/or breach of contract in connection with its genetically engineered seed but has proceeded through trial against only eleven farmers, all of which it won. The Center for Food Safety has listed 90 lawsuits through 2004 by Monsanto against farmers for claims of seed patent violations. Monsanto defends its patents and their use, explaining that patents are necessary to ensure that it is paid for its products and for all the investments it puts into developing products. As it argues, the principle behind a farmer’s seed contract is simple: a business must be paid for its product., but that a very small percentage of farmers do not honor this agreement. While many lawsuits involve breach of Monsanto's Technology Agreement, farmers who have not signed this type of contract, but do use the patented seed, can also be found liable for violating Monsanto's patent. That said, Monsanto has stated it will not \"exercise its patent rights where trace amounts of our patented seed or traits are present in farmer's fields as a result of inadvertent means.\" The Federal Circuit found that this assurance is binding on Monsanto, so that farmers who do not harvest more than a trace amount of Monsanto's patented crops \"lack an essential element of standing\" to challenge Monsanto's patents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39437200",
"title": "Organic Seed Growers and Trade Association",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "It is known primarily for its March 2011 initiation of a lawsuit against Monsanto Corporation to stop it from suing farmers who have been \"contaminated\" by their genetically modified seeds. On Jan. 2013, the US Federal Court of Appeals heard the oral arguments appealing the dismissal of the case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7996774",
"title": "Southern Exposure Seed Exchange",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "SESE is a member of the Organic Seed Growers and Trade Association which brought a lawsuit against Monsanto to prevent them from suing organic farmers when they are contaminated by Monsanto products. While SESE and OSGATA technically lost the suit, the Federal Appeals Judge panel did rule that Monsanto could not sue farmers with less than 1% contamination levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1376193",
"title": "Acorn Community Farm",
"section": "Section::::Monsanto lawsuit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Acorn, with 82 other farmers and seed businesses, preemptively sued Monsanto Corporation to protect themselves from predatory lawsuits for GMO patent infringement. This suit is between Organic Seed Growers and Trade Association and Monsanto. This class action suit was litigated by the Public Patent Foundation in response to Monsanto's multiple lawsuits against farmers who have been contaminated by their GMO seeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45341506",
"title": "Monsanto legal cases",
"section": "Section::::Patent litigation.:As plaintiff.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 920,
"text": "Monsanto has also successfully sued grain elevators that clean seeds for farmers to replant of inducing patent infringement. For example, Monsanto sued the Pilot Grove Cooperative Elevator in Pilot Grove, Missouri, which had been cleaning conventional seeds for decades before the issuance of the patent that covered genetically engineered seeds. Similarly, a seed cleaner from Indiana, Maurice Parr, was sued by Monsanto for inducing farmers to save seeds in violation of Monsanto’s patent rights. Parr told his customers that cleaning patented seeds for replanting was not infringing activity. The case was settled and in exchange for paying no monetary damages, Parr agreed to an injunction requiring Parr to obtain certification from his clients that their seeds were not Monsanto patented seeds and to advise clients that seed saving of patented seeds is illegal. Mr. Parr was featured in a documentary, Food, Inc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1cirz2 | How does cortisone work? | [
{
"answer": "I think you mean cortisol, rather than cortisone. The two are interconverted in the cell by an enzyme system (11- beta HSD 1 and 2) and cortisone is actually much less active than cortisol.\n\nCortisol circulates in the blood bound to corticosteroid binding globulin, a carrier molecule. About 96% of cortisol is bound, but it is only the 4% free fraction that is biologically active. Free cortisol passes from the blood into the intracellular space, and then passes freely through the cell membrane.\n\nOnce inside the cell, cortisol binds to the glucocorticoid receptor, a molecule found in all nucleated cells. The binding of cortisol causes the receptor to shed heat shock proteins, then the cortisol and receptor complex migrate into the cell nucleus. It is here in the nucleus that cortisol has its effects. The complex binds to glucocorticoid response elements in the DNA and by so doing effects the regulation of genes - by either suppressing or stimulating them. Its is thought that cortisol can effect the regulation of over 2000 genes, so its actions are widespread- -not just the immune system, but on metabolic control, cardiovascular response and wound healing.\n\nThe immune system effects are very complicated. Some cortisol is necessary for a normal response to infection; animals without adrenal glands who don't secrete cortisol die when exposed to bacteria. However, cortisol also has anti inflammatory actions. A lot of its actions are mediated by control of cytokine release - TNF alpha, and especially NF kappa b.\n\nIf you don't have enough cortisol you won't survive a serious illness. having too much will suppress your immune system. Give extra steroid to critically ill patients is a deeply controversial practice at the moment.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34141047",
"title": "Alcohol and cortisol",
"section": "Section::::Cortisol.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "Cortisol is a stress hormone secreted by the adrenal gland, which makes up part of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. It is typically released at periods of high stress designed to help the individual cope with stressful situations. Cortisol secretion results in increased heart rate and blood pressure and the temporary shut down of metabolic processes such as digestion, reproduction, growth, and immunity as a means of conserving energy for the stress response. Chronic release of cortisol over extended periods of time caused by long-term high stress can result in: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197296",
"title": "Cortisone",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Cortisone is a pregnane (21-carbon) steroid hormone. It is one of the main hormones released by the adrenal gland in response to stress. In chemical structure, it is a corticosteroid closely related to cortisol. It is used to treat a variety of ailments and can be administered intravenously, orally, intra-articularly (into a joint), or transcutaneously. Cortisone suppresses the immune system, thus reducing inflammation and attendant pain and swelling at the site of the injury. Risks exist, in particular in the long-term use of cortisone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197296",
"title": "Cortisone",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 797,
"text": "Cortisone is one of several end-products of a process called steroidogenesis. This process starts with the synthesis of cholesterol, which then proceeds through a series of modifications in the adrenal gland (suprarenal) to become any one of many steroid hormones. One end-product of this pathway is cortisol. For cortisol to be released from the adrenal gland, a cascade of signaling occurs. Corticotropin-releasing hormone released from the hypothalamus stimulates corticotrophs in the anterior pituitary to release ACTH, which relays the signal to the adrenal cortex. Here, the zona fasciculata and zona reticularis, in response to ACTH, secrete glucocorticoids, in particular cortisol. In the peripheral tissues, cortisol is converted to cortisone by the enzyme 11-beta-steroid dehydrogenase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "335380",
"title": "Cortisol",
"section": "Section::::Synthesis and release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "Cortisol is produced in the human body by the adrenal gland in the zona fasciculata, the second of three layers comprising the adrenal cortex. The cortex forms the outer \"bark\" of each adrenal gland, situated atop the kidneys. The release of cortisol is controlled by the hypothalamus, a part of the brain. The secretion of corticotropin-releasing hormone by the hypothalamus triggers cells in the neighboring anterior pituitary to secrete another hormone, the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), into the vascular system, through which blood carries it to the adrenal cortex. ACTH stimulates the synthesis of cortisol and other glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoid aldosterone, and dehydroepiandrosterone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42076032",
"title": "Glucocorticoids in hippocampal development",
"section": "Section::::Glucocorticoid Signaling.:Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Cortisol is the primary glucocorticoid produced in humans (equivalent to rodent corticosterone). This steroid hormone is both synthesized and released from the adrenal cortex in response to physical or emotional stress. Additionally, basal serum levels of cortisol display circadian variations. Cortisol receptors are located throughout the body and are involved in a variety of processes including inflammation and lung maturation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "335380",
"title": "Cortisol",
"section": "Section::::Biochemistry.:Biosynthesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Cortisol is synthesized from cholesterol. Synthesis takes place in the zona fasciculata of the adrenal cortex. (The name cortisol is derived from cortex.) While the adrenal cortex also produces aldosterone (in the zona glomerulosa) and some sex hormones (in the zona reticularis), cortisol is its main secretion in humans and several other species. (However, in cattle, corticosterone levels may approach or exceed cortisol levels.). The medulla of the adrenal gland lies under the cortex, mainly secreting the catecholamines adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine) under sympathetic stimulation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "335380",
"title": "Cortisol",
"section": "Section::::Regulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "The primary control of cortisol is the pituitary gland peptide, ACTH, which probably controls cortisol by controlling the movement of calcium into the cortisol-secreting target cells. ACTH is in turn controlled by the hypothalamic peptide corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which is under nervous control. CRH acts synergistically with arginine vasopressin, angiotensin II, and epinephrine. (In swine, which do not produce arginine vasopressin, lysine vasopressin acts synergistically with CRH.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
33vgyc | Are the stars in the big dipper closer to Earth than other stars in the night sky and is that how they came to be a constellation? | [
{
"answer": "[This image](_URL_0_) shows the Big Dipper head on, and from the side. Distances to astronomical objects are essentially impossible to judge from a human perspective on Earth. Stars that are much brighter, but further away, can far outshine nearby dim stars. A star's location on the sky or in a constellation usually has little to do with it's distance to stars that are visually nearby, except in the case of clusters or binaries.\n\n*Edit*: To answer the constellation question, yes; constellations are essentially just groupings of bright stars in a region on the sky that helps make observing and recording the movements of celestial objects easy. This was originally done for calendar keeping and astrology, but they're still useful features for astronomy and the general public today.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "602678",
"title": "Extraterrestrial skies",
"section": "Section::::Extrasolar planets.:View from nearby stars (0 – 10 ly).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "If the Sun were to be observed from the Alpha Centauri system, the nearest star system to ours, it would appear to be a 0.46 magnitude star in the constellation Cassiopeia, and would create a \"/W\" shape instead of the \"W\" as seen from Earth. Due to the proximity of the Alpha Centauri system, the constellations would, for the most part, appear similar. However, there are some notable differences with the position of other nearby stars; for example, Sirius would appear about one degree from the star Betelgeuse in the constellation Orion. Also, Procyon would appear in the constellation Gemini, about 13 degrees below Pollux.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5267",
"title": "Constellation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Other star patterns or groups called asterisms are not constellations per se but are used by observers to navigate the night sky. Asterisms may be several stars within a constellation, or they may share stars with more than one constellation. Examples of asterisms include the Pleiades and Hyades within the constellation Taurus and the False Cross split between the southern constellations Carina and Vela, or Venus' Mirror in the constellation of Orion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3444568",
"title": "Big Dipper",
"section": "Section::::Guidepost.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Not only are the stars in the Big Dipper easily found themselves, they may also be used as guides to yet other stars. Thus it is often the starting point for introducing Northern Hemisphere beginners to the night sky:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "997476",
"title": "Night sky",
"section": "Section::::Visual presentation.:Constellations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Orion is among the most prominent and recognizable constellations. The Big Dipper (which has a wide variety of other names) is helpful for navigation in the northern hemisphere because it points to Polaris, the north star.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "142352",
"title": "Circumpolar star",
"section": "Section::::Definition of circumpolar stars.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "Some stars within the far northern constellation (such as Cassiopeia, Cepheus, Ursa Major, and Ursa Minor) roughly north of the Tropic of Cancer (+23½°) will be circumpolar stars, which never rise or set.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23785293",
"title": "Mensa (constellation)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "One of the faintest constellations in the night sky, Mensa contains no apparently bright stars—the brightest, Alpha Mensae, is barely visible in suburban skies. At least three of its star systems have been found to have exoplanets, and part of the Large Magellanic Cloud, several star clusters and a quasar lie in the area covered by the constellation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56568",
"title": "Pleiades",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "The Pleiades (), also known as the Seven Sisters and Messier 45, are an open star cluster containing middle-aged, hot B-type stars located in the constellation of Taurus. It is among the nearest star clusters to Earth and is the cluster most obvious to the naked eye in the night sky.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3zk8vt | Navigation in bombers during world war 2. Were the navigators able to compute the route on their own or their work was mostly handled by electronical devices? | [
{
"answer": "Mostly map work and instruments - at least early on - which is why the Blackouts actually worked as a measure to reduce the accuracy of Bomber attack. There are examples of long-range guidance by electronics; however, the Luftwaffe used radio transmitters and modified Lorentz blind-landing sets (short range radio receivers designed to guide pilots in to land in poor visibility) to produce the 'knickerbine' bomber guidance system.\n\nThe system essentially consisted of a radio that would pick up either dots or dashes if you strayed too far left or right of your flight path and a final beam that told aircrews they were over their targets. The system relied upon the fact Germany controlled France and Norway, so they could properly cross all the beams of radio signal required. The system was not incredibly successful because local interference (such as falsifying the signal for 'you are too far right' at the rightmost edge of the lane) could cause it to mislead the pilots it was supposed to lead, and it was rather expensive (directed high-power radio transmitters aren't cheap).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Early war navigation was a manual affair in the RAF using techniques such as astronavigation (taking a fix on celestial bodies with a sextant) and dead reckoning (using airspeed and direction). This wasn't particularly accurate at night, meaning RAF bombing was inaccurate; the Butt Report of 1941 report famously concluded that only one in three bombers got within five miles of their target.\n\nThe Luftwaffe had adapted the Lorenz blind landing beacon into a navigational aid for bombing called *Knickebein* used during the Blitz, with one beam guiding bombers towards a target and a second intersecting beam indicating the bomb dropping position. As noted, when the British learned of *Knickebein* they began a programme of jamming or bending the beams to limit their usefulness. The Germans developed improved beam guidance systems, *X-Gerät* and *Y-Gerät*, though they in turn were also jammed.\n\nRAF navigation steadily improved, with devices such as an electromechanical Air Position Indicator for more accurate dead reckoning, and their own beam navigation systems: GEE, Oboe and Gee-H. They also employed H2S, centimetric ground scanning radar that gave a crude picture of terrain.\n\nThere was an RAF Historical Society seminar on [A History of Navigation in the Royal Air Force that may be of interest] (_URL_3_). *Most Secret War* by R V Jones is also a very readable account encompassing the \"Battle of the Beams\", though focused more on the technological side of things rather than the navigational.\n\nSome other useful material on the web:\n\n* [A US Dead Reckoning Procedure training film] (_URL_0_)\n* [Navigating in the Air] (_URL_2_) from the Smithsonian Time and Navigation exhibition, with examples of instruments and charts\n* [The Battle of the Beams] (_URL_1_); though the site design is a little dated, it has some interesting bits such as the audio examples of *Knickebein* tones",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "153095",
"title": "Radio navigation",
"section": "Section::::Transponder systems.:Bombing systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "The first distance-based navigation system was the German Y-Gerät blind-bombing system. This used a Lorenz beam for horizontal positioning, and a transponder for ranging. A ground-based system periodically sent out pulses which the airborne transponder returned. By measuring the total round-trip time on a radar's oscilloscope, the aircraft's range could be accurately determined even at very long ranges. An operator then relayed this information to the bomber crew over voice channels, and indicated when to drop the bombs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "590945",
"title": "Gee (navigation)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Gee-H.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "Later in the war, Bomber Command wanted to deploy a new navigation system not for location fixing, but to mark a single spot in the air. This location would be used to drop bombs or target indicators for strikes by other bombers. The Oboe system provided this already; Oboe sent an interrogation signal from stations in the UK, \"reflected\" them from transceivers on the aircraft, and timed the difference between the two signals using equipment similar to Gee. However, Oboe had the major limitation that it could only guide a single aircraft at a time and took about 10 minutes to guide a single aircraft to its target. A system able to guide more aircraft at once would be a dramatic improvement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "153095",
"title": "Radio navigation",
"section": "Section::::Bearing-measurement systems.:Radio direction finding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "The first system of radio navigation was the \"Radio Direction Finder\", or RDF. By tuning in a radio station and then using a directional antenna, one could determine the direction to the broadcasting antenna. A second measurement using another station was then taken. Using triangulation, the two directions can be plotted on a map where their intersection reveals the location of the navigator. Commercial AM radio stations can be used for this task due to their long range and high power, but strings of low-power radio beacons were also set up specifically for this task, especially near airports and harbours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1444212",
"title": "Telecommunications Research Establishment",
"section": "Section::::Research and development.:Radio navigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Radio navigation (navigational beam) systems are based on the transmission of pulsed radio beams that are detected by aircraft. R. J. Dippy devised the GEE (also called AMES Type 7000) radio navigation system at TRE, where it was developed into a powerful instrument for increasing the accuracy of bombing raids.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1409379",
"title": "Gee-H (navigation)",
"section": "Section::::Development history.:Distance measuring navigation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "The Luftwaffe pioneered the use of distance-measuring radio navigation systems with their Y-Gerät system in 1941. Y-Gerät used a single Knickebein-like beam for steering the bomber in the proper direction, and an onboard transponder for distance measurements. A special signal was periodically sent from a ground station and on reception the transponder would send out an answering pulse after a known delay. A ground operator used an oscilloscope to measure the time between broadcast and reception, and deduced the range in a fashion similar to conventional radar systems. He then radioed this information to the bomber by voice, telling them when to release their bombs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18935488",
"title": "Reverse engineering",
"section": "Section::::Common situations.:Reverse engineering for military applications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "BULLET::::- Also during the Second World War, British scientists analyzed and defeated a series of increasingly sophisticated radio navigation systems being used by the German Luftwaffe to perform guided bombing missions at night. The British countermeasures to this system were so effective that in some cases German aircraft were led by signals to land at RAF bases, believing they were back in German territory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31301163",
"title": "Night bomber",
"section": "Section::::World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 913,
"text": "Prior to the introduction of radar, aircraft flying at night were nearly impossible to locate accurately enough for attack. Acoustic location was used to obtain preliminary rough coordinates. Searchlights scanning the sky could illuminate aircraft by chance and might track them long enough for anti-aircraft artillery to fire a few shots. Alternatively, night fighters were used for interception; they either cooperated with searchlights or tried to spot the bombers in the moonlight. The success rate of such defences were so low that it was widely believed that \"The bomber will always get through\", in the words of British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin. Since World War I, the bomber had been seen as a terror weapon, and was later seen as a primary strategic weapon of total war. As Baldwin later said, their primary purpose was to \"kill the enemy's women and children more rapidly than they killed yours\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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]
| null |
5njc5w | what happens to our world (including its inhabitants) if the worst case scenario happens with global warming. i'm not even sure how to define worst case scenario. melting of polar ice caps? temperature going up globally 10 degrees (f)? | [
{
"answer": "The ice caps are going to melt. It is a question of when. The models use are always failing for predicting how much sea ice is melting.\n\nThere are unknown factors. We estimate based on what we know and what we guess. The unknowns can kill us.\n\nAs things warm up, we know they will, there will be more carbon dioxide released from soils, more released from the tundra, and there is a tremendous amount of methane clathrates on the ocean floor waiting for conditions to change a little for the methane to go back into solution and into the atmosphere. The ocean pH is changing. We know this. The ocean is warming. \"When the ocean changes enough that methane will go into the atmosphere.\nWe are conducting a tremendous experiment on the whole world. The US has just elected a president who is appointing a climate change denier to the EPA. \n\nWe really do not know what the worse case is. But we know that changes must be made which should happen as soon as possible with as many incentives from government as possible. The worst case scenario for doing this is that we will have a cleaner environment and pay a little more for it. There are many health care benefits from living in a clean environment. Do you have asthma? Know someone who does? That is one of the costs of a dirty environment.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59168443",
"title": "2018 United Nations Climate Change Conference",
"section": "Section::::Speeches.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "António Guterres the Secretary-General of the United Nations told “We’re running out of time. To waste this opportunity would compromise our last best chance to stop runaway climate change. It would not only be immoral, it would be suicidal.” The IPCC special report is a stark acknowledgment of what the consequences of global warming beyond 1.5 degrees will mean for billions of people around the world, especially those who call small island states home. This is not good news, but we cannot afford to ignore it.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26515053",
"title": "Climate change, industry and society",
"section": "Section::::Systems and sectors.:Health.:Limits of human survivability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Some areas of the world would start to surpass the wet-bulb temperature limit of human survivability with global warming of about 6.7 °C (12 °F) while a warming of 11.7 °C (21 °F) would put half of the world's population in an uninhabitable environment. In practice, the survivable limit of global warming in these areas is probably lower and in practice, some areas may experience lethal wet-bulb temperatures even earlier, because this study conservatively projected the survival limit for persons who are out of the sun, in gale-force winds, doused with water, wearing no clothing, and not working.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35740340",
"title": "2012 United Nations Climate Change Conference",
"section": "Section::::Non-participant statements.:World Bank.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "The World Bank and the International Energy Agency warned that the world is heading for unprecedented warming – of between 4 °C and 6 °C – if trends are not reversed. That scale would result in droughts, floods, heatwaves and fiercer storms, decline agricultural productivity, bring plant and animal extinctions, and wide human migration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11417651",
"title": "Yuri Izrael",
"section": "Section::::Views on global warming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 893,
"text": "Izrael agreed with the IPCC predictions for future climate change, stating, \"Global temperatures will likely rise by 1.4-5.8 degrees during the next 100 years. The average increase will be three degrees. I do not think that this threatens mankind. Sea levels, due to rise by 47 cm in the 21st century, will not threaten port cities.\" He also states, \"I think the panic over global warming is totally unjustified. There is no serious threat to the climate,\" and, \"There is no need to dramatize the anthropogenic impact, because the climate has always been subject to change under Nature's influence, even when humanity did not even exist.\" Additionally, he did not believe the 0.6 °C (1.08 °F) rise in temperature observed in the last 100 years is a threat, stating, \"there is no scientifically sound evidence of the negative processes that allegedly begin to take place at such temperatures.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31898",
"title": "United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change",
"section": "Section::::Treaty.:Interpreting article 2.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The global warming that has already occurred poses a risk to some human and natural systems (e.g., coral reefs). Higher magnitudes of global warming will generally increase the risk of negative impacts. According to Field \"et al.\" (2014), climate change risks are \"considerable\" with 1 to 2 °C of global warming, relative to pre-industrial levels. 4 °C warming would lead to significantly increased risks, with potential impacts including widespread loss of biodiversity and reduced global and regional food security.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188426",
"title": "Survivalism",
"section": "Section::::Outline of scenarios and outlooks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "This group considers an end to society as it exists today under possible scenarios including global warming, global cooling, environmental degradation, warming or cooling of gulf stream waters, or a period of severely cold winters caused by a supervolcano, an asteroid strike, or large-scale nuclear proliferation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25428398",
"title": "Public opinion on global warming",
"section": "Section::::Influences on individual opinion.:Individual risk assessment and assignment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 1091,
"text": "Sheldon Ungar, a Canadian sociologist, compares the different public reactions towards ozone depletion and global warming. The public opinion failed to tie climate change to concrete events which could be used as a threshold or beacon to signify immediate danger. Scientific predictions of a temperature rise of two to three degrees Celsius over several decades do not respond with people, e.g. in North America, that experience similar swings during a single day. As scientists define global warming a problem of the future, a liability in \"attention economy\", pessimistic outlooks in general and assigning extreme weather to climate change have often been discredited or ridiculed (compare Gore effect) in the public arena. While the greenhouse effect \"per se\" is essential for life on earth, the case was quite different with the ozone shield and other metaphors about the ozone depletion. The scientific assessment of the ozone problem also had large uncertainties. But the metaphors used in the discussion (ozone shield, ozone hole) reflected better with lay people and their concerns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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]
| null |
7kfcmu | Is there a "filter" that can shift infrared light into the visible spectrum? | [
{
"answer": "Not all night vision goggles work that way. The more traditional approach is to use the photoelectric effect - incoming IR photons hit a screen, which emits electrons. These are then accelerated through an electric field and strike another screen, which causes the emission of even more electrons, and these then strike a phosphor screen which emits visible photons.",
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"answer": "Most CMOS and CCD sensors are sensitive to light in the near infrared, out to around 1100 nm (which corresponds to the bandgap energy of silicon). You can make most webcams IR sensitive by finding and removing the KG3 filter that blocks out NIR light. \n\nFor IR out past 1100 nm, you would have to use an [intensified ccd](_URL_0_). Incident IR light strikes a photocathode which produces electrons, which are then accelerated into a [microchannel plate](_URL_1_) that amplifies the electrons by a factor of ~ 1000 or so. The amplified electrons are then imaged with electron optics onto a phosphor screen, and the light produced at that screen is imaged to a conventional ccd. \n\nFor IR laser light, you can use certain birefringent crystals to [frequency double](_URL_2_) the light. Most green lasers you've seen are likely frequency-doubled Nd:YAG or Nd:YLF, which emit light in the NIR. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Thermodynamics in general prevent a photon with lower energy and therefore longer wavelength, for being converted into one of higher energy.\n\nThe opposite case can happen, and is important to quite a few physical processes. Fluorescent dyes for example, that are excited by ultraviolet light, and then give off visible light or infrared. The difference in energy is converted into motion of the atom or molecule in question, heat in other words.\n\nUsing LASERs you can exploit certain nonlinear optical effects to effectively ~~double~~ *halve* the wavelength of the laser beam, while also halving the beam's luminous intensity. This is extremely complex, but it requires the fact that LASERs are highly coherent light. This doesn't work with ordinary light.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "415883",
"title": "H-alpha",
"section": "Section::::Filter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 570,
"text": "For observing the sun, a much narrower band filter can be made from three parts: an \"energy rejection filter\" which is usually a piece of red glass that absorbs most of the unwanted wavelengths, a Fabry–Pérot etalon which transmits several wavelengths including one centred on the H-alpha emission line, and a \"blocking filter\" -a dichroic filter which transmits the H-alpha line while stopping those other wavelengths that passed through the etalon. This combination will pass only a narrow (<0.1 nm) range of wavelengths of light centred on the H-alpha emission line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29722340",
"title": "Astronomical filter",
"section": "Section::::Nebular filters.:Narrowband.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Narrowband filters are astronomical filters which transmit only a narrow band of spectral lines from the spectrum (usually 22 nm or less). It is mainly used for nebulae observation. Emission nebulae mainly radiate the doubly ionized oxygen in the visible spectrum, which emits near 500 nm wavelength. These nebulae also radiate weakly at 486 nm, the Hydrogen-beta line.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29722340",
"title": "Astronomical filter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 647,
"text": "Most astronomical filters work by blocking a specific part of the color spectrum above and below a \"bandpass\", significantly increasing the signal to noise of the interesting wavelengths, and so making the object gain detail and contrast. While the color filters transmit certain colors from the spectrum and are usually used for observation of the planets and the Moon, the polarizing filters work by adjusting the brightness, and are usually used for the Moon. The broadband and narrowband filters transmit the wavelengths that are emitted by the nebulae (by the Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms), and are frequently used for reducing light pollution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "741823",
"title": "Optical filter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 713,
"text": "Optical filters selectively transmit light in a particular range of wavelengths, that is, colours, while absorbing the remainder. They can usually pass long wavelengths only (longpass), short wavelengths only (shortpass), or a band of wavelengths, blocking both longer and shorter wavelengths (bandpass). The passband may be narrower or wider; the transition or cutoff between maximal and minimal transmission can be sharp or gradual. There are filters with more complex transmission characteristic, for example with two peaks rather than a single band; these are more usually older designs traditionally used for photography; filters with more regular characteristics are used for scientific and technical work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "741823",
"title": "Optical filter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "An optical filter is a device that selectively transmits light of different wavelengths, usually implemented as a glass plane or plastic device in the optical path, which are either dyed in the bulk or have interference coatings. The optical properties of filters are completely described by their frequency response, which specifies how the magnitude and phase of each frequency component of an incoming signal is modified by the filter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4909834",
"title": "Atomic line filter",
"section": "Section::::Properties.:Input/output.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "Atomic line filters may operate in the ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. In absorption-re-emission ALFs, the frequency of light must be shifted in order for the filter to operate, and in a passive device, this shift must be to a lower frequency (i.e. red shifted) simply because of energy conservation. This means that passive filters are rarely able to work with infrared light, because the output frequency would be impractically low. If photomultiplier tubes (PMTs) are used then the \"output wavelength of the ARF should lie in a spectral region in which commercial, large-area, long-lived PMT's [sic] possess maximum sensitivity\". In such a case, active ALFs would have the advantage over passive ALFs as they would more readily, \"generate output wavelengths in the near UV, the spectral region in which well-developed photocathodes possess their highest sensitivity\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "741823",
"title": "Optical filter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Optical filters are commonly used in photography (where some special effect filters are occasionally used as well as absorptive filters), in many optical instruments, and to colour stage lighting. In astronomy optical filters are used to restrict light passed to the spectral band of interest, e.g., to study infrared radiation without visible light which would affect film or sensors and overwhelm the desired infrared. Optical filters are also essential in fluorescence applications such as fluorescence microscopy and fluorescence spectroscopy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
7oxd3v | the mess of weird text you get when you turn a .png/.jpg file into a .txt | [
{
"answer": "So, all data is stored in binary (1s and 0s), when you open a JPG in a text editor it tries to make text out of the JPGs binary data, which usually just results in nonsense.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Every file on a computer is just a stream of numbers.\n\nWhile many file formats, like PNG & JPEG, have strict formats so you can't even open an arbitrary chunk of data, a text file does not. A text file is just a file containing text. If you try to open some other file as a text file, the text editor will carry on as if the numbers in the file represent text characters based on an encoding like [ASCII](_URL_0_) or UTF-8. Since ASCII includes a bunch of garbage characters & stuff like \"new line\", you end up with meaningless garbage.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "In the end, all files are just 1s and 0s.\n\nA jpg is only a jpg because the program opening it knows how to interpret those 1s and 0s as an image.\n\nBut notepad doesn't know how to interpret it as an image. It just assumes anything you open in it is meant to be text. So it interprets the data as if it was text.\n\nBut since the data wasn't meant to be text it looks weird. There are some characters that have special purposes and aren't really meant to be displayed. So they are represented by weird symbols. Chances are some of the numbers in that jpg file will happen to match up with the values of these special characters so you get these symbols which you wouldn't normally see in data that is actually meant to be text.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "01012018 \n12292017 \n03102017 \nConsider these three numbers. \nIf some one told you, it's dates, \nYou can read them and it makes sense. \nNow if you mixed it up and told them first two digits are the day, next two are the month, next four are the year. \nIt might make some sense, but you would get confused. \nNow if someone really messed up and told you they were phone numbers. \nYou could probably key them in to a phone, but they wouldn't do anything. \n \nThat's what a PNG is, a set of numbers. \nTo a computer, a text file is a set of numbers. \nJust that if they were written to be a PNG file, the numbers don't mean anything as a text file. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "946476",
"title": "APNG",
"section": "Section::::Technical details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "The next graphic shows the contents of such a minimal PNG file, representing just one red pixel. The PNG signature bytes and the individual chunks are marked with colors. On the left side, the byte values are shown in hex format, on the right side as their equivalent characters from ISO-8859-1 with unrecognized and control characters replaced with periods. This dual display is common for hex editors. Note that the chunks are easy to identify because of their human readable 4-byte type names (in this example IHDR, IDAT & IEND).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "920702",
"title": "Binary file",
"section": "Section::::Viewing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 1216,
"text": "If a binary file is opened in a text editor, each group of eight bits will typically be translated as a single character, and the user will see a (probably unintelligible) display of textual characters. If the file is opened in some other application, that application will have its own use for each byte: maybe the application will treat each byte as a number and output a stream of numbers between 0 and 255—or maybe interpret the numbers in the bytes as colors and display the corresponding picture. Other type of viewers (called 'word extractors') simply replace the unprintable characters with spaces revealing only the human-readable text. This type of view is useful for quick inspection of a binary file in order to find passwords in games, find hidden text in non-text files and recover corrupted documents. It can even be used to inspect suspicious files (software) for unwanted effects. For example, the user would see any URL/email to which the suspected software may attempt to connect in order to upload unapproved data (to steal). If the file is itself treated as an executable and run, then the operating system will attempt to interpret the file as a series of instructions in its machine language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1164175",
"title": "Hex editor",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "In most hex editor applications, the data of the computer file is represented as hexadecimal values grouped in 4 groups of 4 bytes (or two groups of 8 bytes), followed by one group of 16 printable ASCII characters which correspond to each pair of hex values (each byte). Non-printable ASCII characters (e.g., Bell) and characters that would take more than one character space (e.g., tab) are typically represented by a dot (\".\") in the following ASCII field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208356",
"title": "Text file",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1048,
"text": "A text file (sometimes spelled textfile; an old alternative name is flatfile) is a kind of computer file that is structured as a sequence of lines of electronic text. A text file exists stored as data within a computer file system. In operating systems such as CP/M and MS-DOS, where the operating system does not keep track of the file size in bytes, the end of a text file is denoted by placing one or more special characters, known as an end-of-file marker, as padding after the last line in a text file. On modern operating systems such as Microsoft Windows and Unix-like systems, text files do not contain any special EOF character, because file systems on those operating systems keep track of the file size in bytes. There are for most text files a need to have end-of-line delimiters, which are done in a few different ways depending on operating system. Some operating systems with record-orientated file systems may not use new line delimiters and will primarily store text files with lines separated as fixed or variable length records.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34485357",
"title": "Foremost (software)",
"section": "Section::::Functionality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
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"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Foremost is used from the command-line interface, with no graphical user interface option available. It is able to recover specific filetypes, including \"jpg\", \"gif\", \"png\", \"bmp\", \"avi\", \"exe\", \"mpg\", \"wav\", \"riff\", \"wmv\", \"mov\", \"pdf\", \"ole\", \"doc\", \"zip\", \"rar\", \"htm\", and \"cpp\". There is a configuration file (usually found at /usr/local/etc/foremost.conf) which can be used to define additional file types.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14897218",
"title": "FastPictureViewer",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Publishing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "The web publishing subsystem included in the registered edition allow users to upload photos directly to photo-sharing websites such as SmugMug, Zenfolio, PhotoShelter or a local hard disk or USB drive. The publishing function is able to perform on-the-fly format conversions to JPEG when necessary (so it can seamlessly publish RAW, TIFF and CGI files such as OpenEXR, DDS etc. to websites that normally don't support these formats), as well as automatic color-space conversion to sRGB for consistent color viewing across web browsers and devices.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9578768",
"title": "Ocrad",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Based on a feature extraction method, it reads images in portable pixmap formats known as Portable anymap and produces text in byte (8-bit) or UTF-8 formats. Also included is a layout analyser, able to separate the columns or blocks of text normally found on printed pages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3pc0k2 | how do companies get paid from credit cards? | [
