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2rkxgq | Why are there so many books on Rome, Greece, and Egypt, but hardly anything on Persia? | [
{
"answer": "Part of this is simply what we find in popular literature. Because the classical past is very prominent in western memory and is a \"prestige\" topic it is easier to sell and publish books on the topic; in addition there are simply more people out there with the background needed to write on Greece and Rome. Egypt is less prominent in the \"Western Past\"(a terrible term but we'll use it) but its monumental architecture and spectacular funerary practices have given the subject a considerable public appeal as well. Having said that, there are a considerable number of very fine books on Persian history before the Islamic conquests. Weishofer's _Ancient Persia_ is a commonly recommended general overview of Persian History from the Achaemenid Empire to the Islamic conquests. For further reading on the Achaemenid Empire in particular, Briant's _From Cyrus to Alexander_ remains so far as I know the standard treatment of the subject, with a extensive bibliography on more detailed topics in the field. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't have sources for this answer, so feel free to delete, but here are some general possibilities:\n\n1. Linguistical access. Roman texts were written in Latin, a lingua franca in Europe for a longtime. Scholars would have been familiar with Latin and this helped some of the revivals of interest in the Romans that occurred during various periods of European history. I am speculating, but I am guessing a European monk/scholar would be more likely to be able to read a Latin text than one written in a Persian script. \n\n2. Another linguistical point- Greek. Many early New Testament accounts were written in Greek. A familiarity with the language was important to many European scholars in a way that is not the same with any Persian script.\n\n3. Cultural continuity- Many western cultures have seen themselves as extensions of the Romans or Greeks. In the United States, the Founding Fathers were very interested in the classics. This is reflected in the Neoclassical architecture of the time(See Monticello or the Capital) and even the United State's motto was in Latin originally. The sense of being connected to the Romans or Greeks I think has generated more interest and scholarly work in the west than the Persians. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4274404",
"title": "Intellectual movements in Iran",
"section": "Section::::History of Iranian modernity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "Western art, no less than history and theology, bear testimony to the ubiquity of the Persian presence in antiquity. Of all the extant works of Greek tragedy, for example, the only one that is about a non-Greek subject is Aeschylus' play \"The Persians\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47286955",
"title": "Ancient Iranian religion",
"section": "Section::::Sources.:Non-Iranian sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The non-Iranian sources are mainly Greek. The most important Greek source is Herodotus. Some of the Greek information on ancient Iranian religion is however unreliable. This is either because it is based on outright wrong information or based on misunderstandings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4385475",
"title": "Ancient Greek astronomy",
"section": "Section::::Sources for Greek astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Many Greek astronomical texts are known only by name, and perhaps by a description or quotations. Some elementary works have survived because they were largely non-mathematical and suitable for use in schools. Books in this class include the \"Phaenomena\" of Euclid and two works by Autolycus of Pitane. Three important textbooks, written shortly before Ptolemy's time, were written by Cleomedes, Geminus, and Theon of Smyrna. Books by Roman authors like Pliny the Elder and Vitruvius contain some information on Greek astronomy. The most important primary source is the \"Almagest\", since Ptolemy refers to the work of many of his predecessors (Evans 1998, p. 24).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3722176",
"title": "Persian literature in Western culture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "The influence of Persian literature in Western culture is historically significant. In order to avoid what E.G. Browne calls \"an altogether inadequate judgment of the intellectual activity of that ingenious and talented people\" , many centers of academia throughout the world today from Berlin to Japan have permanent programs for Persian studies for the literary heritage of Persia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "155027",
"title": "Alexandrian text-type",
"section": "Section::::Evaluations of text-types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "In the United States, some critics have a dissenting view that prefers the Byzantine text-type, such as Maurice A. Robinson and William Grover Pierpont. They assert that Egypt, almost alone, offers optimal climatic conditions favoring preservation of ancient manuscripts while, on the other hand, the papyri used in the east (Asia Minor and Greece) would not have survived due to the unfavourable climatic conditions. Thus, it is not surprising that ancient Biblical manuscripts that are found would come mostly from the Alexandrian geographical area and not from the Byzantine geographical area.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32300339",
"title": "Romans in Persia",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 270,
"text": "Finally, one characteristic of the Roman presence in Persia is that Roman emperors dreamed of conquering all Persia from Trajan to Galerius, while Parthian/Sassanian kings never tried to conquer Rome, Italy or southeastern Europe according to historian Theodor Mommsen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "462477",
"title": "Persian literature",
"section": "Section::::Classical Persian literature.:Pre-Islamic Persian literature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "Some researchers have quoted the \"Sho'ubiyye\" as asserting that the Pre-Islamic Iranians had books on eloquence, such as 'Karvand'. No trace remains of such books. There are some indications that some among the Persian elite were familiar with Greek rhetoric and literary criticism (Zarrinkoub, 1947).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
36qfzc | How does the heat from the sun reaches the earth? Are the rays of light emited by the sun hot? | [
{
"answer": "Yes the rays are hot as in they carry a lot of energy. This energy is in the end what is captured by the earth and the plants and the solar cells to turn into other forms of energy. There are two reasons why the temperature in the Himalayas is still lower:\n\n* First of all the energy of this beam does not really depend on how far it has traveled. This because the air does not absorb a lot of its energy. The energy density will slightly decrease (since the rays are divergent) but comparing the height of the Mt. Everest (~9km) to the average distance from the earth to the sun (~100M km) this effect will be negligible. So the energy of the rays is the same at both positions\n\n* However energy is proportional to pressure, and the pressure decreases with altitude. This because temperature is nothing more than the average velocity of the particles. With more particles more particles will bump into you and in this way transfer energy to you. This is why in the Himalayas it's cold.\n\nSo for your second question: it's not so much \"friction\" (friction is not really the right word) between the rays and air, it's between the rays and more solid (absorbing surfaces), these surfaces will transfer the heat to the air, which will in turn transfer it to you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The rays of the sun carry energy. When they hit the surface, they are absorbed and that specific spot on the ground receives that energy. The energy is dissipated as heat.\n\nThere is no \"friction\" between light and matter, simply light travelling in matter loses energy to the medium progressively.\n\nThe himalayas aren't colder because they are closer to the sun or anything like that. The air is (in the lower part of the atmosphere) colder as you get to higher altitudes. This is because the atmosphere does not get significantly warmed up by sunlight, but mostly from the earth itself from below, which in turn is warmed by incoming sunlight.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "31990",
"title": "Ultraviolet",
"section": "Section::::Solar ultraviolet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "Very hot objects emit UV radiation (see black-body radiation). The Sun emits ultraviolet radiation at all wavelengths, including the extreme ultraviolet where it crosses into X-rays at 10 nm. Extremely hot stars emit proportionally more UV radiation than the Sun. Sunlight in space at the top of Earth's atmosphere (see solar constant) is composed of about 50% infrared light, 40% visible light, and 10% ultraviolet light, for a total intensity of about 1400 W/m in vacuum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17097734",
"title": "Driver's vision enhancer",
"section": "Section::::Theory of operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "The Sun emits energy across the entire electromagnetic spectrum. Solar energy strikes the surface of objects. Some of that energy is absorbed and stored as heat (thermal energy). After sunset, this thermal energy remains and is emitted in the form of IR radiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12395",
"title": "Greenhouse effect",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of ultraviolet, visible, and near-infrared radiation. About 26% of the incoming solar energy is reflected to space by the atmosphere and clouds, and 19% is absorbed by the atmosphere and clouds. Most of the remaining energy is absorbed at the surface of Earth. Because the Earth's surface is colder than the Sun, it radiates at wavelengths that are much longer than the wavelengths that were absorbed. Most of this thermal radiation is absorbed by the atmosphere and warms it. The atmosphere also gains heat by sensible and latent heat fluxes from the surface. The atmosphere radiates energy both upwards and downwards; the part radiated downwards is absorbed by the surface of Earth. This leads to a higher equilibrium temperature than if the atmosphere did not radiate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "202898",
"title": "Atmosphere of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Optical properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "Solar radiation (or sunlight) is the energy Earth receives from the Sun. Earth also emits radiation back into space, but at longer wavelengths that we cannot see. Part of the incoming and emitted radiation is absorbed or reflected by the atmosphere. In May 2017, glints of light, seen as twinkling from an orbiting satellite a million miles away, were found to be reflected light from ice crystals in the atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "184726",
"title": "Heat transfer",
"section": "Section::::Mechanisms.:Radiation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 517,
"text": "Radiation from the sun, or solar radiation, can be harvested for heat and power. Unlike conductive and convective forms of heat transfer, thermal radiation – arriving within a narrow angle i.e. coming from a source much smaller than its distance – can be concentrated in a small spot by using reflecting mirrors, which is exploited in concentrating solar power generation or a burning glass. For example, the sunlight reflected from mirrors heats the PS10 solar power tower and during the day it can heat water to . \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4968799",
"title": "Sky brightness",
"section": "Section::::Indirect scattering of sunlight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Indirectly scattered sunlight comes from two directions. From the atmosphere itself, and from outer space. In the first case, the sun has just set but still illuminates the upper atmosphere directly. Because the amount of scattered sunlight is proportional to the number of scatterers (i.e. air molecules) in the line of sight, the intensity of this light decreases rapidly as the sun drops further below the horizon and illuminates less of the atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25010",
"title": "Proton–proton chain reaction",
"section": "Section::::The proton–proton chain reaction.:Energy release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Energy released as gamma rays will interact with electrons and protons and heat the interior of the Sun. Also kinetic energy of fusion products (e.g. of the two protons and the from the p-p I reaction) increases the temperature of plasma in the Sun. This heating supports the Sun and prevents it from collapsing under its own weight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1lmsf9 | What would happen if you tried to manipulate a rod of material that was a lightyear in length? | [
{
"answer": "Just _some_ of the times the same question has been asked before:\n\n[If I pushed a button 10 light years away with a stick that was 10 light years long, how long would it take for the button to be pushed?](_URL_5_)\n\n[If I have a theoretical rod that is 1 light-year long and I have the ability to pull it one meter towards me, will the opposing end pull away from an observer at the same time or would there be a delay?](_URL_0_)\n\n[If I have a string that is one light year long](_URL_2_)\n\n[If you had a pole 2 light years long on supports would the friction stop you from pushing/pulling it?](_URL_3_)\n\n[If I were floating in space next to a 1-light-year-long metal rod, and I pushed the end of the rod forward one meter, would the far end of the rod move one meter instantly?](_URL_4_)\n\n[If I had a pencil that was 2 light years long, and I managed to use it to write a message on another planet, would I be achieving FTL communication?](_URL_1_)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1327701",
"title": "Rindler coordinates",
"section": "Section::::Notions of distance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "It follows that if a rod is accelerated by some external force applied anywhere along its length, the elements of matter in various different places in the rod cannot all feel the same magnitude of acceleration if the rod is not to extend without bound and ultimately break. In other words, an accelerated rod which does not break must sustain stresses which vary along its length. Furthermore, in any thought experiment with time varying forces, whether we \"kick\" an object or try to accelerate it gradually, we cannot avoid the problem of avoiding mechanical models which are inconsistent with relativistic kinematics (because distant parts of the body respond too quickly to an applied force).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37680143",
"title": "The Rod of Light",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 268,
"text": "The Rod of Light is the thirteenth science fiction novel by Barrington J. Bayley and his only sequel (to 1974's \"The Soul of the Robot\"). The book continues the story of Jasperodus, who is now in conflict with Gargan, a ruthless robot attempting to make his own soul.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "383813",
"title": "Nuclear and radiation accidents and incidents",
"section": "Section::::Accident categories.:Human error.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "A detailed investigation into SL-1 determined that one operator (perhaps inadvertently) manually pulled the central control rod out about 26 inches rather than the maintenance procedure's intention of about 4 inches.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1522373",
"title": "Carroll's paradox",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "An apparent resolution of this paradox is that the physical situation cannot occur. To maintain the rod in a radial position the circles have to exert an infinite force. In real life it would not be possible to construct guides that do not exert a significant reaction force perpendicular to the rod. Victor Namias, however, disputed that infinite forces occur, and argued that a finitely thick rod experiences torque about its center of mass even in the limit as it approaches zero width.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3987340",