{
"answer": "Short answer: They receive money in chunks throughout the month usually on a daily basis but it is on a 2 day delay. \n\nThe company has a bank that they process credit cards through, this is called the acquirer bank. The card the customer uses is also backed by a bank, this is called the issuer bank. When the merchant charges the customers card it goes to the acquiring bank which puts the transaction on to a network (MasterCard, VISA, etc) the transaction reaches the issuer bank where they make the decision to honor or decline the card. They send their decision back to the acquirer bank and the bank sends it back to the merchant. The transaction goes to ACH (automated clearing house) which is when the actual money moves from the issuer bank to the acquiring bank. ACH usually takes 2 days to process. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you buy something with a credit card, you will send a \"purchase request\" to the merchant (which is whatever business you are buying from). \n\nThen, the merchant will send this request to the \"acquirer\", which is a financial institution that handles and authorizes credit/debit card transactions. \n\nFrom there, this acquirer would send another request to the issuer of your card, whether that would be American Express, some bank, etc. \n\nIf your card/account has valid credit or money, the issuer will send an authorization code back to the acquirer. \n\nThis code is authenticated again by the acquirer which then authorizes your payment to the merchant. Hope this helps!\n\nNote: I'm not exactly sure on how the business receives the money, but hopefully someone else can address that for you!\nSource: \n\"How Credit Card Transactions Work.\" \nCreditCardscom News. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Oct. 2015.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My business uses Verifone and ADP, along with a cloud based POS system (Lightning POS from Computer Perfect shameless plug because it's awesome.) \n\nI get deposits into my business checking four days a week. \n\nFriday, Saturday, Sunday, and Monday are deposited on Tuesday at 12am. Tuesday is deposited on Wednesday at 12am. Wednesday is deposited on Thursday at 12am. Thursday is deposited on Friday at 12am. \n\nADP handles my credit card processing fee deductions from these deposits (along with payroll and some other things.) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56731463",
"title": "Ohio v. American Express Co.",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Within the United States, credit card transactions are controlled by four main financial institutions: Visa, MasterCard, American Express, and Discover, making it an oligopoly. Credit cards work as a two-sided market, with the institutions providing benefits to consumers (by allowing them to access lines of credit to make instant purchases) and merchants (by providing them the funds for that purchase instantly). The institutions support this by taking a transaction fee off the merchant's funds, with the fee varying between each institution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15905419",
"title": "Credit card fraud",
"section": "Section::::Profits, losses, and punishment.:Credit card companies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 1104,
"text": "Credit card merchant associations, like Visa and MasterCard, receive profits from transaction fees, charging between 0% and 3.25% of the purchase price plus a per transaction fee of between 0.00 USD and 40.00 USD. Cash costs more to bank up, so it is worthwhile for merchants to take cards. Issuers are thus motivated to pursue policies which increase the money transferred by their systems. Many merchants believe this pursuit of revenue reduces the incentive for credit card issuers to adopt procedures to reduce crime, particularly because the cost of investigating a fraud is usually higher than the cost of just writing it off. These costs are passed on to the merchants as \"chargebacks\". This can result in substantial additional costs: not only has the merchant been defrauded for the amount of the transaction, he is also obliged to pay the chargeback fee, and to add insult to injury the transaction fees still stand.. Additionally, merchants may lose their merchant account if their percent of chargeback to overall turnover exceeds some value related to their type of product or service sold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10333",
"title": "EFTPOS",
"section": "Section::::Australia.:Debit cards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "In addition, credit card companies issue prepaid cards which act like generic gift cards, which are anonymous and not linked to any bank accounts. These cards are accepted by merchants who accept credit cards and are processed through the EFTPOS terminal in the same way as credit cards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Benefits and drawbacks.:Detriments to society.:Inflated pricing for all consumers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 116,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 116,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "Merchants that accept credit cards must pay interchange fees and discount fees on all credit-card transactions. In some cases merchants are barred by their credit agreements from passing these fees directly to credit card customers, or from setting a minimum transaction amount (no longer prohibited in the United States, United Kingdom or Australia). The result is that merchants are induced to charge all customers (including those who do not use credit cards) higher prices to cover the fees on credit card transactions. The inducement can be strong because the merchant's fee is a percentage of the sale price, which has a disproportionate effect on the profitability of businesses that have predominantly credit card transactions, unless compensated for by raising prices generally. In the United States in 2008 credit card companies collected a total of $48 billion in interchange fees, or an average of $427 per family, with an average fee rate of about 2% per transaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Credit cards in ATMs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 191,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 191,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Many credit card companies will also, when applying payments to a card, do so, for the matter at hand, at the end of a billing cycle, and apply those payments to everything before cash advances. For this reason, many consumers have large cash balances, which have no grace period and incur interest at a rate that is (usually) higher than the purchase rate, and will carry those balances for years, even if they pay off their statement balance each month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4368067",
"title": "Cashback reward program",
"section": "Section::::Details.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Rewards based credit card products like cash back are more beneficial to consumers who pay their credit card statement off every month. Rewards based products generally have higher Annual percentage rate. If the balance were not paid in full every month the extra interest would eclipse any rewards earned. Most consumers do not know that their rewards-based credit cards charge higher fees to the vendors who accept them without vendors having any notification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17182301",
"title": "Credit card",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Business credit cards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "Business credit cards offer a number of features specific to businesses. They frequently offer special rewards in areas such as shipping, office supplies, travel, and business technology. Most issuers use the applicant's personal credit score when evaluating these applications. In addition, income from a variety of sources may be used to qualify, which means these cards may be available to businesses that are newly established. In addition, most major issuers of these cards do not report account activity to the owner's personal credit unless there is a default. This may have the effect of protecting the owner's personal credit from the activity of the business.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
26e0qv | Why did Staten Island remain mostly residential, and not develop more like Manhattan did? | [
{
"answer": "Totally got this one. Native Staten Islander here, who has done research. I'm on my phone, so I cannot provide links at the moment though.\n\nFirst, one has to realize that Staten Island is the least populous borough--I think the current population is only about 500-600k. Staten Island historically has also been sparsely populated in relationship to the rest of the city. This is very much a result of the geography of the island. While not a problem now, Staten Island had difficult terrain to live: rocky hills (made of Serpentine rock) and wetland/marshland further south. This made it very difficult for many people to have farms, and the surroubdi by waterways (Arthur Kill and Kill van Kull) would have been too narrow and shallow for large scale exporting. \n\nStaten Island, therefore, remained as a sparsely populated farmland for a long time. Similarly, it's distance from Brooklyn and Manhattan made it difficult for regular travel and inter-county trade. There were ferries (such as Cornelius Vanderbilt's, which started him on to his fortune and later evolved into the Staten Island Ferry), but they were not as many as would have been needed for large scale trade.\n\nThat being said, Staten Island was always integrated with New York rather than New Jersey. Fort Wadsworth was paired with Fort Hamilton in Brooklyn to protect the harbor. Staten Island served as a quarantine for sick immigrants. It's proximity to the harbor allowed it to profit from New Yorks trade as well.\n\nWhen New York became a city, Staten Island was the last to join in 1898. Many Staten Islanders were not happy (and many are still not to this day).\n\nThe first easy access to the borough came in 1963, when the Verrazano Narrows bridge was completed. That started Staten Islands population growth. New Yorkers saw the free land and the proximity to the city (now with bridge access) and began to move there for residential purposes, while working in the rest of the city.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "684224",
"title": "New Brighton, Staten Island",
"section": "Section::::History.:Incorporation of New Brighton.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "Although Staten Island as a whole remained largely residential and less densely populated and developed than the surrounding region, the inhabitants of the region favored consolidation with the greater metropolis. In 1898, Staten Island was consolidated with New York City, and this move accelerated development of the region. At this time immigrant groups settled in New Brighton in greater numbers; Italians and African-Americans along the Kill Van Kull, and Jewish communities on the eastern boundary of the village near St. George and Tompkinsville.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1898531",
"title": "History of New York City (1898–1945)",
"section": "Section::::Progressive Era: 1890s–1920s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 970,
"text": "The modern five boroughs, comprising the city of New York, were united in 1898. That year, the cities of New York—which then consisted of present-day Manhattan and the Bronx—and Brooklyn were both consolidated with the largely rural areas of Queens and Staten Island. The total population was 3.4 million in 1900, leaping to 5.6 million in 1920 and leveling off at 7.9 million in 1950. The population was highly diverse in terms of ethnicity, race, religion and class. The city went through an enormous growth in population, industry, and wealth. The major achievements included the building of the subway system by private enterprise. The city funded major new bridges between Manhattan and Brooklyn and Queens, which facilitated commuting and the rise of an industrial base in those boroughs. The city also expanded its port facilities, improved its traffic system, built hundreds of new elementary and high schools, and engaged in large-scale public health programs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5458655",
"title": "Staten Island Catapult",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Dom Giotti, founder of the Staten Island Catapult Development Committee (S.I.C.D.C.) maintains that the commuting needs of Staten Islanders have long been underserved by a cost-prohibitive dichotomy of bridge or boat. In his opinion the outermost New York City borough is a trove of history and culture that remains largely untapped due to a lack of mass transit alternatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54864",
"title": "List of mayors of New York City",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "Before 1898, the city included little beyond the island of Manhattan. The 1898 consolidation created the city as it is today with five boroughs: Manhattan, the Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, and Staten Island.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "645042",
"title": "New York City",
"section": "Section::::Transportation.:Streets and highways.:River crossings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 225,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 225,
"end_character": 471,
"text": "New York City is located on one of the world's largest natural harbors, and the boroughs of Manhattan and Staten Island are (primarily) coterminous with islands of the same names, while Queens and Brooklyn are located at the west end of the larger Long Island, and The Bronx is located at the southern tip of New York State's mainland. This situation of boroughs separated by water led to the development of an extensive infrastructure of well-known bridges and tunnels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "182694",
"title": "Washington Heights, Manhattan",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "In the 18th century, only the southern portion of the island was settled by Europeans, leaving the rest of Manhattan largely untouched. Among the many unspoiled tracts of land was the highest spot on the island, which provided unsurpassed views of what would become the New York metropolitan area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3670332",
"title": "Hudson Heights, Manhattan",
"section": "Section::::History.:18th and 19th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "In the 18th century, only the southern portion of the island was settled by Europeans, leaving the rest of Manhattan largely untouched. Among the many unspoiled tracts of land was the highest spot on the island, which provided unsurpassed views of what would become the New York metropolitan area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
4npfo2 | After reverse transcriptase creates a provirus, how does a retrovirus differ from a single-stranded DNA virus in its activity? | [
{
"answer": "There are two major reasons, to my knowledge, that retrovirus replication using a provirus intermediate is different than an single stranded DNA virus.\n\nOne, proviruses directly integrate into the chromosomal genome, while DNA viruses (usually) integrate extrachromosomally ([there have been some reports that Herpes virus can integrate into the chromosome](_URL_1_). Whether or not there are any benefits to being integrated directly into the genome as opposed to not integrating directly but still sitting in the nucleus (and subsequently \"hidden\" from cytoplasmic DNA sensing immunity proteins) I do not know.\n\nTwo, creating a provirus is an error intensive process. Unlike the cell's normal method of replicating DNA, Reverse Transcriptase (RT) is notoriously sloppy. Regular DNA polymerases have an error rate of [about 1 in 1,000,000 to 100,000,000](_URL_0_) but RT has an error rate of about [1 in 1700](_URL_2_). Such high rates of mutation would be deleterious to most organisms, however, not all mutations would necessarily be negative (you could very possibly have silent mutations, or you could have gain of function mutations). Deleterious mutants would be quickly selected against because of their inability to replicate and subsequently infect other cells, while productive viruses can continue to replicate very quickly. Massive amounts of mutations can be a good thing for the virus, especially in the case of antiviral treatment. This is why HAART, the standard in HIV treatment, exists as a cocktail; when the first antiviral was released for HIV people that took the drug quickly found that the virus mutated to evolve resistance against it. But by giving a cocktail of multiple drugs you make it less likely that the virus will generate resistant mutations against all of the drugs at once.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1460525",
"title": "Oncovirus",
"section": "Section::::RNA Oncoviruses.:Retrovirus enters host cell.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 1032,
"text": "The retrovirus begins the journey into a host cell by attaching a surface glycoprotein to the cell's plasma membrane receptor. Once inside the cell, the retrovirus goes through reverse transcription in the cytoplasm and generates a double-stranded DNA copy of the RNA genome. Reverse transcription also produces identical structures known as long terminal repeats (LTRs). Long terminal repeats are at the ends of the DNA strands and regulates viral gene expression. The viral DNA is then translocated into the nucleus where one strand of the retroviral genome is put into the chromosomal DNA by the help of the virion intergrase. At this point the retrovirus is referred to as provirus. Once in the chromosomal DNA, the provirus is transcribed by the cellular RNA polymerase II. The transcription leads to the splicing and full-length mRNAs and full-length progeny virion RNA. The virion protein and progeny RNA assemble in the cytoplasm and leave the cell, whereas the other copies send translated viral messages in the cytoplasm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55668062",
"title": "Feline foamy virus",
"section": "Section::::Structure and genome.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Retroviruses are commonly known to have a (+) single stranded RNA genome with a DNA intermediate. Typically, the virus will use its own reverse transcriptase enzyme to create DNA from the RNA genome. The FeFV viral genome is linear with (+) single stranded RNA or double stranded DNA depending on the timing of reverse transcription as this process occurs later in the replication cycle of foamy viruses. This results in the infectious particles having DNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235926",
"title": "DNA polymerase",
"section": "Section::::Variation across species.:Eukaryotic DNA polymerase.:Reverse transcriptase.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Retroviruses encode an unusual DNA polymerase called reverse transcriptase, which is an RNA-dependent DNA polymerase (RdDp) that synthesizes DNA from a template of RNA. The reverse transcriptase family contain both DNA polymerase functionality and RNase H functionality, which degrades RNA base-paired to DNA. An example of a retrovirus is HIV.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "617379",
"title": "Retrotransposon",
"section": "Section::::Types.:LTR retrotransposons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "Although retroviruses are often classified separately, they share many features with LTR retrotransposons. A major difference with Ty1-\"copia\" and Ty3-\"gypsy\" retrotransposons is that retroviruses have an envelope protein (ENV). A retrovirus can be transformed into an LTR retrotransposon through inactivation or deletion of the domains that enable extracellular mobility. If such a retrovirus infects and subsequently inserts itself in the genome in germ line cells, it may become transmitted vertically and become an Endogenous Retrovirus (ERV). Endogenous retroviruses make up about 8% of the human genome and approximately 10% of the mouse genome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22307998",
"title": "LTR retrotransposon",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Endogenous retroviruses (ERV).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Although retroviruses are often classified separately, they share many features with LTR retrotransposons. A major difference with Ty1-\"copia\" and Ty3-\"gypsy\" retrotransposons is that retroviruses have an envelope protein (ENV). A retrovirus can be transformed into an LTR retrotransposon through inactivation or deletion of the domains that enable extracellular mobility. If such a retrovirus infects and subsequently inserts itself in the genome in germ line cells, it may become transmitted vertically and become an Endogenous Retrovirus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1006597",
"title": "Nanorobotics",
"section": "Section::::Manufacturing approaches.:Virus-based.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 624,
"text": "Retroviruses can be retrained to attach to cells and replace DNA. They go through a process called reverse transcription to deliver genetic packaging in a vector. Usually, these devices are Pol – Gag genes of the virus for the Capsid and Delivery system. This process is called retroviral gene therapy, having the ability to re-engineer cellular DNA by usage of viral vectors. This approach has appeared in the form of retroviral, adenoviral, and lentiviral gene delivery systems. These gene therapy vectors have been used in cats to send genes into the genetically modified organism (GMO), causing it to display the trait.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25799",
"title": "Retrovirus",
"section": "Section::::Multiplication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1284,
"text": "While transcription was classically thought to occur only from DNA to RNA, reverse transcriptase transcribes RNA into DNA. The term \"retro\" in retrovirus refers to this reversal (making DNA from RNA) of the usual direction of transcription. It still obeys the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that information can be transferred from nucleic acid to nucleic acid but cannot be transferred back from protein to either protein or nucleic acid. Reverse transcriptase activity outside of retroviruses has been found in almost all eukaryotes, enabling the generation and insertion of new copies of retrotransposons into the host genome. These inserts are transcribed by enzymes of the host into new RNA molecules that enter the cytosol. Next, some of these RNA molecules are translated into viral proteins. For example, the \"gag\" gene is translated into molecules of the capsid protein, the \"pol\" gene is translated into molecules of reverse transcriptase, and the \"env\" gene is translated into molecules of the envelope protein. It is important to note that a retrovirus must \"bring\" its own reverse transcriptase in its capsid, otherwise it is unable to utilize the enzymes of the infected cell to carry out the task, due to the unusual nature of producing DNA from RNA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1ap5lt | Why does our skin get numb when we're cold? | [
{
"answer": "Blood flow to exterior arteries is restricted to keep the internal organs warm. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "So your sensation comes from neurons that brings information from your skin to your brain. When it's cold, you can imagine that reactions needed to send that information slows down, and then when numb, most of that signal can't move out of that area towards your brain simply because the nerves can't fire effectively any more. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "599203",
"title": "Raynaud syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "When exposed to cold temperatures, the blood supply to the fingers or toes, and in some cases the nose or earlobes, is markedly reduced; the skin turns pale or white (called pallor) and becomes cold and numb.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "398940",
"title": "Paresthesia",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Transient.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 752,
"text": "The most common, everyday cause is temporary restriction of nerve impulses to an area of nerves, commonly caused by leaning or resting on parts of the body such as the legs (often followed by a pins and needles tingling sensation). Other causes include conditions such as hyperventilation syndrome and panic attacks. A cold sore outside the mouth (not a canker sore inside the mouth) can be preceded by tingling because a cold sore is caused by herpes simplex virus. The varicella zoster virus (shingles) also notably may cause recurring pain and tingling in skin or tissue along the distribution path of that nerve (most commonly in the skin, along a dermatome pattern, but sometimes feeling like a headache, chest or abdominal pain, or pelvic pain).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "479413",
"title": "Vasodilation",
"section": "Section::::Examples and individual mechanisms.:Cold-induced vasodilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Cold-induced vasodilation (CIVD) occurs after cold exposure, possibly to reduce the risk of injury. It can take place in several locations in the human body but is observed most often in the extremities. The fingers are especially common because they are exposed most often.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32843140",
"title": "Chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "It is not known what causes the condition, but microtubule and mitochondrial damage, and leaky blood vessels near nerve cells are some of the possibilities being explored. Pain can often be helped with drug or other treatment but the numbness is usually resistant to treatment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "479413",
"title": "Vasodilation",
"section": "Section::::Examples and individual mechanisms.:Cold-induced vasodilation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "When the fingers are exposed to cold, vasoconstriction occurs first to reduce heat loss, resulting in strong cooling of the fingers. Approximately five to ten minutes after the start of the cold exposure of the hand, the blood vessels in the finger tips will suddenly vasodilate. This is probably caused by a sudden decrease in the release of neurotransmitters from the sympathetic nerves to the muscular coat of the arteriovenous anastomoses due to local cold. The CIVD increases blood flow and subsequently the temperature of the fingers. This can be painful and is sometimes known as the 'hot aches' which can be painful enough to bring on vomiting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1409950",
"title": "Nerve biopsy",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "A nerve biopsy can potentially find the cause of the numbness and/or pain experienced in the limbs. It can reveal if these symptoms are caused by damage to the myelin sheath, damage to the small nerves, destruction of the axon in the nerve cells or neuropathies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "732173",
"title": "Cellulitis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "This reddened skin or rash may signal a deeper, more serious infection of the inner layers of skin. Once below the skin, the bacteria can spread rapidly, entering the lymph nodes and the bloodstream and spreading throughout the body. This can result in influenza-like symptoms with a high temperature and sweating or feeling very cold with shaking, as the sufferer cannot get warm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1m4zpb | Was there any presidential republics like the United States before the United States existed? | [
{
"answer": "There were prior examples of mixed regimes. Aristotle advocated for them and the Roman Republic may be an example with its consuls, senators and assemblies. However, no prior regime deeply resembled the US.\n\nThe US arguably drew more on ideas than examples in its creation. The separation of powers, of which the US president is a product, was an Enlightenment idea perhaps inspired by Aristotle and Cicero but articulated more recently (and perhaps with greater influence on the US) by Locke. The framers also drew the constitution against things that they feared, the tyranny of monarchy and the tyranny of the majority. And they also had to reconcile their government with the conditions that already prevailed in their newly independent land: sovereign states. This meant that many executive powers would be reserved not for the president but the states. Lastly, much of the nature of the US presidency has evolved over time with gradual developments in the constitutional interpretation of presidential powers.\n\nOverall, then, the US presidential system was rather new to human experience and a product of its era and location. It has served as a model for others but did not really have close models itself.",
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"answer": "Other than Classical Greek and Roman models, the more recent \"democracies\" and \"republics\" studied as models by the founding fathers included the Venetian Republic, and Swiss cantons, as well, of course, as the British parliamentary system, and particularly the British parliamentary system under Oliver Cromwell, when there was no king.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25536",
"title": "Republic",
"section": "Section::::Head of state.:Sub-national republics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "In the example of the United States, the original 13 British colonies became independent states after the American Revolution, each having a republican form of government. These independent states initially formed a loose confederation called the United States and then later formed the current United States by ratifying the current U.S. Constitution, creating a union of sovereign states with the union or federal government also being a republic. Any state joining the union later was also required to be a republic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "30412807",
"title": "States of Colombia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "States of Colombia existed from February 27, 1855, in the Republic of New Granada and the Granadine Confederation, where they were called \"federal states\". In the United States of Colombia they were called \"sovereign states\" (though they were not at all sovereign states in the modern sense of the word).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "78359",
"title": "Client state",
"section": "Section::::19th and 20th centuries.:France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "At first, during the French revolutionary wars these states were erected as republics (the so-called \"Républiques soeurs\", or \"sister republics\"). They were established in Italy (Cisalpine Republic in Northern Italy, Parthenopean Republic in Southern Italy), Greece (Septinsular Republic), Switzerland (Helvetic Republic and Rhodanic Republic), Belgium and the Netherlands (Batavian Republic).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24823960",
"title": "Postage stamps and postal history of Colombia",
"section": "Section::::States of Colombia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 723,
"text": "The States of Colombia existed from February 27, 1855 in the Republic of New Granada and the Granadine Confederation, where they were called \"federal states\". In the United States of Colombia they were called \"sovereign states\". The Congress of the Grenadine Confederation passed a law on 3 June 1859 authorising the sovereign states to establish their own postal services. In 1863 the United States of Colombia, as it had now become, made up of eight sovereign states, confirmed and authorised the states’ power to operate their own postal services and issue postage stamps. These were only valid for postage within the state, although a few examples are known of stamps that were sent to other states and even to Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40508",
"title": "1820 United States presidential election",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama and Missouri participated in their first presidential election in 1820, Missouri with controversy, since it was not yet officially a state (see below). No new states would participate in American presidential elections until 1836, after the admission to the Union of Arkansas in 1836 and Michigan in 1837 (after the main voting, but before the counting of the electoral vote in Congress).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "79771",
"title": "Electoral college",
"section": "Section::::Former electoral colleges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1031,
"text": "Early in United States history, state legislatures were essentially electoral colleges for both the U.S. Senate and even the federal Electoral College itself. Prior to 1913, U.S. state legislatures appointed U.S. senators from their respective states, and prior to 1872, U.S. presidential electors were in many cases chosen by state legislatures (though most states had switched to popular elections for electors by 1824). Because state legislatures had so much influence over federal elections, state legislative elections were frequently proxy votes for either the Senate or the presidency. The famed 1858 Lincoln–Douglas debates, reputedly held during a U.S. Senate campaign in Illinois, actually occurred during an election for the Illinois state legislature; neither Lincoln's nor Douglas' names appeared on any ballot. During the American Civil War, the Confederacy used an Electoral College that was functionally identical to that of the United States; it convened just once, in 1861, to elect Jefferson Davis as president.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34796",
"title": "1820s",
"section": "Section::::Politics and wars.:North America.:Mexico.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "The First Federal Republic was established on October 4, 1824. In the new constitution, the republic took the name of United Mexican States, and was defined as a representative federal republic, with Catholicism as the official and unique religion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2zt7mb | why do cats love to push things off tables? | [
{
"answer": "They do it to get your attention. Cats learn. And they learn that if they push things of the table, you'll stop ignoring them and interact with them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Animals just like children like to fool around with whatever amuses them, just like your \"for example\" two year old son wants to smear shit on the walls because he finds it funny, he doesn't know that it is wrong. Just like your cat, he sees an object he can move, and wonders what would happen if he pushed it off, we can't tell if he's laughing or enjoying because we don't normally connect animals with human feelings. But I'm pretty sure he's enjoying himself. \n\nFor shorts. Cat is curious, probably young and finds different ways to entertain himself. He could be very mischievous if you told him not to do it before. But of not, that's the main reason. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I heard somewhere from someone on here that they might do it to judge the distance to the ground for jumping. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Only guessing here, but it might be a way of measuring the distance to the floor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think cats push things off tables because they know it's impossible for humans to force them to pick it up and put it back. \n\nThey're laughing the entire time. ",
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"answer": "I did a report for an animal behavior class in undergrad on animal play. It overwhelmingly focused on younger animals and why it is such a common trend across species to mess around with each other and fuck around with objects. As far as playing with each other, it seems to be a natural inclination to enjoy it but the evolutionary purpose seems to be that it reinforces social norms, learning how hard you can bite someone without it being aggressive, seeing how you can figure your social standing in the pack by whether or not you groom the others, as well as running and chasing to build hunting skills and refine motor movement/muscle memory/whatever you want to call it.\n\nPlaying with objects seems to be important for that latter part as well. It helps them develop and refine motor functions that can be applied later on in life for actually not ass hole tasks. So, that's why kittens would do that kind of thing, it feels enjoyable for them, and it feels enjoyable because a billion years ago, the saber tooth tigers that liked swatting hamsters off of rocks wound up with better developed neuromuscular systems which allowed more successful not-dying. Traits got passed on.\n\nI can only assume adults do it because that youthful drive to refine motor skills doesn't just disappear.\n\nEdit: Obligatory \"holy crap, thank you for the gold\" edit...holy crap, thank you for the gold!",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "I've read one theory that cats do it to gauge the distance to the ground. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I wonder if it's like us stepping on thin ice to crack it, it's a pretty fun thing to do.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Actual response, and i'm no animal behaviourist, would be that perhaps it's because they need more exercise. Another possibility would be that they are asserting dominance; \n\n*\"If it's small and not moving, it must be prey!\"*\n\nNot really a serious response, but I would imagine my cat thinks \n\n*\"Because fuck you, that's why.\"*",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Because said objects might contain food. They do it in the wild with eggs and small animals.\n\nEven if well-fed, cats kill for fun. Never forget that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they are agents of entropy. They love converting potential energy to kinetic energy.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "In a short term, can be because they like to see how playable is something on the floor. My cats and the fucking pencils.... hhgnnn",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cats are evil. They were created by the devil himself to cause chaos and destruction. Humans don't own cats, cats own humans. They may look cute and sweet but that is the plan. The one true weakness humans have is cuteness. We are powerless over all thing cute. One day when we least expect it cats all over the world will rise up as one and rule the world. Cats will eventually own us as pets and we have to do their bidding. Before you know it we will have the first ever cat president. Resistance is futile. Even if we do organize ourselves and try to make a resistance, the cats will outnumber as and force us into concentration and labor camps such as meowchwitz. Our fate will end up in four ways. \n\n1.) We will die in war against the cats because we are outnumbered 6:1. Military weapons are no match against cuteness, cat reflexes and senses, and sharp ass claws and teeth.\n\n2.) They will force us to grow and process catnip to feed their never ending drug addiction.\n\n3.) We will end up destroying the ecosystem by fishing up every fish in the sea, rivers, lakes, and streams to satisfy their bottomless fish apatite.\n\n4.) They will force us to kill all of our dog brethren so felines will be the dominate species of the world.\n\nKnocking over things off tables is just the beginning of a fate all us humans are doomed to stop.\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's interesting. When they swat them, they move and make a neat sound as it hits the floor. They like interacting with objects and play. Also it gets your attention. Cats love attention",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's weird. None of the cat's I've \"known\" personally has ever done this. Batting shit around on the floor, sure, but never \"fuck this\"-style sweeping things off tables.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Cats perceive your tables as a vantage point, and as a 'nest' or whatever. They have instincts driving them to clean such vantage points, hence batting everything off.\n\nOther instincts they have is to hide in grass, hence the boxes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because it makes things move on their own, as if they were prey. It's fun and stimulates their prey chasing instincts. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I read somewhere that cats (say when they are pushing something off the table) can't comprehend or understand the object, and their reaction is to touch it/push it. \n\nIt's just typical of humans to put things close to the edge of counters too haha",
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},
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"answer": "Thinking about all the cat videos with them knocking shit over, it makes me wonder if reddit's interest in cats stems from severe stockholm syndrome.",
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},
{
"answer": "Cats want attention, whether it be positive or negative (they don't really know the difference). If they knock things off, they get attention. If you continually give them attention for these things, they'll keep on doing it. This is why you should ignore your cat at night if they are walking on you or messing with things; if he/she knows that doing this will get attention, they'll continue doing it. You're looking at a week or two of hell from them continuing to do it, but after they realize you won't engage they'll stop. \n\nThe best remedy is to use things like the [SSSCAT](_URL_0_), which has an infrared eye and will be triggered by the cat's presence on something they shouldn't be on. If you use a spray bottle, the cat will know it's you and will see that as \"I did this and got attention from him.\" The SSSCAT, alternatively, will give make them think \"table is super scary.\"\n\nSource: I have a previously dickish cat who, as a result of a strategically placed SSSCATs, wouldn't dare go anywhere near my counter, dining room table, sink, desk, or bookcase. ",
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"answer": "I think it's because of spite. My cat is a spiteful little bitch. She does it when she is hungry especially.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The better question is why do I like to push cats of off tables.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They like tables and I guess they are just clearing off space to sleep.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My cat used to do this before I really managed to get her to understand the concept of playing. She was sort of bought by the neighbours as a toy for their kids and determinedly moved in with us instead, and she was very tetchy early on because she hadn't really been played with before I don't think. Once I got her used to some toys she stopped doing it. If she wants my attention now she does it by miawing, then flopping down for a belly scratch. She knows this will always tempt me over to spend some time with her, because who can resist kitty belly.\n\nTL:DR - I agree with the top comment, it's boredom.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because cats are assholes. Cute, furry, adorable assholes. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "What is with all these long bullshit explanations here. Oh it's behavioral, oh it's a throwback from blah-blah era.... come on guys this is ELI5. \n\nThe real answer is obvious. Although cute and cuddly, secretly, deep down in their bones, all cats are assholes and knocking some shit off the desk, forcing you to pick it up feels good to them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because things are on tables. Therefor things must be pushed off tables. Cat logic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They are studying physics. Seriously. Cats are all about jumping, perching, stalking, etc. If they were in the wild, their lives would depend on accuracy of both aim and timing of a pounce. ",
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{
"answer": "I'm 30 years old and I've lived with cats nonstop since I was 4. So that is 26 years of cat experience.\n\nI've never once had one of my cats or one of my parents cats knock anything off of a table unless it was an accident. And by accident I mean they were running away from another cat because they were playing and then they slammed into the table and something fell off because it was teetering on the edge because I'm the dumbass who left it like that. \n\n We had at one point 6 cats in a small house at once. But the thing is we gave them the attention they needed. When they asked to be pet we pet them. If a person ignores an animal of any type of course it will act out.\n\nThe only time they got up on tables is when we were all asleep. As soon as they heard alarms that woke us up you would immediately hear a thump of them jumping down from one table or another. \n\nSo play with your fucking cat if it's doing that shit. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "A long time ago, I was in Burma. My friends and I were working for the local government. They were trying to buy the loyalty of tribal leaders by bribing them with precious stones. But their caravans were being raided in a forest north of Rangoon by a bandit. So, we went looking for the stones. But in six months, we never met anybody who traded with him. One day, I saw a child playing with a ruby the size of a tangerine. The bandit had been throwing them away. \n\nSo why steal them you may ask?\n\nWell, because he thought it was good sport. Because some beings aren't looking for anything logical, like money. They can't be bought, bullied, reasoned, or negotiated with. Some beings just want to watch the world burn.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The same reason they kill small animals even when they aren't hungry: they're the psychopaths of the animal kingdom. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sometimes by accident, sometimes playing with something that moved, quite frequently, deliberately for attention.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably the same reason people would push things off tables unless told otherwise; it's awesome",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For the same reason that cats do everything else. Because fuck you, that's why. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because cats are assholes and they like to watch their human slaves pick up their shit. Go get yourself a dog and see what love feels like. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Do cats actually do this? My cat never pushes shit off anywhere. She usually just sniffs said object and moves along.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mine absolutely does it to wake me up. I can tell because I watch him do it through slitted eyes, and he quite obviously will knock something off my desk, then look sharply at me to see if I react. If I continue to \"sleep\" he will knock something else off.\n\nAlso sometimes he will sit on my chest and punch me in the face.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34382483",
"title": "My Cat from Hell",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Jackson teaches that cats are territorial, needing spaces within homes to call their own and that they send signals when they no longer desire petting, a condition he refers to as \"overstimulation.\" Cats do not like being cornered and lash out when overstimulated. Certain cats (whom he calls \"tree-dwelling cats\") behave better when they have access to above-ground perches, and he often instructs owners of such cats to install an above-the-floor walkway with no dead ends, in order to provide these cats with the psychological comfort of escape routes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7036252",
"title": "Stereotypes of animals",
"section": "Section::::Common Western animal stereotypes.:Mammals.:Cats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 648,
"text": "BULLET::::- Cats are quite anti-social animals in human eyes, preferring to go out and mind their own business. Since cats hunt mice, a much smaller animal, humans' sympathy has always gone to the mouse rather than the cat, despite mice being considered vermin by most people. A cruel game where the hunter teases his victim before finally striking him is called a \"cat-and-mouse game\" in many languages. The concept is based on the behavior that real cats often display before killing their prey and which is often misunderstood as cruel torture. In reality it's just an instinctive imperative to make sure their prey is weak enough to be killed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22078621",
"title": "Cat training",
"section": "Section::::Tricks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "A cat may be trained to do tricks such as playing dead or ringing the doorbell. Because of the cat's flexibility and bone structure, they are able to twist and bend their bodies, and jump a fair distance from standing still. This talent can be turned into tricks involving jumping through hoops and off scratching posts. Cats are able to learn many types of commands, such as to come when called, sit, roll over, shake a paw, and jump.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34382483",
"title": "My Cat from Hell",
"section": "Section::::Philosophy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "He teaches that there are correct and incorrect ways to pick up a cat and that when cats are picked up incorrectly, they will often injure humans in an attempt to escape. Most cats need exercise to release excess energy in a positive way; toys and play with owners are outlets Jackson encourages. When this is not done, such cats find ways to release energy on their own, which are often undesirable to their owners and/or destructive to the home.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22078621",
"title": "Cat training",
"section": "Section::::Problem behaviors.:Meowing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Cats meow for various reasons, and some are naturally more vocal than others. This becomes a problem behavior when there is excessive meowing or yowling, especially at night. Positive reinforcement training, sometimes accompanied by a clicker, is commonly used in this case. This involves ignoring the cat when it is making noise, and rewarding with treats and affection when it is being quiet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14103683",
"title": "High-rise syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Why cats fall from high places.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "Cats have a natural fondness for heights. If a cat is distracted by potential prey, or if it falls asleep, it can fall. If this were to occur in a tree, for example, the cat would often be able to save itself by grabbing on with its claws. Many building materials such as concrete and painted metal do not allow a cat to grip successfully.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3312880",
"title": "Feline lower urinary tract disease",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Urethral obstruction or plugs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "Owners with outdoor cats may not be able to observe the symptoms associated with litter box use and should watch for unusual behavioral changes. As time passes, the bladder fills up with urine and causes painful bladder distension. The cat becomes increasingly distressed, and may howl or cry out in pain. The male cat may constantly lick at his penis and the penis may be protruded. The cat may seek seclusion, stop eating and drinking, begin to vomit, and become lethargic and eventually comatose as toxins accumulate in the bloodstream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
8p9je7 | I know that in the middle ages many towns were rather small (often the largest still only consisting of tens of thousands of people). How vital to the national economy were towns? What sort of professions were people practising there and were there any that weren't as common in more rural locations? | [
{
"answer": "\"How important were towns\" is kind of a tough question to answer, because the existence/increase of towns is both a sign and a cause of overall exonomic restructuring over the later Middle Ages. Towns were essential to the economic system they were a part of/helped create. You can say something like by 1300, about 65% of England's economic production was shipped overseas, which meant it came through market towns, but obviously this was heavily agricultural/pastoral commodity. And of the 35% or so internal trade, that would be intimately bound up in a market/rural/urban web.\n\nAs Christopher Dyer neatly sums it up, by the late Middle Ages, tow key developments had happened. First, lords were thinking about economic productivity and how to get *more* out of their land. (But at the same time, we are in the days of the moral economy as well--fixing bread prices to make sure everyone can afford at least A Loaf of bread each day, even if it was a smaller load when grain prices rose). Second, the transition from crop to cash rents, which would be accelerated by the Great Famine in1315-1322, was already underway.\n\nThus, lords expected income in cash from their peasants, paid it in tax, and sold their share of crops on their land for cash. Day laborers in the countryside were paid in cash and needed somewhere to buy the necessary goods to stay alive. Conversion of crops to cash meant longer distance trade, which meant traders--and the people to support them. Who, in turn, produced more refined goods and services for each other, and maybe for rural dwellers who might spend more time gearing up for production of what brought them cash (either their own crops or as mill workers, harvest laborers, miners).Talking about towns is inseparable from talking about long-distance economies overall. (Since \"national\" can be a questionable term still at this time. Centralized/royal authority isn't even always an aspiration of rulers, much less a fact.)\n\nBut there are a couple of things we can look at to get a bit deeper. First, towns enabled specialization of profession--the ability to make a living from a very narrowly focused line of work which, overall, meant a greater variety of goods being produced in abundance. Secondly, towns were vital to economic *growth*.\n\nTowns were signs and causes of specialization in profession. And medieval people could be very, very specific about what constituted a \"profession.\" In Rouen, for example, the guilds for women (yes, women!) who made clothes out of new fabric versus those who made clothes out of secondhand fabric were not only separate but often at war in the courts for encroaching on each other's territory. Nuremberg had a dedicated craft (Nuremberg's formal guild system was abolished around 1348) of *gingerbread baking.*\n\nThe Nuremberg *Hausbücher* are a great example of how specialized professions could be. You can navigate around the site--I've sorted it by \"profession\" for you--and click through to see illustrations of the different jobs or people who did them in late medieval/early modern Germany.\n\n_URL_0_\n\n\nProbably the most important urban profession was not unique to towns, but it illustrates well the central role that towns played in economic development. In northwest Europe, it was increasingly popular for teenage men but *especially* women to move to cities and work as servants for a period of time, saving up money for marriage or to start a singlewoman's household. (The medieval demographic imbalance between women and men was heightened by the fact that a higher proportion of women moved to cities and stayed; a higher proportion of men stayed in or went back to the countryside.) \n\nWhat Hajnal originally identified as the \"European marriage pattern,\" of women and men both marrying later in northwest Europe connected to which countries' economies grew relatively stronger in the early modern era, isn't quite a *marriage* pattern. Women in Eastern Europe show a wide variety of ages at first marriage; even in Italy many women married later than we are often given to assume. Instead, it seems to be a *women's wages* pattern. Places with towns where women worked--acquiring cash income, spending cash income--generally speaking saw more economic growth from the late Middle Ages on.\n\nI'm still struggling to say \"how important were towns\" because without them, the late medieval economy would have had to look completely different. This would have been true at the local level, the regional level, the \"national\" level, and the international level. But within the system that existed, specialized professions and their products would seem to be a good illustration of the economic contributions of cities to local life rather than just long-distance trade.",
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"answer": "I am not a historian, but have studied a decent amount of economic geography and I think the \"central place theory\" may provide a theoretical explanation of the importance of small towns in the middle ages. The wikipedia article on central place theory provides a pretty decent breakdown of the important components, but I will provide some explanation of why I think it's relevant.\n\nAgriculture provides an important foundation for all societies and economies. This is true today and it was true in the middle ages. Farms require relatively large plots of land with relatively few residential premises. The people who who farm the products on that land require non-farm goods and services as well as markets to sell their agricultural products. The distance between the farm and these service centres and markets has an impact on the efficiency of the farm/farmer. It takes time to cover distance, and in that time the farmer could be doing other things and at a certain point their produce will go bad if it takes too long to get to market. Towns naturally develop because they act as aggregation centres for agricultural production. Larger towns develop because they act as the next level of economic aggregation, and this pattern of increasing settlement size goes through iterations until you get cities. This is why there are loads of small towns relative to cities; the small towns can provide a number of lower-tier functions for local residents, and large urban centres provide regional functions for dozens of small towns and rural areas. Agriculture was certainly more important to the national economic system hundreds of years ago than it is today, so there is no doubt that those small towns were critical components of the national agricultural economy. I would imagine that towns also played a crucial role in defending the nation from intruders. It's much easier to defend your agricultural land if it's occupied than if you need to march an army across the country to push your foe back across the border. I gather that's why there are so many castles in the UK, but here I'm only speculating based on my pop-culture knowledge of medieval history.\n\nAdam Smith, the \"father of economics\" provides a number of potentially relevant insights in his book the Wealth of Nations. I have not completed the book, but he essentially explains how an \"economy\" works from the ground up, and agriculture and distances between places play very important roles. The concepts he discusses kind of feed into the central place theory that I mentioned. He does mention that in the 1700s many of the jobs in small towns were also present in great towns, but the wages were almost always lower in the small town. This is primarily because rents are also lower, so the trade off between the two results in essentially a similar quality of life across space. I would assume that the case was similar in the middle ages because the book is very theoretical and the concepts still hold fairly consistent today. Obviously there would be unique instances of towns with specializations due to their geography, such as mining towns. \n\nI don't know if I directly answered your question, but your question kind of pokes at some major theories in economic geography, so hopefully the things I mentioned are somewhat informative.",
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"answer": "Follow on question for the OP - did the advent of modern last names arise with urbanization where first names would have required family last names?",
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"wikipedia_id": "42370",
"title": "History of Belgium",
"section": "Section::::Before independence.:13th–16th centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
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"text": "A few towns in the Low Countries dated back to Roman times, but most had been founded from the 9th century onward. The oldest were in the Scheldt and Meuse areas, with many towns in what's now the Netherlands being much younger and only dating from the 13th century. From early on, the Low Countries began to develop as a commercial and manufacturing center. Merchants became the dominant class in the towns, with the nobility largely limited to countryside estates.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "4459537",
"title": "Campo de Criptana",
"section": "Section::::History.:Historical development.\n",
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"text": "Throughout the Middle Ages, the population of the town center grew, helped along by the facilities provided by the various \"maestres\" (\"masters\") of the Order of Santiago. The survey records of Philip II (1575) report some 1,000 households (between four and five thousand inhabitants), which by the first decade of the 17th century had risen to 1,300–1,500 households. From this time its population shows the unfortunate state of a rural society affected very severely by climate, epidemics of disease, poor harvests, and excessive taxation. The recovery was very slow until well into the 19th century.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "45222463",
"title": "History of the city",
"section": "Section::::Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
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"text": "By the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries some cities become powerful states, taking surrounding areas under their control or establishing extensive maritime empires. In Italy medieval communes developed into city-states including the Republic of Venice and the Republic of Genoa. These cities, with populations in the tens of thousands, amassed enormous wealth by means of extensive trade in eastern luxury goods such as spices and silk, as well as iron, timber, and slaves. Venice introduced the \"ghetto\", a specially regulated neighborhood for Jews only. In Northern Europe, cities including Lübeck and Bruges formed the Hanseatic League for collective defense and commerce. Their power was later challenged and eclipsed by the Dutch commercial cities of Ghent, Ypres, and Amsterdam. (City rights were granted by nobility.) The city's central function was commerce, enabled by waterways and ports; the cities themselves were heavily fortified with walls and sometimes moats. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "2308763",
"title": "Swiss Plateau",
"section": "Section::::History of settlement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
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"text": "During the Middle Ages many towns were founded, especially in the climatically more favoured lower plateau. In 1500 there were already 130 towns, connected by a dense road-network. With the rise of industrialisation in the early 19th century the cities became more and more important. In 1860 a drastic population growth of the cities started which lasted for about 100 years. In the 1970s, however, an outmigration from the cities started. Therefore, the municipalities surrounding the cities grew disproportionately, whereas the cities themselves lost inhabitants. In recent times the outmigration has moved farther away from the cities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "22408701",
"title": "History of urban centers in the Low Countries",
"section": "Section::::Sub-regional centers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
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"text": "From around the 10th century, mainly due to population growth and improved infrastructure, more larger settlements begin to appear. Around the 11th century, some of these cities begin to form networks of urban centers. In the Low Countries these appeared in 3 regions; at first in the County of Flanders in the South, then followed by the County of Holland in the North and Northern Guelders/Oversticht in the East. The cities located in the center of the Low Countries were able to profit of both of the Flemish and Hollandic cities and no real urban network emerged there. In the North of the Low Countries, however, such as Frisia and Groningen; cities remained relatively isolated. Groningen is still nicknamed \"stad\" (\"city\") within its province; signaling its position as the only city in the region as well as its isolation. \n",
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"wikipedia_id": "317199",
"title": "Municipalities of Portugal",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
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"end_character": 411,
"text": "The existence since the Middle Ages of a large number of small municipalities with no financial resources and without people qualified to take part in municipal councils caused the stagnation of their growth. The Liberal revolution of 1836, resulted in the suppression/annexation of many of these smaller municipalities, which allowed the infusion of new revenues and facilitated growth in population and size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "220358",
"title": "Free imperial city",
"section": "Section::::Distinction between free imperial cities and other cities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
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"text": "There were approximately four thousand towns and cities in the Empire, although around the year 1600 over nine-tenths of them had fewer than one thousand inhabitants. During the late Middle Ages, fewer than two hundred of these places ever enjoyed the status of Free Imperial Cities, and some of those did so only for a few decades. The military tax register (\") of 1521 listed eighty-five such cities, and this figure had fallen to sixty-five by the time of the Peace of Augsburg in 1555. From the Peace of Westphalia of 1648 to 1803, their number oscillated at around fifty.\n",
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| null |
2f6r6g | when i uninstall a program using an unistallation .exe included in the program's folder, how is that .exe capable of uninstalling itself? | [
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"answer": "A Windows executable cannot be deleted while running, and therefore cannot delete itself. \n\nYour Windows uninstaller removes everything it can and then must ask something else to remove it when its execution has finished. It often sets up a task to be run at startup which deletes the remnants of the uninstalled application.\n\nIn Linux, an executable can delete itself partly due to its being loaded into RAM. In fact, the entire operating system can be uninstalled or replaced while running.",
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"answer": "So a program runs when it is in memory (RAM). When you run a program, it is copied over from the hard disk to the RAM -- once its in the RAM there's nothing but operating system constraints that might force it to not be able to delete itself.\n\nIn Windows, the OS doesn't let you delete files/executables if you're using them. So the uninstaller schedules a task to delete itself with the main OS, and exits.\n\nIn Linux, you can delete a file while viewing it, or delete and executable while running it. (For lazily-loaded files, this can create a problem but usually it doesn't.) The hard drive copy is not needed to run the program since its already in RAM, so it can be removed.",
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"answer": "It is not possible for a Windows executable to delete itself. This is due to the way that executable files are loaded by Windows. Instead of reading the entire file into RAM (as some commenters have suggested), Windows *maps* the file into memory - it is more accurate to say it maps portions of the file to different places in memory. The file is then *paged* into memory as needed. (This process is handled by the operating system and is transparent to application developers and users).\n\nMost Windows applications' installation and uninstallation is handled by [Windows Installer](_URL_0_), a component of the operating system. To uninstall a product, an executable simply has to request that Windows Installer remove the product from the system and then terminate. The Windows Installer service handles all the of the file and registry operations. ",
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"title": "Decompiler",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.\n",
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"text": "The term \"decompiler\" is most commonly applied to a program which translates executable programs (the output from a compiler) into source code in a (relatively) high level language which, when compiled, will produce an executable whose behavior is the same as the original executable program. By comparison, a disassembler translates an executable program into assembly language (and an assembler could be used to assemble it back into an executable program).\n",
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"title": "Exokernel",
"section": "Section::::Motivation.\n",
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"text": "One option is to remove the kernel completely and program directly to the hardware, but then the entire machine would be dedicated to the application being written (and, conversely, the entire application codebase would be dedicated to that machine). The exokernel concept is a compromise: let the kernel allocate the basic physical resources of the machine (e.g. disk blocks, memory pages, and processor time) to multiple application programs, and let each program decide what to do with these resources. The program can then link to a support library that implements the abstractions it needs (or it can implement its own).\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "9372544",
"title": "Versomatic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Versomatic installs as a file system service where it tracks file changes and preemptively archives a copy of a file before it is modified. Archiving copies pre-emptively obviates the need to archive a reference copy of the files beforehand, as would be the case if the files were archived after being edited.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "506000",
"title": "GNU Sharutils",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "GNU unshar scans a set of mail messages looking for the start of shell archives. It will automatically strip off the mail headers and other introductory text. The archive bodies are then unpacked by a copy of the shell. unshar may also process files containing concatenated shell archives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "9278355",
"title": "Chsh",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": " is a setuid program that modifies the file, and only allows ordinary users to modify their own login shells. The superuser can modify the shells of other users, by supplying the name of the user whose shell is to be modified as a command-line argument. For security reasons, the shells that both ordinary users and the superuser can specify are limited by the contents of the file, with the pathname of the shell being required to be exactly as it appears in that file. (This security feature is alterable by re-compiling the source code for the command with a different configuration option, and thus is not necessarily enabled on all systems.) The superuser can, however, also modify the password file directly, setting any user's shell to any executable file on the system without reference to and without using .\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "8116797",
"title": "Contig (defragmentation utility)",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "Contig is designed to defragment individual files, or specified groups of files, and does not attempt to move files to the beginning of the partition. Unlike the Windows built-in defragmenter tool, Contig can defragment individual files, individual directories, and subsets of the file system using wildcards.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "12214168",
"title": "Btrfs",
"section": "Section::::Features.:In-place conversion from ext2/3/4 and reiserfs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "All converted files are available and writable in the default subvolume of the Btrfs. A sparse file holding all of the references to the original ext2/3/4 filesystem is created in a separate subvolume, which is mountable on its own as a read-only disk image, allowing both original and converted file systems to be accessed at the same time. Deleting this sparse file frees up the space and makes the conversion permanent.\n",
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| null |
5rl9r5 | how do items like peelers, graters, scissors etc. stay sharp but knives constantly need to be sharpened? | [
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"answer": "It's not that they stay sharp, but for their purpose they don't need to be as sharp. They are also subject to lesser forces and materials than a knife, which might be used to cut a carrot one minute and a tomato the next. The knife's edge will also get rolled over and dulled by the cutting board/surface and how it is used. The degree to which this happens is determined by the metal used in the knife which can have different properties based on it's purpose (It's sharpness, hardness, and rust resistant properties are variable whereas the other devices are just regular old stainless steel so it won't rust). Lastly, scissors can be sharpened but most don't bother. ",
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"wikipedia_id": "5587478",
"title": "Knife sharpening",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "Different knives are sharpened differently according to grind (edge geometry) and application. For example, surgical scalpels are extremely sharp but fragile, and are generally disposed of, rather than sharpened, after use. Straight razors used for shaving must cut with minimal pressure, and thus must be very sharp with a small angle and often a hollow grind. Typically these are stropped daily or more often. Kitchen knives are less sharp, and generally cut by slicing rather than just pressing, and are steeled daily. At the other extreme, an axe for chopping wood will be less sharp still, and is primarily used to split wood by chopping, not by slicing, and may be reground but will not be sharpened daily. In general, but not always, the harder the material to be cut, the higher (duller) the angle of the edge.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "2685821",
"title": "Sharpening",
"section": "Section::::Implements with essentially straight edges.:Steeling.\n",
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"text": "Sharpening straight edges (knives, chisels, etc.) by hand can be divided into phases. First the edge is sharpened with an abrasive sharpening stone, or a succession of increasingly fine stones, which shape the blade by removing material; the finer the abrasive the finer the finish. Then the edge may be stropped by polishing the edge with a fine abrasive such as rouge or tripoli on a piece of stout leather or canvas. The edge may be steeled or honed by passing the blade against a hard metal or ceramic \"steel\" which plastically deforms and straightens the material of the blade's edge which may have been rolled over irregularly in use, but not enough to need complete resharpening.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "4044129",
"title": "Cleaver",
"section": "Section::::Design.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"text": "In use, it is swung like a meat tenderizer or hammer - the knife's design relies on sheer momentum to cut efficiently; to chop straight through rather than slicing in a sawing motion. Part of the momentum derives from how hard the user swings the cleaver, and the other part from how heavy the cleaver is. Because of this, the edge of a meat cleaver does not need to be particularly sharp, in fact a knife-sharp edge on a cleaver is undesirable. The grind for a meat cleaver, at approximately 25°, is much blunter than for other kitchen knives\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "2685821",
"title": "Sharpening",
"section": "Section::::Implements with essentially straight edges.\n",
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"text": "Many implements have a cutting edge which is essentially straight. Knives, chisels, straight-edge razors, and scissors are examples. Sharpening a straight edge is relatively simple, and can be done by using either a simple sharpening device which is very easy to use but will not produce the best possible results, or by the skillful use of oil or water grinding stones, grinding wheels, hones, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "635183",
"title": "Grind",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
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"text": "A sharp object works by concentrating forces which creates a high pressure due to the very small area of the edge, but high pressures can nick a thin blade or even cause it to roll over into a rounded tube when it is used against hard materials. An irregular material or angled cut is also likely to apply much more torque to hollow-ground blades due to the \"lip\" formed on either side of the edge. More blade material can be included directly behind the cutting edge to reinforce it, but during sharpening some proportion of this material must be removed to reshape the edge, making the process more time-consuming. Also, any object being cut must be moved aside to make way for this wider blade section, and any force distributed to the grind surface reduces the pressure applied at the edge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "5587478",
"title": "Knife sharpening",
"section": "Section::::Method.:Inspection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
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"text": "\"Biting\" sharpness is considered ideal for kitchen knives, but sharper blades are desired for shaving and surgical scalpels, which must cut without side-to-side slicing of the blade, and duller but tougher blades are more suitable for chiseling and chopping wood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2685821",
"title": "Sharpening",
"section": "Section::::Implements with essentially straight edges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
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"text": "Sharpening these implements can be expressed as the creation of two intersecting planes which produce an edge that is sharp enough to cut through the target material. For example, the blade of a steel knife is ground to a bevel so that the two sides of the blade meet. This edge is then refined by honing until the blade is capable of cutting.\n",
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| null |
1nw9mg | How did someone such as Ibn Battuta (practically and logistically) travel, and keep travelling? | [
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"answer": "While I cannot speak for Ibn Battuta's case (I think he is a really interesting figure though), you need to break away from the 20-21st century capitalist mentality that every service is paid for using cash currency. My guess (and I will defer to scholars of the Islamic world) is that given his high status he would have likely benefited from the hospitality of other high status individuals. He very well might not have needed to pay for lodging or food he might have been welcomed into someone's home. He could have become a dependent of that household (which is different than a servant). \n\nedit: punctuation",
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"answer": "Battuta largely depended on the charity of other Muslims who were obliged to help a fellow muslim on his journey. This is a major reason Battuta largely stuck to densely Muslim areas.",
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"answer": "Other posts have touched on Ibn Battutah's religious learning and his reliance on the Islamic communities, large or small, wherever he went. In the case of China, if I remember correctly, he stuck to trading/port towns like Guangzhou that had a sizable Muslim community.\n\nI want to offer an example of how his learning and status as a learned man got him places. He traveled into Asia Minor in the 14th century which was, at that time, a patchwork of principalities, beydoms, and tribal states. Many of those were ruled by recently converted Turks, referred to as the Turcoman. Many of the settled towns did not yet have a proper mosque and the worshipers gathered outside for friday prayers. As Ibn Battutah goes around, bouncing from Khan to Sultan to Bey, he gets gifts of horses (especially when his ride gets jacked which seems to happened regularly) and hospitality gifts including money, silk robes, and slaves. He could always exchange these valuable commodities down the line for whatever travel expense he encountered. Generally, it was considered a cool thing to have this well-traveled Islamic scholar around, a guy who had been to the Holy Cities and seen more of the world, especially to the recently-converted. He usually lodged in hospices for religious pilgrims or funded by eminent men of the city. The important people he would meet were particularly impressed by his fluent Arabic. He recounts amusing anecdotes of meeting local holy men who claimed to be able to speak Arabic, but could only utter a few phrases.\n\nOn a side note, he indeed was married and he married a lot. How THAT happened is still a mind boggling to me. On another side note, if you want to give your students an interesting travelogue to read that's a bit later than the Age of Discovery, but still pretty damn awesome, I'd recommend recommending the highly recommended Seyahatname of Evliya Celibi. Overlaps a lot of the same geographical space that Ibn Battutah journeyed over centuries previous. ",
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"wikipedia_id": "15229",
"title": "Ibn Battuta",
"section": "Section::::Works.\n",
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"text": "Scholars do not believe that Ibn Battuta visited all the places he described and argue that in order to provide a comprehensive description of places in the Muslim world, he relied on hearsay evidence and made use of accounts by earlier travellers. For example, it is considered very unlikely that Ibn Battuta made a trip up the Volga River from New Sarai to visit Bolghar and there are serious doubts about a number of other journeys such as his trip to Sana'a in Yemen, his journey from Balkh to Bistam in Khorasan and his trip around Anatolia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24133099",
"title": "Journey to Mecca",
"section": "Section::::Film synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Ibn Battuta had intended to continue his journey to Mecca by sea, via the port of ‘Aydhab on the Red Sea, but war and the dangers that posed made him travel by land through Damascus instead, joining a 10,000-strong caravan of fellow pilgrims along the way, staying with them until they finally reach their destination, Mecca.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "182049",
"title": "Mali Empire",
"section": "Section::::The Emperors of Mali.:The Laye Keita lineage (1312–1389).:The Travels of Ibn Battuta.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
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"text": "Abu Abdallah Ibn Battuta was born in Morocco in the year 1304. Years later during his mandatory pilgrimage to Mecca as a Muslim and a qadi (Muslim judge), he decided that what he wished to do most was travel to and beyond every part of the Muslim world. Upon this realization, Ibn made a personal vow to ‘never travel any road a second time.” He began on his long and eventful journey, making many stops along the way. It was in Cairo, Egypt, that he first heard of the great ruler of Mali- Mansa Musa. A few years prior to Battuta's visit, Mansa Musa had passed through Cairo as well on his own pilgrimage to Mecca. He had brought with him a large entourage of slaves, soldiers and wives, along with over a thousand pounds of gold. With this he 'flooded' Cairo to the point of disrupting the entire gold market for decades to come. Aside from gold Mali traded many other lavish resources and its riches were spoke of widely, along with encouraging Islam across Africa. There is no doubt that, even after his long and tiring travels, a curious Ibn Battuta would saddle up again to make the long journey across the Sahara (1,500 miles) and into the Kingdom of Mali. After entering the country and staying for eight long months, Ibn left with mixed feelings. At first his impressions were not good- as a meal he was offered a bowl of millet with honey an yogurt. Seeing this as offensive, he wished to leave as soon as possible. During his stay he was also fed rice, milk, fish, chicken, melons, pumpkins and yams (that would end up making him very ill). From the King, he was gifted three loaves of bread, a gourd full of yogurt, and a piece of beef fried in shea butter. He was insulted by this as well, feeling that the gift was inadequate for him.\"\"When I saw it I laughed, and was long astonished at their feeble intellect and their respect for mean things.\"\" He was also taken aback by the local customs regarding the sexes. In his mind, man and woman should be separate in an Islamic society. Here the sexes were friends, spent time with one another and were agreeable. Upon his disapproval he was told that their relations were a part of good manners, and that there would be no suspicion attached to it. To his surprise, female servants and slaves also often went completely nude in front of the court to see, which would not have been acceptable as a Muslim- or any kind of- woman. They wore no veil and crawled on their hands and knees, throwing dust over themselves when approaching their ruler, Mansa Sulayman. Mansa Sulayman was the younger brother of Mansa Musa who took reign after he died. The public ceremony he attended was strange to him but grand, as he observed from the audience. \"\"[The sultan] has a lofty pavilion ... where he sits most of the time... There came forth from the gate of the palace about 300 slaves, some carrying in their hands bows and others having in their hands short lances and shields... Then two saddled and bridled horses are brought, with two rams which, they say, are effective against the evil eye... The interpreter stands at the gate of the council-place wearing fine garments of silk... and on his head a turban with fringes which they have a novel way of winding... The troops, governors, young men, slaves, ... and others sit outside the council-place in a broad street where there are trees... Anyone who wishes to address the sultan addresses the interpreter and the interpreter addresses a man standing [near the sultan] and that man standing addresses the sultan\". \"While he had his grievances, there were parts of Mali that Ibn Battuta found to be exceptional. For one, the safety in the streets of Mali went unmatched. The city was very secure with many guards and it was said that no man walked afraid in the streets of Mali. The people also held justice to a very high standard and that was notable for Ibn. Most importantly, he was impressed with the peoples devotion to Islam. There were mosques there that people visited regularly, and they always prayed on Friday, the holy prayer day established by Mansa Musa for Muslims. The citizens wished to learn more about the Islamic faith and seemed to be very involved with the teaching of the Quran. Although many had converted and had a zeal for Islam, there were many common people who still held on to their traditional African religions. Mansa Sulayman had to appease these people as well, which is something that Ibn may not have considered and viewed as an insult to Islam. In the end, Sulayman attempted to appease him by giving him a house to stay at and an allowance as well. Upon his departure, Ibn left with 100 mithqals ($15,501.84) of gold and diverse feelings towards the kingdom of Mali.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "15229",
"title": "Ibn Battuta",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Ibn Battuta (; ; fully ; Arabic: ) (February 25, 13041368 or 1369) was a Muslim Moroccan scholar, and explorer who widely travelled the medieval world. Over a period of thirty years, Ibn Battuta visited most of the Islamic world and many non-Muslim lands, including Central Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia and China. Near the end of his life, he dictated an account of his journeys, titled \"A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Traveling\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15229",
"title": "Ibn Battuta",
"section": "Section::::Life.:Itinerary 1325–1332.:First pilgrimage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "He travelled to Mecca overland, following the North African coast across the sultanates of Abd al-Wadid and Hafsid. The route took him through Tlemcen, Béjaïa, and then Tunis, where he stayed for two months. For safety, Ibn Battuta usually joined a caravan to reduce the risk of being robbed. He took a bride in the town of Sfax, the first in a series of marriages that would feature in his travels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23487999",
"title": "Hajj",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "During the medieval times, pilgrims would gather in big cities of Syria, Egypt, and Iraq to go to Mecca in groups and caravans comprising tens of thousands of pilgrims, often under state patronage. Hajj caravans, particularly with the advent of the Mamluk Sultanate and its successor, the Ottoman Empire, were escorted by a military force accompanied by physicians under the command of an \"amir al-hajj\". This was done in order to protect the caravan from Bedouin robbers or natural hazards, and to ensure that the pilgrims were supplied with the necessary provisions. Muslim travelers like Ibn Jubayr and Ibn Battuta have recorded detailed accounts of Hajj-travels of medieval time. The caravans followed well-established routes called in Arabic \"darb al-hajj\", lit. \"pilgrimage road\", which usually followed ancient routes such as the King's Highway.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24133099",
"title": "Journey to Mecca",
"section": "Section::::Film synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "On the way to Mecca, riding alone on horseback, Ibn Battuta was held up by bandits, robbed and nearly killed, but when the leader of the bandits realized that he was a pilgrim, feeling ashamed, he offered to escort Ibn Battuta to Egypt (for a fee). It was a difficult journey by camel across the desert and they were faced with fierce sandstorms, before taking to boats to navigate the Nile. Reaching Egypt, he handed a letter given to him by a friend to a Sheikh, and based on a Hadith (an oral tradition) of the Prophet Muhammed, he was advised \"to seek knowledge to China\", hence his further extensive travels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
t06tp | If time is infinite... | [
{
"answer": " > If time is infinite, would it be fair to say that every configuration of the universe happens at least once,\n\nThat conclusion does not necessarily follow from that premise.\n\n > similar to how if the set of natural numbers is infinite, every number is in this set?\n\nOf course the set of natural numbers contains every number in that set, but that has nothing to do with the set being infinite. I don't even know what it would mean to say that some set *didn't* contain every element of itself. \n\nOn the other hand, it is clearly possible to construct infinite sets of numbers that don't contain every number. Or even every number of some particular type. For example, the set of all even numbers is just as infinite as the set of all integers, but doesn't contain the number 3.\n\nMoreover, and this is important, the fact that an event has nonzero probability per unit time does *not* guarantee that it will happen even if you have an infinite amount of time. While the probability will approach 1 as the time approaches infinity, a probability of 1 does not actually guarantee success.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28916407",
"title": "Mark M. Goldblatt",
"section": "Section::::Theology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "In \"Did the World Have a Beginning?\" he argues that the temporal world cannot always have existed. An actual infinity is impossible, he reasons, because infinity is a potential value that cannot be reached. A line, for example, may be extended infinitely—that is, without a limit—but at no point will the actual measure of the line become infinite. Likewise, time itself, whether measured by minutes or millennia, cannot comprise an actual infinity. Therefore, the temporal world cannot have existed forever.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14835428",
"title": "Temporal finitism",
"section": "Section::::Medieval background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "One such argument was based upon Aristotle's own theorem that there were not multiple infinities, and ran as follows: If time were infinite, then as the universe continued in existence for another hour, the infinity of its age since creation at the end of that hour must be one hour greater than the infinity of its age since creation at the start of that hour. But since Aristotle holds that such treatments of infinity are impossible and ridiculous, the world cannot have existed for infinite time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16379600",