"title": "Rod of Seven Parts",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "The \"Eldritch Wizardry\" guidelines described each piece as having its own unique powers. In a gaming scenario, the more parts of the rod a user possessed, the more powerful each one of the seven parts became.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44434",
"title": "Tractor beam",
"section": "Section::::Fiction.:Games.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the video game \"Portal\", yet another similar gun to \"Half-Life 2\"'s, which is titled the \"Aperture Science Handheld Portal Device\", can create a weaker zero-point energy field by simply lifting objects and carrying them, but cannot throw or pull in from a distance. These items can also be dropped through the portals it can create. Unstationary Scaffolds and chamberlock elevators move on tractor beams. A tractor beam known as the \"Aperture Science Excursion Funnel\" appears in the second game in the series, \"Portal 2\". Razer Hydra owners get upgraded version of the Portal Device in \"Portal 2\" which can freely move objects in three dimensions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19322465",
"title": "The Rod of Seven Parts",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Because the Rod is so potent, it cannot be conventionally protected. Therefore, to keep it safe the Wind Dukes designed the separate sections of the Rod to scatter around the globe whenever its full powers were employed by striking Miska. Each piece of the Rod both leads and urges its bearer in the direction of the next sequential section. Once the first section of the Rod has fallen into the hands of the player characters they are committed to a quest which will take them the length and breadth of their homeworld, and eventually into the heart of the Abyss.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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]
| null |
38sd6o | how much luck is involved when something goes viral on social media? besides the merits of the content itself, what other factors contribute to it? | [
{
"answer": "You normally need a key person to comment or forward it. Someone who is followed or read by lots of other people to start a kind of cascade effect. A single comment by someone like George Takei will send an ordinary item into a potentially viral one",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11459836",
"title": "Social data analysis",
"section": "Section::::Key concepts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "BULLET::::- Network Analysis: social data is also interesting in that it migrates, grows (or dies) based on how the data is propagated throughout the network. It's how viral activity starts—and spreads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "351039",
"title": "Viral marketing",
"section": "Section::::Social networking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "The growth of social networks significantly contributed to the effectiveness of viral marketing. As of 2009, two thirds of the world's Internet population visits a social networking service or blog site at least every week. Facebook alone has over 1 billion active users. In 2009, time spent visiting social media sites began to exceed time spent emailing. A 2010 study found that 52% of people who view news online forward it on through social networks, email, or posts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5897742",
"title": "Social media",
"section": "Section::::Elements and function.:Viral content.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1731,
"text": "Some social media sites have potential for content posted there to spread \"virally\" over social networks. The term is an analogy to the concept of viral infections, which can spread rapidly from person to person. In a social media context, content or websites that are \"viral\" (or which \"go viral\") are those with a greater likelihood that users will reshare content posted (by another user) to their social network, leading to further sharing. In some cases, posts containing popular content or fast-breaking news have been rapidly shared and reshared by a huge number of users. Many social media sites provide specific functionality to help users reshare content, such as Twitter's retweet button, Pinterest's pin function, Facebook's share option or Tumblr's reblog function. Businesses have a particular interest in viral marketing tactics because a viral campaign can achieve widespread advertising coverage (particularly if the viral reposting itself makes the news) for a fraction of the cost of a traditional marketing campaign, which typically uses printed materials, like newspapers, magazines, mailings, and billboards, and television and radio commercials. Nonprofit organizations and activists may have similar interests in posting content on social media sites with the aim of it going viral. A popular component and feature of Twitter are retweeting. Twitter allows other people to keep up with important events, stay connected with their peers, and can contribute in various ways throughout social media. When certain posts become popular, they start to get retweeted over and over again, becoming viral. Hashtags can be used in tweets, and can also be used to take count of how many people have used that hashtag.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "827154",
"title": "Internet activism",
"section": "Section::::Information communication technologies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 722,
"text": "With all this information so readily available, there is a rising trend of \"slacktivism\" or \"clicktivism\". While it is positive that information can be distributed so quickly and efficiently all around the world, there is negativity in the fact that people often take this information for granted, or quickly forget about it once they have seen it flash across our computer screens. Viral campaigns are great for sparking initial interest and conversation, but they are not as effective in the long term—people begin to think that clicking \"like\" on something is enough of a contribution, or that posting information about a current hot topic on their Facebook page or Twitter feed means that they have made a difference.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51190584",
"title": "Social media in the financial services sector",
"section": "Section::::Risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Due to the real-time nature of social media, financial services companies must be on constant alert for potential issues so they can be mitigated before any serious damage control is necessary. Any negative experience a customer has can easily be shared online and if it ends up going viral, those comments could likely have a detrimental effect on the company’s stock price and reputation. On the other hand, any positive experience a customer has can also be shared online. However, positive experiences are much less likely to become viral.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "665789",
"title": "Web traffic",
"section": "Section::::Traffic overload.:Sudden popularity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "A sudden burst of publicity may accidentally cause a web traffic overload. A news item in the media, a quickly propagating email, or a link from a popular site may cause such a boost in visitors (sometimes called a flash crowd or the Slashdot effect).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29406164",
"title": "Social comparison bias",
"section": "Section::::In the media.:Through social media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1487,
"text": "Social media being a main source of news and breaking new stories, people can connect to people from all over the world and learn in new ways. It is easier to see people's private life on a public network. This being said, social networks such as Facebook makes viewing someone's daily life as simple as sending a request. Society is exposed to everyone's lives and people are starting to compare themselves with their friends that they have on Facebook. It is easy to log in and see someone brag about their success or their new belongings and feel bad about yourself. In recent studies, researchers have been linking Facebook with depression in this generation of social media. They may start to have low self-esteem by seeing their friends online have more exciting lives and more popularity. This social comparison bias among social network users online can make people start to think of their lives as not as fulfilling as they want to be. They see pictures or statuses about job promotions or new jobs, vacations; new relationships, fun outings or even those that can afford nice things. This can cognitively affect people's self-esteem and cause depression. They can start to feel bad about their appearance and their life in general. Social media influences the number of social comparisons people have. One study found that the more time users spend on Facebook each week, the more likely they are to think that others were happier and having better lives than they themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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]
| null |
7jk2ao | would we still get hungry if everything our body needs is directly pumped into our bloodstream? | [
{
"answer": "There is TPN, total parenteral nutrition. It is expensive. Everything you need is pumped into the bloodstream. They are very prone to getting infections. It is a big catheter. \n\nPatients getting getting TPN are generally very sick. They do not complain about being hungry. But it could be that they are sick.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "17931940",
"title": "Postprandial somnolence",
"section": "Section::::Myths about the causes of post-prandial somnolence.:Cerebral blood flow and oxygen delivery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "Although the passage of food into the gastrointestinal tract results in increased blood flow to the stomach and intestines, this is achieved by diversion of blood primarily from skeletal muscle tissue and by increasing the volume of blood pumped forward by the heart each minute. The flow of oxygen and blood to the brain is extremely tightly regulated by the circulatory system and does not drop after a meal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6531493",
"title": "Protein (nutrient)",
"section": "Section::::Dietary requirements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "If not enough energy is taken in through diet, as in the process of starvation, the body will use protein from the muscle mass to meet its energy needs, leading to muscle wasting over time. If the individual does not consume adequate protein in nutrition, then muscle will also waste as more vital cellular processes (e.g., respiration enzymes, blood cells) recycle muscle protein for their own requirements.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17454631",
"title": "Selfish brain theory",
"section": "Section::::The explanatory power of the Selfish Brain theory.:The healthy and the diseased brain: energy supply through allocation or food intake.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 867,
"text": "The acute supply of energy to the brain from the intake of nutrients presents problems for the organism. In the event of an emergency food intake is only activated if allocation is insufficient, and must be taken as a sign of disease. In this case the required energy can not be requested from the body, and it can only be taken directly from the environment. This pathology is due to defects lying within the control centers of the brain such as the hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus. These may be due to mechanical (tumors, injuries), genetic defects (lacking brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) receptors or leptin receptors), faulty programming (post-traumatic stress disorder, conditioning of eating behavior, advertising for sweets) or false signals may arise due to the influence of antidepressants, drugs, alcohol, pesticides, saccharin or viruses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36168126",
"title": "Iranian traditional medicine",
"section": "Section::::Humors.:Blood.:How to reach baseline level of “Blood”?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 315,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 315,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "BULLET::::- So, people especially those with warm and wet Mizaj (sanguine temperament), should not consume large amounts of food products with warm and wet Mizaj which produce excessive amounts of “Blood” in the body. Fasting and starving are of the treatments recommended to people suffering excessive “Blood”. Therefore, decreasing food intake drastically for a fortnight would benefit them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45831",
"title": "Tetanus",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.:Severe tetanus.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "In order to survive a tetanus infection, the maintenance of an airway and proper nutrition are required. An intake of 3,500 to 4,000 calories and at least 150 g of protein per day is often given in liquid form through a tube directly into the stomach (percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy), or through a drip into a vein (parenteral nutrition). This high-caloric diet maintenance is required because of the increased metabolic strain brought on by the increased muscle activity. Full recovery takes 4 to 6 weeks because the body must regenerate destroyed nerve axon terminals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35633282",
"title": "Ingestive behaviors",
"section": "Section::::Initiating ingestion.:Signals from stomach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "The gastrointestinal system, particularly the stomach, releases a peptide hormone called ghrelin. In 1999 experiments have revealed that hunger is communicated from the stomach to the brain via this hormone peptide. This peptide can stimulate thought about food, and is suppressed after food is ingested. Nutrient injection into the blood stream does not suppress ghrelin, so the release of hormone is directed by the digestive system and not by nutrient availability in the blood. These blood levels of ghrelin increase with fasting and are reduced after a meal. Ghrelin antibodies or ghrelin receptor antagonists inhibit eating. Ghrelin also stimulates energy production and signals directly to the hypothalamus regulatory nucli that control energy homeostasis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "159670",
"title": "Adenosine monophosphate deaminase deficiency type 1",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "This state can last for as long as glycogen is available, and can be prolonged by constantly eating carbohydrate-rich food. If the load on muscles is greater than the body's ability to recycle lactate back into glucose, lactate will start to build up in the blood. Once lactate reaches its renal re-absorption threshold (5–6 mmol/l in general population), it gets lost to urine, wasting many calories (and producing bright matte yellow particles on surfaces where urine dries). At about the same time the kidney will also start correcting blood acidity by acidifying urine. Overly acidic urine causes irritation that feels like a frequent urge to urinate (with little volume) and a \"hot\" urine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2t8y6j | if it is illegal to hire someone base on race, why does job applications still have you choose what is your race, why does it matter? | [
{
"answer": "Background information is used by HR departments for tracking purposes internally and isn't used for hiring. Legally any racial/personal information must be removed from the application before being forwarded to hiring officials. Also, offering that information is purely voluntary and can't be held against if you choose not to disclose it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the US, employers are required to keep track of the race of every single person that applies for a job with them.\n\nIf the employer is ever sued for disparate impact discrimination, these records will become evidence in the case.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4818642",