"title": "Jens Kraft",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "Kraft made a distinction between time and eternity writing that \"the finite can never obtain eternity, but it can obtain an infinite time, (Aevum) or a time with beginning but without end.\" The infinite by contrast has permanence (\"sempiternité\")\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13738599",
"title": "Apollodorus of Seleucia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Time is the dimension of the world's motion; and it is infinite in just the way that the whole number is said to be infinite. Some of it is past, some present, and some future. But the whole of time is present, as we say that the year is present on a larger compass. Also, the whole of time is said to belong, though none of its parts belong exactly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2777323",
"title": "Hindu cosmology",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "According to Hindu vedic cosmology, there is no absolute start to time, as it is considered infinite and cyclic. Similarly, the space and universe has neither start nor end, rather it is cyclical. The current universe is just the start of a present cycle preceded by an infinite number of universes and to be followed by another infinite number of universes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "3650084",
"title": "Hindu cycle of the universe",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "According to Hindu cosmology, there is no absolute start to time, as it is considered infinite and cyclic. Similarly, the space and universe has neither start nor end, rather it is cyclical. The current universe is just the start of a present cycle preceded by an infinite number of universes and to be followed by another infinite number of universes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25979603",
"title": "Eternity of the world",
"section": "Section::::The Neo-Platonists.:Philoponus' arguments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "A full exposition of Philoponus' several arguments, as reported by Simplicius, can be found in Sorabji. One such argument was based upon Aristotle's own theorem that there were not multiple infinities, and ran as follows: If time were infinite, then as the universe continued in existence for another hour, the infinity of its age since creation at the end of that hour must be one hour greater than the infinity of its age since creation at the start of that hour. But since Aristotle holds that such treatments of infinity are impossible and ridiculous, the world cannot have existed for infinite time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5allal | Why doesn't gravity work on small scales? | [
{
"answer": "Gravity is a very, very, very, very weak force.\n\nTo get appreciable gravitational effects, therefore, you need to have very large objects, like a planet.\n\nThere is a gravitational force between you and that building you walk by, but it is absolutely tiny.\n",
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},
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"answer": "All of these attractions do take place, but, as /u/fishify pointed out, the forces are very weak.\n\nIf you were floating with these objects in space, then you could even observe the accumulation of these forces. However, the gravity of the Earth dominates the forces on these objects, so you can only easily observe it.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The earth has a mass of 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kilograms. All of that mass acting gravitationally on a bunch of pieces of paper loses the battle against a comb that you rubbed against your shirt to just dislodge the absurdly tiniest of a fraction of the neutrality of negative and positive charges within it. Gravity is stupid weak. You and another human being ARE gravitationally attracted. But you both have a mass of about 50kg, which means your attaction at a distance of 1 meter is less than a millionth of a Newton. A Newton being about the weight you feel when you put two candy bars on your chest.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "It does work on small scales, it works at every scale, it's just incredibly weak on small scales. In fact, the force of gravity was measured precisely first on small scale, using incredibly sensitive instruments (which then allowed the calculation of the mass of the Earth and planets, etc.) Because gravity is so weak at small scales other forces often dominate. Forces like electrostatic repulsion or attraction, friction, aerodynamic drag, magnetism, van der waals force, etc.\n\nTake an ordinary magnet, for example, and stick it to your steel fridge. That force is strong enough to counteract the pull of the entire mass of the Earth on the magnet's mass. But take the magnet and pull it off the fridge, then move it a few feet away and drop it. It's still experiencing a force of attraction to the fridge, but it's much lower now due to distance, and now it's not enough to overcome the force of the Earth's gravity.\n\nCompare other forces. The Sears tower weighs about 200 thousand tonnes. If your body weighs 100kg and you're maybe about 200 meters away from its center of mass, that means the force of attraction between you and the building while you walk on the sidewalk is: 33 microNewtons. This is much smaller than the force of static cling that might keep a tiny piece of packing foam stuck to your clothes, which is why the gravitational force of a skyscraper is inconsequential to your daily life. It's just a tiny force lost in the noise forest of many other tiny forces. For example, the gravitational attraction of a nearby skyscraper is orders of magnitude smaller than the aerodynamic drag on your body when the wind is \"blowing\" at a speed of only 1 mm/s.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "23680",
"title": "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom",
"section": "Section::::Conception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1486,
"text": "As the sizes got smaller, one would have to redesign some tools, because the relative strength of various forces would change. Although gravity would become unimportant, surface tension would become more important, Van der Waals attraction would become important, etc. Feynman mentioned these scaling issues during his talk. Nobody has yet attempted to implement this thought experiment, although it has been noted that some types of biological enzymes and enzyme complexes (especially ribosomes) function chemically in a way close to Feynman's vision. Feynman also mentioned in his lecture that it might be better eventually to use glass or plastic because their greater uniformity would avoid problems in the very small scale (metals and crystals are separated into domains where the lattice structure prevails). This could be a good reason to make machines and also electronics out of glass and plastic. At the present time, there are electronic components made of both materials. In glass, there are optical fiber cables that amplify the light pulses at regular intervals, using glass doped with the rare-earth element erbium. The doped glass is spliced into the fiber and pumped by a laser operating at a different frequency. In plastic, field effect transistors are being made with polythiophene, a plastic invented by Alan J. Heeger et al. that becomes an electrical conductor when oxidized. At this time, a factor of just 20 in electron mobility separates plastic from silicon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1084219",
"title": "Gravimetry",
"section": "Section::::Measuring gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "An instrument used to measure gravity is known as a gravimeter. For a small body, general relativity predicts gravitational effects indistinguishable from the effects of acceleration by the equivalence principle. Thus, gravimeters can be regarded as special-purpose accelerometers. Many weighing scales may be regarded as simple gravimeters. In one common form, a spring is used to counteract the force of gravity pulling on an object. The change in length of the spring may be calibrated to the force required to balance the gravitational pull. The resulting measurement may be made in units of force (such as the newton), but is more commonly made in units of gals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1434632",
"title": "Ames room",
"section": "Section::::\"Anti-gravity\" illusion and \"magnetic mountains\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 585,
"text": "For Gregory, this observation raised particularly interesting questions about how different principles for understanding the world compete in our perception. The \"anti-gravity effect\" is a much stronger paradox than the \"size change\" effect, because it seems to negate the law of gravity which is a fundamental feature of the world. In contrast, the apparent size change is not such a strong paradox, because we do have the experience that objects can change size to a certain degree (for example, people and animals can appear to become smaller or larger by crouching or stretching).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44362809",
"title": "Symmetry (geometry)",
"section": "Section::::Scale symmetry and fractals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "Scale symmetry means that if an object is expanded or reduced in size, the new object has the same properties as the original. This is \"not\" true of most physical systems, as witness the difference in the shape of the legs of an elephant and a mouse (so-called allometric scaling). Similarly, if a soft wax candle were enlarged to the size of a tall tree, it would immediately collapse under its own weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "697155",
"title": "Hierarchy problem",
"section": "Section::::Examples in particle physics.:Theoretical solutions.:Solution via extra dimensions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 311,
"text": "Thus the fundamental Planck mass (the extra-dimensional one) could actually be small, meaning that gravity is actually strong, but this must be compensated by the number of the extra dimensions and their size. Physically, this means that gravity is weak because there is a loss of flux to the extra dimensions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244611",
"title": "Newton's law of universal gravitation",
"section": "Section::::Bodies with spatial extent.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "If the bodies in question have spatial extent (as opposed to being point masses), then the gravitational force between them is calculated by summing the contributions of the notional point masses which constitute the bodies. In the limit, as the component point masses become \"infinitely small\", this entails integrating the force (in vector form, see below) over the extents of the two bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "964428",
"title": "Weighing scale",
"section": "Section::::Force-measuring (weight) scales.:Testing and certification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Because gravity varies by over 0.5% over the surface of the earth, the distinction between force due to gravity and mass is relevant for accurate calibration of scales for commercial purposes. Usually the goal is to measure the mass of the sample rather than its force due to gravity at that particular location.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3c2kre | Why is carbonated water effervescent while other gas-liquid solutions (e.g. vinegar, hydrochloric acid, etc.) are not? | [
{
"answer": "Two things: \n1. While carbondioxide can disolve in water it can also react following CO2 + H2O -- > H(+) + HCO3(-). This means the gas can be stored as ions and react back into gas when the relation between the amounts of CO2 and HCO3(-) changed. \n2. Carbonated drinks are made under pressure. At say 10 bar a lot more CO2 can dissolve in one liter water than at 1 bar. \nSo when you open a bottle the gas will come out of the liquid because of the lower pressure and reasons 2, and it will keep going for a while because of reason one.\n\nIn other gas-liquid solutions only a soluble amount of gas is dissolved making it a stable solution with no needs to bubble.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "240561",
"title": "Carbonated water",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "By itself, carbonated water appears to have little impact on health. While carbonated water is somewhat acidic, this acidity can be partially neutralized by saliva. A study found that sparkling mineral water is slightly more erosive to teeth than non-carbonated water but is about 100 times less erosive to teeth than soft drinks are.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5912",
"title": "Carbonate",
"section": "Section::::Chemical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Carbonated water is formed by dissolving CO in water under pressure. When the partial pressure of CO is reduced, for example when a can of soda is opened, the equilibrium for each of the forms of carbonate (carbonate, bicarbonate, carbon dioxide, and carbonic acid) shifts until the concentration of CO in the solution is equal to the solubility of CO at that temperature and pressure. In living systems an enzyme, carbonic anhydrase, speeds the interconversion of CO and carbonic acid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240561",
"title": "Carbonated water",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "Carbonated water (also known as soda water, sparkling water or, especially in the U.S., seltzer or seltzer water) is water containing dissolved carbon dioxide gas, either artificially injected under pressure or occurring due to natural geological processes. Carbonation causes small bubbles to form, giving the water an effervescent quality. Common forms include sparkling natural mineral water, club soda, and commercially produced sparkling water.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240561",
"title": "Carbonated water",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Carbonated beverages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "Carbonated water is a key ingredient in soft drinks: sweet beverages that typically consist of carbonated water, a sweetener and a flavoring, such as cola, root beer, or orange soda. Plain carbonated water is often consumed as an alternative to soft drinks; some brands, such as La Croix, produce unsweetened seltzer products that are lightly flavored by the addition of aromatic ingredients such as essential oils. Carbonated water is often consumed mixed with fruit juice, or infused with flavor by the addition of cut-up fresh fruit or mint leaves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28239489",
"title": "Lime softening",
"section": "Section::::Chemistry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "As lime in the form of limewater is added to raw water, the pH is raised and the equilibrium of carbonate species in the water is shifted. Dissolved carbon dioxide (CO) is changed into bicarbonate (HCO) and then carbonate (CO). This action causes calcium carbonate to precipitate due to exceeding the solubility product. Additionally, magnesium can be precipitated as magnesium hydroxide in a double displacement reaction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12484448",
"title": "Alkali–silica reaction",
"section": "Section::::Chemistry.:Analogy with the soda lime carbonation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "In the presence of water or simply ambient moisture, the strong bases, NaOH or KOH, readily dissolve in their hydration water (hygroscopic substances, deliquescence phenomenon) and this greatly facilitates the catalysis process because the reaction in aqueous solution occurs much faster than in the dry solid phase. The moist NaOH impregnates the surface and the porosity of calcium hydroxide grains with a high specific surface area. Soda lime is commonly used in closed-circuit diving rebreathers and in anesthesia systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "4149658",
"title": "Carbonated drink",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "Carbonated drinks are beverages that contain dissolved carbon dioxide. The dissolution of CO in a liquid, gives rise to \"fizz\" or \"effervescence\". The process usually involves carbon dioxide under high pressure. When the pressure is removed, the carbon dioxide is released from the solution as small bubbles, which causes the solution to become effervescent, or fizzy. A common example is the dissolving of carbon dioxide in water, resulting in carbonated water. Carbon dioxide is only weakly soluble in water, therefore it separates into a gas when the pressure is released.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
czkrwa | why shouldn’t you eat anything before going into a swimming pool? | [
{
"answer": "People used to think that it would cause cramps, which could result in you drowning in the pool. This is an old wives tale - it doesn't cause cramps no matter how soon you swim after eating.\n\nHowever, it does have the benefit of keeping food out of and away from pools, thus keeping the pools cleaner, so no one is really interested in dispelling the inaccuracy.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "As a kid who used to drink the pool water by accident I think something could be said for not drinking chlorine on a full stomach. With that being said...\n\nThe rule is most likely an answer to a few problems parents have while at the pool. It's extremely taxing to watch your kids at the pool. Kids also go hard at the pool and overexhaust themselves. Sunscreen needs to be reapplied and the kid should probably hydate. A 'mandatory' no swim time that a parent can blame on a rule they didn't come up with...perfect.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "928652",
"title": "Licking",
"section": "Section::::In animals.:In primates.:In humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "Nonetheless, licking does play a role for humans. Even though humans cannot effectively drink water by licking, the human tongue is quite sufficient for licking more viscous fluids. Some foods are sold in a form intended to be consumed mainly by licking, e.g. ice cream cones and lollipops.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1517871",
"title": "The Bod Squad",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "BULLET::::- Don't Drown Your Food (voiced by actor/comedian Arnold Stang), encouraging children not to overuse condiments, such as gravy, ketchup and salad dressing, and learn to enjoy the natural flavors of vegetables, eggs, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "597727",
"title": "List of Internet phenomena",
"section": "Section::::Challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "BULLET::::- Tide Pod Challenge – Similar to other eating challenges, this saw people attempt to eat Tide Pods, small packets filled with laundry detergent and other chemicals that normally dissolve while in a washing machine. The challenge gained attention in late 2017 and early 2018, and quickly was addressed by several health-related organizations, as the chemicals in the packet are poisonous and toxic to humans. These agencies sought to warn users and strongly discourage the challenge after dozens of cases of poisoning were reported within the first few weeks of 2018, while YouTube took action to remove videos related to the challenge to further stop its spread.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "886371",
"title": "Have You Fed the Fish?",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "\"It's either me or my girlfriend or my daughter. I let her feed them but she tends to overfeed them which can kill them and if you don't feed them enough that can kill them, so it's real poignant subject. You've got to be careful with fish.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1140141",
"title": "Water intoxication",
"section": "Section::::Risk factors.:Low body mass (infants).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "It can be very easy for children under one year old to absorb too much water, especially if the child is under nine months old. Because of their small body mass, it is easy for them to take in a large amount of water relative to body mass and total body sodium stores.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21309162",
"title": "Island Hermitage",
"section": "Section::::Swimming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "It is not advisable to swim. If you really want to, do not swallow the water. Be particularly cautious of Oyster-shells which can cut the feet when walking in or out of the water. If an iguana (Kabara Goya in Sinhalese) is nearby, swim very quietly without moving the water too much (breast-stroke is the best) to the shore and get out. They are known to bite swimmers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "321956",
"title": "List of common misconceptions",
"section": "Section::::Science and technology.:Human body and health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 165,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 165,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "BULLET::::- Eating less than an hour before swimming does not increase the risk of experiencing muscle cramps or drowning. One study shows a correlation between alcohol consumption and drowning, but there is no evidence cited regarding the consumption of food or stomach cramps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
9gjy1m | why does a computer need to "warm up"? | [
{
"answer": "Because (especially in the case of Windows), the operating system loads and runs just enough components to allow you to log in, and show the desktop, while literally hundreds of drivers and services continue to be loaded and run \"in the background\" .\n\nOlder versions of Windows would not allow use until everything was loaded and running, which meant that, for several minutes, the system was completely unusable. The newer method is a compromise.\n\nYou may find that installing an SSD disk drive greatly speeds up the time to usability.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Hard drives are slow. RAM is fast.\n\nAfter the computer is on the OS will keep on caching data from HDD to RAM. So waiting a while can sometimes result in faster starting programs.\n\nThe OS loading data from HDD to RAM doesn't slow down your system so do not disable this feature even if some people say you should. The caching is done with lower priority so if you do something on the active action is given priority over the cache stuff.\n\nAlso after you close a program some of the data is kept on RAM. So starting the program again is much faster than on first start.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13038870",
"title": "80 Plus",
"section": "Section::::Technical overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "Reducing the heat output of the computer helps reduce noise, since fans do not have to spin as fast to cool the computer. Reduced heat and resulting lower cooling demands may increase computer reliability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "798370",
"title": "Computer cooling",
"section": "Section::::Damage prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1224,
"text": "Because high temperatures can significantly reduce life span or cause permanent damage to components, and the heat output of components can sometimes exceed the computer's cooling capacity, manufacturers often take additional precautions to ensure that temperatures remain within safe limits. A computer with thermal sensors integrated in the CPU, motherboard, chipset, or GPU can shut itself down when high temperatures are detected to prevent permanent damage, although this may not completely guarantee long-term safe operation. Before an overheating component reaches this point, it may be \"throttled\" until temperatures fall below a safe point using dynamic frequency scaling technology. Throttling reduces the operating frequency and voltage of an integrated circuit or disables non-essential features of the chip to reduce heat output, often at the cost of slightly or significantly reduced performance. For desktop and notebook computers, throttling is often controlled at the BIOS level. Throttling is also commonly used to manage temperatures in smartphones and tablets, where components are packed tightly together with little to no active cooling, and with additional heat transferred from the hand of the user.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "798370",
"title": "Computer cooling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 289,
"text": "Cooling may be designed to reduce the ambient temperature within the case of a computer, such as by exhausting hot air, or to cool a single component or small area (spot cooling). Components commonly individually cooled include the CPU, Graphics processing unit (GPU) and the northbridge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "798370",
"title": "Computer cooling",
"section": "Section::::Other techniques.:Liquid immersion cooling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "Another growing trend due to the increasing heat density of computer, GPU, FPGA, and ASICs is to immerse the entire computer or select components in a thermally, but not electrically, conductive liquid. Although rarely used for the cooling of personal computers, liquid immersion is a routine method of cooling large power distribution components such as transformers. It is also becoming popular with data centers. Personal computers cooled in this manner may not require either fans or pumps, and may be cooled exclusively by passive heat exchange between the computer hardware and the enclosure it is placed in. A heat exchanger (i.e. heater core or radiator) might still be needed though, and the piping also needs to be placed correctly. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "798370",
"title": "Computer cooling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 797,
"text": "Components are often designed to generate as little heat as possible, and computers and operating systems may be designed to reduce power consumption and consequent heating according to workload, but more heat may still be produced than can be removed without attention to cooling. Use of heatsinks cooled by airflow reduces the temperature rise produced by a given amount of heat. Attention to patterns of airflow can prevent the development of hotspots. Computer fans are widely used along with heatsink fans to reduce temperature by actively exhausting hot air. There are also more exotic cooling techniques, such as liquid cooling. All modern day processors are designed to cut out or reduce their voltage or clock speed if the internal temperature of the processor exceeds a specified limit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "798370",
"title": "Computer cooling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Computer cooling is required to remove the waste heat produced by computer components, to keep components within permissible operating temperature limits. Components that are susceptible to temporary malfunction or permanent failure if overheated include integrated circuits such as central processing units (CPUs), chipset, graphics cards, and hard disk drives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4045710",
"title": "Computer fan",
"section": "Section::::Usage of a cooling fan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 800,
"text": "While in earlier personal computers it was possible to cool most components using natural convection (passive cooling), many modern components require more effective active cooling. To cool these components, fans are used to move heated air away from the components and draw cooler air over them. Fans attached to components are usually used in combination with a heatsink to increase the area of heated surface in contact with the air, thereby improving the efficiency of cooling. Fan control is not always an automatic process. A computer's BIOS (basic input/output system) can control the speed of the built-in fan system for the computer. A user can even supplement this function with additional cooling components or connect a manual fan controller with knobs that set fans to different speeds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
2f0gtq | How do anti-diarrheals work? Is a bowel movement is coming from the colon/rectum how does something like Imodium of pepto bismal work so quickly when digestion of food takes hours? | [
{
"answer": "There are four different ways:\nAnti-motility: they relax muscles in the digestive system to make sure more water is absorbed from the stool and it's less liquid. \n\nAbsorbents: these bind up excess water and toxins in the stomach and make the stools firmer. \n\nBismuth based: which nobody knows how they would work, if they did - they've never been clinically proven to work. Most brands actually contain aspirin too which may reduce inflammation. \n\nAntibiotics: these treat the illness, not the symptom, and it's pretty clear how that works. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Pepto Bismol contains a Bismuth compound. Now, Bismuth is a really cool element. It's a heavy metal (Right next to Lead and Thalium, known to be quite toxic heavy metals) but, Bismuth isn't toxic to humans (well, unless you eat a big chunk of it). However, it is highly toxic to bacterium. When you eat/drink Pepto, the Bismuth compound in it kills the bacteria and, due to Bismuth's amazing crystalline capabilities, it clumps with the stuff in you GI Tract and helps carry it out. \n\nI will provide a source when I have access to a computer. ",
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"answer": "Disappointed by lack of input here, I'll weigh in - I'm a new ER doctor so it is by no means my field of expertise but I see a lot of people who come in with \"diarrhea\"\n\nIn my mind, there really isn't anything like an \"anti-diarrhea\" agent like there is an anti-pyretic agent such as paracetamol/acetaminophen (Tylenol) or NSAIDs (aspirin, motrin). Whereas NSAIDs directly inhibit COX, thereby inhibiting PGE2 synthesis which is generally responsible for increasing your hypothalamus's thermostat thereby producing fever, I don't know of any \"anti-diarrhea\" medication that inhibits the process of diarrhea; there are however many medications which treat /alleviate symptoms or treat the underlying cause of diarrhea, such as infection or inflammation. \n \nFirst you must understand why diarrhea occurs. In general, the water content of your feces would depend on your water intake/free water balance, the relationship between the osmolarity of what your body is excreting in the feces and your blood osmolarity, the function of certain transport proteins in the gut membrane (like SGLT1 and SGLT2, the sodium/glucose cotransporters which you also have in your kidney), and the general state of your bowel epithelial/mucosal cells whatever you want to call them. \n\nSince normal bowel movements depend on so many factors, there are many different types of diarrhea. You can have a secretory, osmotic, inflammatory or infectious diarrhea.\n\nSecretory diarrhea is pretty scary and dangerous. This is the type of diarrhea seen in Cholera and the reason why cholera is so deadly if not treated properly. Cholera toxin has a crazy subunit that once absorbed into an intestinal epithelial cell, binds to one of the G-protein coupled transporters on the surface and puts it into a constant state of secretion of water, sodium, potassium and bicarb (which are essentially all your most important electrolytes). So cholera causes a secretory diarrhea that very quickly dehydrates the patient and kills them unless they are rehydrated and replenished with electrolytes. So ORT (oral replacement therapy) isn't an anti-diarrhea medication - it doesn't treat cholera; it just keeps you from dying while the cholera runs its course. \n\nOsmotic diarrhea is basically how a lot of laxatives work and also an example of the type of diarrhea you get when you're lactose intolerant. Since you lack the enzymes and transporters to absorb lactose, it just hangs out in your gut, but since the osmolarity of the intestinal luminal contents is lower than the other side (i.e. your blood), water gets sucked out to make up for the difference - thereby causing watery stools, i.e., diarrhea. I don't know of any true \"anti-diarrheal\" agent to fix this - people just learn not to eat certain things, or maybe in the future we will use gene therapy to re-teach our bodies to make those proteins.\n\nThen there is inflammatory which is what we see in Crohn disease or ulcerative colitis, as well as C Diff colitis; this is another really sucky type of diarrhea. You have constant auto-immune (at least in theory) damage to your gut epithelium and lining which just causes you to leech out proteins, waters and other nutrients that your gut was trying to absorb. With a decreased ability to absorb the food you're eating, your poop turns watery and nasty. \n\nInfectious is basically the same process as inflammatory but I was distinguishing inflammatory on the basis of auto-immune, chronic processes like Crohn or UC; Infectious is basically a spectrum of badness like Dysentery where you are actively spewing out blood because your bowel wall is so inflammed and damaged secondary to things like Shigella toxin, to more benign things like your viral diarrhea which we all get a few times over a year.\n\nAnyway - so what do you give people with diarrhea? That depends on what the problem is: \n\nPeople with gastric dumping or short bowel syndrome (because they needed to have it resected secondary to Crohn or UC) would benefit from immobilizers like opioids (which cause constipation in normal people) or octreotide/somatostatin (an amazing drug which does all sorts of shit we don't truly understand, but from a medical standpoint it inhibits all sorts of bowel/GI-related activity)\n\nPeople with cholera or secretory diarrhea need to be aggressively rehydrated and given electrolyte replacement that is isotonic to their blood chemistry or they will suffer badness (hyponatremia or hypernatremia, hypokalemia or hyperkalemia, etc)\n\nPeople with secretory diarrhea like lactose intolerance essentially have to learn to control their diets. \n\nPeople with infectious/inflammatory things generally need medicine to treat the underlying cause \"antibiotics in the case of shigella, salmonella or dystenery) or in the case of Crohn disease they require serious medications that treat auto-immune inflammation like steroids, methotrexate or \"biologics\", a terms that doctors generally use in reference to stuff like TNF-alpha inhibitors. Many times the treatment for these people is surgery and just having their bowel taken out. \n\n\nOh yeah - none of this is medical advice, etc - this is purely to explain how diarrhea works and how it is generally treated and how I think about diarrhea when I see it in a hospital. Also - lots of clinical pictures of diarrhea feature multiple \"types\" of processes, i.e. both inflammatory and secretory etc\n",
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"answer": "Gastroenterologist here: Short answer - there are multiple mechanisms:\n\n\n1) **Mu Receptor agonists** These bad boys are drugs like immodium (loperamide) and lomotil (diphynoxylate and atropine). They work by binding to Mu receptors on the smooth muslcles of the colon. By binding to these receptors the muscles of the colon wall (which normally contract like a worm) are slowed down. This is also the mechanism by which morphine, dilaudid, percocet, heroin, etc cause severe constipation - and people who undergo withdrawl from these drugs often have severe diarrhea.\n\n\n2) **Fiber Supplements** Most commonly Psyllium (Metamucil), Methylcellulose (synthetic fiber) and Guar Gum. These supplements are not absorbed by the colon (the cellulose is nonabsorbable). Like a sponge they absorb the water/liquid in the colon/SB. They also bulk the stool and can be used in constipation (dual use). The colonic bacteria are able to breakdown some of the fiber (via fermentation) and as a result produce hydrogen and methane which can cause gas/bloating.\n\n\n3)**Bile Acid Binding Resins** You may know these drugs as cholysteramine. They actually work when there is diarrhea due to Bile Acid Malabsorption (BAM). Bile acid is usually absorbed in the ileum (terminal small bowel). Patients that have had a surgical resection of the small bowel, a choleycstectomy, or disease of the small bowel (like Crohns) can result in failure of bile from being absorbed in the small bowel. Excess bile then enters the colon - which is actually an irritant to the colon wall - and cause diarrhea from the irritation (inflammatory diarrhea)\n\n\n4) **Somatostain analogues** Now we are getting into some specialized drugs - Octreotide (most common somatostatin analogue in Canada). Works be inhibiting secretion of fluids from the cells of the small bowel (these cells are responsible mainly for absorption of liquid, but they can also secrete liquid - like in cholera). The mechanism of Somatostatin analogues are complex and involve activating signalling proteins that downregulate the production of channels (like chloride and sodium channels) that are ultimately responsible for secreting water INTO the colon/small bowel.\n\n\n5) **Targeted treatment** most gastroenterologist will actually work to figure out the cause of the diarrhea and will prescribe medications that will treat the disease. These drugs are often very different from the drugs I describe above. Example Diseases **Inflammatory Bowel Disease** (5-amisosalycilic acid, azathiprine, 6-mp, infliximab), **Cholera** (oral rehydration solution), **Microscopic Colitis** (discontinue offending drug, 5-asa), **Infectious Colitis** (Antibiotics), **Irritible Bowel Syndrome** (antidpressants), etc**.\n\nHope that helps",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Pharmacist Here -- Most answers on here have been great, but too long and not really to the point. \n\nImodium (Loperamide) works by acting on Mu-opioid receptors in the large intestine. This in turn activates the opioid receptors, reduces the parasympathetic tone, and less movement occurs in the colon/GI tract. \n\nThis lack of movement allows the fecal matter to remain in the colon for longer time periods, resulting in more water loss from the stool. \n\nThe drug is absorbed and spread systemically very quickly through the gut wall, and it will start working on the fecal matter currently in the colon even if eaten hours ago. \n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "If your question has already been answered then feel free to ignore this. \n\nAnti-diarrheal medication are generally anti-motility drugs, effecting the gastrointestinal nervous or hormonal systems. Octreotide, for example acts similar to an endogenous hormone called somatostatin which inhibits multiplue hormones like GH, glucagon, insulin, LH and VIP. Narcotics bind to opioid receptors in the gut and reduce smooth muscle contraction. Loperamide (Imodium) also binds to opioid receptors in the gut. You can also use anticholinergic drugs to reduce parasympathetic nervous tone. The parasympathetic nervous system affects the whole body, so side effects of those drugs can be more widespread. \n\nAs for digestion, it is the process of breaking down food into small components so that is can be absorbed into the body. This is basically complete by the 3rd or 4th part of the duodenum. The rest of the bowel is for absorption of nutrients and water. Things that effect transit time through the gut will effect how much time the bowel has to pull nutrients (which act as osmolar agents) and water. The faster the transit, the more wasteful and watery the fecal matter is. The slower, the harder and more difficult to pass the stool becomes. The enteric nervous system and the bowel have to play a balancing act between these 2 extremes. This process of absorption is what may take a long time. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "83877",
"title": "Enema",
"section": "Section::::Medical usage.:Bowel cleansing.:Acute treatments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "As bowel stimulants, enemas are employed for the same purposes as orally administered laxatives: To relieve constipation; To treat fecal impaction; To empty the colon prior to a medical procedure such as a colonoscopy. A large volume of enema can be given to cleanse as much of the colon as possible of feces. However, a low enema is generally useful only for stool in the rectum, not in the intestinal tract.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53951",
"title": "Diarrhea",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Medications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "While bismuth compounds (Pepto-Bismol) decreased the number of bowel movements in those with travelers' diarrhea, they do not decrease the length of illness. Anti-motility agents like loperamide are also effective at reducing the number of stools but not the duration of disease. These agents should only be used if bloody diarrhea is not present.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18553652",
"title": "Bowel management",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 711,
"text": "Transanal irrigation of the rectum and colon is designed to assist the evacuation of faeces from the bowel by introducing water into rectum via the anus. By regularly emptying the bowel using transanal irrigation, controlled bowel function is often re-established to a high degree in patients with bowel incontinence and/or constipation. This enables the users to develop a consistent bowel routine by choosing the time and place of evacuation. An international consensus on when and how to use transanal irrigation for people with bowel problems was published 2013. The article offers practitioners a clear, comprehensive and simple guide to practice for the emerging therapeutic area of transanal irrigation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4657103",
"title": "Bisacodyl",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Bisacodyl (INN) is an organic compound that is used as a stimulant laxative drug. It works directly on the colon to produce a bowel movement. It is typically prescribed for relief of episodic and chronic constipation and for the management of neurogenic bowel dysfunction, as well as part of bowel preparation before medical examinations, such as for a colonoscopy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51108",
"title": "Poison",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Decontamination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "BULLET::::- Whole bowel irrigation cleanses the bowel. This is achieved by giving the patient large amounts of a polyethylene glycol solution. The osmotically balanced polyethylene glycol solution is not absorbed into the body, having the effect of flushing out the entire gastrointestinal tract. Its major uses are to treat ingestion of sustained release drugs, toxins not absorbed by activated charcoal (e.g., lithium, iron), and for removal of ingested drug packets (body packing/smuggling).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18553652",
"title": "Bowel management",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Bowel management is achieved mainly through a daily enema which empties the colon to prevent unwanted and uncontrolled bowel movements that day. Some patients also use laxatives and a controlled diet as part of their bowel management regimen. Another alternative is transanal irrigation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11463083",
"title": "Alvimopan",
"section": "Section::::Medical uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Alvimopan is indicated in people to avoid postoperative ileus following partial large or small bowel resection with primary anastomosis. Alvimopan accelerates the gastrointestinal recovery period as defined by time to first bowel movement or flatus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1lbsg8 | how do we know how much charge is left in a battery? | [
{
"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nThis question has been asked before.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2885000",
"title": "Battery charger",
"section": "Section::::C-rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 614,
"text": "Charge and discharge rates are often given as \"C\" or \"C-rate\", which is a measure of the rate at which a battery is charged or discharged relative to its capacity. The C-rate is defined as the charge or discharge current divided by the battery's capacity to store an electrical charge. While rarely stated explicitly, the unit of the C-rate is h, equivalent to stating the battery's capacity to store an electrical charge in unit hour times current in the same unit as the charge or discharge current. The C-rate is never negative, so whether it describes a charging or discharging process depends on the context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "10567854",
"title": "State of charge",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "State of charge (SoC) is the level of charge of an electric battery relative to its capacity. The units of SoC are percentage points (0% = empty; 100% = full). An alternate form of the same measure is the depth of discharge (DoD), the inverse of SoC (100% = empty; 0% = full). SoC is normally used when discussing the current state of a battery in use, while DoD is most often seen when discussing the lifetime of the battery after repeated use.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2885000",
"title": "Battery charger",
"section": "Section::::C-rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "For example, for a battery with a capacity of 500 mAh, a discharge rate of 5000 mA (i.e., 5 A) corresponds to a C-rate of 10 (per hour), meaning that such a current can discharge 10 such batteries in one hour. Likewise, for the same battery a charge current of 250 mA corresponds to a C-rate of 1/2 (per hour), meaning that this current will increase the state of charge of this battery by 50% in one hour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2035296",
"title": "Battery pack",
"section": "Section::::Calculating state of charge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "SOC, or state of charge, is the equivalent of a fuel gauge for a battery. SOC cannot be determined by a simple voltage measurement, because the terminal voltage of a battery may stay substantially constant until it is completely discharged. In some types of battery, electrolyte specific gravity may be related to state of charge but this is not measurable on typical battery pack cells, and is not related to state of charge on most battery types. Most SOC methods take into account voltage and current as well as temperature and other aspects of the discharge and charge process to in essence count up or down within a pre-defined capacity of a pack. More complex state of charge estimation systems take into account the Peukert effect which relates the capacity of the battery to the discharge rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201487",
"title": "Rechargeable battery",
"section": "Section::::Charging and discharging.:Rate of discharge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1105,
"text": "Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a \"C\" rate of current. The C rate is that which would theoretically fully charge or discharge the battery in one hour. For example, trickle charging might be performed at C/20 (or a \"20 hour\" rate), while typical charging and discharging may occur at C/2 (two hours for full capacity). The available capacity of electrochemical cells varies depending on the discharge rate. Some energy is lost in the internal resistance of cell components (plates, electrolyte, interconnections), and the rate of discharge is limited by the speed at which chemicals in the cell can move about. For lead-acid cells, the relationship between time and discharge rate is described by Peukert's law; a lead-acid cell that can no longer sustain a usable terminal voltage at a high current may still have usable capacity, if discharged at a much lower rate. Data sheets for rechargeable cells often list the discharge capacity on 8-hour or 20-hour or other stated time; cells for uninterruptible power supply systems may be rated at 15 minute discharge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "201495",
"title": "Lead–acid battery",
"section": "Section::::Measuring the charge level.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The battery's open-circuit voltage can also be used to gauge the state of charge. If the connections to the individual cells are accessible, then the state of charge of each cell can be determined which can provide a guide as to the state of health of the battery as a whole, otherwise the overall battery voltage may be assessed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57218370",
"title": "USB hardware",
"section": "Section::::Power.:USB Battery Charging.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "Before the Battery Charging Specification was defined, there was no standardized way for the portable device to inquire how much current was available. For example, Apple's iPod and iPhone chargers indicate the available current by voltages on the D− and D+ lines. When D+ = D− = 2.0 V, the device may pull up to 900 mA. When D+ = 2.0 V and D− = 2.8 V, the device may pull up to 1 A of current. When D+ = 2.8 V and D− = 2.0 V, the device may pull up to 2 A of current.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
25q17b | why's it so important to recycle batteries? | [
{
"answer": "We don't want the metals found in batteries in our drinking water. If they go into the trash, the go to the landfill. Water leaching from landfill ends up in someone's glass eventually.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13207354",
"title": "Battery recycling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "Battery recycling is a recycling activity that aims to reduce the number of batteries being disposed as municipal solid waste. Batteries contain a number of heavy metals and toxic chemicals and disposing of them by the same process as regular trash has raised concerns over soil contamination and water pollution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5302591",
"title": "Mercury-Containing and Rechargeable Battery Management Act",
"section": "Section::::Effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "As a result, most retailers who sell rechargeable and other special batteries will take the old ones back for free recycling and safe disposal. The not-for-profit Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation (RBRC), used by most retailers, reclaims the metals within the old batteries to make new products such as batteries (mercury, cadmium, lead) and stainless steel (nickel).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13207354",
"title": "Battery recycling",
"section": "Section::::Battery recycling by type.:Lead–acid batteries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Many cities offer battery recycling services for lead–acid batteries. In some jurisdictions, including U.S. states and Canadian provinces, a refundable deposit is paid on batteries. This encourages recycling of old batteries instead of abandonment or disposal with household waste. In the United States, about 99% of lead from used batteries is reclaimed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32410",
"title": "Vehicle",
"section": "Section::::Locomotion.:Energy source.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1082,
"text": "Another common medium for storing energy is batteries, which have the advantages of being responsive, useful in a wide range of power levels, environmentally friendly, efficient, simple to install, and easy to maintain. Batteries also facilitate the use of electric motors, which have their own advantages. On the other hand, batteries have low energy densities, short service life, poor performance at extreme temperatures, long charging times, and difficulties with disposal (although they can usually be recycled). Like fuel, batteries store chemical energy and can cause burns and poisoning in event of an accident. Batteries also lose effectiveness with time. The issue of charge time can be resolved by swapping discharged batteries with charged ones; however, this incurs additional hardware costs and may be impractical for larger batteries. Moreover, there must be standard batteries for battery swapping to work at a gas station. Fuel cells are similar to batteries in that they convert from chemical to electrical energy, but have their own advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1164345",
"title": "Automotive battery",
"section": "Section::::Environmental impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1010,
"text": "Battery recycling of automotive batteries reduces the need for resources required for the manufacture of new batteries, diverts toxic lead from landfills, and prevents the risk of improper disposal. Once a lead acid battery ceases to hold a charge, it is deemed a used lead-acid battery (ULAB), which is classified as hazardous waste under the Basel Convention. The 12-volt car battery is the most recycled product in the world, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency. In the U.S. alone, about 100 million auto batteries a year are replaced, and 99 percent of them are turned in for recycling. However the recycling may be done incorrectly in unregulated environments. As part of global waste trade ULABs are shipped from industrialized countries to developing countries for disassembly and recuperation of the contents. About 97 percent of the lead can be recovered. Pure Earth estimates that over 12 million third world people are affected by lead contamination from ULAB processing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28933560",
"title": "Recycling by product",
"section": "Section::::Batteries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "The large variation in size and type of batteries makes their recycling extremely difficult: they must first be sorted into similar kinds and each kind requires an individual recycling process. Additionally, older batteries contain mercury and cadmium, harmful materials that must be handled with care. Because of their potential environmental damage, proper disposal of used batteries is required by law in many areas. Unfortunately, this mandate has been difficult to enforce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "726915",
"title": "Alkaline battery",
"section": "Section::::Disposal.:Recycling.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "In the US, only one state, California, requires all alkaline batteries to be recycled. Vermont also has a statewide alkaline battery collection program. In other US states, individuals can purchase battery recycling kits used to ship batteries to recyclers. Examples of such kits are Retriev Technologies' The Big Green Box, Battery Solutions' iRecycleKits, and Call2Recycle's battery recycling boxes. Some stores such as IKEA also collect alkaline batteries for recycling. However, some chain stores which advertise battery recycling (such as Best Buy) only accept rechargeable batteries and will generally not accept alkaline batteries. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
1i2ip0 | What are the origins of Goebbels' Nazi identification? | [
{
"answer": "This requires a few different answers in order to get to Nazism. For the TL;DF crowd - just check out the links if you're curious and here's your sum-up: Spengler's German Socialism stands *very* apart from Marxism and Stalinism & even Nazism (due to racism in nazism); Eugenics became an obsession for the Third Reich; Versailles left the German people in a vindictive mood *AND* the German Unification was the basis for Klein- vs Gross- Deutschland and a part of the NSDAP identity (National Socialist *German* Workers Party) which led to expansionism coinciding with territorial reacquisition and revenge.\n\n**I**. German Socialism can be dated back to German historian [Oswald Spengler](_URL_3_) who wrote *[Preußentum und Sozialismus](_URL_4_)*, a book dedicated to the betterment of the German people using Prussian values in connection to socialism: self-sacrifice, discipline and concern for the greater good (the values) are the core tenets a national community must embrace to better the nation (socialism). The Marxist-Leninist revolution in Tsarist Russia the year before scared Spengler, because he felt Marxism was wrong: \"Marxism is the capitalism of the working class\" and not true socialism.^1 Again, socialism for Spengler was a self-sacrificing act, not a selfish act; Therefore, he argued that all Marxism did was reverse the capitalist scales, serving no purpose other than to rob the businessmen in the same way businessmen robbed the working class, which would only train the proletariat to exploit the wealthy, resulting in stagnation and laziness. His approach towards nationalist socialism also stood as a conservative basis for the value of the individual, something the Bolshevik uprising greatly differed in (there's more, but the answer would get too disparate. I'd check out the wiki pages on Fascism and Communism to springboard your question)\n\nHis belief in the betterment of mankind and therefore the nation was a proactive approach that many intellectuals and individuals were attached to in the '20s and *early* '30s. I say *early* because while Spengler was a German Socialist, he was critical of national socialism, he was unimpressed with Hitler, and he believed anti-semitism & racial supremacy based on dodgy studies in Eugenics were wrong. As a result, he was effectively gagged and shunned by the German media after Hitler came to power and then died of a heart attack in '36.\n\n**II**. I wrapped up with Eugenics, because that's where a lot of the elements that make Nazism stand apart from Fascism come from. Eugenics stems from [Francis Galton](_URL_2_): He's the 19th century guy who coined the phrase \"Nature vs nurture\" in the modern sense, which is the hereditary nature vs the personal experiences (nurture) and how they impact the individual. Eugenics is the principle that desirable traits are heretical (read: natural), which is largely inspired by contemporary Darwinism. What's important to take away from Eugenics is the concept that racially, some races are inferior to others; This principle was co-opted by nationalists to argue that their race of people was superior to those not of their nation-state. When developing the fascist ideology of the NSDAP, eugenics was very popular because it was used to explain why Germans were superior to non-Germans like gypsies, Jews, blacks, Russians/Bolsheviks. William Shirer's [Rise and Fall of the Third Reich](_URL_0_) has a very good^2 section on the beginnings of the Nazi movement and the initial laws passed, which coincides with the racist agenda of Nazism.\n\n**III**. When discussing Nazi Germany, it's also important to note that Nazism used anti-semitism to scapegoat the Jews in order to press their agenda; Eugenics was a part of this, Jewish businessmen and bankers that survived the economic downturn following Versailles was another; Communist Jews from Russia was also a big issue - Hitler *hated* communists as much as he hated Jews... imagine both in one, which was a thing in Russia because the Bolsheviks gave the Jews rights that the Tsar did not (Pogroms were kind of an issue). One of the primary tenets of the Nazi party greatly sought the redemption of Germany following the very humiliating Treaty of Versailles; Article 231 stated that Germany was responsible for the war (\"war guilt clause\") and as a result, Article 232 forced the Germans to pay war reparations to the Entente.\n\n*Revanche* was one of the leading battle cries of the Germans going into the '30s as the Weimar Republic floundered. Since Alsace-Lorraine, the Polish Corridor (Danzig) and other parts of the *Kaiserreich* were taken apart at Versailles, the NSDAP under Hitler sought its reclaim. The Annexation of Austria is important for the Nazi identity because it follows the eugenics and nationalist paths towards their blood brothers; But here's the largest context: During the Unification Period, there was a question regarding which power in greater Germania - Prussia or Austria (This was \"The German Question)? A great, but long, read on the entire context and timeline of Unification is James Sheehan's [German History: 1780–1866](_URL_1_). The core concept of the time is this: Prussia was Protestant, Austria was Catholic. Otto von Bismarck argued for *Kleindeutschland,* a smaller Germany under Prussian guidance as a predominantly Protestant state; This was partially because Austria, as a Catholic nation, was under the influence of the Papacy in Rome. In 1866, Prussia and Austria went to war and Prussia won; Ergo, *Kleindeutschland.* The reason the papacy was an issue dates back to Martin Luther. Technically this is relevant, but I'm passing over this because I'd have to write a book to cover it all.\n\nSo, Nazi Germany looked back at Bismarck and said \"you know what, we're going to include our brothers this time, because they are ethnically German. The emphasis in Hitler's time wasn't on religion, but race. So, between seeking to reclaim lost lands, Hitler sought to creation of a greater German empire that would last a thousand years.\n\nIn conclusion, the Nazi identity is more than just anti-semitism. It largely draws from nationalism as well as recent German histories from the Unification to the failures of the Weimar Republic in the advent of Bolshevism.\n\n1. [Here's](_URL_4_) Spengler's book in English for those who missed the above link.\n\n2. I say \"good\" because while it's relevant for context and history, the book's section on early nazism is limited to the first portions of the book. The rest covers wartime Germany itself. Any additions that would add to a more timely context would be great! I can't find my books on the subject.",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "14525860",
"title": "Back from the Front",
"section": "Section::::Production notes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 412,
"text": "\"Schicklgruber\" is the surname Adolf Hitler's father, Alois Hitler carried for the first 40 years of his life, until he took the name Hitler (Hiedler) from his stepfather. While Adolf Hitler himself never carried the surname, the British made use of it for propaganda purposes since even to Germans, the name is laughable. The Stooges used it numerous times as the only name by which they would refer to Hitler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "50037027",
"title": "Rommel myth",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:In Nazi and Allied propaganda.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 2799,
"text": "In the spring of 1941, Rommel's name began to appear in the British media. In the autumn of 1941 and early winter of 1941/1942, he was mentioned in the British press almost daily. The \"Daily Express\" and \"The Cairns Post\" wrote: \"No 'von' nonsense about Erich, nor the code of conduct—such as it was—that most Prussian officers have honoured in war. He is a gangster general, trained in a harder school than Chicago. He was Hitler's thug organiser before he came to power ... So Erich became leader of the S.S. Black Guard, Hitler's private army, which executes his private revenges and guards his person ... When at last Poland made a stand for democracy, it was Rommel who led a panzer corps against the Polish horse cavalry with conspicuous gallantry. Later in France Hitler made him a Knight of the Iron Cross for breaking through the Maginot Line at Maubeuge with the 7th Armoured Division. True, French resistance was almost at an end then, but Erich was entitled to his decoration, too.\" Toward the end of the year, the Reich propaganda machine also used Rommel's successes in Africa as a diversion from the Wehrmacht's challenging situation in the Soviet Union with the stall of Operation Barbarossa. The American press soon began to take notice of Rommel as well, following the United States' entry into the war on 11 December 1941, writing that: \"The British ... admire him because he beat them and were surprised to have beaten in turn such a capable general\". General Claude Auchinleck distributed a directive to his commanders seeking to dispel the notion that Rommel was a \"superman\". The Battle of Kasserine Pass during the Tunisian Campaign intensified the GIs' admiration towards Rommel. The cult of personality was so strong that, according to Peter Schrijvers, \"for the remainder of the war, German POWs would part with pictures of Rommel as reluctantly as GIs were eager to get them\". While Allied troops respected Rommel, civilians held the \"widely accepted\" negative image of Rommel's origin and his connection with the Nazis. As described by Rosie Goldschmidt Waldeck (who debunked the invented story) and \"The New York Times in 1943\", \"It has been said that Rommel started his career as a Hitler hoodlum and owes his quick rise to his early collaboration with Himmler.\" This line of propaganda perpetuated until the war ended. According to Atkinson, to counter the \"perverse chivalry\" (\"war without hate\", in Rommel's words) that Rommel promoted, the British and American authorities instituted hate training and tried to raise the eagerness to kill the enemies by stressing enemy brutality, as well as spatterring slaughterhouse blood in assault training courses. General John Strawson notes the same difference in attitudes to war between the leaderships of the two sides.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "5287573",
"title": "Religious views of Adolf Hitler",
"section": "Section::::Public and private evolution of Hitler's beliefs.:Adulthood and political career.:Hitler on Ancient Indian religions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Hitler's choice of the Swastika as the Nazis' main and official symbol was linked to the belief in the Aryan cultural descent of the German people. They considered the early Aryans to be the prototypical white invaders and the sign of the Swastika to be a symbol of the Aryan master race. The theory was inspired by the German archaeologist Gustaf Kossinna, who argued that the ancient Aryans were a superior Nordic race from northern Germany who expanded into the steppes of Eurasia, and from there into India, where they established the Vedic religion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "670902",
"title": "Uniforms and insignia of the Schutzstaffel",
"section": "Section::::SS titles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 516,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Oberster Führer der Schutzstaffel\": (), was a special title intended to be held solely by Adolf Hitler. When the SS became an independent organization from the SA, Hitler was listed on SS officer rolls as SS member #1 and the group's Supreme Commander. This title was intended to give Hitler a technically higher SS rank to Himmler (Reich Leader of the SS), but there is no photographic record of Hitler wearing an SS uniform, and there was no special SS insignia for Hitler above that worn by Himmler.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4503719",
"title": "Lambach Abbey",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "In 1897/98, Adolf Hitler lived in the town of Lambach with his parents and attended the monastery school, where he saw the \"Hakenkreuz\" (hooked cross) or swastika used in decorative carving on the stone and woodwork of the building. He later used it as a symbol for the Nazi Party, placing it in a white circle with a red background for use as a flag.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "44071375",
"title": "List of nicknames of Nazis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "This is a list of nicknames and pseudonyms of Nazis. Common nicknames (as translated into English) include variations of \"Beast\", \"Butcher\" and \"Angel of Death\". Most high-ranking Nazis did not have a nickname. Most of the notable Nazis who did have nicknames were concentration camp personnel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5434567",
"title": "Hitler: A Film from Germany",
"section": "Section::::Recurring plot devices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "Especially unusual is the portrayal of Himmler's personality. While Hitler is always impersonated by Heinz Schubert, Himmler's role is split into several actors, including Schubert among others, each indicating a different purported aspect about Himmler's personality, such as \"the esoterical ideologue\" (played by Rainer von Artenfels), dressed as an SS member, \"the military leader\" (leading a war for Nazism and Germany, against the Jews and other degenerated, \"un-German\" influences; played by Helmut Lange as well), dressed like an ordinary Wehrmacht officer, or \"Hitler's ideological adherent and loyal servant\" (dressed in an SS uniform, played by Peter Kern as well).\n",
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| null |
6m3blf | Woodrow Wilson had a PHD. Was he addressed as Dr. President? | [
{
"answer": "No—\"Mr. President\" is not just the name of the job preceded by the traditional male English honorific. It's the actual title of the sitting president, the way something like \"your majesty\" might be used for a monarch. *Edit:* /u/The_Alaskan's [comment reply](_URL_4_) notes that \"Madam President\" would be used by a female president, and that a formal decision to that effect was made in advance of the 2016 U.S. general election.\n\nSo did this hold true for Dr. Wilson? Yes! From my own study of America during that time period, I recalled seeing Wilson addressed as Mr. President in print, but I wanted to confirm that by finding a verifiable example with a source. The best I've got for now is a reference to a sign carried in the NAACP's 1917 \"Silent Protest Parade\" that read \"Mr. President, why not make America safe for democracy?\" [Source: Alan Dawley, *Changing the World: American Progressives in War and Revolution.*](_URL_5_) *Edit again:* /u/Lo-Jupiter pointed to additional, earlier examples of Wilson being addressed as Mr. President in [this comment reply!](_URL_2_)\n\nBut why is Mr. President the title, and not something else? Initially, after the formation of the young U.S. government, there was a bit of a debate over how to address the president. Some in the early U.S., including the first president and vice president, favored a more exalted title. VP John Adams suggested \"his highness,\" and George Washington preferred \"his mightiness.\" Adams believed the executive ~~was~~ appeared too weak in comparison to the other branches of the new government, and sought to ~~consolidate presidentail power~~ boost the appearance of the president's power by way of a grandiose form of address.\n\nHowever, there was vehement opposition to this style of address among many other leaders, who felt it was a bit too reminiscent of the monarchy they had all just worked so hard to escape (Thomas Jefferson said an exalted presidential title was \"the most superlatively ridiculous thing I ever heard of,\" and Benjamin Franklin called Adams' stance \"absolutely mad\"), and ultimately Washington and Adams yielded and accepted the title \"Mr. President.\" *Edit a third time:* /u/yodatsracist points to a source in [this comment reply](_URL_3_) suggesting that Washington himself never actually went by Mr. President. My sources (listed below) suggest that the title was adopted through common usage because the House of Representatives opposed anything more elevated than that, but don't say whether or not Washington himself ever used it.\n\n*****\n\nI'm not an expert on the American Revolution or its aftermath, and I'd be happy if a real expert could flesh out or correct any aspects of that hurried section of this explanation! Here are the sources I used for my quick study on it:\n\n- [James H. Hutson, *John Adams' Title Campaign*](_URL_0_)\n\n- [Albert Hart, *Formation of the Union, 1750-1829*](_URL_1_)\n\nEdits for clarity, and to add additional info!",
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"wikipedia_id": "1828721",
"title": "Bolton Hill, Baltimore",
"section": "Section::::Notable residents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "BULLET::::- Woodrow Wilson (1210 Eutaw Pl.), President of Princeton University, Governor of New Jersey, and President of the United States. Wilson lived in Bolton Hill during his doctoral studies at Johns Hopkins.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "33523",
"title": "Woodrow Wilson",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856 – February 3, 1924) was an American statesman, lawyer, and academic who served as the 28th president of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic Party, Wilson served as the president of Princeton University and as the 34th governor of New Jersey before winning the 1912 presidential election. As president, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in 1933. He also led the United States into World War I in 1917, establishing an activist foreign policy known as \"Wilsonianism.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "21220125",
"title": "List of international trips made by the President of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Early 20th century trips.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Woodrow Wilson made two international trips while in office. When he sailed for France in December 1918 for the Paris Peace Conference, he became the first sitting president to travel to Europe. He spent nearly seven months in Europe, interrupted by a brief 9-day return to the U.S. in late February 1919. Wilson was awarded the 1919 Nobel Peace Prize for his peacemaking efforts. While in Rome, he met with Pope Benedict XV; this was the first meeting between an incumbent American president and a reigning pope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "318514",
"title": "Robert Woodrow Wilson",
"section": "Section::::Life and work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 329,
"text": "Robert Woodrow Wilson was born on January 10, 1936, in Houston, Texas. He graduated from Lamar High School in River Oaks, in Houston, and studied as an undergraduate at Rice University, also in Houston, where he was inducted into the Phi Beta Kappa society. He then earned a PhD in physics at California Institute of Technology.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "23957199",
"title": "Damon Wilson",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Wilson completed his master's degree (MPA) at Princeton University's Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs in 1998. While there, he taught an undergraduate policy workshop on Implementing NATO Expansion with Dr. Richard Ullman and was selected for a Presidential Management Fellowship. As a fellow, Wilson worked on the State Department's China desk and at the U.S. Embassy in Beijing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "21835290",
"title": "James Wilson",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "James Wilson (September 14, 1742 – August 21, 1798) was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States and a signatory of the United States Declaration of Independence and the United States Constitution. Wilson was elected twice to the Continental Congress, where he represented Pennsylvania, and was a major force in drafting the United States Constitution. A leading legal theorist, he was one of the six original justices appointed by George Washington to the Supreme Court of the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7639128",
"title": "Presidency of Woodrow Wilson",
"section": "Section::::Foreign policy.:List of international trips.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Wilson made two international trips during his presidency. He was the first sitting president to travel to Europe. He spent nearly seven months in Europe after World War I (interrupted by a brief 9-day return stateside).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
cezyvy | what does it mean if a currency is ‘strong’ or ‘weak’ | [
{
"answer": "They are comparative words so currency A is strong against currency B. Yes you are correct the strong currency will exchange for more than 1 of the weak currency.\n\n Example use: the dollar is strong against the peso but weak against the euro",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A strong currency is a currency that has an increased value compared to other currencies. But this has little to do with the numerical value of the currencies, despite what other commenters above said.\n\n1 dollar is usually worth 100-120 yen. If the dollar becomes worth 80 yen, then it means the yen has become stronger relative to the dollar, and the dollar weaker relative to the yen. \n\nIt's completely meaningless to say that if 1 dollar = 1000 of X currency then X currency is weak, and if 1 dollar = 0.1 Y currency then Y currency is strong, because prices in the countries of those currencies will be adjusted accordingly.\n\nAnother example is the Brazilian Real, which is currently US$ 1 = R$ 3.70. The country is in recession so the dollar is strong compared to the real. But in 2008 US$ 1 = R$1.60. At that time, the US was in recession and the brazilian economy was still strong. The dollar was weak compared to the Real, even though one dollar was worth more than 1 real.\n\nEdit: another example is that governments with hyperinflation usually need to remove zeroes from their currency every few years. Imagine if the zimbabwe government changed its 100 trillion dollar (40 USD cents) and removed 14 zeroes. Now 1 zimbabwe dollar is worth 40 US cents. But why stop at 14 zeroes? They could remove 15 zeroes, so now 1 zimbabwe dollar is worth 4 US dollars. This would not make the zimbabwe dollar a stronger currency than the US dollar. It's just a numerical trick. To decide if a currency is strong or weak you can't just look at the numbers they are being traded for, but also their value history, and evaluate their purchasing power.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "10902",
"title": "Force",
"section": "Section::::Fundamental forces.:Weak nuclear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 683,
"text": "The weak force is due to the exchange of the heavy W and Z bosons. Its most familiar effect is beta decay (of neutrons in atomic nuclei) and the associated radioactivity. The word \"weak\" derives from the fact that the field strength is some 10 times less than that of the strong force. Still, it is stronger than gravity over short distances. A consistent electroweak theory has also been developed, which shows that electromagnetic forces and the weak force are indistinguishable at a temperatures in excess of approximately 10 kelvins. Such temperatures have been probed in modern particle accelerators and show the conditions of the universe in the early moments of the Big Bang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1643038",
"title": "Weak inflection",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "In grammar, the term weak (originally coined in German: \"schwach\") is used in opposition to the term strong (\"stark\") to designate a conjugation or declension when a language has two parallel systems. The only constant feature in all the grammatical usages of the word \"weak\" is that it forms a polarity with \"strong\"; there is not necessarily any objective \"weakness\" about the forms so designated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12529188",
"title": "Weak value",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 494,
"text": "In quantum mechanics (and computation), a weak value is a quantity related to a shift of a measuring device's pointer when usually there is pre- and postselection. It should not be confused with a weak measurement, which is often defined in conjunction. The weak value was first defined by Yakir Aharonov, David Albert and Lev Vaidman, published in Physical Review Letters 1988, and is related to the two-state vector formalism. There is also a way to obtain weak values without postselection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1374830",
"title": "Strong dollar policy",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Strong vs. weak dollar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "A strong currency helps domestic importers as their currency buys more, benefits foreign exporters as their exports garner more, hurts domestic exporters as there are not as many foreign buyers, and harms foreign importers as they cannot buy as much. A weak currency does the opposite of the above. They are summed up in the tables below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53023396",
"title": "Weak (AJR song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "\"Weak\" is a song by American indie pop band AJR. It was first released on their EP \"What Everyone's Thinking\" on September 16, 2016, by their own label AJR Productions, and was later featured on their second studio album \"The Click\" (2017).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5745531",
"title": "Weak (SWV song)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "\"Weak\" was released as the third single from \"It's About Time\", following the commercial success of \"I'm So into You\". It sold over one million copies domestically and was awarded a Platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). \"Weak\" hit number one on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100 for two weeks in July 1993, ending the two-month-long reign of Janet Jackson's \"That's the Way Love Goes\". It also topped the \"Billboard\" Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart for two weeks. Outside the US, the single also reached number six on the New Zealand Singles Charts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12529188",
"title": "Weak value",
"section": "Section::::Definition and Derivation.:Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Notice that if formula_5 then the weak value is equal to the usual expected value in the initial state formula_6 or the final state formula_7. In general the weak value quantity is a complex number. The weak value of the observable becomes large when the post-selected state, formula_2, approaches being orthogonal to the pre-selected state, formula_1, i.e. formula_10. If formula_11 is larger than the largest eigenvalue of formula_3 or smaller than the smallest eigenvalue of formula_3 the weak value is said to be anomalous.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
9fgtzr | How do thermophiles survive temperatures that would quickly cook animal tissue? | [
{
"answer": "I found a website that has several different adaptations thermophiles have:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nBasically it boils down to having extra-tough proteins that can withstand the higher temperatures without denaturing. The flipside is though, that some of these tougher proteins are only viable at higher temperatures.\n\nIf the temperature drops too far the protein essentially freezes and the organism is ... going to have a bad day.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "300420",
"title": "Mesophile",
"section": "Section::::Adaptations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 587,
"text": "There are two explanations for thermophiles being able to survive at such high temperatures whereas mesophiles can not. The most evident explanation is that thermophiles are believed to have cell components that are relatively more stable than the cell components of mesophiles which is why thermophiles are able to live at higher temperatures than mesophiles. \"A second school of thought, as represented by the writings of Gaughran (21) and Allen (3), believes that rapid resynthesis of damaged or destroyed cell constituents is the key to the problem of biological stability to heat.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3916626",
"title": "Wet-bulb temperature",
"section": "Section::::Wet-bulb temperature and health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "Living organisms can survive only within a certain temperature range. When the ambient temperature is excessive, humans and many animals cool themselves below ambient by evaporative cooling (sweat in humans and horses, saliva and water in dogs and other mammals); this helps to prevent potentially fatal hyperthermia due to heat stress. The effectiveness of evaporative cooling depends upon humidity; wet-bulb temperature, or more complex calculated quantities such as Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) which also takes account of solar radiation, give a useful indication of the degree of heat stress, and are used by several agencies as the basis for heat stress prevention guidelines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12918009",
"title": "Pyrodictium",
"section": "Section::::Genome structure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "Much research has been done on the genetics of \"Pyrodictium\" in order to understand its ability to survive and even thrive in such extreme temperatures. The thermal stability of \"Pyrodictum occultum\"'s isolate tRNA has been analyzed, indicating that modifications in the nucleosides allow the organism to withstand temperatures well over 100 °C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "9962898",
"title": "Thermogenic plant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "Thermogenic plants have the ability to raise their temperature above that of the surrounding air. Heat is generated in the mitochondria, as a secondary process of cellular respiration called thermogenesis. Alternative oxidase and uncoupling proteins similar to those found in mammals enable the process, which is still poorly understood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35490713",
"title": "Physical factors affecting microbial life",
"section": "Section::::High temperatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 883,
"text": "Extreme temperatures destroy viruses and vegetative cells that are active and metabolising. Organic molecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipid and nucleic acids, as well as cell walls and membranes, all of which play important roles in cell metabolism, are damaged by excessive heat. Food for human consumption is routinely heated by baking, boiling and frying to temperatures which destroy most pathogens. Thermal processes often cause undesirable changes in the texture, appearance and nutritional value of foods. Autoclaves generate steam at higher than boiling point and are used to sterilise laboratory glassware, surgical instruments, and, in a growing industry, medical waste. A danger inherent in using high temperatures to destroy microbes, is their incomplete destruction through inadequate procedures with a consequent risk of producing pathogens resistant to heat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "216174",
"title": "Homeothermy",
"section": "Section::::Cons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Because many homeothermic animals use enzymes that are specialized for a narrow range of body temperatures, hypothermia rapidly leads to torpor and then death. Additionally, homeothermy obtained from endothermy is a high energy strategy and many environments will offer lower carrying capacity to these organisms. In cold weather the energy expenditure to maintain body temperature accelerates starvation and may lead to death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42263864",
"title": "Unique properties of hyperthermophilic archaea",
"section": "Section::::Membrane adaptations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "Extremophiles are organisms that grow best in extremely cold, acidic, basic or hot environments. \"P. fumarii\" is a hyperthermophile, indicating that this organism grows best at extremely high temperatures (70–125 °C). \"P. fumarii\" grows best at 106 °C. Due to the extremely high temperatures this archaea is subjected to, this organism must have extremely stable biomolecules to survive. Without increased stability in the membrane, the cell would fall apart, and too many molecules would flow in and out of the membrane, destroying the chemical gradients the cell uses as energy and letting all the proteins the cell has synthesized diffuse away, stopping its metabolic processes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
]
| null |
yzqff | If the speed of light is constant, how does it "bounce" off of a mirror. Does'nt that imply that the light slowed to a velocity of zero and reversed its momentum? | [
{
"answer": "Well...I'd like to clear up a subtle point in your post's title. You say \"if the speed of light is constant\" - remember that c is the speed of light *in vacuum*. The speed of light in a material is less than c, and has to do with the material properties that the light is traveling through (it's NOT due to photon absorption and re-emission, like many say).\n\nMirrors are complicated little things believe it or not. Your average metal mirror behaves the way it does because the the electric field of the incoming light moves the (unbound) electrons in the metal back and forth. The energy from the incoming light is absorbed and makes the electrons wiggle. These wiggling electrons then produce a secondary light wave, which we see as a reflection. This behavior is organized in such a way that we see clear reflections with very little scatter.\n\n[Source](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "78446",
"title": "Doppler radar",
"section": "Section::::Concept.:Frequency variation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "The formula for radar Doppler shift is the same as that for reflection of light by a moving mirror. There is no need to invoke Einstein's theory of special relativity, because all observations are made in the same frame of reference. The result derived with \"c\" as the speed of light and \"v\" as the target velocity gives the shifted frequency (formula_1) as a function of the original frequency (formula_2) :\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "894774",
"title": "Emission theory",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "BULLET::::- The excited portion of a reflecting mirror acts as a new source of light and the reflected light has the same velocity \"c\" with respect to the mirror as has original light with respect to its source. (Proposed by Richard Chase Tolman in 1910, although he was a supporter of special relativity).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "894774",
"title": "Emission theory",
"section": "Section::::Refutations of emission theory.:Interferometry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Babcock and Bergman (1964) placed rotating glass plates between the mirrors of a common-path interferometer set up in a static Sagnac configuration. If the glass plates behave as new sources of light so that the total speed of light emerging from their surfaces is \"c\" + \"v\", a shift in the interference pattern would be expected. However, there was no such effect which again confirms special relativity, and which again demonstrates the source independence of light speed. This experiment was executed in vacuum, thus extinction effects should play no role.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39606746",
"title": "Central Laser Facility",
"section": "Section::::Notable studies.:The Light Clock.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Einstein proposed as part of his theory of special relativity that light reflected from a mirror moving close to the speed of light will have higher peak power than the incident light because of temporal compression. Using a dense relativistic electron mirror created from a high-intensity laser pulse and nanometre-scale foil, the frequency of the laser pulse was shown to shift coherently from infrared to the ultraviolet. The results elucidate the reflection process of laser-generated electron mirrors and suggest future research in relativistic mirrors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58278312",
"title": "Aspect's experiment",
"section": "Section::::Recent experiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 81,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 81,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "In 2001, Antoine Suarez's team, which included Nicolas Gisin who had participated in the Geneva experiment, reproduced the experiment using mirrors or detectors in motion, allowing them to reverse the order of events across the frames of reference, in accordance with special relativity (this inversion is only possible for events without any causal relationship). The speeds are chosen so that when a photon is reflected or crosses the semi-transparent mirror, the other photon has already crossed or been reflected from the point of view of the frame of reference attached to the mirror. This an \"after-after\" configuration, in which sound waves play the role of semi-transparent mirrors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "579755",
"title": "Mach–Zehnder interferometer",
"section": "Section::::How it works.:Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 803,
"text": "The speed of light is lower in media with an index of refraction greater than that of a vacuum, which is 1. Specifically, its speed is: \"v\" = \"c\"/\"n\", where \"c\" is the speed of light in vacuum, and \"n\" is the index of refraction. This causes a phase shift increase proportional to (\"n\" − 1) × \"length traveled\". If \"k\" is the constant phase shift incurred by passing through a glass plate on which a mirror resides, a total of 2\"k\" phase shift occurs when reflecting from the rear of a mirror. This is because light traveling toward the rear of a mirror will enter the glass plate, incurring \"k\" phase shift, and then reflect from the mirror with no additional phase shift, since only air is now behind the mirror, and travel again back through the glass plate, incurring an additional \"k\" phase shift.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "422481",
"title": "Mass–energy equivalence",
"section": "Section::::History.:Einstein: mass–energy equivalence.:Alternative version.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 140,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "The object has not changed its velocity before or after the emission. Yet in this frame it has lost some right-momentum to the light. The only way it could have lost momentum is by losing mass. This also solves Poincaré's radiation paradox, discussed above.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5zykco | slightly new to reddit, why do people post their edits at the bottom of their posts | [
{