"title": "Feeling rules",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Race and the workplace.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Race not only plays an important role in the way that employees act with each other, but also how employees act toward customers based on what race they are associated with. People expect others to behave in a certain manner due to what race they identify or associate with. Race influences and changes the way we see and view others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "204756",
"title": "Grutter v. Bollinger",
"section": "Section::::Supreme Court's decision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "Public universities and other public institutions of higher education across the nation are now allowed to use race as a plus factor in determining whether a student should be admitted. While race may not be the only factor, the decision allows admissions bodies to take race into consideration along with other individualized factors in reviewing a student's application. O'Connor's opinion answers the question for the time being as to whether \"diversity\" in higher education is a compelling governmental interest. As long as the program is \"narrowly tailored\" to achieve that end, it seems likely that the Court will find it constitutional.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54749478",
"title": "Asian quota",
"section": "Section::::History.:Lawsuits.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Racial quotas are illegal in United States college admissions, but race can be used as a factor in admissions decisions (affirmative action), as decided in \"Regents of the Univ. of Cal. v. Bakke\" (1978) and re-affirmed in \"Fisher v. University of Texas\" (2013). Lawsuits have been filed on this basis, including:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9256830",
"title": "Bona fide occupational qualification",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "While religion, sex, or national origin may be considered a \"bona fide\" occupational qualification in narrow contexts, race can never be a BFOQ. However, the First Amendment will override Title VII in artistic works where the race of the employee is integral to the story or artistic purpose. (This consideration is not limited to race.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67084",
"title": "Transphobia",
"section": "Section::::Manifestations.:In the workplace.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "In the hiring process, discrimination may be either open or covert, with employers finding other ostensible reasons not to hire a candidate or just not informing prospective employees at all as to why they are not being hired. Additionally, when an employer fires or otherwise discriminates against a transgender employee, it may be a \"mixed motive\" case, with the employer openly citing obvious wrongdoing, job performance issues or the like (such as excessive tardiness, for example) while keeping silent in regards to transphobia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7989588",
"title": "Economic discrimination",
"section": "Section::::Forms.:Against workers.:Hiring discrimination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Even so, studies have shown that it is easier for a white male to get a job than it is for an equally qualified man of color or woman of any race. Many positions are \"cycled\", where a company fills a position with a worker and then lays them off and hires a new person, repeating until they find someone they feel is \"suitable\"—which is often not a minority.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57494480",
"title": "Gender pay gap in the United States tech industry",
"section": "Section::::The Tech Industry and Race.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 952,
"text": "Organizations can strive to be intentional with their hiring practices so that they have talent pools that are more representative. Currently, minorities are underrepresented in the interview process at 6%, and they receive lower salary offers. However, Hispanic and black men still receive higher offers than their female counterparts of the same race. Without considering the intersectionality of people, firms may miss that it is important to evaluate hiring practices of the whole person and not just correct for race or gender in a silo. Correcting just for race can perpetuate situations in which black and Hispanic men continue to make more than their female counterparts, but correcting just for gender will continue to allow white women to earn more than all groups but Asian and white men. Corrections that avoid binaries can help to reduce siloed hiring practices that attempt to fix one issue at a time rather than a multifaceted approach.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
cg2kof | 1 out of 10 men are direct descendants of genghis khan. why men specifically? is it impossible for women to be direct descendants? | [
{
"answer": "Male descendants are just much easier to trace, because it has to be the same Y chromosome.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's just easier to trace.\n\nHumans have two sex chromosomes - X and Y. Females have XX while males have XY. When a male is conceived, it can get either of the X chromosomes from his mother, but only the one Y chromosome from his father. Therefore, with the exception of random mutations, the entire male bloodline has the exact same Y chromosome.\n\nIf a group of people has the same (or very similar) Y chromosome, then this indicates they might have all descended from the same original male.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4205222",
"title": "List of haplogroups of historic people",
"section": "Section::::Deduction by testing of descendants or other relatives.:Genghis Khan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "There are no living males known to descend directly from Genghis Khan, or any of his nearest male relatives. Many researchers have attempted to infer his Y-DNA haplogroup, according to various criteria, from those now prominent in Mongolia and other areas formerly part of the Mongol Empire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4431670",
"title": "Jan Mohammad Khan",
"section": "Section::::Early years and personal life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "Khan had four wives, from whom he had a total of 18 daughters and 16 sons, the oldest of whom was born about 1981. A fifth wife died under mysterious circumstances amid rumors that Khan had her killed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38480359",
"title": "Alaltun",
"section": "Section::::Family.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "The children of Börte were given more power than those of the other wives of Genghis Khan. However, Il-Alti was born to a concubine, whose name was not recorded in the history of the Mongols. She had nine half-brothers and five half-sisters. Four of her nine half-brothers died before reaching adulthood. The remaining five were Jochi, Chagatay, Ogotei, Tolui and Kholgen. Her half sisters were: Koa Ujin Bekhi, Checheikhen, Alakhai Bekhi, Tumelun, and Altalun. Historians have been mistaking Il-Alti for Altalun for many years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "489477",
"title": "Börte",
"section": "Section::::Children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "Although several of Genghis Khan's children by other wives or concubines received some form of recognition in the empire, including land or military commands, including troops, only Börte's children were recognized as potential Great Khans. She, together with his mother Hoelun, was counted as one of his most trusted advisors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26336240",
"title": "The Secret History of the Mongol Queens",
"section": "Section::::Contents.:Part 1: Tiger Queens of the Silk Route 1206–1241.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "During his reign, Genghis Khan raised the status of women in positions of prominence, particularly his daughters and consorts. These women included his daughter Altani, who was awarded the title of \"Hero \"Ba'atur\", given to major figures in the Mongol Empire with successful military and political careers, when she saved the life of his youngest son, Tolui.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5372332",
"title": "Descent from Genghis Khan",
"section": "Section::::Paternity of Jochi.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Another important consideration is that Genghis' descendants intermarried frequently. For instance, the Jochids took wives from the Ilkhan dynasty of Persia, whose progenitor was Hulagu Khan. As a consequence, it is likely that many Jochids had other sons of Genghis Khan among their maternal ancestors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50213",
"title": "Morganatic marriage",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 202,
"text": "BULLET::::- Genghis Khan followed the contemporary tradition by taking several morganatic wives in addition to his principal wife, whose property passed to their youngest son, also following tradition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
99v1nn | in southern countries, was north originally considered south? | [
{
"answer": "[it's arbitrary. ](_URL_0_) There are historical occurrences of maps that are \"upside down\". So even though \"north\" meaning toward the North Star or magnetic north is always the same direction the way you choose to draw it on a map is up to you. It could just have easily been on the left or right side of the map instead too. \n\nEdit: to better answer your actual question though it's because the dominant countries at the time maps were becoming standardized wanted to be \"on top\". ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "56478",
"title": "North",
"section": "Section::::Roles of north as prime direction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "The visible rotation of the night sky around the visible celestial pole provides a vivid metaphor of that direction corresponding to up. Thus the choice of the north as corresponding to up in the northern hemisphere, or of south in that role in the southern, is, prior to worldwide communication, anything but an arbitrary one. On the contrary, it is of interest that Chinese and Islamic culture even considered south as the proper top end for maps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21208200",
"title": "Western world",
"section": "Section::::Modern definitions.:Economic definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "The existence of \"The North\" implies the existence of \"The South\", and the socio-economic divide between North and South. The term \"the North\" has in some contexts replaced earlier usage of the term \"\"the West\"\", particularly in the critical sense, as a more robust demarcation than the terms \"\"West\"\" and \"East\". The North provides some absolute geographical indicators for the location of wealthy countries, most of which are physically situated in the Northern Hemisphere, although, as most countries are located in the northern hemisphere in general, some have considered this distinction equally unhelpful. Modern financial services and technologies are largely developed by Western nations: Bitcoin, most known digital currency is subject to skepticism in the Eastern world whereas Western nations are more open to it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "267394",
"title": "North–South divide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 985,
"text": "The North is mostly correlated with the Western world and the First World, along with much of the Second World, while the South largely corresponds with the Third World and Eastern world. The two groups are often defined in terms of their differing levels of wealth, development, income inequality, democracy, political and economic freedom, as defined by freedom indices. Nations in the North tend to be wealthier, less unequal and considered more democratic and to be developed countries; Southern states are generally poorer developing countries with younger, more fragile democracies and frequently share a history of past colonialism by Northern states. The Global South \"lacks appropriate technology, it has no political stability, the economies are disarticulated, and their foreign exchange earnings depend on primary product exports.\" Nevertheless, the divide between the North and the South increasingly \"corresponds less and less to reality and is increasingly challenged.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2332287",
"title": "Grady McWhiney",
"section": "Section::::Career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "In 1993 he argued the fundamental differences between North and South developed during the 18th century, when Celtic migrants first settled in the Old South. Some of the fundamental attributes that caused the Old South to adopt anti-English values and practices were Celtic social organization, language, and means of livelihood. It was supposedly the Celtic values and traditions that set the agrarian South apart from the industrialized civilization developing in the North.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15055898",
"title": "Sun path",
"section": "Section::::Visualization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the Southern Hemisphere, south is to the left. The Sun rises in the east (near arrow), culminates in the north (to the right) while moving to the left, and sets in the west (far arrow). Both rise and set positions are displaced towards the south in midsummer and the north in midwinter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32310218",
"title": "Classical compass winds",
"section": "Section::::Greek.:Aristotle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "The exception to this system is Caecias (NE), which Aristotle notes is \"half north and half east\", and thus neither generally northern nor generally southern. The local Phoenicias (SSE), is also designated as \"half south and half east\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8310679",
"title": "'Are'are people",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 264,
"text": "The southern and northern zones differ in their political organization, with the south led by hereditary chieftains, while the north follows the self-made big man structure common in Melanesia. Both the hereditary and non-hereditary leaders are known as \"aaraha\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
24f6y5 | Are cancerous cells ever observed in non-animal organisms such as plants, fungi, etc...? | [
{
"answer": "Yes, plants can form tumors, but in general it is thought they are not as harmful as in animals because plant cells have cell walls while animal cells don't. Similar pathways lead to plant tumors as in animal tumors (ie they develop from stem cell niches). But, one of the key steps in cancer metastasis in animals is the interaction between the cancerous cell and the extracellular matrix surrounding the cell. In plants, due to the rigidity of the cell wall, the cancerous cell has very little room to grow and metastasize, and the cell wall is thought to be critical for the proper development/maintenance of the plant.\n\nSource:\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "299472",
"title": "Multicellular organism",
"section": "Section::::Evolutionary history.:Cancer.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Multicellular organisms, especially long-living animals, face the challenge of cancer, which occurs when cells fail to regulate their growth within the normal program of development. Changes in tissue morphology can be observed during this process. Cancer in animals (metazoans) has often been described as a loss of multicellularity. There is a discussion about the possibility of existence of cancer in other multicellular organisms or even in protozoa. For example, plant galls have been characterized as tumors, but some authors argue that plants do not develop cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5460467",
"title": "Xenoma",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 708,