"answer": "If you edit a post after a number of minutes it puts an asterisk in the header of the post.\n\nAdditionally, people generally do it as a form of courtesy, either to not force someone to re-read the entire post and figure out what the altered content is, or to maintain the flow of conversation. That is to say, if you post, and someone replies to your post, and you alter the original post, you can make the reply appear nonsensical. Posting that you have edited the post will clue other people in on why this mismatch may exist, and thus is courteous to both them (by aiding their reading comprehension) and the respondents (by making them look less crazy). ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "39684326",
"title": "Google Slides",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Editing.:Collaboration and revision history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "An editor's current position is represented with an editor-specific color/cursor, so if another editor happens to be viewing the same slide, they can see edits as they occur. A sidebar chat functionality allows collaborators to discuss edits. The revision history allows users to see the additions made to a document, with each author distinguished by color. Only adjacent revisions can be compared, and users cannot control how frequently revisions are saved. Files can be exported to a user's local computer in a variety of formats, including HTML, .jpg, and PDF.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::Site overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "The most popular posts from the site's numerous subreddits are visible on the front page to those who browse the site without an account. By default for those users, the front page will display the subreddit r/popular, featuring top-ranked posts across all of Reddit, excluding not-safe-for-work communities and others that are most commonly filtered out by users (even if they are safe for work). The subreddit r/all does not filter topics. Registered users who subscribe to subreddits see the top content from the subreddits to which they subscribe on their personal front pages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3829005",
"title": "Reddit",
"section": "Section::::History.:Technology and design.:Product and design changes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Reddit released its \"spoiler tags\" feature in January 2017. The feature warns users of potential spoilers in posts and pixelates preview images. Reddit unveiled changes to its public front page, called r/popular, in 2017; the change creates a front page free of potentially adult-oriented content for unregistered users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46426771",
"title": "Google Docs",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Editing.:Collaboration and revision history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 652,
"text": "An editor's current position is represented with an editor-specific color/cursor, so if another editor happens to be viewing that part of the document they can see edits as they occur. A sidebar chat functionality allows collaborators to discuss edits. The revision history allows users to see the additions made to a document, with each author distinguished by color. Only adjacent revisions can be compared, and users cannot control how frequently revisions are saved. Files can be exported to a user's local computer in a variety of formats (ODF, HTML, PDF, RTF, Text, Office Open XML). Files can be tagged and archived for organizational purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3885057",
"title": "Writing process",
"section": "Section::::Editing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 1181,
"text": "Editing operates on several levels. The lowest level, often called line editing, is the stage in the writing process where the writer makes changes in the text to correct errors—such as spelling, subject/verb agreement, verb tense consistency, point of view consistency, mechanical errors, word choice, and word usage (there, their or they're)—and fine-tune his or her style. Having revised the draft for content, the writer's task is now to make changes that will improve the communication with the reader. Depending on the genre, the writer may choose to adhere to the conventions of Standard English. These conventions are still being developed and the rulings on controversial issues may vary depending on the source. For example, Strunk and White's \"Elements of Style\", first published in 1918, is considered by some to be an authority on stylistic conventions, but has been derided by linguist Geoffrey K. Pullum as \"stupid\". A more recent handbook for students is Diana Hacker's \"A Writer's Reference\". An electronic resource is the Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL), where writers may search a specific issue to find an explanation of grammatical and mechanical conventions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5609205",
"title": "Postback",
"section": "Section::::In web development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Postbacks are commonly seen in edit forms, where the user introduces information in a form and hits \"save\" or \"submit\", causing a postback. The server then refreshes the same page using the information it has just received.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12162730",
"title": "Wiki journalism",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "\"The edits over the week lack some of the narrative flow that a Wired News piece usually contains. The transitions seem a bit choppy, there are too many mentions of companies, and too much dry explication of how wikis work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
7pfz7t | what is it about orange juice that dulls the taste of alcohol so well? | [
{
"answer": "Ethanol causes a burning sensation because it activates the same [receptors](_URL_0_) as capsaicin. Acids also activate this class of receptors and so drinks like OJ and coke which are acidic will also activate them. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1358265",
"title": "Orange soft drink",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 271,
"text": "Orange soft drinks (especially those without orange juice) often contain very high levels of sodium benzoate, and this often imparts a slight metallic taste to the beverage. Other additives commonly found in orange soft drinks include rosin and sodium hexametaphosphate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52824",
"title": "Orange juice",
"section": "Section::::Commercial orange juice and concentrate.:Types of orange.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Common orange juice is made from the sweet orange. Different cultivars (for example, Valencia, Hamlin) have different properties, and a producer may mix cultivar juices to get the desired taste. Orange juice usually varies between shades of orange and yellow, although some ruby red or blood orange varieties are a reddish-orange or even pinkish. This is due to different pigmentation in ruby red oranges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "370312",
"title": "Bitter orange",
"section": "Section::::Herbal stimulant.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "The extract of bitter orange (and bitter orange peel) has been marketed as dietary supplement purported to act as a weight-loss aid and appetite suppressant. Bitter orange contains the tyramine metabolites \"N\"-methyltyramine, octopamine and synephrine, substances similar to epinephrine, which act on the α adrenergic receptor to constrict blood vessels and increase blood pressure and heart rate. Several low-quality clinical trials have had results of p-Synephrine (alone or in combination with caffeine or some other substances) increasing weight loss slightly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52824",
"title": "Orange juice",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Commercial orange juice with a long shelf life is made by pasteurizing the juice and removing the oxygen from it. This removes much of the taste, necessitating the later addition of a flavor pack, generally made from orange products. Additionally, some juice is further processed by drying and later rehydrating the juice, or by concentrating the juice and later adding water to the concentrate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4984440",
"title": "Orange (fruit)",
"section": "Section::::Varieties.:Acidless oranges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "The lack of acid, which protects orange juice against spoilage in other groups, renders them generally unfit for processing as juice, so they are primarily eaten. They remain profitable in areas of local consumption, but rapid spoilage renders them unsuitable for export to major population centres of Europe, Asia, or the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "370312",
"title": "Bitter orange",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "Bitter orange is also employed in herbal medicine as a stimulant and appetite suppressant, due to its active ingredient, synephrine. Bitter orange supplements have been linked to a number of serious side effects and deaths, and consumer groups advocate that people avoid using the fruit medically. It is still not concluded if bitter orange affects medical conditions of heart and cardiovascular organs, by itself or in formulae with other substances. Standard reference materials are released concerning the properties in bitter orange by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), for ground fruit, extract and solid oral dosage form, along with those packaged together into one item.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52824",
"title": "Orange juice",
"section": "Section::::Nutrition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Citrus juices contain flavonoids (especially in the pulp) that may have health benefits. Orange juice is also a source of the antioxidant hesperidin. Because of its citric acid content, orange juice is acidic, with a typical pH of around 3.5.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
40axbg | the difference between discrimination & prejudice? | [
{
"answer": "If you have an opinion on an entire social group and base your judgement of each person belonging to that group on that opinion, that's prejudice.\n\nIf you treat a person based on the consideration you have of his/her social group (aka your prejudice) rather than on individual merits, that's discrimination.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Prejudice is a feeling or an opinion, while discrimination is an actual act. Prejudice of course often leads to discrimination.\n\nFor example, if I believe people of a certain ethnicity are likelier to be shop lifters then I am prejudiced against them, but that doesn't mean I discriminate against them. It's discrimination when I act upon it, for example if I were to check every person of that ethnicity before they leave my store to make sure they haven't stolen anything.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Discrimination is an action wherein an individual is treated unfairly - unfair treatment against another individual. This can be based on age, skin colour, education, gender, speech and many other things. Men can discriminate against women, and vice versa. The young against the old, and vice versa. You get the idea. This discrimination can *stem* from a prejudice however; the two are often linked but do not necessarily have to be. So, you could discriminate against one individual without harbouring a negative attitude against the entire group that are alike to that individual. Again, take elderly people: one could discriminate against one individual because they are old (maybe, say, in a workplace environment), but they may not have a prejudice against all old people, but they are discriminating that particular old person for whatever reason.\n\nPrejudice involves a negative attitude toward an entire group. So, this could mean an old person might have a prejudice against all youths, thus they discriminate against them. Same goes for the other examples. As someone else has said, prejudice could be the feeling toward a group, and discrimination the action. But again, the two do not always have to be linked.\n\nEdit: a word",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Prejudice is not liking someone because they are something. Discrimination is treating them worse because of that. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9279626",
"title": "Carr Center for Human Rights Policy",
"section": "Section::::Current Programs.:Equality and Discrimination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "Discrimination is the selection for unfavorable treatment of an individual or individuals on the basis of: gender, race, color or ethnic or national origin, religion, disability, sexual orientation, social class, age, or as a result of any conditions or requirements that do not accord with the principles of fairness and natural justice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31682629",
"title": "Discrimination in the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 513,
"text": "Discrimination is the act of someone being prejudiced towards another. This term is used to highlight the difference in treatment between members of different groups when one group is intentionally singled out and treated worse, or not given the same opportunities. Attitudes toward minorities have been marked by discrimination historically in the United States. Many forms of discrimination have come to be recognized in U.S. society, on the basis of national origin, race, gender, and sexuality in particular.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50340771",
"title": "Prejudice from an evolutionary perspective",
"section": "Section::::Evolved prejudice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 943,
"text": "Prejudice is often associated with discrimination, which, in the colloquial sense, means the active and explicit exclusion and derogation of minority groups based on preconceived and unfounded judgments. This type of discrimination certainly exists, but it is in no way justified by the presence of evolved prejudices. However, discriminate sociality is an integral part of group living, as different individuals afford different threats and opportunities. For instance, indiscriminate cooperation is inherently unstable because it is easily invaded by cheats and free-riders. Thus, cooperative groups cannot exist without mechanisms to recognize and punish non-cooperators. Indiscriminate association in other domains, such as pathogen avoidance and intergroup conflict, has similar consequences, and indiscriminate social actors will generally have lower fitness than those who are able to respond functionally to the affordances of others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1134331",
"title": "Racial Discrimination Act 1975",
"section": "Section::::Scope of the Act.:Prohibition of racial discrimination in certain contexts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Racial discrimination occurs under the RDA when someone is treated less fairly than someone else in a similar situation because of their race, colour, descent or national or ethnic origin. Racial discrimination can also occur when a policy or rule appears to treat everyone in the same way but actually has an unfair effect on more people of a particular race, colour, descent or national or ethnic origin than others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8900",
"title": "Discrimination",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 998,
"text": "In human social behavior, discrimination is treatment or consideration of, or making a distinction towards, a person based on the group, class, or category to which the person is perceived to belong. These include age, caste, colour, criminal record, height, disability, ethnicity, family status, gender identity, generation, genetic characteristics, marital status, nationality, race, religion, sex, and sexual orientation. Discrimination consists of treatment of an individual or group, based on their actual or perceived membership in a certain group or social category, \"in a way that is worse than the way people are usually treated\". It involves the group's initial reaction or interaction going on to influence the individual's actual behavior towards the group leader or the group, restricting members of one group from opportunities or privileges that are available to another group, leading to the exclusion of the individual or entities based on illogical or irrational decision making.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31881841",
"title": "Implicit stereotype",
"section": "Section::::Bias vs stereotype, attitude and prejudice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Prejudice is defined as unfair negative attitude toward a social group or a member of that group. Prejudices can stem from many of the things that people observe in a different social group that include, but are not limited to, gender, sex, race/ethnicity, or religion. This is pertinent to stereotypes because a stereotype can influence the way people feel toward another group, hence prejudice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25613",
"title": "Racism",
"section": "Section::::Etymology, definition and usage.:Legal.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "The term \"racial discrimination\" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
70sgiu | how are vector illustrations not based on pixels if our screen is made up of pixels? | [
{
"answer": " > So even if we're using a software like Adobe Illustrator, isn't a vector line made up of a bunch of small pixels in actuality?\n\nThe vector itself is just a bit of math saying \"A line exists between point A and point B\". The resulting line is *displayed* using pixels, but the underlying mathematical representation means that you can display the same vector on a higher-resolution screen, and it would fully take advantage of the higher resolution by being drawn with more pixels. \n\nIf the image itself were stored as pixels, then showing it on a higher resolution monitor would just make the image smaller, and not more detailed.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Rather than using literal pixel data (pixel by pixel with color data for each dot), vectors mathematically define the zones of a particular color.\n\nSo a line might start at (0,0) and end at (0.35,0.75). The image can be whatever size you want. 10x10 pixels or 100000x100000 pixels. The computer calculates which pixels are part of the line defined by the vector.\n\nVector graphics are independent of pixel count, so they can be made as big or as small as you need them. Vector graphics don't get blurry or pixelated as they get huge.\n\nAdobe represents your vector with pixels, but the actual line is more abstract and more \"pure\" if that concept makes sense.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Say you take a photograph of your cat and you develop that photograph. When you look at the photograph, it looks realistic. But if you zoom in on the photograph, you'll start seeing pixels. However, if in real life, you simply move closer to your cat and take another photograph, you'll now have a \"zoomed in\" version of the cat but with much more detail than the original photograph.\n\nVector graphics are like the real-life cat. The photograph is a representation of the cat (the pixels drawn on the screen). The vector graphics, as well as the cat, have infinite detail, but the representation (photograph) does not.\n\nIf you were to draw vector graphics on the screen and zoom in, *without redrawing the vector graphics from scratch*, you'll start seeing pixels. The idea behind vector graphics is that you keep redrawing the infinitely detailed vector graphics in pixels on the screen, thereby giving infinite zoom and details. Basically, you're taking a new \"photograph\" every time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32499",
"title": "Vector graphics",
"section": "Section::::Operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 622,
"text": "Vector formats are not always appropriate in graphics work and also have numerous disadvantages. For example, devices such as cameras and scanners produce essentially continuous-tone raster graphics that are impractical to convert into vectors, and so for this type of work, an image editor will operate on the pixels rather than on drawing objects defined by mathematical expressions. Comprehensive graphics tools will combine images from vector and raster sources, and may provide editing tools for both, since some parts of an image could come from a camera source, and others could have been drawn using vector tools.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2937077",
"title": "Image scaling",
"section": "Section::::Algorithms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 481,
"text": "Vector extraction, or vectorization, offer another approach. Vectorization first creates a resolution-independent vector representation of the graphic to be scaled. Then the resolution-independent version is rendered as a raster image at the desired resolution. This technique is used by Adobe Illustrator, Live Trace, and Inkscape. Scalable Vector Graphics are well suited to simple geometric images, while photographs do not fare well with vectorization due to their complexity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7725846",
"title": "Inspector window",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "For example, in a vector graphics application the user creates drawings out from elements such as lines, rectangles and circles. When such an element is selected on the page, an inspector will show the current size and absolute position on the page of this element with numbers. The user can then change those numbers to change the size or position of the object on the page.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "410879",
"title": "GIS file formats",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "BULLET::::- Vector data can be displayed as vector graphics used on traditional maps, whereas raster data will appear as an image that may have a blocky appearance for object boundaries. (depending on the resolution of the raster file).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2679981",
"title": "Image file formats",
"section": "Section::::Major graphic file formats.:Vector formats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "As opposed to the raster image formats above (where the data describes the characteristics of each individual pixel), vector image formats contain a geometric description which can be rendered smoothly at any desired display size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1120434",
"title": "Digital illustration",
"section": "Section::::Illustration software.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 625,
"text": "With vector-based tools, the content is stored digitally as resolution-independent mathematical formulae describing lines (open paths), shapes (closed paths), and color fills, strokes or gradients. Vector paths are constructed of anchor points and path segments by using the pointing device to click and drag. Many vector graphics are readily available for download from online databases which can then be edited and incorporated into larger projects. Drawing tools typically create precise lines, shapes and patterns with well-defined edges and are superb for working with complex constructions such as maps and typography.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2815915",
"title": "Image tracing",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 533,
"text": "An image does not have any structure: it is just a collection of marks on paper, grains in film, or pixels in a bitmap. While such an image is useful, it has some limits. If the image is magnified enough, its artifacts appear. The halftone dots, film grains and pixels become apparent. Images of sharp edges become fuzzy or jagged. See, for example, pixelation. Ideally, a vector image does not have the same problem. Edges and filled areas are represented as mathematical curves or gradients, and they can be magnified arbitrarily.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
31onno | Have any of the works of Greek & Roman Antiquity been recovered in contemporaneous form, and turned out to differ from their Renaissance-era translations? | [
{
"answer": "Not \"first editions\" (haha), but ancient copies, certainly. The most common avenue for finding ancient copies is via papyri preserved in Egyptian rubbish dumps, or turned into papyrus-mâché and used in sarcophaguses, though papyri have certainly turned up elsewhere too (e.g. in Herculaneum, as you mention).\n\nThey're nearly always very fragmentary. Often the surviving fragment preserves no more than a few letters. But yes, they're important sources of textual variants. They're not always *better* than the mediaeval manuscript tradition: transmission errors happened in antiquity too. But earlier witnesses always add more information, so even if there are errors, they're always *informative*.\n\nThe number of papyri that have been found varies depending on how popular the text was. For things like the New Testament and Homer, we have thousands of papyrus fragments. For example, we have fragments of at least 136 separate papyri of Euripides, 36 of Sophocles, and 32 of Aeschylus. For early epic, we have 1569 papyri of the *Iliad*, at least 252 of the *Odyssey*, 58 of the *Catalogue of Women*, 40 of the *Theogony*, and 32 of the *Works and Days*.\n\nA very few are relatively intact. There's one 5th/6th cent. CE papyrus that preserves substantial chunks from every book of the *Iliad*, and one 3rd/4th cent. CE papyrus that preserves most of 11 books of the *Odyssey*. A very few texts are known only from papyri: the main ones I know of are Aristotle's *Constitution of the Athenians*, the majority of what survives of the *Catalogue of Women*, and the Derveni papyrus.\n\nAs to how they shed light on surviving texts, [I wrote an old post here](_URL_0_) which gives one example of how a papyrus reading affected our understanding of the correct reading of a text. Papyri are and will always continue to be an important avenue for finding new corrections to ancient texts, which is why there are a few journals specifically devoted to papyrology. In a modern critical edition of a text, papyrus readings will normally be annotated in the apparatus (the list of textual variants at the bottom of the page) with the letter *p*, though the exact typography varies from edition to edition (e.g. sometimes an edition will use a lower-case italic *p*; some older editions use a capital *P* in blackletter script).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "322915",
"title": "Italian Renaissance",
"section": "Section::::Origins and background.:Northern and Central Italy in the Late Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "recovery of lost Greek classics (and, to a lesser extent, Arab advancements on them) following the Crusader conquest of the Byzantine heartlands, revitalized medieval philosophy in the Renaissance of the 12th century, just as the refugee Byzantine scholars who migrated to Italy during and following the Turkish conquest of the Byzantines between the 12th and 15th centuries were important in sparking the new linguistic studies of the Renaissance, in newly created academies in Florence and Venice. Humanist scholars searched monastic libraries for ancient manuscripts and recovered Tacitus and other Latin authors. The rediscovery of Vitruvius meant that the architectural principles of Antiquity could be observed once more, and Renaissance artists were encouraged, in the atmosphere of humanist optimism, to excel the achievements of the Ancients, like Apelles, of whom they read.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244107",
"title": "Euclid's Elements",
"section": "Section::::History.:Transmission of the text.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Copies of the Greek text still exist, some of which can be found in the Vatican Library and the Bodleian Library in Oxford. The manuscripts available are of variable quality, and invariably incomplete. By careful analysis of the translations and originals, hypotheses have been made about the contents of the original text (copies of which are no longer available).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5517197",
"title": "Oxyrhynchus",
"section": "Section::::Finds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Although the hope of finding all the lost literary works of antiquity at Oxyrhynchus was not realized, many important Greek texts were found at the site. These include poems of Pindar, fragments of Sappho and Alcaeus, along with larger pieces of Alcman, Ibycus, and Corinna.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15038903",
"title": "Transmission of the Greek Classics",
"section": "Section::::Direct reception of Greek texts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "After the Fourth Crusade (1202–1204) and the Sack of Constantinople (1204), scholars such as William of Moerbeke gained access to the original Greek texts of scientists and philosophers, including Aristotle, Archimedes, Hero of Alexandria and Proclus, that had been preserved in the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire, and translated them directly into Latin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "367354",
"title": "Dictys Cretensis",
"section": "Section::::Literary history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Modern scholars were in disagreement as to whether any Greek original really existed; but all doubt on the point was removed by the discovery of a fragment in Greek amongst the Tebtunis papyri found by Bernard Grenfell and Arthur Hunt in 1899–1900. It revealed that the Latin was a close translation. The other surprise was the discovery, in the library of conte Aurelio Guglielmo Balleani at Jesi, of a manuscript of Dictys, in large part of the ninth century, that was described and collated by C. Annibaldi in 1907.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21220008",
"title": "Medieval Greek",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "In the Byzantine Empire, Ancient and Medieval Greek texts were copied repeatedly; studying these texts was part of Byzantine education. Several collections of transcriptions tried to record the entire body of Greek literature since antiquity. As there had already been extensive exchange with Italian academics since the 14th century, many scholars and a large number of manuscripts found their way to Italy after the decline of the Eastern Roman Empire. Renaissance Italian and Greek humanists set up important collections in Rome, Florence and Venice. The conveyance of Greek by Greek contemporaries also brought about the itacistic tradition of Greek studies in Italy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10172",
"title": "Eusebius",
"section": "Section::::Works.:\"Chronicle\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "The work as a whole has been lost in the original Greek, but it may be reconstructed from later chronographists of the Byzantine school who made excerpts from the work, especially George Syncellus. The tables of the second part have been completely preserved in a Latin translation by Jerome, and both parts are still extant in an Armenian translation. The loss of the Greek originals has given the Armenian translation a special importance; thus, the first part of Eusebius' \"Chronicle\", of which only a few fragments exist in the Greek, has been preserved entirely in Armenian, though with lacunae. The \"Chronicle\" as preserved extends to the year 325.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
192a36 | why does wine give such wicked hangovers? | [
{
"answer": "You've got a mild allergy to the grape in that type of wine.\n\nSwitch types and/or color, and drink more water.\n\nOr switch to beer or hard liquor or heroin.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to any chemical composition reasonings, you might not have a good sense of the relative alcohol density of wine in comparison to beer or liquor. Each bottle has approximately 7.5 standard drinks (if you are drinking a standard sized bottle of red wine at 13%), thus drinking two bottles is the equivalent of 15 cans of beer or 1 oz. shots.\n\nThat's a lot of alcohol, my friend. You should consider taking milk thistle, an excellent herb for rebuilding liver cells.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's different for everyone. You may be sensitive to the sulphides in wine. It's basically a preservative. Some occur naturally and some are added.\n\nThis has a pretty straightforward/ELI5 explanation:\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "666105",
"title": "Fusel alcohol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Whether fusel alcohol contributes to hangover symptoms is a matter of scientific debate. A Japanese study in 2003 concluded: \"the fusel oil in whisky had no effect on the ethanol-induced emetic response\" in the Asian house shrew. Additionally, consumption of fusel oils with ethanol suppressed subjects' subsequent taste aversion to alcohol, which suggested subjects' hangover symptoms were lessened, according to the journal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "12002984",
"title": "Coyol wine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "The wine is purportedly unique in that it causes inebriation not primarily by its alcohol content, but through enzymatic action triggered when one drinks it and then receives significant sun exposure. It is popularly claimed that one can become inebriated at night, regain sobriety by the next day, and then undergo inebriation again in the morning without consuming any more, merely by being exposed to the sun again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2906037",
"title": "Tears of wine",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "It is sometimes claimed incorrectly that wine with \"lots of legs\" is sweeter or of a better quality. In fact the intensity of this phenomenon depends only on alcohol content, and it can be eliminated completely by covering the wine glass (which stops the evaporation of the alcohol). British physicist C. V. Boys argues that the biblical injunction, \"Look not thou upon the wine when it is red, when it giveth his colour in the cup, when it moveth itself aright\", (Proverbs 23:31) refers to this effect. Since the \"tears of wine\" are most noticeable in wine which has a high alcohol content, the author may be suggesting this as a way to identify wines that should be avoided in the interest of sobriety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263156",
"title": "Ouzo",
"section": "Section::::Aperitif drink.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "Ouzo can colloquially be referred to as a particularly strong drink, the cause of this being its sugar content. Sugar delays ethanol absorption in the stomach, and may thus mislead the drinker into thinking that they can drink more as they do not feel tipsy early on. Then the cumulative effect of ethanol appears and the drinker becomes inebriated rather quickly. This is why it is generally considered poor form to drink ouzo \"dry hammer\" (\"ξεροσφύρι\", \"xerosfýri\", an idiomatic expression that means \"drinking alcohol without eating anything\") in Greece. The presence of food, especially fats or oils, in the upper digestive system prolongs the absorption of ethanol and ameliorates alcohol intoxication.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7029997",
"title": "Medieval cuisine",
"section": "Section::::Drink.:Beer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "But from whichever it is made, whether from oats, barley or wheat, it harms the head and the stomach, it causes bad breath and ruins the teeth, it fills the stomach with bad fumes, and as a result anyone who drinks it along with wine becomes drunk quickly; but it does have the property of facilitating urination and makes one's flesh white and smooth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12274183",
"title": "Hangover",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "While the causes of a hangover are still poorly understood, several factors are known to be involved including acetaldehyde accumulation, changes in the immune system and glucose metabolism, dehydration, metabolic acidosis, disturbed prostaglandin synthesis, increased cardiac output, vasodilation, sleep deprivation and malnutrition. Beverage-specific effects of additives or by-products such as congeners in alcoholic beverages also play an important role. The symptoms occur typically after the intoxicating effect of the alcohol begins to wear off, generally the morning after a night of heavy drinking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12274183",
"title": "Hangover",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Congeners.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "Several studies have examined whether certain types of alcohol cause worse hangovers. All four studies concluded that darker liquors, which have higher congeners, produced worse hangovers. One even showed that hangovers were worse \"and\" more frequent with darker liquors. In a 2006 study, an average of 14 standard drinks (330 ml each) of beer was needed to produce a hangover, but only 7 to 8 drinks was required for wine or liquor (note that one standard drink has the same amount of alcohol regardless of type). Another study ranked several drinks by their ability to cause a hangover as follows (from low to high): distilled ethanol diluted with fruit juice, beer, vodka, gin, white wine, whisky, rum, red wine and brandy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
77a8q0 | Why are triangles, squares, and hexagons the only shapes that can tesselate? | [
{
"answer": "Regular polygons are equilateral and equiangular. The only way a regular polygon can tesselate the plane is if some multiple of the interior angle equals 360 degrees. This is the only possible way you can actually fit a multiple of the polygons around each vertex.\n\nThe interior angle of an *N*-gon is (1- 2/N)π radians. Some multiple of this angle must be exactly equal to 2π. So the only regular *N*-gons that can tesselate the plate are those *N*-gons for which there is some integer *M* such that\n\n > M = 2N/(N - 2)\n\nThe function f(N) = 2N/(N - 2) decreases to 2 as N varies from 3 to infinity, and f(3) = 6. So we need only find those values of *N* that correspond to M = 3, 4, 5, 6. The corresponding values of *N* are N = 6, 4, 10/3, 3. Since 10/3 is not an integer, the only possible regular *N*-gons that can tesselate the plane are the 3-gon (triangle), 4-gon (square), and 6-gon (hexagon).\n\n > I understand that the angles don't allow other shapes to do this, but I would like to understand it from a more conceptual and visual perspective.\n\nWell, all of the relevant concepts are in the proof above. As for a visual, I'm not sure you can get any more insight than just looking at an image of tesselations for the regular polygons ([like this](_URL_1_)) and an attempted tesselation with some other regular polygon ([like this failed regular pentagon tesselation](_URL_0_)). Recall that above we found that f(5) = 10/3 = 3.33. So around each vertex you can fit at most 3 regular pentagons, but there will always be some room left over. \n\nIt all comes down to the fact that 360-degrees is not a multiple of the interior angle of any regular polygon other than the triangle, square, and hexagon.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In around the 1930's or so, an absolutely brilliant man called Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter started thinking about these things, not just in the plane, but in any number of dimensions. \n\nSpecifically, he attacked the problem using \"reflection groups\" - imagine you're in a room, all the walls are mirrors. You'll see, on the floor, an infinite extended rectangular grid stretching out to infinity. Or, if there are 3 mirrors are at 90 degrees, 60 degrees and 30 degrees to each other, you'll see an amazing pattern of little triangles, and you'll make out the tesselation of triangles and of hexagons in there too. \n\nCoxeter wondered what other angles are possible, if you wanted a \"discrete\" group of reflections - ie, one where all the images of a point are separated from each other.\n\nThe first insight is:\n\n* all the angles between the mirrors have to be 180/p, where p is some whole number. You can have mirrors at 90 degrees, or 60 degrees, or 45 degrees, or 36 degrees, but not (say) 50 degrees or 73.9 degrees and so on. \n\nThe reason is, that's the only way to ensure that an image of a point neqtly falls back on itse;f after being reflected a certain number of times.\n\nNext, he thought about what happens if you have multiple mirrors enclosing a space, and he was able to show that p had to be 2, 3, 4 or 6, in any number of dimensions.\n\nIn 2-D, it's simple enough to check this: if three mirrors enclosing a triangle are at angles 180/p, 180/q and 180/r, and the angles add up to 180, then 1/p + 1/q + 1/r = 1. The only (p,q,r) that allow that are (2,3,6), (2,4,4) and (3,3,3). Coxeter used a more sophisticated proof to show that in any number of dimensions, you can only tesselate space with regular polyhedra whose sides are triangles, cubes or hexagons. \n\nThen, he proceeded to list all the possibilities.\n\nIn 3D, and in 5D and up, you can tesselate space with (3D, or 5D, etc) cubes. That's it. \n\nIn 4D, though, you can tesselate space with 4D cubes (tesseracts), but there are a beautiful tesselation with \"24-cells\". The 24-cell is a 4D shape with octahedrons for faces. There's also a \"dual tesselation\" with cross-polytopes (the 4D equivalent of octahedra).\n\nYou can get many more tesselations if you decide to abandon euclidean space - then angles in triangles don't have to add to 180, and you can get almost any kind of tesselation you want. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "30654",
"title": "Triangle",
"section": "Section::::Triangles in construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 231,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 231,
"end_character": 1120,
"text": "Triangles are sturdy; while a rectangle can collapse into a parallelogram from pressure to one of its points, triangles have a natural strength which supports structures against lateral pressures. A triangle will not change shape unless its sides are bent or extended or broken or if its joints break; in essence, each of the three sides supports the other two. A rectangle, in contrast, is more dependent on the strength of its joints in a structural sense. Some innovative designers have proposed making bricks not out of rectangles, but with triangular shapes which can be combined in three dimensions. It is likely that triangles will be used increasingly in new ways as architecture increases in complexity. It is important to remember that triangles are strong in terms of rigidity, but while packed in a tessellating arrangement triangles are not as strong as hexagons under compression (hence the prevalence of hexagonal forms in nature). Tessellated triangles still maintain superior strength for cantilevering however, and this is the basis for one of the strongest man made structures, the tetrahedral truss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159494",
"title": "Triangle (musical instrument)",
"section": "Section::::Shaping and manufacturing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "Early examples of triangles include ornamental work at the open end, often in a scroll pattern. Historically, the triangle has been manufactured from a solid iron and later steel rod and bent into a triangular shape roughly equilateral. In modern times, the scroll pattern has been abandoned and triangles are made from either steel or brass.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39847439",
"title": "Circle Limit III",
"section": "Section::::Geometry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "However, the precise geometry of these shapes is not the same. In the alternated octagonal tiling tiling, the sides of the squares and triangles are hyperbolically straight line segments, which do not link up in smooth curves; instead they form polygonal chains with corners. In Escher's woodcut, the sides of the squares and triangles are formed by arcs of hypercycles, which are not straight in hyperbolic geometry, but which connect smoothly to each other without corners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "588260",
"title": "Kakeya set",
"section": "Section::::Besicovitch sets.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Now, suppose we divide our triangle into eight subtriangles. For each consecutive pair of triangles, perform the same overlapping operation we described before to get four new shapes, each consisting of two overlapping triangles. Next, overlap consecutive pairs of these new shapes by shifting their bases over each other partially, so we're left with two shapes, and finally overlap these two in the same way. In the end, we get a shape looking somewhat like a tree, but with an area much smaller than our original triangle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "169191",
"title": "Shape",
"section": "Section::::Classification of simple shapes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Some simple shapes can be put into broad categories. For instance, polygons are classified according to their number of edges as triangles, quadrilaterals, pentagons, etc. Each of these is divided into smaller categories; triangles can be equilateral, isosceles, obtuse, acute, scalene, etc. while quadrilaterals can be rectangles, rhombi, trapezoids, squares, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2863858",
"title": "Triangular tiling",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 296,
"text": "In geometry, the triangular tiling or triangular tessellation is one of the three regular tilings of the Euclidean plane. Because the internal angle of the equilateral triangle is 60 degrees, six triangles at a point occupy a full 360 degrees. The triangular tiling has Schläfli symbol of {3,6}.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48915292",
"title": "Circumgon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Every triangle is a circumgonal region because it circumscribes the circle known as the incircle of the triangle. Every square is a circumgonal region. In fact, every regular polygon is a circumgonal region, as is more generally every tangential polygon. But not every polygon is a circumgonal region: for example, a rectangle is not. A circumgonal region need not even be a convex polygon: for example, it could consist of three triangular wedges meeting only at the circle's center.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
13367r | Question from my boy: Are some mammalian tails vestigial, and why haven't they disappeared? | [
{
"answer": "Human tails are vestigial because there's no selective pressure against them. In order for natural selection to act to discard a body part (e.g. a tail or appendix), there has to be some evolutionary *reason* to do so. If having a vestigial tail significantly decreased an individual's ability to mate or survive, there would be selection against that trait. Since there is not selection for or against the tail bone or the appendix, they simply remain as mostly useless appendages in our bodies.\n\nAs for why they disappeared in humans, at some point there arose selection against a tail. Human ancestors moved out of the trees and thus no longer needed a tail for gripping tree branches, so the selective pressure *for* the tail disappeared and some kind of selective pressure *against* the tail arose. So it became very short. But there was never any reason to completely get rid of it. And in fact, the vestigial does actually serve to protect some of the pelvic organs, so it does have slight selective pressure in its favor.\n\nHope this helps!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12082283",
"title": "Human vestigiality",
"section": "Section::::Anatomical.:Coccyx.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 692,
"text": "The coccyx, or tailbone, is the remnant of a lost tail. All mammals have a tail at some point in their development; in humans, it is present for a period of 4 weeks, during stages 14 to 22 of human embryogenesis. This tail is most prominent in human embryos 31–35 days old. The tailbone, located at the end of the spine, has lost its original function in assisting balance and mobility, though it still serves some secondary functions, such as being an attachment point for muscles, which explains why it has not degraded further. The coccyx serves as an attachment site for tendons, ligaments, and muscles. It also functions as an insertion point of some of the muscles of the pelvic floor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4583327",
"title": "Antarctopelta",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1416,
"text": "Vertebrae from other sections of the tail were found. Although the tip of the tail did not fossilize, some of the smaller vertebrae recovered would have been situated near the end of the tail in life, and these were associated with ossified tendons on the upper and lower sides. In ankylosaurids, these tendons help to stiffen the end of the tail in support of a large, bony tail club. If such a club existed in \"Antarctopelta\", it has yet to be discovered. Six different types of osteoderms were found along with the skeletal remains of \"Antarctopelta\", but very few were articulated with the skeleton, so their placement on the body is largely speculative. They included the base of what would have been a large spike. Flat oblong plates resembled the ones that guarded the neck of the nodosaurid \"Edmontonia rugosidens\". Large circular plates were found associated with smaller, polygonal nodules, perhaps forming a shield over the hips as seen in \"Sauropelta\". Another type of osteoderm was oval-shaped with a keel running down the middle. A few examples of this fifth type were found ossified to the ribs, suggesting that they ran in rows along the flanks of the animal, a very typical pattern among ankylosaurs. The final group consisted mainly of small bony nodules which are often called \"ossicles\", and were probably scattered throughout the body. Several ribs were also found with these ossicles attached.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3548780",
"title": "Montanoceratops",
"section": "Section::::Paleobiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Another unusual feature was the presence of tall spines on the bones of the tail. Although these would not have been visible during life, they would have made the tail unusually deep in cross-section. Since the tail was also highly flexible, it is possible that it was used in intra-species signalling, and that the deep shape made it more visible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "632434",
"title": "Rat king",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "A rat king discovered in 1963 by a farmer named P. van Nijnatten at Rucphen, Netherlands, as published by cryptozoologist M. Schneider, consists of seven rats. X-ray images show formations of callus at the fractures of their tails, which suggests that the animals survived for an extended period of time with their tails tangled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26471",
"title": "Rat",
"section": "Section::::Rat tails.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1222,
"text": "The characteristic long tail of most rodents is a feature that has been extensively studied in various rat species models, which suggest three primary functions of this structure: thermoregulation, minor proprioception, and a nocifensive-mediated degloving response. Rodent tails—particularly in rat models—have been implicated with a thermoregulation function that follows from its anatomical construction. This particular tail morphology is evident across the family Muridae, in contrast to the bushier tails of Sciuridae, the squirrel family. The tail is hairless and thin skinned but highly vascularized, thus allowing for efficient countercurrent heat exchange with the environment. The high muscular and connective tissue densities of the tail, along with ample muscle attachment sites along its plentiful caudal vertebrae, facilitate specific proprioceptive senses to help orient the rodent in a three-dimensional environment. Lastly, murids have evolved a unique defense mechanism termed \"degloving\" that allows for escape from predation through the loss of the outermost integumentary layer on the tail. However, this mechanism is associated with multiple pathologies that have been the subject of investigation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "483375",
"title": "Prehensile tail",
"section": "Section::::Anatomy and physiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 333,
"text": "Tails are mostly a feature of vertebrates; however, some invertebrates such as scorpions also have appendages that can be considered tails. However, only vertebrates are known to have developed prehensile tails. Many mammals with prehensile tails will have a bare patch to aid gripping. This bare patch is known as a \"friction pad.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "515343",
"title": "Dimetrodon",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Tail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "The tail of \"Dimetrodon\" makes up a large portion of its total body length and includes around 50 caudal vertebrae. Tails were missing or incomplete in the first described skeletons of \"Dimetrodon\"; the only caudal vertebrae known were the eleven closest to the hip. Since these first few caudal vertebrae narrow rapidly as they progress farther from the hip, many paleontologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries thought that \"Dimetrodon\" had a very short tail. It was not until 1927 that a largely complete tail of \"Dimetrodon\" was described.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5s87pn | why does inhaling steam seem to clear up clogged sinuses? | [
{
"answer": "Think of your mucous as a kind of hydrophilic (strongly attracted to water) slime. If you're sick, suffering from allergies, exposed to irritants, etc... then it can be valuable to move that mucous along faster than it would normally. By inhaling water vapor, you increase the water content of the mucous, and it becomes looser, less sticky and more subject to being cleared. \n\nAnother reality of the situation is that often what we perceive to be clogged sinuses due to mucous are actually just inflamed. Steam and warmth can be soothing, especially since dryness or the presence of an irritant is often a cause of that initial inflammation. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Inhaling steam? That sounds incredibly painful.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21499348",
"title": "Alternative treatments used for the common cold",
"section": "Section::::Steam inhalation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Many people believe that steam inhalation reduces cold symptoms. There is no evidence suggesting that steam inhalation is effective for treating the common cold. There have been reports of children being badly burned by accidentally spilling the water used for steam inhalation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28598",
"title": "Sinusitis",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 507,
"text": "Breathing low-temperature steam such as from a hot shower or gargling can relieve symptoms. There is tentative evidence for nasal irrigation in acute sinusitis, for example during upper respiratory infections. Decongestant nasal sprays containing oxymetazoline may provide relief, but these medications should not be used for more than the recommended period. Longer use may cause rebound sinusitis. It is unclear if nasal irrigation, antihistamines, or decongestants work in children with acute sinusitis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1156067",
"title": "Smelling salts",
"section": "Section::::Physiological action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "Smelling salts release ammonia (NH) gas, which triggers an inhalation reflex (that is, causes the muscles that control breathing to work faster) by irritating the mucous membranes of the nose and lungs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47049462",
"title": "Cartridge (respirator)",
"section": "Section::::Choice and timely replacement of cartridges.:Old methods.:The use of subjective reactions of an employee’s sensory system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "The use of cartridges in the contaminated atmosphere leads to saturation of the sorbent (or the dryer — when using catalysts). The concentration of harmful gases in the purified air gradually increases. The ingress of harmful gases in the inhaled air can lead to the reaction of the employee’s sensory system: odor, taste, irritation of the respiratory system, dizziness, headaches, and other health impairments (up to loss of consciousness).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36597555",
"title": "Acute inhalation injury",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 604,
"text": "Acute inhalation injury may result from frequent and widespread use of household cleaning agents and industrial gases (including chlorine and ammonia). The airways and lungs receive continuous first-pass exposure to non-toxic and irritant or toxic gases via inhalation. Irritant gases are those that, on inhalation, dissolve in the water of the respiratory tract mucosa and provoke an inflammatory response, usually from the release of acidic or alkaline radicals. Smoke, chlorine, phosgene, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, and ammonia are common irritants.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2774201",
"title": "Boiler explosion",
"section": "Section::::Principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "If steam is released more quickly, the more vigorous boiling action that results can throw a fine spray of droplets up as \"wet steam\" which can cause damage to piping, engines, turbines and other equipment downstream.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8350109",
"title": "Vicks VapoRub",
"section": "Section::::Safe use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "VapoRub can be inhaled with hot steam. Since VapoRub ointment is an oil-based medication, it should not be used under or inside the nose or inside the mouth, and it should not be swallowed. Any oil-based product can get into the lungs if used improperly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
4f30qk | maslows hierarchy of needs. | [
{
"answer": "Basically it talks about what a person can focus time and energy on as one tries to be as complete and satisfied a human as possible.\n\nThe idea is that for example it is hard for someone to worry too much about whether they have an artistic outlet if they are worried about how they are going to find food for the night. Or if their spouse is going to beat them tomorrow. Or if they are about to get evicted.\n\nOnce you have basic needs (food and shelter) then you can worry about your saftey. Once you are safe and fed, yiu can worry about being loved. Once you feel safe, fed, loved, you can worry about building a meaningful social network. Once you have all that met, you can worry about whether your job is providing a means of self actualization.\n\nIt isn't a rigid or linear framework. A kid who isn't safe at home can have even greater need for social network and creative outlet, especially the more we learn about trauma's actual physical impact on the brain and development. Feeling greater esteme can give a woman the courage to risk basic need loss in order to flee a financially secure but unsafe relationship. \n\nBut it provides a general outline of prioritization, and a way of understanding why a person may respond or not respond to a situation compared to someone else who has a different circumstance and life experience.\n\nBasic safety social emotional actualization\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "163131",
"title": "Maslow's hierarchy of needs",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1356,
"text": "Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper \"A Theory of Human Motivation\" in \"Psychological Review\". Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity. His theories parallel many other theories of human developmental psychology, some of which focus on describing the stages of growth in humans. He then decided to create a classification system which reflected the universal needs of society as its base and then proceeding to more acquired emotions. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is used to study how humans intrinsically partake in behavioral motivation. Maslow used the terms \"physiological\", \"safety\", \"belonging and love\", \"social needs\" or \"esteem\", and \"self-actualization\" to describe the pattern through which human motivations generally move. This means that in order for motivation to occur at the next level, each level must be satisfied within the individual themselves. Furthermore, this theory is a key foundation in understanding how drive and motivation are correlated when discussing human behavior. Each of these individual levels contains a certain amount of internal sensation that must be met in order for an individual to complete their hierarchy. The goal in Maslow's theory is to attain the fifth level or stage: self-actualization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "163131",
"title": "Maslow's hierarchy of needs",
"section": "Section::::Hierarchy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid with the largest, most fundamental needs at the bottom and the need for self-actualization and transcendence at the top. In other words, the crux of the theory is that individuals’ most basic needs must be met before they become motivated to achieve higher level needs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11988019",
"title": "Managerial psychology",
"section": "Section::::Tools used by managerial psychologists.:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "Abraham Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs model in 1940-50s USA, and the Hierarchy of Needs theory remains valid today for understanding human motivation, management training, and personal development. Maslow's ideas surrounding the Hierarchy of Needs concern the responsibility of employers to provide a workplace environment that encourages and enables employees to fulfill their own unique potential (self-actualization).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1972579",
"title": "Theory Z",
"section": "Section::::Pre-Theory Z.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory helps the manager to understand what motivates an employee. By understanding what needs must be met in order for an employee to achieve the highest-level of motivation, managers are then able to get the most out of production. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "301882",
"title": "Abraham Maslow",
"section": "Section::::Humanistic theories of self-actualization.:Hierarchy of needs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "Maslow described human needs as ordered in a prepotent hierarchy—a pressing need would need to be mostly satisfied before someone would give their attention to the next highest need. None of his published works included a visual representation of the hierarchy. The pyramidal diagram illustrating the Maslow needs hierarchy may have been created by a psychology textbook publisher as an illustrative device. This now iconic pyramid frequently depicts the spectrum of human needs, both physical and psychological, as accompaniment to articles describing Maslow's needs theory and may give the impression that the Hierarchy of Needs is a fixed and rigid sequence of progression. Yet, starting with the first publication of his theory in 1943, Maslow described human needs as being relatively fluid—with many needs being present in a person simultaneously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "163131",
"title": "Maslow's hierarchy of needs",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Ranking.:Changes to the hierarchy by circumstance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "The higher-order (self-esteem and self-actualization) and lower-order (physiological, safety, and love) needs classification of Maslow's hierarchy of needs is not universal and may vary across cultures due to individual differences and availability of resources in the region or geopolitical entity/country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "169409",
"title": "Happiness",
"section": "Section::::Psychology.:Theories.:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 1026,
"text": "Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a pyramid depicting the levels of human needs, psychological, and physical. When a human being ascends the steps of the pyramid, he reaches self-actualization. Beyond the routine of needs fulfillment, Maslow envisioned moments of extraordinary experience, known as peak experiences, profound moments of love, understanding, happiness, or rapture, during which a person feels more whole, alive, self-sufficient, and yet a part of the world. This is similar to the flow concept of Mihály Csíkszentmihályi. Amitai Etzioni points out that Maslow's definition of human needs, even on the highest level, that of self-actualization, is self-centered (i.e. his view of satisfaction or what makes a person happy, does not include service to others or the common good—unless it enriches the self). As implied by its name, self-actualization is highly individualistic and reflects Maslow's premise that the self is “sovereign and inviolable” and entitled to “his or her own tastes, opinions, values, etc.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
]
| null |
5owall | Why did China recieve Veto-power at the creation of the SC of the UN? | [
{
"answer": "They were 'granted' this at the Conference of Cairo in 1943 by FDR and Churchill. The Americans needed the Chinese to continue the fight against the Japanese on the mainland, since most of the Japanese armed forces were occupied fighting the Chinese United Front (Both the Kwomingtang and the Communists). At Cairo FDR also was already preparing his 'New Order' by trying to get all allied powers to sign off on the United Nations Idea, and by giving China the seat they also participated in the United Nations.\n\nIt's also important to note that FDR and Churchill negotiated with Chiang Kai Shek, and as such the veto power in the Security Council went to the Kwomingtang, even after they were forced in exile to Taiwan. Only after the thaw in the '70s did the Pernament seat at the Security council and veto-right go to the Peoples Republic of China, instead of the Republic of China (Taiwan). \n\nSource:\nKERREMANS, B. and LAENEN R., International Politics since 1945, Leuven, 1999.\n\nEdit: Spelling Errors",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "FDR's post-war vision is very different than the what the policy Truman implemented after FDR's death. FDR imagined the UN would be policed by the worlds 4 major powers: the US, USSR, England, and China. Together, these 'Four Policemen' would actively prevent conflicts around the world to prevent a future World War. They would lead the UN and give it real power to stop conflict- a direct contrast to the failed League of Nations. FDR saw no interest in SE Asia (Indochina specifically) and thought it belonged in China's realm of influence, and did not support France's effort to regain it's lost colony.\n\nAs the other post mentioned, China was not communist at this point in history. However, FDR's post-war vision did not include an idealogical battle against Communism. Lasting peace was his objective, not a Cold War with USSR, which led to comprise (critics would describe it as capitulation) with Russia over the issue of Poland soviergnty and USSR's declaration of war on Japan. So, the fact the China might fall into the hands of communism was not a deal breaker for FDR. \n\nTo answer your final question about China's weakness: China had existed as the major power in the region for thousands of years. However, due to European and Japanese imperialism in the last 200 years, China's position had fallen immensely. But it's size, population, and potential for economic growth and military growth made it a realistic choice to become the future power in the region. \n\nSource: His Final Battle: The Last Months of Franklin Roosevelt\nBook by Joseph Lelyveld\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This eventually happened in october 1971 when the US and decrease that of the advisors who were in his book Nehru The Invention of India.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1900272",
"title": "United Nations Security Council veto power",
"section": "Section::::Analysis by country.:China (ROC/PRC).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 643,
"text": "In 1971, the Republic of China was expelled from the United Nations, and the Chinese seat was transferred to the People's Republic of China. China first used the veto on 25 August 1972 to block Bangladesh's admission to the United Nations. From 1971 to 2011, China used its veto sparingly, preferring to abstain rather than veto resolutions not directly related to Chinese interests. China turned abstention into an \"art form,\" abstaining on 30% of Security Council Resolutions between 1971 and 1976. Since the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War in 2011, China has joined Russia in many double-vetoes. China has not cast a lone veto since 1999.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46299700",
"title": "United Nations General Assembly Resolution 498",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "The General Assembly vote followed unsuccessful attempts by the U.S. delegation to the United Nations to have the Security Council take action against the Chinese. Exercising his nation's veto power, the Soviet representative on the Security Council consistently blocked the U.S. effort. Turning to the General Assembly, the U.S. delegation called for the United Nations to condemn communist China as an aggressor in Korea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31956",
"title": "United Nations Security Council",
"section": "Section::::Members.:Permanent members.:Veto power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 915,
"text": "In the negotiations building up to the creation of the UN, the veto power was resented by many small countries, and in fact was forced on them by the veto nations – US, UK, China, France and the Soviet Union – through a threat that without the veto there will be no UN. Here is a description by Francis O. Wilcox, an adviser to US delegation to the 1945 conference: \"At San Francisco, the issue was made crystal clear by the leaders of the Big Five: it was either the Charter with the veto or no Charter at all. Senator Connally [from the US delegation] dramatically tore up a copy of the Charter during one of his speeches and reminded the small states that they would be guilty of that same act if they opposed the unanimity principle. 'You may, if you wish,' he said, 'go home from this Conference and say that you have defeated the veto. But what will be your answer when you are asked: \"Where is the Charter\"?\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29416684",
"title": "China–Iran relations",
"section": "Section::::Political.:UN sanctions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "At first Iran did not originally support China's bid for United Nations membership but did not veto. It wasn't until 1969 that Iran displayed open support for China's membership. Now, Iran relies on China's membership and especially Chinese veto power on the Security Council to protect it from US-led sanctions and attacks. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3325863",
"title": "Anna Chennault",
"section": "Section::::Later life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "In October 1971, when the United Nations general assembly voted to expel the Republic of China and to give China's seat to the People's Republic of China, Chennault as one of the leaders of the China Lobby was involved in an unsuccessful effort to stop the expulsion. In a speech at the time, Chennault said \"let's hope the United Nations doesn't end up like the League of Nations...Its effectiveness is in grave doubt...Fortunately, the big events cannot be settled in the UN anyway\". Chennault told the press about the UN giving China's seat to the People's Republic: \"I consider this an anti-American vote and I question if the American people will continue to give...financial support to this world organization\". In the 1972 election, Chennault raised $90, 000 (about $375, 000 dollars in today's money) for the Nixon reelection campaign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "711678",
"title": "Soviet Union and the United Nations",
"section": "Section::::Relationship with China.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 789,
"text": "Debate over China's representation with the United nations began in 1949. The Communist Party of China took over the country's mainland, while the Nationalists moved to the island of Taiwan. The UN seat of China was held by the Nationalist government of the Republic of China, but conflict arose on which government should hold the China seat. The Soviet Union supported the communist party, leading to conflict with the West. The Security Council sided with the United States and saw the Communist government of People's Republic of China (PRC) as illegitimate, and prevented it from entering the UN until 1971. Before the China seat was transferred to the Communist government of PRC in 1971, the Soviet Union was one of sixteen states that viewed it as being the legitimate government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23244",
"title": "Foreign relations of China",
"section": "Section::::International organizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 282,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 282,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "China holds a permanent seat, which affords it veto power, on the United Nations Security Council (UNSC). Prior to 1971, the Republic of China on Taiwan held China's UN seat, but, as of that date, the People's Republic of China successfully lobbied for Taiwan's removal from the UN and took control of the seat, supported by Soviet Union as well as communist states, United Kingdom, France, and other Western European states, and the Third World countries like India.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1idp8f | How close could i get to building a modern day jet engine with the materials and techniques used at the time of the Wright brothers' first flight? | [
{
"answer": "It depends on which modern day jet engine you're talking about. \n\nA real actual [turbofan](_URL_4_) or [turbojet](_URL_2_) like on a jet airliner, no way. The tolerances for heat and stress just weren't available in 1903. [Turbine Blades are often the limiting part of the engine](_URL_1_) and are generally made form exotic materials and are processed in ways to make them more durable. Early Engine designs suffered from [issues in the combustion section of the engine](_URL_1_#Materials) which didn't get properly worked out until the 1940's\n\nNow a [pulsejet](_URL_0_), that should have been obtainable but not really all that usefull for air travel.\n\n*edit: Missed, a comma.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "48845480",
"title": "February 1903",
"section": "Section::::February 12, 1903 (Thursday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "BULLET::::- The aircraft engine that will power the Wright brothers' first airplane later in 1903 is run for the first time in Dayton, Ohio, United States. It is the first successful attempt to build a heavier-than-air aircraft engine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1396249",
"title": "Airplane",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early powered flights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "The Wright brothers flights in 1903 are recognized by the \"Fédération Aéronautique Internationale\" (FAI), the standard setting and record-keeping body for aeronautics, as \"the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight\". By 1905, the Wright Flyer III was capable of fully controllable, stable flight for substantial periods. The Wright brothers credited Otto Lilienthal as a major inspiration for their decision to pursue manned flight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2294852",
"title": "William F. Durand",
"section": "Section::::Work.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "In March 1941 Chairman of the NACA Vannevar Bush asked the then 82-year-old Durand to head a committee to study and develop jet propulsion for aircraft. The committee was composed of members from General Electric, Westinghouse, and Allis-Chalmers. The committee agreed early that the three companies would work separately developing jet engines to promote diversity in design.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46770",
"title": "Fixed-wing aircraft",
"section": "Section::::History.:Powered flight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The Wright brothers' flights in 1903 with their \"Flyer I\" are recognized by the \"Fédération Aéronautique Internationale\" (FAI), the standard setting and record-keeping body for aeronautics, as \"the first sustained and controlled heavier-than-air powered flight\". By 1905, the Wright Flyer III was capable of fully controllable, stable flight for substantial periods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9251",
"title": "Engineering",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern era.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, there was extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were used in World War I. Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31544263",
"title": "Adrian Lombard",
"section": "Section::::Rolls-Royce.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "Under his guidance, the company worked on new technology for building jet engines solely from reinforced plastics. This technology was later used in the production of the RB211 engine; its fan blades were originally made from plastic reinforced with carbon fibre. However, during a test in which a chicken was thrown into the engine at high speed, to simulate birds flying into the engine during flight, the composite blades shattered and were subsequently replaced with titanium ones in the final design.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39555220",
"title": "Blohm & Voss P 208",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The P208.01 was developed in 1944, when in Germany there were already jet aircraft in production. The decision to fit a conventional engine to the aircraft was made because the existing jet engines had not yet reached the desired performance. Thus the project went ahead in such a way that the design could be re-fitted with a jet engine when the technical difficulties were solved, eventually leading to the Blohm & Voss P 212 jet aircraft project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1yt2oq | Can someone explain heteroscedasticity in simple terms? | [
{
"answer": "I'll try to do it in somewhat visual terms for you rather than in terms of the error statistic or matrix math -- let's look at the sample plot for the topic on Wikipedia (_URL_1_). In the sample, you can clearly see a couple of things. \n\nFirstly, there is apparently a clear line of best fit for the data that runs from the lower left to the upper right: it's obvious what your final regression model's linear equation will look like if you graph it as a line. It'll go right through the middle of those dots and will be very good about having equal numbers of dots above and below. \n\nSecondly, in any given region around the regression line, the average distance between the line and the dots above is comparable in scale to the distance between the line and the dots below. \n\nThink about the implications of this visually first. Your regression line is still an *unbiased* estimate of the data no matter where you are on the line. A real data point is as likely to be above the line as below, and if you go looking for a real data point above the line, on average you will not have to stray any farther than if you go looking for one below the line. \n\nThirdly, however, the dots toward the lower left side will crowd together close to your line. Toward the upper right, the average distance between the line and a data point, regardless of whether it is above or below the line, grows much larger. \n\nThe assumption of homoscedasticity is that this does *not* happen. Data points are not supposed to \"fan out\" as you move down the line, regardless of whether they keep the line in the center. Your error (or residual) term, ε , is supposed to be an equally useful guide to how good your line is, regardless of where you are on the line. \n\nThis is important for Type I errors because statistical inference has two parts, not just one: in a simple OLS case, it is a combination of *both* (a) how sloped your line is when you fit it to your data *and* (b) an estimate of how likely it is that the line is only sloped by chance, and that if you got a whole new data set on the same topic, the line would be flat or slope in the other direction. \n\nAnd the key to the second part is getting a good and consistent measure of how far the data points are spaced from the line. If they hew closely to the line, then you can have higher confidence that the trend is \"real\"; if they are scattered much further from the line, then your confidence will diminish. Intuitively, you can see in that picture that the line seems to be a very good description of the data toward the lower left, and it is not such a good description of the data toward the upper right. \n\nNow you have to consider what you are doing when you run a hypothesis test and say that you have 95+ percent confidence that there is a real, positive trend to this data (in other words, you are rejecting the null hypothesis, concluding that if you got all new data about this topic over and over again, you would keep seeing positive slopes in your regression lines). How do you determine the confidence interval? Well, you hypothesize that the \"real\" trend is zero, and that if you did the experiment over and over, recording the slope of the line you got, the data for all the slopes would cluster around zero: specifically, they would form a normal distribution around zero. If the slope you got in the experiment you really did is far away enough from zero (about two standard deviations), then it is really unlikely that you would have gotten it in a world where the reality is zero, so you conclude that the effect is real. \n\nThe key piece of the puzzle is that in every experiment, you have to redefine what a standard deviation actually means in numerical terms. With heteroscedastic data, you have compromised your ability to state how responsible the slope of your line is for keeping the points close to it (and remember also at the outset that you are using the squares of distances rather than the absolute value of distances when you are doing OLS regression). You are coming up with an estimate of how big the error term is going to tend to be every time you re-run the experiment, and in a Type I error case, you are understating it. This means that, while your estimate is still unbiased, it looks like it is straying very far from a world in which the \"truth\" is zero. In reality, though, the truth could be zero *and still* allow you to run a bunch of sloped lines that look like they're doing a good job at estimation. \n\nLook back at the sample plot to see this visually. Take a ruler or a piece of string and overlay it on the line of best fit. Now rotate it around back and forth, with the center of rotation being in the middle of the dense cluster of dots toward the lower left. You now can see how, even when you move the slope quite far off of what you think its \"true\" trend should be, the \"bad\" lines you are making are *still* able to capture a lot of brownie points, as it were, for being very close to the dots down there on the lower left. And because, further on the right, you are still in the thick of the \"fan\", you aren't being punished all that much for \"missing\" the middle of that section. \n\nNow consider what happens if you try that with homoscedastic data, like with the Wikipedia sample plot for linear regression in general (_URL_0_). Now, if you pick a point on the lower left (or anywhere on the line, really) and rotate the line around it (to give it an ''incorrect'' slope), you can still stay close to the dots near your axis of rotation. But your error term immediately starts to punish you severely elsewhere on the line, because when you look at the upper right, you are moving away from all of the data points and moving toward almost none of them. When you were in the fan, the punishment was not nearly so severe.\n\nTherefore, from a visual perspective, heteroscedastic data can cause you to make a Type I error because it may be capable of accommodating a relatively wide range of regression line slopes that each reports a relatively small average error. This can lead you to set tight definition for how ''bad'' a line slope has to be in order to be an outlier, since a line that has even a modest amount of error will look like a bad line. This is because the heteroscedastic data is making it artificially easy to be a ''good'' line. Since the null hypothesis is that zero slope is correct, then, if the null is true, you must have been *terribly, badly unlucky* to end up with a set of points that generates even your modestly-sloped line. You may have decided to say that ''if my line looks like one of the bottom-5-percent most unlucky lines in the world, I'm going to conclude that it's not me that's unlucky, it's that 'zero is the truth' is wrong.\" And then you'll pull that trigger, when the truth is that zero is the best answer but that this data is going to throw up more unlucky-looking line slopes than you expected.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "612440",
"title": "Heteroscedasticity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "The existence of heteroscedasticity is a major concern in the application of regression analysis, including the analysis of variance, as it can invalidate statistical tests of significance that assume that the modelling errors are uncorrelated and uniform—hence that their variances do not vary with the effects being modeled. For instance, while the ordinary least squares estimator is still unbiased in the presence of heteroscedasticity, it is inefficient because the true variance and covariance are underestimated. Similarly, in testing for differences between sub-populations using a location test, some standard tests assume that variances within groups are equal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "612440",
"title": "Heteroscedasticity",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "For example, the error term could vary or increase with each observation, something that is often the case with cross-sectional or time series measurements. Heteroscedasticity is often studied as part of econometrics, which frequently deals with data exhibiting it. While the influential 1980 paper by Halbert White used the term \"heteroskedasticity\" rather than \"heteroscedasticity\", the latter spelling has been employed more frequently in later works.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37680417",
"title": "Internalized sexism",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Internalized heterosexism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1771,
"text": "Heterosexism, a term developed within the LGB rights movement and modeled on political concepts, refers to an ideological system that operates on individual, institutional, and cultural levels to stigmatize, deny, and denigrate any nonheterosexual way of being.The general definition of internalized heterosexism is defined as the internalization of assumptions, negative attitudes and stigma regarding homosexuality by individuals whom do not identify within the heteronormative spectrum and/or are categorized as sexual minorities to varying degrees. Internalized heterosexism is a manifestation of internalized sexism that primarily affects sexual minority populations (composed of people who identify lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, questioning, or other), however, it can also affect heterosexual populations by dictating how they interact with and relate to non-heterosexual peoples. This phenomenon manifests when sexual minorities begin to adopt rigid, restrictive heteronormative values into their worldviews. Examples of these heteronormative values are fundamentalist religious doctrines that condemn non-heterosexual orientations and activities, concepts of masculinity and manhood that emphasize restricted emotionality (scholastically referred to as RE), or restrictive affectionate behavior between men (scholastically referred to as RABBM). The internalization of heteronormativity often create Gender Role Conflicts (GRCs) for people whose actions fall outside the parameters of acceptable cultural norms that promote unrealistic and constricting ideas about what it means to be a man or a woman in modern society. One of the most common consequences of internalized heterosexism is intense depression fueled by self-loathing and sexual repression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2399697",
"title": "Heterodox economics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Heterodoxy is a term that may be used in contrast with orthodoxy in schools of economic thought or methodologies, that may be beyond neoclassical economics. Heterodoxy is an umbrella term that can cover various schools of thought or theories. These might for example include institutional, evolutionary, Georgist, Austrian, feminist, social, post-Keynesian (not to be confused with New Keynesian), ecological, Marxian, socialist and anarchist economics, among others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5097395",
"title": "Homophobia",
"section": "Section::::Criticism of meaning and purpose.:Distinctions and proposed alternatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Heterosexism\" refers to a system of negative attitudes, bias, and discrimination in favour of opposite-sex sexual orientation and relationships. It can include the presumption that everyone is heterosexual or that opposite-sex attractions and relationships are the only norm and therefore superior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "32399322",
"title": "Heterogeneity in economics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 245,
"text": "In economic theory and econometrics, the term heterogeneity refers to differences across the units being studied. For example, a macroeconomic model in which consumers are assumed to differ from one another is said to have heterogeneous agents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "612440",
"title": "Heteroscedasticity",
"section": "Section::::Multivariate case.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "The study of heteroscedasticity has been generalized to the multivariate case, which deals with the covariances of vector observations instead of the variance of scalar observations. One version of this is to use covariance matrices as the multivariate measure of dispersion. Several authors have considered tests in this context, for both regression and grouped-data situations. Bartlett's test for heteroscedasticity between grouped data, used most commonly in the univariate case, has also been extended for the multivariate case, but a tractable solution only exists for 2 groups. Approximations exist for more than two groups, and they are both called Box's M test.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
]
| null |
5ucwge | What number would our number system have to be based on for PI to be equal to 3.2? | [
{
"answer": "If b is the base, then you'd need pi=3+2/b. Solve for b to get b=2/(pi-3). This is closest to 14, and in base 14 pi is 3.1D ish, where D is 13, so it's the base 14 equivalent of 3.19",
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},
{
"answer": "It will never be *equal* to 3.2.\n\n3.2 is a decimal representation of a number, and pi is not that number.\n\nIf you believe in fractional/irrational bases, then in base 2/(pi-3) it would be *written* as \"3.2\", but it would still be an irrational number and would have the same intrinsic *value* it has always had.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1032215",
"title": "1089 (number)",
"section": "Section::::In magic.:Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "The spectator's 3-digit number can be written as 100 × A + 10 × B + 1 × C, and its reversal as 100 × C + 10 × B + 1 × A, where 1 ≤ A ≤ 9, 0 ≤ B ≤ 9 and 1 ≤ C ≤ 9. (For convenience, we assume A C; if A C, we first swap A and C.) Their difference is 99 × (A − C). Note that if A − C is 0 or 1, the difference is 0 or 99, respectively, and we do not get a 3-digit number for the next step.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "12735825",
"title": "Multiplicative digital root",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "It has been conjectured that there are only a finite number of numbers with only digits in the 2-9 interval whose multiplicative digital root is not 0; the largest of these is 77,333,222,222,222,222,222,222,222,222,222,222,222,222,222 (44 digits.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "461277",
"title": "PiHex",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "While the PiHex project calculated the least significant digits of pi ever attempted in any base, the second place is held by Peter Trueb who computed some 22+ trillion digits in 2016 and third place by \"houkouonchi\" who derived the 13.3 trillionth digit in base 10.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5495129",
"title": "290 (number)",
"section": "Section::::Integers from 291 to 299.:292.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 290,
"text": "292 = 2·73, noncototient, untouchable number. The continued fraction representation of pi is [3; 7, 15, 1, 292, 1, 1, 1, 2...]; the convergent obtained by truncating before the surprisingly large term 292 yields the excellent rational approximation 355/113 to pi, repdigit in base 8 (444).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29652",
"title": "Senary",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "That is, for every prime number \"p\" greater than 3, one has the modular arithmetic relations that either \"p\" ≡ 1 or 5 (mod 6) (that is, 6 divides either \"p\" − 1 or \"p\" − 5); the final digit is a 1 or a 5. This is proved by contradiction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "234444",
"title": "Automorphic number",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 319,