"text": "Hypertrophy of cells caused by protists and fungi has been observed since the late nineteenth century. Scientists observed them in several organisms, of which the infection would have varied host cell specificity, ultimately leading to different cellular consequences. For example, the dinoflagellate protist \"Sphaeripara catenata\" induces hypertrophy, polyploid nuclei formation whilst forming a thick-walled hyposome where rhizoids extend into the cytoplasm for nutrient absorption in the appendicularian \"Fritillaria pellucida\". This can be contrasted to the \"Microsporidium cotti\" infection of the testes of \"Taurulus bubalis\" where a dense microvillus layer is present for improved nutrient absorption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1973998",
"title": "Devil facial tumour disease",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1076,
"text": "The theory that cancer cells themselves could be an infective agent (the Allograft Theory) was first offered in 2006 by Pearse, Swift and colleagues, who analysed DFTD cells from devils in several locations, determining that all DFTD cells sampled were genetically identical to each other, and genetically distinct from their hosts and from all other individual Tasmanian devils whose genetics had been studied; this allowed them to conclude that the cancer originated from a single individual and spread from it, rather than arising repeatedly, and independently. Twenty-one different subtypes have been identified by analysing the mitochondrial and nuclear genomes of 104 tumours from different Tasmanian devils. Researchers have also witnessed a previously-uninfected devil develop tumours from lesions caused by an infected devil's bites, supporting the contention that the disease is spread by allograft, with transmission via biting, scratching, and aggressive sexual activity between individuals. During biting, infection can spread from the bitten devil to the biter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34987380",
"title": "Mega-telomere",
"section": "Section::::Structure and Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 923,
"text": "In birds, whose cells contain microchromosomes, it has been suggested that there was a correlation between the presence of mega-telomeres and the number of microchromosomes present in a species, such that bird genomes with large numbers of microchromosomes also possessed larger amounts of telomeric DNA sequence. It was thought that these telomeric sequences might protect genes on these tiny chromosomes from erosion during cell division. However, subsequent studies showed that mega-telomeres are not necessarily present in all species with microchromosomes, nor are they found on all microchromosomes within a cell. Mega-telomeres are also thought contribute to the high recombination rate of chicken microchromosomes. The longest mega-telomere in chickens is associated with the W (female) chromosome, suggesting that mega-telomeres may also affect sex chromosome organization and the generation of genetic variation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1772647",
"title": "Uterine fibroid",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 313,
"text": "Microscopically, tumor cells resemble normal cells (elongated, spindle-shaped, with a cigar-shaped nucleus) and form bundles with different directions (whorled). These cells are uniform in size and shape, with scarce mitoses. There are three benign variants: bizarre (atypical); cellular; and mitotically active.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6386989",
"title": "Symsagittifera roscoffensis",
"section": "Section::::The photosynthetic partner and the modus vivendi between the animal and the micro-algae.:Discovery and characteristics of the partner micro-algae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Neither Geddes (1879), who observed the presence of starch and chlorophyll in the green cells present in the tissues, nor Delage (1886) and Haberlandt (1891) had formally been able to identify their origin and nature, however, suspecting micro-algae.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5521310",
"title": "Michael Abercrombie",
"section": "Section::::Scientific career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "He notably discovered that animal cells moving through tissue culture will halt when they come into contact with another cell of the same type, with the important exception of cancer cells. This discovery led to new interest and research into the dynamics and growth of cancer cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1ji6i5 | What are the earliest examples of a North/South divide in England? | [
{
"answer": "This cultural / administrative divide can be traced back at least as far as 11th Century. \n\nIn the reign of Edward the Confessor, Northumbria was regarded as a bit of a wild backwater and was never visited by Edward in his entire reign. Indeed, their own Earl Tostig Godwinson spent a large part of his time in Southern England, at court. Unsurprisingly, this state of affairs was unpopular with Northumbrians, who eventually mounted a minor rebellion that resulted in the death of some of Tostig's lieutenants. Eventually Northumbria chose their own earl: Morcar. After some bargaining, Edward was grudgingly forced to accept this, as there was little appetite for a civil war. \n\nWilliam the Conqueror famously 'harried' the North, which obviously caused some resentment to say the least. \n\nNorthumbria continued to be a problem for William for years after the initial invasion in 1066 with at least one of Williams local lords being murdered there.\n\nHere is what I believe to be a source: _URL_0_\n\n(I am new to AskHistorians so please tell me if I have broken any rules or if this post is bad in some way. Thanks)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3104216",
"title": "North–South divide (England)",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 626,
"text": "Potential historical reasons for the divide include the influence of Scandinavian rule in the latter centuries of the first millennium CE, with much of the cultural differences of the north-south divide coinciding with the borders of the Danelaw. The Economist proposed in a 2017 article that the origins of the North-South divide could be traced back to the Norman Conquest, and the Harrying of the North in which William the Conqueror laid waste to many towns and estates in the North. This significantly reduced the wealth of the northern half of the country, laying the foundations for centuries of economic disadvantage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2450137",
"title": "English language in Northern England",
"section": "Section::::Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 759,
"text": "In historical linguistics, the dividing line between North and Midlands runs from the River Ribble or River Lune on the west coast to the River Humber on the east coast. The dialects of this region are descended from the Northumbrian dialect of Old English rather than Mercian or other Anglo-Saxon dialects. In a very early study of English dialects, Alexander J Ellis defined the border between the north and the midlands as that where the word \"house\" is pronounced with to the north (as also in Scots). Although well-suited to historical analysis, this line does not reflect contemporary language; this line divides Lancashire and Yorkshire in half and few would today consider Manchester or Leeds, both located south of the line, as part of the Midlands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24757863",
"title": "North–South divide in the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 372,
"text": "In Great Britain, the term North–South divide refers to the economic and cultural differences between Southern England and the rest of Great Britain (Northern England, The Midlands, Wales and Scotland). The divide cuts through the English Midlands. Sometimes, the term is widened to include the whole United Kingdom, with Northern Ireland included as part of \"the North\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "447273",
"title": "Township (England)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "The local historian Dorothy Silvester has identified a \"parish line\", which divided northern from southern counties of England and Wales (Denbighshire, Shropshire, Staffordshire, Derbyshire, and northern Yorkshire). North of this line, parishes tended on the whole to be large, containing several townships. However, south of this line, parishes tended to contain single townships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "407950",
"title": "Kingdom of England",
"section": "Section::::History.:Anglo-Saxon England.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 583,
"text": "During the following years Northumbria repeatedly changed hands between the English kings and the Norwegian invaders, but was definitively brought under English control by Eadred in 954, completing the unification of England. At about this time, Lothian, bordering the northern portion of Northumbria (Bernicia), was ceded to the Kingdom of Scotland. On 12 July 927 the monarchs of Britain gathered at Eamont in Cumbria to recognise Æthelstan as king of the English. This can be considered England's 'foundation date', although the process of unification had taken almost 100 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12366600",
"title": "History of Wrexham",
"section": "Section::::Mercian conquest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 526,
"text": "Towards the end of the 6th century English settlers were penetrating along the upper Trent and laying the foundations of the kingdom of Mercia. A Latinisation of the Old English Mierce meaning ‘border people’. Possibly by the early 7th century some English had settled peacefully on surplus lands in the border region and gradually the line connecting Tarvin and Macefen along the river Gowy and Broxton Hills in Cheshire could have formed the dividing line between the British (Welsh) and the English during the 7th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26109986",
"title": "Geological structure of Great Britain",
"section": "Section::::Terranes.:Terranes of England and Wales.:Pennine Block & Basin Province.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 631,
"text": "Northern England is characterised by a series of fault-bound blocks separated by sedimentary basins whose origin can be traced back to the Carboniferous period. The North Pennines are formed on the Alston Block which is defined to the west by the Pennine Fault and to the north by the Stublick and Ninety Fathom Faults. It is separated from the Askrigg Block to the south by the Stainmore Trough. This latter block, coincident with the Yorkshire Dales, is defined to the west by the Dent Fault and to the south by the Craven Fault System. The Northumberland and Gainsborough Troughs lie to the north and south of these two blocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
w7ke4 | What was the effect of marijuana on the ancient world? | [
{
"answer": "I don't actually know if they criminalised the drug or not, but the origin of our word cannabis is from the Akkadian word *qunubu*, meaning that in the Near East at least they had been aware of cannabis for a very long time. At least in a religious ritual context, it's clear that the Assyrians and Babylonians used cannabis, but it is entirely possible that it was *only* used in this context and there is no evidence for common household useage. You can detect chemical traces of drugs with modern archaeology, we've used it to detect opiate traces in a few containers (the ones i'm familiar with are from Bronze Age Cyprus).\n\nI'll be honest- of all the drugs that can be seen throughout history (rather than just the last 100-200 years) Cannabis does not seem to have made a big impact anywhere. Hemp was used as a material for weaving and clothing, so it was certainly useful to people. But off the top of my head, Opium certainly had more impact. It doesn't really seem to have been any more important than many other herbs and plants, and was certainly less important than grain, barley, olive trees, opium and salt in history to name a few natural products off the top of my head.\n\nI am less familiar with its recent history, i.e the Industrial Revolution and onwards, and someone familiar with that area may give you a different answer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28755089",
"title": "History of general anesthesia",
"section": "Section::::Antiquity.:Opium.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Prior to the introduction of opium to ancient India and China, these civilizations pioneered the use of cannabis incense and aconitum. c. 400 BC, the Sushruta Samhita (a text from the Indian subcontinent on ayurvedic medicine and surgery) advocates the use of wine with incense of cannabis for anesthesia. By the 8th century AD, Arab traders had brought opium to India and China.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41272705",
"title": "History of medical cannabis",
"section": "Section::::Ancient India.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1113,
"text": "Cannabis was a major component in religious practices in ancient India as well as in medicinal practices. For many centuries, most parts of life in ancient India incorporated cannabis of some form. Surviving texts from ancient India confirm that cannabis' psychoactive properties were recognized, and doctors used it for treating a variety of illnesses and ailments. These included insomnia, headaches, a whole host of gastrointestinal disorders, and pain: cannabis was frequently used to relieve the pain of childbirth. One Indian philosopher expressed his views on the nature and uses of bhang (a form of cannabis), which combined religious thought with medical practices. \"A guardian lives in the bhang leaf. …To see in a dream the leaves, plant, or water of bhang is lucky. …A longing for bhang foretells happiness. It cures dysentry and sunstroke, clears phlegm, quickens digestion, sharpens appetite, makes the tongue of the lisper plain, freshens the intellect and gives alertness to the body and gaiety to the mind. Such are the useful and needful ends for which in His goodness the Almighty made bhang.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39558336",
"title": "Narcoculture in Mexico",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Many scholars, like Luis Astorga and Jorge Alan Sanchez Godoy explain that there is no evidence that would suggest that cannabis or opium were consumed in Mexico prior to the arrival of the Spanish and the Chinese . Although indigenous communities in Mexico consumed hallucinogenic mushrooms and Peyote in their religious practices it was not until the arrival of the Spanish that cannabis was introduced to Mexico.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14942276",
"title": "Cannabis culture",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "Historically cannabis has been used an entheogen to induce spiritual experiences - most notably in the Indian subcontinent since the Vedic period dating back to approximately 1500 BCE, but perhaps as far back as 2000 BCE. Its entheogenic use was also recorded in Ancient China, the Germanic peoples, the Celts, Ancient Central Asia, and Africa. In modern times, spiritual use of the drug is mostly associated with the Rastafari movement of Jamaica. Several Western subcultures have had marijuana consumption as an idiosyncratic feature, such as hippies, beatniks, hipsters (both the 1940s subculture and the contemporary subculture), ravers and hip hop.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47374736",
"title": "Cannabis in Egypt",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "Evidence has suggested that cannabis was present in Egypt since circa 3000 BP. However, whether or not it was used for psychoactive purposes during this time has not been documented. It was stated in a book written in 1980 that cannabis cultivation has occurred in Egypt for \"almost a thousand years\". During this time, cannabis was used for making rope and it was also cultivated for use as a drug. Cannabis has been utilized in Egypt for hashish production for at least the last \"eight or nine centuries\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1481886",
"title": "Cannabis (drug)",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Cannabis is indigenous to Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, and its uses for fabric and rope dates back to the Neolithic age in China and Japan. It is unclear when cannabis first became known for its psychoactive properties; some research suggests that the ancient Indian drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas, sometimes contained cannabis. This is based on the discovery of a basin containing cannabis in a shrine of the second millennium BC in Turkmenistan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22707918",
"title": "Medical cannabis in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Early medical use in the U.S..\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 576,
"text": "The medical use of cannabis dates back thousands of years, to ancient China, India, and Egypt. It was popularized in Western medicine by the Irish physician William Brooke O'Shaughnessy, who was introduced to the drug in the 1830s while living abroad in India. O'Shaughnessy documented a number of medical applications for cannabis from the experiments he conducted, noting in particular its analgesic and anticonvulsant effects. He returned to England with a supply of cannabis in 1842, after which its use as medicine quickly spread throughout Europe and the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
41ay9v | herding dogs. how do they know where the livestock needs to go? how much is instinct, and how much is training? | [
{
"answer": "Where to take the animal is training, whatever method they use to do it is the genetics. Aussies will body block, nip heels, bark (very loud) and strafe. Other dogs like the Catahoula will be much more aggressive with the nipping, and I think Healers to some degree. A herding (or stock) dog will direct, a shepherd will protect. Great pyrinese is a good example of a protector. All these fit into what is known as pastoral dog breeds. \n\nA nickname for the Aussie is \"Velcro Dog.\" Get one and find out why. They're great with kids. I have a 9 mo female who warned a friend with get mouth for playing too rough with the kids.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "514072",
"title": "Herding dog",
"section": "Section::::Herding behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "Herding instincts and trainability can be measured when introducing a dog to livestock or at noncompetitive herding tests. Individuals exhibiting basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in herding trials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "446843",
"title": "Herding",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Some animals instinctively gather together as a herd. A group of animals fleeing a predator will demonstrate herd behavior for protection; while some predators, such as wolves and dogs have instinctive herding abilities derived from primitive hunting instincts. Instincts in herding dogs and trainability can be measured at noncompetitive herding tests. Dogs exhibiting basic herding instincts can be trained to aid in herding and to compete in herding and stock dog trials. Sperm whales have also been observed teaming up to herd prey in a coordinated feeding behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "514072",
"title": "Herding dog",
"section": "Section::::Herding behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "All herding behavior is modified predatory behavior. Through selective breeding, humans have been able to minimize the dog's natural inclination to treat cattle and sheep as prey while simultaneously maintaining the dog's hunting skills, thereby creating an effective herding dog.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "514072",
"title": "Herding dog",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "The term \"herding dog\" is sometimes erroneously used to describe livestock guardian dogs, whose primary function is to guard flocks and herds from predation and theft, and they lack the herding instinct. Although herding dogs may guard flocks their primary purpose is to move them; both herding dogs and livestock guardian dogs may be called \"sheep dogs\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102136",
"title": "Border Collie",
"section": "Section::::Livestock work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "The use of dogs for herding sheep makes good economic sense for many farmers. In a typical pasture environment each trained sheepdog will do the work of three humans. In vast arid areas like the Australian Outback or the Karoo Escarpment, the number increases to five or more. Attempts to replace them with mechanical approaches to herding have only achieved a limited amount of success. Thus, stock handlers find trained dogs more reliable and economical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "514816",
"title": "Australian Shepherd",
"section": "Section::::Activities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 323,
"text": "Like other herding breeds, these dogs excel at many dog sports, especially herding, dog agility, frisbee, and flyball. Herding instincts and trainability can be measured at noncompetitive instinct tests. Aussies that exhibit basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in ASCA stock dog trials or AKC herding events.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17158563",
"title": "Sheep",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Flock behavior.:Herding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Farmers exploit flocking behavior to keep sheep together on unfenced pastures such as hill farming, and to move them more easily. For this purpose shepherds may use herding dogs in this effort, with a highly bred herding ability. Sheep are food-oriented, and association of humans with regular feeding often results in sheep soliciting people for food. Those who are moving sheep may exploit this behavior by leading sheep with buckets of feed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
245kwq | why is the us media overly sexualized, but then people are shamed for sexualization? | [
{
"answer": "What sells and what's \"taboo\" are often the same thing.\n\nDisease makes medicine sell.\n\nJoker makes Batman.\n\nIt's the oppositional defiance complex of humanity being used as a tool. If someone says \"you can't have that,\" but another says \"here's all of it\" you're going to go take it all. When those people are the voice of both sides, profits are reaped.\n\nIt sounds somewhat conspiratorial, but it's not. The FCC may not be in the pocket of tits and ass, literally, but, the tits and ass allow it to exist.\n\nThe way capitalisation works perpetuates these things. As long as a cow is breathing, take as much milk as you can.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > The FCC is so sensitive about some things (language, no nudity) on television/in media, but yet, the media still finds a way around that. \n\n...\n\n > why is there such restraint over sexuality when it is blatantly obvious that people find ways around it? \n\nYour question has a built-in presumption that the FCC is tightly regulating these things and that TV stations / content producers are actively trying to find loop-holes / ways to exploit these tight restrictions and get around them. In reality it's pretty much the exact opposite. \n\nFirstly, the FCC doesn't regulate Cable/Satellite TV stations, only freely accessible broadcast stations (the ones you can pick-up with an antenna). Secondly, even for the broadcast stations which are regulated by the FCC, there is nothing stopping them from broadcasting explicit language, nudity and sex at night time. The FCC regulates content during the daytime strictly for the protection of young children. At night, the safe harbor kicks-in at about 10 PM and any TV station (including broadcast stations like ABC, CBS, NBC, FOX, etc.) are all free to air highly explicit language, nudity, sex, etc.\n\nThe fact is these stations choose not to air such content and impose voluntary censorship. It's not the case that they're trying to push the boundaries as far as the rules will let them - quite the opposite... They are actually imposing rules of self-censorship upon themselves which are much more strict than any government regulations require.\n\nThis is mostly because they want to appease advertisers (many of whom don't like to be associated with Risqué content or anything which could be controversial). Self-censorship is also imposed to avoid public outcry from vocal parent/family and religious groups who may take offense to (what they see as) inappropriate content like explicit language, nudity, sex, and these groups have been known to organize boycotts. So basically TV stations electively choose to be uptight when it comes to things like sexuality because they're afraid of upsetting the people (e.g. advertisers) that help fund their stations.\n\nYou will notice that premium channels like HBO (which rely on subscriber fees rather than advertising) have no problems showing explicit language, nudity and sex on their channel.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33375023",
"title": "Misogyny and mass media",
"section": "Section::::Violent pornography.:Influencing misogyny.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Most studies consistently show that after exposure to pornography and other forms of misogynistic media depicting degradation of women and rape, including hip hop and rap, viewers show attitudes that are less sympathetic to rape victims and more tolerant and accepting of violence toward women – in effect, such behavior becomes more \"normalized\" and \"mainstreamed. It's desensitizing and addictive potentials are well-documented in its users.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25794517",
"title": "Women in Italy",
"section": "Section::::Issues in present time.:Culture and society.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "In more recent times the media, particularly TV shows, have been accused of promoting sexist stereotypes. In 2017, one talk-show of a state-owned broadcaster was cancelled after accusations that it promoted discriminatory views of women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37680417",
"title": "Internalized sexism",
"section": "Section::::Modes of internalization.:Television and cinema.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "There is a long-lasting connection between misogyny and mass media. Comedic sitcoms often portray men degrading the value of women and commenting on women's weight and size. This contributes to the internalization of gender size stereotypes, sometimes negatively affecting the mental and physical health of females. One of the primary problems in mass media is the under-representation of women in widely consumed productions. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36161211",
"title": "Exploitation of women in mass media",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 659,
"text": "The exploitation of women in mass media is the use or portrayal of women in mass media (such as television, film and advertising) to increase the appeal of media or a product to the detriment of, or without regard to, the interests of the women portrayed, or women in general. This process includes the presentation of women as sexual objects and the setting of standards of beauty that women are expected to reflect. Feminists and other advocates of women's rights have criticized such exploitation. The most often criticized aspect of the use of women in mass media is sexual objectification, but dismemberment can be a part of the objectification as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36161211",
"title": "Exploitation of women in mass media",
"section": "Section::::Criticisms of the media.:Television.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Television is often subject to criticism for the sexual exploitation of women on screen, particularly when teenagers are involved. In 2013, the Parents Television Council released a report that found that it was increasingly more likely for a scene to be exploitative when a teenage girl was involved. The report also found that 43 percent of teen girls on television are the targets of sexually exploitative jokes compared to 33 percent of adult women. Rev. Delman Coates, a PTC board member said, \"young people are having difficulty managing the distinction between appropriate and inappropriate sexual conduct\". This report is of a series that's about media sexualization of young girls.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15419332",
"title": "International Fetish Day",
"section": "Section::::National Fetish Day.:Ronnie Campbell MP.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "\"People with certain fetishes now face the prospect of becoming victims of the government's sustained assault on civil liberties. In a knee-jerk piece of headline-grabbing, ministers have introduced a law on \"extreme pornography\" which comes into force this month. Rather than targeting the exploitative, abusive and bullying elements of the pornography industry, the law is aimed at sadomasochistic images regardless of the context. So low is the barrier that if taken literally it could lead to a couple who take a photo of their consensual (and legal) sexual activity being arrested for possession of that photo.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60406309",
"title": "Sex-selective abortion in South Korea",
"section": "Section::::Societal implications.:Consequences of high sex ratio.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "Another negative social implication may be the increased use of pornography due to rarity of women and greater sex related crimes of violence targeting women. With a greater scarcity of women, men may be more inclined and desperate to seek out female partners.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
9gr1za | why does jello pudding mix only work with dairy milk? | [
{
"answer": "They make ones that will work with non dairy milks. The proteins and fats and sugars in milk are pretty unique which is why they can make cheese. You cant make almond cheese or coconut cheese, and you cant make dairy pudding with them either. Maybe someone can explain the science behind the interactions with the casein(or whatever milk enzyme it is) that makes it work specifically",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18730188",
"title": "Dairy mix",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "A dairy mix is the blend of milk, cream, sugar, stabilizers, and vanilla packaged by a dairy for commercial use. This mix can either be made directly into ice cream or placed into containers for the use in soft serve, frozen custard, or ice cream machines. Dairy mix used in restaurants can be also used to make frozen drinks or smoothies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18730188",
"title": "Dairy mix",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 238,
"text": "Dairy mix is typically packaged in bags, jugs or half gallon cartons. Most dairies place these in milk crates or boxes, depending on where or how they ship their product. These products are pasteurized under State and Federal guidelines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21020361",
"title": "Square milk jug",
"section": "Section::::Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "Because square milk jugs can be stacked, they require less labor at the dairy, and can be packaged more quickly, which allows the milk to be shipped sooner, providing fresher milk to the retailer. The wide mouth is also easier to fill which reduces the likelihood of spillage and the sanitary issues caused by milk getting on the container.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "548237",
"title": "Malted milk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Malted milk is a powdered gruel made from a mixture of malted barley, wheat flour, and evaporated whole milk. The powder is used to add its distinctive flavor to beverages and other foods, but it is also used in baking to help the dough cook properly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46183",
"title": "Butter",