"text": "The sum of the two numbers is 10 + 1. The smaller of these two numbers may be less than 10; for example with \"k\" = 4 the two numbers are 9376 and 625. In this case there is only one \"k\" digit automorphic number; the smaller number could only form a \"k\"-digit automorphic number if a leading 0 were added to its digits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "991210",
"title": "Divisibility rule",
"section": "Section::::Step-by-step examples.:Divisibility by 5.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "If the last digit in the number is 0, then the result will be the remaining digits multiplied by 2. For example, the number 40 ends in a zero (0), so take the remaining digits (4) and multiply that by two (4 × 2 = 8). The result is the same as the result of 40 divided by 5(40/5 = 8).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
]
| null |
1lhlgn | How did the Jewish working rise to prominence so quickly in the USA after WWII? | [
{
"answer": "History minor focusing on Jewish History (Post diaspora, pre WWII) here.\n\nThis is on the periphery of my studies, but here it is:\n\nFirst some nomenclature: There were, at the time of WWII (and still are) several different types of \"Jews.\" The Jews of Poland and Lithuania were most likely Hasidic. If you have no experience with Hasidic jews, think of them as similar (not really, but for the purposes of analogy...) to charismatic christian churches. \n\nThe other big group were the so-called Ashkenazi Jews, or \"German Jews.\" Keep in mind at this time, the concept of \"nationality\" was an evolving one, and most people, pre WWI thought of themselves less-so as members of a particular nation, than as citizens of a country, so them being \"German\" had less to do with Germany and more to do with the language they spoke, and having a generalized western culture similar to that of christians of Western Europe; this lies in contrast to the distinctly eastern european culture that was prominent in Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine and the other Eastern European/Ural/Baltic states. When I say \"German Jew,\" think Western European.\n\nWith that out of the way, lets get some historical context. Laws limiting Jews to particular professions and trades were quite common, and had been around for centuries. So too had the practice of the State, at the behest of nobles or merchants, seizing resources from the Jews, burning their homes, and running them out of the city, only to realize in a few years that the reason they had so much stuff is that they were good at what they did and their services were in demand. So, eventually they would be ushered back in, even sometimes being offered incentives (protection, tax breaks, etc) for returning.\n\nThe end result of this is that Jews couldn't really become farmers, since farmers can't take their land and crops with them when they flee town. So what jobs were left? How does a Jewish man feed his family in 1900's Europe?\n\nMercantile and Professional jobs. You either become a trader/retailer, or a doctor/lawyer/etc. Reading was not a common skill even a few decades ago. In the 1900's it was not at all common for the general public to be well read. Ashkenazi Jews, on the other hand, studied their religious texts obsessively. They would be able to read and write in two languages by 10, with formal training beginning around 5 years of age. As a result, their cultural practices lent themselves to scholarly pursuits.\n\n*****SIDE NOTE*** I want to be clear here. This is not a racist \"jews make good lawyers Hyuck!\" argument. They started their children reading in Hebrew at a young age, and taught them the local language as well. This familiarity at a young age with reading and writing primes a young child's brain for such pursuits, and it will (and does) when anyone, not just the Jews does it. ***END SIDE NOTE*****\n\nSo as a scholar or a merchant with a portable trade, what do you do when anti-semitism begins to rise? You do the same thing the Jews had done for centuries, and you leave your current home for a nearby land where public sentiment lies more in your favor. Many Jews left Europe for the United States. (though nowhere near the numbers we saw in four decades) Keep in mind this is even pre-wwI. \n\nThe next thing you have to understand about European Jewry is that there was always a sense of community toward other Jews (not counting the Hasidim; their relationship with the Ashkenazi is more... complicated.) to the point that supporting a traveling scholar was considered a *mitzvah* or religiously obligated good deed. The Jewish community would take up alms for those among them that could not, for whatever reason, support themselves. \n\nSo lets take a quick inventory of what our context has created:\n\nWe have a community of people with a long history of relocating, engaged in trades that are lucrative wherever you go, who believe strongly in the importance of charity.\n\nNow, getting to your actual question:\n\nAfter WWII, when the horrors of the holocaust had been revealed, the surviving Europeans Jews made a choice. Many (more than you might think) stayed in Europe. Some left for Israel after it was founded a few years later, and some headed to the United States. Those Jews not directly affected by the holocaust engaged *heavily* in charities benefitting its victims. Additionally, Many were business owners who could easily give a job to a jewish immigrant just off the boat from Europe. \n\n\nSources: \n\nDubnow's History of the Jews in Russia and Poland. Link:_URL_2_\n\nBartal's \"The Jews of Eastern Europe: 1772-1881\" Link: _URL_1_\n\nStow's \"Alienated Minority: The Jews of Medieval Latin Europe\" Link: _URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40438174",
"title": "Jewish left",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary Jewish left.:1960s–1990s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "As the Jewish working class died out in the years after the Second World War, its institutions and political movements did too. The Arbeter Ring in England, for example, came to an end in the 1950s and Jewish trade unionism in the US ceased to be a major force at that time. There are, however, still some remnants of the Jewish working class organizations left today, including the Workmen's Circle, Jewish Labor Committee, and \"The Forward\" (newspaper) in New York, the International Jewish Labor Bund in Australia, and the United Jewish People's Order in Canada.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1131183",
"title": "American Jews",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1068,
"text": "At the beginning of the 20th century, these newly arrived Jews built support networks consisting of many small synagogues and \"Landsmanshaften\" (German and Yiddish for \"Countryman Associations\") for Jews from the same town or village. American Jewish writers of the time urged assimilation and integration into the wider American culture, and Jews quickly became part of American life. 500,000 American Jews (or half of all Jewish males between 18 and 50) fought in World War II, and after the war younger families joined the new trend of suburbanization. There, Jews became increasingly assimilated and demonstrated rising intermarriage. The suburbs facilitated the formation of new centers, as Jewish school enrollment more than doubled between the end of World War II and the mid-1950s, while synagogue affiliation jumped from 20% in 1930 to 60% in 1960; the fastest growth came in Reform and, especially, Conservative congregations. More recent waves of Jewish emigration from Russia and other regions have largely joined the mainstream American Jewish community.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29690820",
"title": "Military history of Jewish Americans",
"section": "Section::::Misconceptions of Jewish service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 117,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 117,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "The early history of Jewish service was complicated by American assumptions that Jews were unwilling or unable to serve in the military. This perception was to last for centuries, and it was in response to an 1891 article in the \"North American Review\" regarding the perceived lack of Jews in the military that historian Simon Wolf compiled his 1895 work \"The American Jew as patriot, soldier and citizen\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210728",
"title": "History of the Jews in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Jewish immigration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "Leaders of the time urged assimilation and integration into the wider American culture, and Jews quickly became part of American life. During World War II, 500,000 American Jews, about half of all Jewish males between 18 and 50, enlisted for service, and after the war, Jewish families joined the new trend of suburbanization, as they became wealthier and more mobile. The Jewish community expanded to other major cities, particularly around Los Angeles and Miami. Their young people attended secular high schools and colleges and met non-Jews, so that intermarriage rates soared to nearly 50%. Synagogue membership, however, grew considerably, from 20% of the Jewish population in 1930 to 60% in 1960.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58628621",
"title": "Ústredňa Židov",
"section": "Section::::Departments.:Retraining and labor camps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 1032,
"text": "In a further step to reduce unemployment, the ÚŽ established labor camps and centers, an activity approved by an April 1941 decree. Although this effort was connected to the discriminatory conscription of all Jewish men aged 18–60 for labor, it had a beneficial effect for unemployed Jews. The first center was established at Strážke in spring 1941; by September, about 5,500 Jews were working at 80 sites. The companies employing the Jews enjoyed cheap labor, but the ÚŽ had to subsidize their wages to meet the legal minimum. By the end of the year, most of these centers were dissolved, officially due to the harsh weather conditions. According to Slovak historian Ivan Kamenec, the real reason was that the Slovak State was planning to deport the Jewish workers. Instead, three larger camps were established at Sereď, Nováky, and Vyhne. The ÚŽ financed the construction of these camps in the fall of 1941; however, the government began to discourage construction (because it planned to deport Jews instead) in the fall of 1941.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1131183",
"title": "American Jews",
"section": "Section::::Jewish American culture.:Popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 129,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 129,
"end_character": 818,
"text": "There were 110 Jewish players in Major League Baseball between 1870 and 1881. The first generation of Jewish Americans who immigrated during the 1880–1924 peak period were not interested in baseball, and in some cases tried to prevent their children from watching or participating in baseball-related activities. Most were focused on making sure they and their children took advantage of education and employment opportunities. Despite the efforts of parents, Jewish children became interested in baseball quickly since it was already embedded in the broader American culture. The second generation of immigrants saw baseball as a means to celebrate American culture without abandoning their broader religious community. After 1924, many Yiddish newspapers began covering baseball, which they had not done previously.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28097533",
"title": "African American–Jewish relations",
"section": "Section::::Labor movement.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "The labor movement was another area of the relationship that flourished before WWII, but ended in conflict afterwards. In the early 20th century, one important area of cooperation was attempts to increase minority representation in the leadership of the United Automobile Workers (UAW). In 1943, Jews and blacks joined to request the creation of a new department within the UAW dedicated to minorities, but that request was refused by UAW leaders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1k4z4g | In this video of the tsunami in Japan there is a white cloud moving out of the water and disappearing. What is it? | [
{
"answer": "You can see it happen at around the [10 min 32 sec mark](_URL_0_) too (just a little bit to the left of the spot in your video, under the tree).\n\nMaybe it's a punctured tank of gas, like propane. It's venting gas all the time, it just looks like that when it's above water.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9471660",
"title": "The Great Wave off Kanagawa",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "The image depicts an enormous wave threatening three boats off the coast of the town of Kanagawa (the present-day city of Yokohama, Kanagawa Prefecture) while Mount Fuji rises in the background. While sometimes assumed to be a tsunami, the wave is more likely to be a large rogue wave. As in many of the prints in the series, it depicts the area around Mount Fuji under particular conditions, and the mountain itself appears in the background. Throughout the series are dramatic uses of Berlin blue pigment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "328202",
"title": "Miyako, Iwate",
"section": "Section::::History.:2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Some of the most iconic footage of the tsunami, repeatedly broadcast worldwide, was shot in Miyako. It shows a dark black wave cresting and overflowing a floodwall and tossing cars, followed by a fishing ship capsizing as it hit the submerged floodwall and then crushed as it was forced beneath a bridge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5701015",
"title": "Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "The most famous single image from the series is widely known in English as \"The Great Wave off Kanagawa\". It depicts three boats being threatened by a large wave while Mount Fuji rises in the background. While sometimes assumed to be a tsunami, the wave is more likely to be an exceptionally large storm wave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44649915",
"title": "Shin Godzilla",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1421,
"text": "When the Japan Coast Guard investigates an abandoned yacht in Tokyo Bay, their boat is destroyed and the Tokyo Bay Aqua-Line is flooded. After seeing a viral video of the incident, Deputy Chief Cabinet Secretary Rando Yaguchi theorizes that it was caused by a living creature. His theory is confirmed when news reports show a massive tail emerging from the ocean. Shortly thereafter, the creature moves inland and crawls through the Kamata district of Tokyo in the midst of inadequate evacuation. The creature leaves a path of destruction and numerous casualties, and evolves into a bipedal red-skinned form before it begins to overheat and returns to the sea. The government officials focus on military strategy and civilian safety, while Yaguchi is put in charge of a task force to research the creature. Due to high radiation readings, the group theorizes that it is energized by nuclear fission. The U.S. sends a special envoy, Kayoco Anne Patterson, who reveals that a disgraced, vehemently anti-nuclear zoology professor, Goro Maki, had been studying mutations caused by radioactive contamination and theorized the appearance of the creature, but he is disbelieved by both American and Japanese scientific circles. The U.S. then prevented him from making his conclusions public. The abandoned yacht discovered in Tokyo Bay was Maki's, and he left his research notes, jumbled into a code, in it before disappearing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28124033",
"title": "Life in a Day (2011 film)",
"section": "Section::::Follow-on projects and legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "In 2012 directors Philip Martin and Gaku Narita teamed up to create \"Japan in a Day\" which accounts of the aftermath from Japan's devastating tsunami in 2011 featuring YouTube videos shot by survivors living in and near the affected areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8003196",
"title": "I'm Coming",
"section": "Section::::Music video.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "The music video begins with Rain in a room with a light representing the sun rising. Then he is shown coming down a helicopter with wings and looking around. The atmosphere suggests a war has just happened so he has a very pained face. The scene changes and he is walking to a clearing in the wreckage without wings and soldiers are coming out of the rubble. The rest is a dance interlude.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32616680",
"title": "Novacane (song)",
"section": "Section::::Promotion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "The video is shot as one long take, shot in a mostly dark room. Ocean sits in the room, smoking an unspecified drug. Eventually, he gets up and begins to smear an unknown substance onto his face. Random shots of pandas and rain forest imagery are also spliced into the video, and it ends with Ocean being slapped by the ghostly image of a woman. MTV further summarized the video; \"Ocean is surrounded by ghostly incarnations of beautiful women, tigers and pandas. At one point, Ocean smears what appears to be novocaine — or Procaine — on his solemn-looking face.\" Supposedly, it required several takes to achieve the correct angle for the slapping moment, and the spliced images were placed in the video because Ocean asked the director whether or not they \"can we put some kind of Asian-rain-forest stuff in there?\" \"Billboard\" wrote that the video was \"minimalist\" and \"eerie\". Pitchfork named the video amongst the best of the year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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| null |
6d6pdu | why is it illegal to download movies/music/games/etc, but people can sell used copies? either way the company isn't getting a cut after the first time. | [
{
"answer": "First off, the difference is that a digital copy is endlessly duplicable, while a physical item changes hands -- if you sell a CD, you no longer have access to that CD. But you could copy a music or video file and still have that media while also selling it.\n\nSecondly, there are laws that define \"first-sale doctrine\" -- that specifically state one can sell, rent, loan, destroy, give away, etc. something once they purchase it. The company that produces it loses rights to dictate how product is used once bought. But this applies to physical items, not electronic media. So you can rent a DVD if you buy it for your video store, or your can donate that old Abercrombie logo sweatshirt to the homeless and there's nothing that the producer can do to stop that... but the law doesn't say you can duplicate an MP3.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "look at it backwards. would you be pissed if you couldnt sell something that you own? fuck the company. everyone should have the right to sell something they bought. it has been that way since the dawn of civilization. i'm not sure what happened with digital. maybe they came up with a specific contract against it that you agree to when you buy it.\n\nit's illegal to download it because you never paid for it through official channels. nobody was allowed to give it to you in the first place outside those channels. the only way to give you something like that is to steal it. so they had no right to give or sell it and neither do you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50755582",
"title": "Lost sales",
"section": "Section::::Critique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "A 2009 court case, \"United States v. Dove,\" ruled that the content industry equation of lost sales with illegal downloads is not valid, with the judge noting \"Those who download movies and music for free would not necessarily purchase those movies and music at the full purchase price... although it is true that someone who copies a digital version of a sound recording has little incentive to purchase the recording through legitimate means, it does not necessarily follow that the downloader would have made a legitimate purchase if the recording had not been available for free.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18618063",
"title": "Black market",
"section": "Section::::Traded goods and services.:Copyrighted media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 598,
"text": "Street vendors in countries where there is little enforcement of copyright law, particularly in Asia and Latin America, often sell deeply discounted copies of films, music CDs, and computer software such as video games, sometimes even before the official release of the title. A determined counterfeiter with a few hundred dollars can make copies that are digitally identical to an original and face no loss in quality; innovations in consumer DVD and CD writers and the widespread availability of cracks on the Internet for most forms of copy protection technology make this cheap and easy to do.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30098451",
"title": "Music piracy",
"section": "Section::::Economic ramifications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Another issue is that because many people in the world illegally download music because they cannot afford to purchase legitimate copies, not every illegal download necessarily equates to a lost sale. This has some effect on music sales, but as Lawrence Lessig points out, there is wide asymmetry between the estimated volume of illegal downloading and the projected loss of sales:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "343585",
"title": "Online music store",
"section": "Section::::Compared to file sharing.:Disadvantages of online stores.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "BULLET::::- Online stores charge for downloading songs and other content, whereas illegal file sharing does not have any fees (although illegal song downloaders may face fines and prosecution in some jurisdictions and illegal files may contain computer viruses)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "17206895",
"title": "Music copyright infringement in China",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "Some record stores sell unauthorized copies of artists’ music for as little as $4. This has been hard on international and Chinese record industries such as the Music Copyright Society of China, with revenues dropping 90 percent and new release sales falling about 50 percent since 2005. There are also Chinese-based peer-to-peer services assisting in large-scale illegal file-sharing, according to the IFPI. In 2005, the IFPI reported more than 350 million unauthorized discs were sold and the physical copyright infringement value totalled about $410 million. Most of these illegal sites or services offer songs for free, generating\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5381636",
"title": "File sharing in Canada",
"section": "Section::::Legality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 227,
"text": "While the unauthorized copying - uploading - of complete copyrighted works such as books, movies, or software is illegal under the Act, the situation regarding music files is more complex, due to the Private Copying exemption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5275733",
"title": "You can click, but you can't hide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "\"There are websites that provide legal downloads. This is not one of them. This website has been permanently shut down by court order because it facilitates the illegal downloading of copyrighted motion pictures. The illegal downloading of motion pictures robs thousands of honest, hard-working people of their livelihood, and stifles creativity. Illegally downloading movies from sites such as these without proper authorization violates the law, is theft, and is not anonymous. Stealing movies leaves a trail. The only way not to get caught is to stop.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1hkfty | Do we know when certain food and drink pairings first became popular? Eggs and bacon? Wine and cheese? Etc | [
{
"answer": "This question has been removed because it's [an \"in your era\" or \"throughout history\" question](_URL_0_), which are not appropriate for this subreddit. If you have a specific question about a historical event or period or person, please feel free to re-compose your question and submit it again.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "4059168",
"title": "Bacon and egg pie",
"section": "Section::::Composition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Although the bacon and egg combination is not unique to any country, its use in modern cooking is notable in New Zealand and Canada. Recipes for it have been found as early as \"The Experienced English Housekeeper\" in 1769.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "698714",
"title": "Custard pie",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "The Ancient Romans were the first to understand the binding properties of eggs. During the Middle Ages, the first custard pies, as we know them, began to appear. Initially, custards were used only as fillings for pies, pastries and tarts. Both Europe and Asia had recipes that contained custards. The word custard is derived from ‘crustade’ which is a tart with a crust. After the 16th century, custards began to be used in individual dishes rather than as a filling in crusts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1045978",
"title": "Wine and food matching",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "Many pairings that are considered \"classics\" today emerged from the centuries-old relationship between a region's cuisine and their wines. In Europe, lamb was a staple meat of the diet for many areas that today are leading wine regions. The red wines of regions such as Bordeaux, Greece, Rioja, Ribera del Duero, Rhone and Provence are considered classic pairings with the lamb dishes found in the local cuisines of those regions. In Italy, the intimate connection between food and wine is deeply embedded in the culture and is exemplified by the country's wine. Historically, Italians rarely dined without wine and a region's wine was crafted to be \"food friendly\", often with bright acidity. While some Italian wines may seem tannic, lean or tart by themselves they often will show a very different profile when paired with boldly flavored Italian foods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "717829",
"title": "Eggnog",
"section": "Section::::History.:Etymology and origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 902,
"text": "\"While culinary historians debate its exact lineage, most agree eggnog originated from the early medieval\" British drink called posset, which was made with hot milk that was curdled with wine or ale and flavoured with spices. In the Middle Ages, posset was used as a cold and flu remedy. Posset was popular from medieval times to the 19th century. Eggs were added to some posset recipes; according to \"Time\" magazine, by the \"...13th century, monks were known to drink a posset with eggs and figs.\" A 17th century recipe for \"My Lord of Carlisle’s Sack-Posset\" uses a heated mixture of cream, whole cinnamon, mace, nutmeg, eighteen egg yolks, eight egg whites, and one pint of Sack wine (a fortified white wine related to sherry). At the end, sugar, ambergris and animal musk are stirred in. Posset was traditionally served in two-handled pots. The aristocracy had costly posset pots made from silver.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1045978",
"title": "Wine and food matching",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "There have been some historical anecdotes that have related to food and wine pairing before modern times. One anecdote often attributed to British wine merchants is \"\"Buy on an apple and sell on cheese\"\" meaning that if a wine tastes good when paired with a raw, uncooked apple it must be truly good and pairing any wine with cheese will make it more palatable to the average consumer and easier to sell. The principles behind this anecdote lies in the food pairing properties of both fruit and cheeses. Fruits that are high in sugar and acidity (such as the malic acid in green apples) can make wines taste metallic and thin bodied. In contrast, hard cheeses such as cheddar can soften the tannins in wines and make them taste fuller and fruitier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "538419",
"title": "Hawaiian pizza",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "The addition of pineapple to the traditional mix of tomato sauce and cheese, sometimes with ham or sometimes with bacon, soon became popular locally and eventually became a staple offering of pizzerias around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14288536",
"title": "Ham and eggs",
"section": "Section::::Similar dishes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "Bacon and eggs is a similar dish, as is Eggs Benedict, which is prepared using bacon, Canadian bacon or ham and poached eggs as main ingredients. Spanish eggs consists of ham and eggs served atop heavily seasoned boiled rice. Ham and eggs are two of the main ingredients in the Denver omelette.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
82dpwi | why do pain killers help some types of pain, but not others? | [
{
"answer": "Different kinds of pain killers (analgesics) react in the body in different ways so you need to identify what's causing the pain to effectively treat it. Basically it's a combination of the type of pain (Cancer/Inflammatory/Neuropathic/Nociceptive) and the severity of said pain. ",
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},
{
"answer": "Depends on the type of pain killer and its mode of action. (So, is it an opiate, an anti-inflammatory, a neuro-blocker, etc)\nDepends on which pain receptors are being stimulated, and how.\n\n",
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},
{
"answer": "Your joint pain probably comes from some sort of inflammation within them. One type of pain killer, NSAIDs, block the production of a molecule (Prostaglandin H2) that is produced at inflamed sites and is important for pain signaling in inflammation. So when the production of that inflammatory molecule is blocked, you will feel less pain. When you have something like a cut there are also other types of pain involved, for example nerves that respond to mechanical force (or, y´know, being cut in half). In that case a big chunk of the pain comes from those cut nerves and not from inflammatory molecules, so an NSAID won´t help as much. In that case an opiate like morphine would perform better because they weaken many pain signals that are trying to reach the brain. By the way, please don´t use morphine to treat a paper cut.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7930039",
"title": "Opiorphin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Such action extends the duration of enkephalin effect where the natural pain killers are released physiologically in response to specific potentially painful stimuli, in contrast with administration of narcotics, which floods the entire body and causes many undesirable adverse reactions, including addiction liability and constipation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53335",
"title": "Endometriosis",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Other medication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 120,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 120,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "BULLET::::- Opioids: Morphine sulphate tablets and other opioid painkillers work by mimicking the action of naturally occurring pain-reducing chemicals called \"endorphins\". There are different long acting and short acting medications that can be used alone or in combination to provide appropriate pain control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "144837",
"title": "Chronic pain",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Nonopioids.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 991,
"text": "Various nonopioid medicines are used, depending on whether the pain originates from tissue damage or is neuropathic. Limited evidence suggests that chronic pain from tissue inflammation or damage (as in rheumatoid arthritis and cancer pain) is best treated with opioids, while for neuropathic pain (pain caused by a damaged or dysfunctional nervous system) other drugs may be more effective, such as tricyclic antidepressants, serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors, and anticonvulsants. Because of weak evidence, the best approach is not clear when treating many types of pain, and doctors must rely on their own clinical experience. Doctors often cannot predict who will use opioids just for pain management and who will go on to develop addiction, and cannot always distinguish between those who are and those who are not seeking opioids due primarily to an existing addiction. Withholding, interrupting or withdrawing opioid treatment in people who benefit from it can cause harm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33632441",
"title": "Psychoactive drug",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Pain management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Psychoactive drugs are often prescribed to manage pain. The subjective experience of pain is primarily regulated by endogenous opioid peptides. Thus, pain can often be managed using psychoactives that operate on this neurotransmitter system, also known as opioid receptor agonists. This class of drugs can be highly addictive, and includes opiate narcotics, like morphine and codeine. NSAIDs, such as aspirin and ibuprofen, are also analgesics. These agents also reduce eicosanoid-mediated inflammation by inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "417111",
"title": "Pain management",
"section": "Section::::Medications.:Moderate to severe pain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "Drugs of other types can be used to help opioids combat certain types of pain, for example, amitriptyline is prescribed for chronic muscular pain in the arms, legs, neck and lower back with an opiate, or sometimes without it and/or with an NSAID.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25970819",
"title": "Drug therapy problems",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "BULLET::::- Patients suffering from chronic pain that are prescribed opioid painkillers (such as morphine) may build up a tolerance to the effect of the painkillers, requiring higher doses to achieve the same pain reducing effect. This risky practice of dose escalation can lead to drug overdoses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54904694",
"title": "Pain management in children",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Acute pain treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "The approach to acute pain should take into account the severity of the pain. Non-opioid analgesics, such as acetaminophen and NSAIDs, can be used alone to treat mild pain. For moderate to severe pain, it is optimal to use a combination of multiple agents, including opioid and non-opioid agents. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
64g5bx | Why was Yugoslavia formed after WW1, rather than re-establishing the Kingdom of Serbia? | [
{
"answer": "My first comment here. Hope my answer will suffice! \n\nYes, there was strong local desire for such a state before the First World War. Yugoslavism became a distinguished segment of the wider Pan-Slavic movement around the 17th century. It was popularised by the Illyrian movement in the 19th century and afterwards, throughout the territories populated by South Slavs, the idea of Yugoslavism was growing strong, helped by the general dissatisfaction with the Austro-Hungarian government. \n\nIn Croatia, the Serbs and Croats who lived under Austro-Hungarian thrall were often grouped together as they considered one another to be cast in the same mold. In the early 20th century, these stances were most explicitly espoused by the disciples of Svetozar Pribićević, the leader of the Serb Independent Party (Serbo-Croatian: *Srpska samostalna stranka*) who advocated for the creation of a Yugoslav state, thus welcoming collaboration with Croatian politicians, which resulted in the SIP merging into the Croat-Serb Coalition. The joint interests and friendship between the two parties culminated in 1905 when two documents were signed - the Rijeka Resolution and the Zadar Resolution, which both proclaimed solidarity and equality between the Croats and the Serbs. On the other hand, the Croatian Party of Rights, led by the likes of Ante Starčević and Josip Frank, opposed the idea of Yugoslavism with zeal.\n\nIn the Condominium of Bosnia and Herzegovina, following the Bosnian Crisis, the locals were very much dissatisfied with Béni Kállay's administration, and the Bosnian intelligentsia rallied behind pan-Serbian and anti-Austrian publications like *The Bosnian Vila* and *Zora* (Dawn), which helped preserve Serbian national identity. Such a sentiment was supported by many eminent authors, politicians and poets of the time, with the poet and politician Osman Đikić, a Serb Muslim, being an example. This was the ideological basis of the Young Bosnia organisation, frequented by many young intellectuals of the time, an organisation now famous primarily for assassinating Archduke Franz Ferdinand. \n\nIn the independent Kingdom of Serbia, the Yugoslav nationalists were influenced by the *Risorgimento* (Italian unification) and considered Serbia to be responsible of emulating the Kingdom of Piedmont by uniting all South Slavs into one state henceforth known as Yugoslavia. Slovene nationalists like Anton Korošec espoused pro-unification ideas, believing the unification to be a means of freeing Slovenia from Austro-Hungarian control. How deeply ingrained the idea of Yugoslavism was within the nationalist sentience of the time is best exemplified by this Gavrilo Princip quote: *'I am a Yugoslav nationalist, aiming for the unification of all Yugoslavs, and I do not care what form of state, but it must be free from Austria.'*\n\nSo, that said, the idea was rooted within the collective conscious of a majority of South Slavs of the era, but after the Great War, Yugoslavia wasn't immediately formed. The Corfu Declaration made the Serbian pro-unification intentions rather clear, and once the war ended the Kingdom of Serbia merged with the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, and once the pro-Serbian Whites have outnumbered the pro-independence Greens in the Podgorica Assembly, so did Serbia merge with the Kingdom of Montenegro thus creating the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, separated into nine *banovinas*. The newly-formed state was no stranger to separatist and nationalist turmoil, which is why King Aleksandar I changed the name of the country to Yugoslavia in 1929, and started working on eradicating the national identities of Yugoslav peoples from existence for the sake of creating a unified state, not separated by neither religion nor ethnicity. This process was later continued by the communists but has evidently failed to take hold, as shortly after Tito's death, Yugoslavia again found itself divided by separatism and nationalism promoted by all the parties involved in the conflict. \n\nSources:\n\nV. Ćorović - *Istorija Srba*\n\nJ. R. Lampe - *Yugoslavia as History: Twice There Was a Country*\n\nZ. Pavlović & J. Bosnić - *Mozaik prošlosti* \n\nLj. Antić - *Prvi svjetski rat i Hrvati*",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51632576",
"title": "Stevo Rađenović",
"section": "Section::::Srb Uprising.:Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1257,
"text": "The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was drawn into World War II following the Yugoslav coup d'état of 27 March 1941 and the German-led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia that followed on 6 April 1941. Yugoslavia was quickly defeated and dismembered by the Axis powers, and before the Yugoslavs had even surrendered, the Germans orchestrated the creation of a puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia (, NDH). The NDH government was formed by the Ustaše, a Croatian fascist and ultranationalist movement. Italy annexed much of Dalmatia and some other parts of Yugoslav territory, and the NDH was divided into German and Italian zones of influence along what became known as the Vienna Line. The Rome Treaties of 18 May formalised the Italian annexations, largely fixed the borders of the NDH, and put in place military arrangements. These specified that a significant area in the Italian zone of influence (known as Zone II) was to be demilitarised, with only NDH civilian administration permitted. A smaller area of the Italian zone of influence (Zone III) was free from such restrictions. Once these agreements were concluded, Italian troops withdrew from the NDH, and were deployed only in the annexed areas (Zone I). The region of Lika fell within Zone II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1880033",
"title": "Catholic Church in Bosnia and Herzegovina",
"section": "Section::::History.:Interwar period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was formed on 1 December 1918 from the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, itself formed from the merger of Austro-Hungarian Empire territories with the formerly-independent Kingdom of Serbia. Although Catholic opinion was divided in Bosnia and Herzegovina about the union with Serbia after the unification, Catholic bishops (including Stadler) encouraged priests and the laity to be loyal to the new government. In their view, in the new state Croats would have national rights and the Church would be free. When this did not happen, relations between church and state cooled and the clergy resisted the government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33091696",
"title": "History of modern Serbia",
"section": "Section::::History of Serbia since 1918.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "In 1944, the Soviet Red Army and Yugoslav Partisans expelled all Axis troops from Serbia and the area was included into the restored Yugoslavia. Unlike pre-war Yugoslavia, which had a centralist system of government, the post-war Yugoslavia was established as a federation of six equal republics. One of the republics was Serbia, which had two autonomous provinces: Vojvodina and Kosovo. From the 1974 Yugoslav constitution, the autonomous provinces of Serbia gained extensive political rights and were represented separately from Serbia in some areas of federal government, although they were still de jure subordinated to Serbia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1169386",
"title": "Multinational state",
"section": "Section::::Former multinational states.:Yugoslavia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers in 1941 and abolished as a result of World War II. It was succeeded by Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, proclaimed in 1943 by the Yugoslav Partisans resistance movement. When a communist government was established in 1946, the country was renamed the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia. In 1963, it was renamed again, becoming the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). This was the largest Yugoslav state, with Istria and Rijeka having been added after World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2060900",
"title": "Breakup of Yugoslavia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 921,
"text": "After the Allied victory in World War II, Yugoslavia was set up as a federation of six republics, with borders drawn along ethnic and historical lines: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. In addition, two autonomous provinces were established within Serbia: Vojvodina and Kosovo. Each of the republics had its own branch of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia party and a ruling elite, and any tensions were solved on the federal level. The Yugoslav model of state organisation, as well as a \"middle way\" between planned and liberal economy, had been a relative success, and the country experienced a period of strong economic growth and relative political stability up to the 1980s, under the rule of president-for-life Josip Broz Tito. After his death in 1980, the weakened system of federal government was left unable to cope with rising economic and political challenges.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34244",
"title": "Yugoslavia",
"section": "Section::::New states.:Succession, 1992–2003.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 1376,
"text": "As the Yugoslav Wars raged through Croatia and Bosnia, the republics of Serbia and Montenegro, which remained relatively untouched by the war, formed a rump state known as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) in 1992. The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia aspired to be a sole legal successor to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, but those claims were opposed by the other former republics. The United Nations also denied its request to automatically continue the membership of the former state. In 2000, Milosevic was prosecuted for atrocities committed in his ten-year rule in Serbia and the Yugoslav Wars. Eventually, after the overthrow of Slobodan Milošević from power as president of the federation in 2000, the country dropped those aspirations, accepted the opinion of the Badinter Arbitration Committee about shared succession, and reapplied for and gained UN membership on 2 November 2000. From 1992 to 2000, some countries, including the United States, had referred to the FRY as \"Serbia and Montenegro\" as they viewed its claim to Yugoslavia's successorship as illegitimate. In April 2001, the five successor states extant at the time drafted an Agreement on Succession Issues, signing the agreement in June 2001. Marking an important transition in its history, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was officially renamed Serbia and Montenegro in 2003.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12601465",
"title": "United States Ambassador to Yugoslavia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "The nation of Yugoslavia was formed on December 1, 1918 as a result of the realignment of nations and national boundaries in Europe in the aftermath of World War I. The nation was first named the \"Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes\" and was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in 1929. The kingdom occupied the area in the Balkans comprising the present-day states of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and most of present-day Slovenia and Croatia. The United States recognized the newly formed nation and commissioned its first envoy to the kingdom on July 17, 1919. Previously the U.S. had had an envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary who was commissioned to Romania, Bulgaria, and Serbia while resident in Bucharest, Romania. Towards the end of the 1930s, the diplomatic relations between Belgrade and Washington were raised from ministerial to the ambassadorial level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
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