"section": "Section::::Production.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "Unhomogenized milk and cream contain butterfat in microscopic globules. These globules are surrounded by membranes made of phospholipids (fatty acid emulsifiers) and proteins, which prevent the fat in milk from pooling together into a single mass. Butter is produced by agitating cream, which damages these membranes and allows the milk fats to conjoin, separating from the other parts of the cream. Variations in the production method will create butters with different consistencies, mostly due to the butterfat composition in the finished product. Butter contains fat in three separate forms: free butterfat, butterfat crystals, and undamaged fat globules. In the finished product, different proportions of these forms result in different consistencies within the butter; butters with many crystals are harder than butters dominated by free fats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56228",
"title": "Dairy",
"section": "Section::::Industrial processing.:Cream and butter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Some milk is dried and powdered, some is condensed (by evaporation) mixed with varying amounts of sugar and canned. Most cream from New Zealand and Australian factories is made into butter. This is done by churning the cream until the fat globules coagulate and form a monolithic mass. This butter mass is washed and, sometimes, salted to improve keeping qualities. The residual buttermilk goes on to further processing. The butter is packaged (25 to 50 kg boxes) and chilled for storage and sale. At a later stage these packages are broken down into home-consumption sized packs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "235923",
"title": "Buttermilk",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Buttermilk is a fermented dairy drink. Traditionally, it was the liquid left behind after churning butter out of cultured cream. However, most modern buttermilk is cultured. It is common in warm climates (including the Balkans, South Asia, the Middle East and the Southern United States) where unrefrigerated fresh milk sours quickly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1kffht | When did owning swimming pools become fashionable? | [
{
"answer": "In Rome and Greece, swimming was part of the education of elementary age boys and the Romans built the first swimming pools (separate from bathing pools). The first heated swimming pool was built by Gaius Maecenas of Rome in the first century BC. Gaius Maecenas was a rich Roman lord and considered one of the first patron of arts - he supported the famous poets Horace, Virgil, and Propertius, making it possible for them to live and write without fear of poverty. However, swimming pools did not became popular until the middle of the 19th century. By 1837, six indoor pools with diving boards were built in London, England. After the modern Olympic Games began in 1896 and swimming races were among the original events, the popularity of swimming pools began to spread.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19824126",
"title": "Swimming pool",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "Swimming pools became popular in Britain in the mid-19th century. As early as 1837, six indoor pools with diving boards existed in London, England. The Maidstone Swimming Club in Maidstone, Kent is believed to be the oldest surviving swimming club in Britain. It was formed in 1844, in response to concerns over drownings in the River Medway, especially since would-be rescuers would often drown because they themselves could not swim to safety. The club used to swim in the River Medway, and would hold races, diving competitions and water polo matches. \"The South East Gazette\" July 1844 reported an aquatic breakfast party: coffee and biscuits were served on a floating raft in the river. The coffee was kept hot over a fire; club members had to tread water and drink coffee at the same time. The last swimmers managed to overturn the raft, to the amusement of 150 spectators.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24942694",
"title": "History of swimming",
"section": "Section::::Swimming as a competitive sport.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "Swimming emerged as a competitive sport in the early 1800s in England. In 1828, the first indoor swimming pool, St George's Baths, was opened to the public. By 1837, the National Swimming Society was holding regular swimming competitions in six artificial swimming pools, built around London. The sport grew in popularity and by 1880, when the first national governing body, the Amateur Swimming Association, was formed, there were already over 300 regional clubs in operation across the country. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22425760",
"title": "Swimming (sport)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "Swimming emerged as a competitive recreational activity in the 1830s in England. In 1828, the first indoor swimming pool, St George's Baths was opened to the public. By 1837, the National Swimming Society was holding regular swimming competitions in six artificial swimming pools, built around London. The recreational activity grew in popularity and by 1880, when the first national governing body, the Amateur Swimming Association was formed, there were already over 300 regional clubs in operation across the country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19824126",
"title": "Swimming pool",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "The modern Olympic Games started in 1896 and included swimming races, after which the popularity of swimming pools began to spread. In the US, the Racquet Club of Philadelphia clubhouse (1907) boasts one of the world's first modern above-ground swimming pools. The first swimming pool to go to sea on an ocean liner was installed on the White Star Line's \"Adriatic\" in 1906. The oldest known public swimming pool in America, Underwood Pool, is located in Belmont, Massachusetts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19824126",
"title": "Swimming pool",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "The Amateur Swimming Association was founded in 1869 in England, and the Oxford Swimming Club in 1909. The presence of indoor baths in the cobbled area of Merton Street might have persuaded the less hardy of the aquatic brigade to join. So, bathers gradually became swimmers, and bathing pools became swimming pools.. In 1939, Oxford created its first major public indoor pool at Temple Cowley.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28937042",
"title": "Timuquana Country Club",
"section": "Section::::Other amenities.:Swimming pool.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "Although a swimming pool had been proposed from the earliest days of the Club, it was not until after World War II that one was built for and enjoyment of the members and their families. In 1963, the Club added a new swimming pool with family and lap areas. In 2000, the poolside grille was given a facelift and new restroom facilities were added.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30165095",
"title": "Wylie's Baths",
"section": "Section::::History.:Coogee.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 750,
"text": "The late nineteenth century also saw the development of swimming as a competitive sport, in contrast to \"bathing\" as a therapeutic activity. The first British amateur swimming association was formed in 1869, and the Balmain Swimming Club was formed in March 1884. In 1891 the NSW Amateur Swimming Association was formed by men's swimming clubs and in 1906 women swimmers formed their own association. Fred Cavill arrived in Sydney in 1879 and, with his sons, managed a number of harbourside pools (for example, Lavender Bay) and helped to popularise competitive and long-distance swimming. His son, Dick Cavill introduced the crawl from the Solomon Islands which revolutionised swimming and another son, Sydney Cavill developed the butterfly stroke.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3qrkg3 | What happens to disease immunity from vaccinations if you're HIV positive? | [
{
"answer": "The body does still produce an effect but it is significantly reduced with a low CD4 count. Think of T helper (CD4) cells as basically the [bugles](_URL_1_) calling in the cavalry of the immune system; once an antigen presenting cell (APC) hands them some info and gives the T helper the secret handshake, they rally and direct the immune system. Without these you'll only really see a local response which isn't great for memory. Someone with a low CD4 count has to be very careful of live, attenuated (weakened) vaccines like influenza, smallpox, or [BCG](_URL_0_) because they can quickly develop an infection and die. Before obviously would be ideal for vaccination, afterwards (like most other infectious disease treatment with HIV+) has to wait until the HIV is under control.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "33980038",
"title": "Tetanus vaccine",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism of action.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "The type of vaccination for this disease is called artificial active immunity. This type of immunity is generated when a dead or weakened version of the disease enters the body causing an immune response which includes the production of antibodies. This is beneficial to the body because this means that if the disease is ever introduced into the body, the immune system will recognize the antigen and produce antibodies more rapidly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4134885",
"title": "Contact immunity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "The potential for contact immunity exists primarily in \"live\" or attenuated vaccines. Vaccination with a live, but attenuated, virus can produce immunity to more dangerous forms of the virus. These attenuated viruses produce little or no illness in most people. However, the live virus multiplies briefly, may be shed in body fluids or excrement, and can be contracted by another person. If this contact produces immunity and carries no notable risk, it benefits an additional person, and further increases the immunity of the group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8077915",
"title": "Breakthrough infection",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.:Biological Causes.:Virus Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "When a person is vaccinated, their immune system develops antibodies that recognize specific segments (epitopes) viruses or viral-induced proteins. Over time, however, viruses accumulate genetic mutations which can impact the 3d structure of viral proteins. If these mutations occur in sites that are recognized by antibodies, the mutations block antibody binding which inhibits the immune response. This phenomenon is called antigenic drift. Breakthrough infections of Hepatitis B and mumps are partially attributed to antigenic drift.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "931668",
"title": "Susceptible individual",
"section": "Section::::Susceptible individuals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "Susceptibles have been exposed to neither the wild strain of the disease nor a vaccination against it, and thus have not developed immunity. Those individuals who have antibodies against an antigen associated with a particular infectious disease will not be susceptible, even if they did not produce the antibody themselves (for example, infants younger than six months who still have maternal antibodies passed through the placenta and from the colostrum, and adults who have had a recent injection of antibodies). However, these individuals soon return to the susceptible state as the antibodies are broken down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "87175",
"title": "Herd immunity",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Protection of those without immunity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1091,
"text": "Some individuals either cannot develop immunity after vaccination or for medical reasons cannot be vaccinated. Newborn infants are too young to receive many vaccines, either for safety reasons or because passive immunity renders the vaccine ineffective. Individuals who are immunodeficient due to HIV/AIDS, lymphoma, leukemia, bone marrow cancer, an impaired spleen, chemotherapy, or radiotherapy may have lost any immunity that they previously had and vaccines may not be of any use for them because of their immunodeficiency. Vaccines are typically imperfect as some individuals' immune systems may not generate an adequate immune response to vaccines to confer long-term immunity, so a portion of those who are vaccinated may lack immunity. Lastly, vaccine contraindications may prevent certain individuals from becoming immune. In addition to not being immune, individuals in one of these groups may be at a greater risk of developing complications from infection because of their medical status, but they may still be protected if a large enough percentage of the population is immune.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21848068",
"title": "2F5 antibody",
"section": "Section::::Vaccine implications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "A major goal recently in HIV-1 vaccinations is eliciting the broadly neutralizing antibodies before the virus is actually established, since the virus integrates itself into the host's DNA. Vaccine trials have been largely unsuccessful in eliciting a response using mimics of the e\"nv\" region, potentially because of its high genetic variability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4134885",
"title": "Contact immunity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Contact immunity is the property of some vaccines, where a vaccinated individual can confer immunity upon unimmunized individuals through contact with bodily fluids or excrement. In other words, if Amelia has been vaccinated for virus \"X\" and Roberto has not, Roberto can receive immunity to virus \"X\" just by coming into contact with Amelia. The term was coined by Romanian physician Ion Cantacuzino.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
9aesjb | is there a difference between a racist and a bigot, and if so, what is it? | [
{
"answer": "A racist is intolerant towards people of other races. A bigot is intolerant of other people's opinions. But bigot can sometimes be someone who's prejudiced because of another person's identity (be it their sexuality, class, gender, disability, etc).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "894988",
"title": "Donald C. Peattie",
"section": "Section::::Literature Work.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "An example of Peattie's views that can be construed as racist is the following, from \"An Almanac for Moderns\": \"Every species of ant has its racial characteristics. This one seems to me to be the negro of ants, and not alone from the circumstance that he is all black, but because he is the commonest victim of slavery, and seems especially susceptible to a submissive estate. He is easily impressed by the superior organization or the menacing tactics of his raiders and drivers, and, as I know him, he is relatively lazy or at least disorganized, random, feckless and witless when free in the bush, while for his masters he will work faithfully.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33210860",
"title": "Somatocentrism",
"section": "Section::::Perception.:Racism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 457,
"text": "Racism is defined by a belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race. Racial differences are most easily compared by the phenotypical differences between peoples of a different race, i.e. skin tone, facial features, hair color, and body type. To place social value on any trait, whether positive or negative, is a product of somatocentric values.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1182927",
"title": "Social stratification",
"section": "Section::::Variables in theory and research.:Social.:Race.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 1542,
"text": "Racism consists of both prejudice and discrimination based in social perceptions of observable biological differences between peoples. It often takes the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems in which different races are perceived to be ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities. In a given society, those who share racial characteristics socially perceived as undesirable are typically under-represented in positions of social power, i.e., they become a minority category in that society. Minority members in such a society are often subjected to discriminatory actions resulting from majority policies, including assimilation, exclusion, oppression, expulsion, and extermination. Overt racism usually feeds directly into a stratification system through its effect on social status. For example, members associated with a particular race may be assigned a slave status, a form of oppression in which the majority refuses to grant basic rights to a minority that are granted to other members of the society. More covert racism, such as that which many scholars posit is practiced in more contemporary societies, is socially hidden and less easily detectable. Covert racism often feeds into stratification systems as an intervening variable affecting income, educational opportunities, and housing. Both overt and covert racism can take the form of structural inequality in a society in which racism has become institutionalized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1308195",
"title": "Racists (novel)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "Racists is a 2006 novel by Kunal Basu about a scientific experiment in the mid-19th century in which a white girl and a black boy are raised together as savages on a small uninhabited island off the coast of Africa. The long-term experiment is devised by the \"racists\" of the title, two rival scientists—one British, one French—to once and for all settle the question of racial superiority.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "77182",
"title": "Prejudice",
"section": "Section::::Controversies and prominent topics.:Racism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 641,
"text": "Racism is defined as the belief that physical characteristics determine cultural traits, and that racial characteristics make some groups superior. By separating people into hierarchies based upon their race, it has been argued that unequal treatment among the different groups of people is just and fair due to their genetic differences. Racism can occur amongst any group that can be identified based upon physical features or even characteristics of their culture. Though people may be lumped together and called a specific race, everyone does not fit neatly into such categories, making it hard to define and describe a race accurately.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25613",
"title": "Racism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "Racism is the belief in the superiority of one race over another. It may also include prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against other people because they are of a different race or ethnicity, or the belief that members of different races or ethnicities should be treated differently. Modern variants of racism are often based in social perceptions of biological differences between peoples. These views can take the form of social actions, practices or beliefs, or political systems in which different races are ranked as inherently superior or inferior to each other, based on presumed shared inheritable traits, abilities, or qualities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "424739",
"title": "Abuse",
"section": "Section::::Types and contexts of abuse.:Racial abuse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 207,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 207,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Racism is abusive attitudes or treatment of others based on the belief that race is a primary determinant of human traits and capacities. It is a form of pride that one's own race is superior and, as a result, has a right to \"rule or dominate others,\" according to a \"Macquarie Dictionary\" definition. Racism is correlated with and can foster race-based prejudice, violence, dislike, discrimination, and oppression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
eytby | Questions about aspirin... | [
{
"answer": "1. I synthesized aspirin in my undergraduate organic chemistry class. We dissolved it in 100% ethanol, then added water for recrystallization. The aspirin dissolves completely in EtOH, but is not as soluble in the water/EtOH solution. So, I would go with ethanol. Edit: [this paper](_URL_0_) describes solubility of aspirin in various solvents. Acetone seemed to work the best. \n\n2. I haven't looked at the thermodynamics of the reverse reaction, but it seems as though the acetyl group in aspirin would fall off and give you acetate/acetic acid. Edit: OK, I think I have it. A base would attack the carbonyl present in aspirin, leaving salicylic acid and acetate/acetic acid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1525",
"title": "Aspirin",
"section": "Section::::Medical use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 780,
"text": "Aspirin is used in the treatment of a number of conditions, including fever, pain, rheumatic fever, and inflammatory conditions, such as rheumatoid arthritis, pericarditis, and Kawasaki disease. Lower doses of aspirin have also been shown to reduce the risk of death from a heart attack, or the risk of stroke in people who are at high risk or who have cardiovascular disease, but not in elderly people who are otherwise healthy. There is some evidence that aspirin is effective at preventing colorectal cancer, though the mechanisms of this effect are unclear. In the United States, low-dose aspirin is deemed reasonable in those between 50 and 70 years old who have a risk of cardiovascular disease over 10%, are not at an increased risk of bleeding, and are otherwise healthy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1525",
"title": "Aspirin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a medication used to treat pain, fever, or inflammation. Specific inflammatory conditions which aspirin is used to treat include Kawasaki disease, pericarditis, and rheumatic fever. Aspirin given shortly after a heart attack decreases the risk of death. Aspirin is also used long-term to help prevent further heart attacks, ischaemic strokes, and blood clots in people at high risk. It may also decrease the risk of certain types of cancer, particularly colorectal cancer. For pain or fever, effects typically begin within 30 minutes. Aspirin is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) and works similarly to other NSAIDs but also suppresses the normal functioning of platelets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16283254",
"title": "History of aspirin",
"section": "Section::::Revival as heart drug.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 1578,
"text": "The idea of using aspirin to prevent clotting diseases (such as heart attacks and strokes) was revived in the 1960s, when medical researcher Harvey Weiss found that aspirin had an anti-adhesive effect on blood platelets (and unlike other potential antiplatelet drugs, aspirin had low toxicity). Medical Research Council haematologist John O'Brien picked up on Weiss's finding and, in 1963, began working with epidemiologist Peter Elwood on aspirin's anti-thrombosis drug potential. Elwood began a large-scale trial of aspirin as a preventive drug for heart attacks. Nicholas Laboratories agreed to provide aspirin tablets, and Elwood enlisted heart attack survivors in a double-blind controlled study—heart attack survivors were statistically more likely to suffer a second attack, greatly reducing the number of patients necessary to reliably detect whether aspirin had an effect on heart attacks. The study began in February 1971, though the researchers soon had to break the double-blinding when a study by American epidemiologist Hershel Jick suggested that aspirin prevented heart attacks but suggested that the heart attacks were more deadly. Jick had found that fewer aspirin-takers were admitted to his hospital for heart attacks than non-aspirin-takers, and one possible explanation was that aspirin caused heart attack sufferers to die before reaching the hospital; Elwood's initial results ruled out that explanation. When the Elwood trial ended in 1973, it showed a modest but not statistically significant reduction in heart attacks among the group taking aspirin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "587970",
"title": "Clopidogrel",
"section": "Section::::Medical use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 207,
"text": "It is also used, along with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA, aspirin), for the prevention of thrombosis after placement of a coronary stent or as an alternative antiplatelet drug for people intolerant to aspirin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1525",
"title": "Aspirin",
"section": "Section::::Mechanism of action.:Prostaglandins and thromboxanes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Aspirin's ability to suppress the production of prostaglandins and thromboxanes is due to its irreversible inactivation of the cyclooxygenase (COX; officially known as prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase, PTGS) enzyme required for prostaglandin and thromboxane synthesis. Aspirin acts as an acetylating agent where an acetyl group is covalently attached to a serine residue in the active site of the PTGS enzyme (Suicide inhibition). This makes aspirin different from other NSAIDs (such as diclofenac and ibuprofen), which are reversible inhibitors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1525",
"title": "Aspirin",
"section": "Section::::Adverse effects.:Interactions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "Aspirin is known to interact with other drugs. For example, acetazolamide and ammonium chloride are known to enhance the intoxicating effect of salicylates, and alcohol also increases the gastrointestinal bleeding associated with these types of drugs. Aspirin is known to displace a number of drugs from protein-binding sites in the blood, including the antidiabetic drugs tolbutamide and chlorpropamide, warfarin, methotrexate, phenytoin, probenecid, valproic acid (as well as interfering with beta oxidation, an important part of valproate metabolism), and other NSAIDs. Corticosteroids may also reduce the concentration of aspirin. Ibuprofen can negate the antiplatelet effect of aspirin used for cardioprotection and stroke prevention. The pharmacological activity of spironolactone may be reduced by taking aspirin, and it is known to compete with penicillin G for renal tubular secretion. Aspirin may also inhibit the absorption of vitamin C.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29135763",
"title": "Management of acute coronary syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Antiplatelet drugs.:Aspirin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "Aspirin inhibits platelet aggregation and formation of blood clots. It is effective across the entire spectrum of acute coronary syndromes, and it actually has been shown to reduce the rate of death in patients with STEMI and in patients presenting without ST elevation. Aspirin is contraindicated in patients with documented allergy or known platelet disorder. Patients who have had gastrointestinal symptoms while on long-term aspirin therapy are usually able to tolerate aspirin in the short term. For patients with true intolerance to aspirin clopidogrel is recommended. Lower doses need days to achieve full antiplatelet effect, therefore a loading dose is necessary for patients who are not already on aspirin.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1bnb9k | what is today's news on google forking webkit and launching blink mean? | [
{
"answer": "Webkit is a web page rendering engine that Google chrome has been using for a while now because its lightweight and fast. Its also used in other browsers and is open source, meaning everyone can see how it works and more easily find flaws with it. Because its open its used in many other browsers on many different platforms and Google wanted to make it more tightly integrate with the rest of Google chrome. So basically chrome will soon use a tweaked version of webkit they're calling Blink. Forking means they basically copied web kit, renamed it and took control over the development so they could have the freedom of modifying it however they'd like.\n\nSo in short, Blink will make Google Chrome faster than it already is.",
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"answer": "forking means creating a new code repository from the existing code base, but then switching your main code branch to the new one and deliberately not merging it back in to the previous code. \n\ngoogle chose to do this because they want to be able to make changes to the engine powering the Chrome browser without having make sure they're not breaking things for other people who were also using the code. \n\nthe code on google's fork will still be open source, but it will be developed independently of webkit from now on.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "689524",
"title": "WebKit",
"section": "Section::::Use.:Forking by Google.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
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"text": "On April 3, 2013, Google announced that it would produce a fork of WebKit's WebCore component, to be named Blink. Chrome's developers decided on the fork to allow greater freedom in implementing WebCore's features in the browser without causing conflicts upstream, and to allow simplifying its codebase by removing code for WebCore components unused by Chrome. In relation to Opera Software's announcement earlier in the year that it would switch to WebKit by means of the Chromium codebase, it was confirmed that the Opera web browser would also switch to Blink. Following the announcement, WebKit developers began discussions on removing Chrome-specific code from the engine to streamline its codebase. WebKit no longer has any Chrome specific code (e.g., buildsystem, V8 JavaScript engine hooks, platform code, etc.)\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "689524",
"title": "WebKit",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Split development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
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"end_paragraph_id": 11,
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"text": "Following the story of the fork's appearance in the news, Apple released changes of the source code of WebKit fork in a public revision-control repository. Since the transfer of the source code into a public Concurrent Versions System (CVS) repository, Apple and KHTML developers have had increasing collaboration. Many KHTML developers have become reviewers and submitters for WebKit revision control repository.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "39005310",
"title": "Blink (browser engine)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Blink is a browser engine used in the Google Chrome browser and many other projects. It is developed as part of the Chromium project with contributions from Google, Opera Software ASA, Adobe Systems, Intel, Samsung, and others. It was first announced in April 2013.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19133401",
"title": "Google Chrome",
"section": "Section::::History.:Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Chrome initially used the WebKit rendering engine to display web pages. In 2013, they forked the WebCore component to create their own layout engine Blink. Based on WebKit, Blink only uses WebKit's \"WebCore\" components, while substituting other components, such as its own multi-process architecture, in place of WebKit's native implementation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "46001",
"title": "Browser engine",
"section": "Section::::Notable engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "Google originally used WebKit for its Chrome browser but eventually forked it to create the Blink engine. All Chromium-based browsers use Blink, as do applications built with CEF, Electron, or any other framework that embeds Chromium.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2859256",
"title": "Google Reader",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Offline access.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Google Reader was the first application to make use of Google Gears, a browser extension that let online applications work offline. Users who installed the extension could download up to 2000 items to be read offline. After coming back online, Google Reader updated the feeds. Google Reader stopped supporting this feature in June 2010.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2848526",
"title": "RhythmOne",
"section": "Section::::Blinkx.com.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "Blinkx was named for blinkx.com, an Internet Media platform that connects online video viewers with publishers and distributors, using advertising to monetize those interactions. Blinkx has an index of over 35 million hours of video and 800 media partnerships; 111 patents related to the site's search engine technology, which is known as CORE.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
25f887 | If I were to accelerate a pebble to 99% the speed of light aimed at the center of the earth....what would happen? | [
{
"answer": "A 10g pebble moving at 99% of the speed of light, hitting a solid surface, would release about 5.5*10^15 J of energy. This is similar to the energy of a 1-megaton nuclear bomb (by comparison, the Little Boy was about 1.5% as much and the Tsar Bomba 5000% as much).",
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{
"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "14843",
"title": "Interstellar travel",
"section": "Section::::Feasibility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Moving at a speed close to the speed of light and encountering even a tiny stationary object like a grain of sand will have fatal consequences. For example, a gram of matter moving at 90% of the speed of light contains a kinetic energy corresponding to a small nuclear bomb (around 30kt TNT).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2703",
"title": "Aberration (astronomy)",
"section": "Section::::Discovery and first observations.:Development of the theory of aberration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "Based on these calculations, Bradley was able to estimate the constant of aberration at 20.2\", which is equal to 0.00009793 radians, and with this was able to estimate the speed of light at per second. By projecting the little circle for a star in the pole of the ecliptic, he could simplify the calculation of the relationship between the speed of light and the speed of the Earth's annual motion in its orbit as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "18406",
"title": "Luminiferous aether",
"section": "Section::::The history of light and aether.:Bradley suggests particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 413,
"text": "Bradley explained this effect in the context of Newton's corpuscular theory of light, by showing that the aberration angle was given by simple vector addition of the Earth's orbital velocity and the velocity of the corpuscles of light, just as vertically falling raindrops strike a moving object at an angle. Knowing the Earth's velocity and the aberration angle, this enabled him to estimate the speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24896900",
"title": "Rømer's determination of the speed of light",
"section": "Section::::Later discussion.:Did Rømer measure the speed of light?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 359,
"text": "Neither Newton nor Bradley bothered to calculate the speed of light in Earth-based units. The next recorded calculation was probably made by Fontenelle: claiming to work from Rømer's results, the historical account of Rømer's work written some time after 1707 gives a value of 48203 leagues per second. This is 16.826 Earth-diameters (214,636 km) per second.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2703885",
"title": "Route dependence",
"section": "Section::::Spatial route dependence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 211,
"text": "If we repeat the exercise with light signals sent around the other side of the hole, the resulting anisotropy in the speed of light will now act in the opposite direction, and B will appear to be \"uphill\" of A.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "34336155",
"title": "Blaenplwyf transmitting station",
"section": "Section::::Services listed by frequency.:Analogue television.:29 April 1957 - Summer 1970.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "This report also points out that the signal had its maximum ERP lobe to the north, and that this had been 1.6 kW at launch and 3.2 kW after the power increase. Also, that the coastal towns to the south-west had been treated to the weakest ERP (0.5 kW at launch, 1.0 kW later). Amongst the effects of this were to leave the town of Cardigan with no signal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31519",
"title": "Flash (comics)",
"section": "Section::::Powers and abilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "It is said that Wally West has reached the velocity of 23,759,449,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 (about 24 tredecillion) × c (the speed of light) and he could only do this with the help of every human being on earth moving so the speed force was joined through everyone. With that speed he was able to not only run from planet to planet but different galaxies and universes at what would be considered a blink of an eye.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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| null |
1b1l9o | amanda knox trial | [
{
"answer": "From what I know:\n\nAmanda Knox, an American, was charged with killing her British roommate while in Italy.\n\nShe was tried and acquitted (which means she was found not guilty, or the charges were dropped), and so came back home.\n\nWell, apparently the Italian courts found new evidence or didn't like that fact, so they overturned her acquittal, and now she has to go back.\n\nHowever, in the US, this is called Double Jeopardy, which is illegal. We'll see how it turns out =)\n\nIf someone that has more knowledge about whether or not the US would consider this is Double Jeopardy, please chime in. I'm also interested to know how the US could possibly try to handle this.",
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"answer": "Just a friendly reminder: US news sources, when you are lucky, are slightly biased towards AK innocence, as it is the most *appealing* opinion to US readers. Many just ignore the facts and go straight to defining the trial a farce and say that the proofs are weary. That's not the case. You can disagree with the *interpretation* of the evidence, but remind that the judges are highly trained and that the international pressure is toward the acquittal of AK, not the opposite.",
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"answer": "Since this is a dupe, I'll repost my comment from [here](_URL_0_):\n\n---\n\nAmanda Knox was an American studying in Italy. She lived with a British roommate, Meredith Kercher, and was dating an Italian man, Raffaele Sollecito. In November 2007, while Knox and Sollecito were out together, a man named Rudy Guede broke into Knox and Kercher's apartment and raped and murdered Kercher.\n\nGuede's guilt was thoroughly and irrefutably established by ample physical evidence. He protested that he had simply been burglarizing the apartment when someone else broke in and murdered Kercher. He later changed his story to some kind of bizarre sex game involving both Knox and Sollecito in which he himself was blameless.\n\nThe evidence against Knox and Sollecito is essentially nil. Prosecutors claimed to have found DNA evidence implicating them, but the alleged evidence was contaminated and mistreated, and to get any traces of DNA, the lab needed to perform experimental (and questionable) amplification procedures that they were not qualified for. There were also footprints that tested negative for blood, \"proving\" that someone had cleaned up the scene to conceal their involvement.\n\nIn addition to the \"physical\" evidence, the prosecution claimed that their conduct had been suspicious. You can google this if you want, but it's all inconsequential given that there was never any reason to suspect them to begin with. Much of it is ordinary character assassination – painting Knox as \"loose\" and a partier, that sort of thing, as though that were evidence of murder.\n\nAll three of them were convicted, Guede because he was clearly, unambiguously guilty and Knox and Sollecito because people are stupid and make stupid decisions when confronted with violent murder, sex, and international tensions. An appeals court overturned that verdict, largely citing a report pointing out that the alleged physical evidence was garbage. That court freed the two and ordered a new trial.\n\n---\n\nI did a bit more reading, to catch up with what's happened in the last couple of years. Addenda:\n\n- One of the \"suspicious\" things that Knox did was falsely implicate her boss. This occurred during an extended high-pressure interrogation during which Knox claims to have been mistreated. It turns out that the whole idea of her boss being involved was fed to her by the police based on their misunderstanding of the phrase \"see you later\" in a text message. Knox retracted the implication the next day. She was convicted of slander, and the appeals court did not overturn this, setting her sentence as three of the years she had already served.\n- Guede did change his story to implicate Knox and Sollecito after hearing that they were suspects, but the wild orgy-murder scenario was dreamed up by the prosecutor. Also, alleged Satanism. Yeah.\n- There will be another trial because the prosecution appealed. This is a thing that can happen in Italy. Knox will not return to stand trial, and it is unlikely that she would be extradited even if (somehow) found guilty.",
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},
{
"answer": "The BBC has a really good [timeline of event](_URL_0_) here. It's relatively unbiased (compared to some of the comments on here) so I suggest anyone who wants a more neutral account of events check it out.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "54580389",
"title": "Amanda Knox (film)",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 644,
"text": "Featuring interviews with Amanda Knox, her ex-boyfriend Raffaele Sollecito, Italian prosecutor Giuliano Mignini, and others involved in the case, the documentary chronicles the murder of Knox's roommate Meredith Kercher and the subsequent investigation, trials and appeals. Her notoriety bolstered by tabloid journalism, Knox was convicted of murder and spent four years in an Italian prison before her acquittal by the Supreme Court of Cassation. \"I think I'm trying to explain what it feels like to be wrongfully convicted,\" Knox explained in an interview. \"To either be this terrible monster or to be this regular person who is vulnerable.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "36616671",
"title": "Nancy Tait",
"section": "Section::::Motivation for Activism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "Following her husband's death, Nancy began a campaign to seek recognition that he died of an industrial disease. Over the following forty years this campaign broadened to cover other diseases and conditions caused by working conditions. She became an expert in asbestos-related diseases, and lobbied continuously for better treatment for sufferers and legal acknowledgement of liabilities incurred by employers who had exposed their staff to asbestos. She represented the families of asbestos victims at inquests and in appeals against the DHSS's refusal to meet claims for industrial disablement benefit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "30741010",
"title": "Amanda Knox: Murder on Trial in Italy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "Set between 2007 and 2009, \"Amanda Knox: Murder on Trial in Italy\" is based on the murder of Meredith Kercher in Perugia, Italy, and the subsequent trials of the suspects, Guede, Knox and Sollecito. It was written by Wendy Battles, who has worked on scripts for the American television series \"\" and \"Law & Order\", and filmed in Rome, after officials refused to grant the production team permission to shoot in Perugia. The film contains a re-enactment of the murder. In Italy, the television film has been transmitted on Canale 5, on December 3, 2012, after Amanda Knox sent a team of lawyers to Mediaset, to prevent the airing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "11481790",
"title": "Nancy Grace",
"section": "Section::::Career as broadcaster.:Controversies.:Amanda Knox.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
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"text": "Grace commented on the Amanda Knox case: \"I was very disturbed, because I think it is a huge miscarriage of justice. I believe that while Amanda Knox did not wield the knife herself, I think that she was there, with her boyfriend, and that he did the deed, and that she egged him on. That's what I think happened...I just happen to know the facts...I'm not trying to get Amanda Knox's first interview because… my show does not pay for interviews...Second, I don't think she's going to tell the truth anyway, so what's the point?\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5630115",
"title": "Justice (2006 TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Cast and characters.:Alden Tuller.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
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"text": "She processes the physical evidence and hires experts for courtroom demonstrations. She frequently goes to Dr. Shaw for insight. Although she is unmarried, Alden wears a wedding ring in court in the belief that it helps jurors trust her. Unlike Tom, she prefers to believe that her firm's clients are guilty rather than innocent, so she won't be disappointed if they lose. In spite of this, she does have somewhat of a softer side for teenage clients, and is more willing to believe in their innocence (during the two episodes where the firm defends teenage clients Alden is in charge of preparing them for trial and looking after them.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14116726",
"title": "Amanda Knox",
"section": "Section::::Italy.:Interviews, arrest, and arraignment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
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"text": "At her trial, Knox testified that she had spent hours maintaining her original story, that she had been with Sollecito at his flat all night and had no knowledge of the murder, but a group of police would not believe her. Knox said, \"I wasn't just stressed and pressurised; I was manipulated\"; she testified to being told by the interpreter, \"probably I didn't remember well because I was traumatised. So I should try to remember something else.\" Knox stated, \"they said they were convinced that I was protecting someone. They were saying 'Who is it? Who is it?' They were saying: 'Here's the message on your telephone, you wanted to meet up with him, you are a stupid liar.\" Knox also said that a policewoman \"was saying 'Come on, come on, remember' and then – slap – she hit me. Then 'come on, come on' and – slap – another one\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14116726",
"title": "Amanda Knox",
"section": "Section::::Italy.:Interviews, arrest, and arraignment.\n",
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"text": "Knox said she had requested a lawyer but was told it would make things worse for her, and that she would go to jail for thirty years; she also said she was not allowed access to food, water, or the bathroom. Ficarra and policewoman Lorena Zugarini testified that during the interview Knox was given access to food, water, hot drinks, and the lavatory. They further said Knox was asked about a lawyer but did not have one, was not hit at any time, and interviewed \"firmly but politely\". Under pressure, Knox falsely stated that she had been in the house when Kercher was killed, and that she thought the murderer was Lumumba (who Knox knew had been serving customers at his bar all that night). Knox, Sollecito, and Lumumba were taken into custody and charged with the murder. Her first meeting with her legal counsel was on November 11. Chiacchiera, who thought the arrests were premature, dropped out of the investigation soon afterward, leaving Napoleoni in charge of a major investigation for the first time in her career.\n",
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| null |
ek34xm | could australia use seawater to put out the fires, or is fresh water required, so as not to add a bunch of salt to the soil? | [
{
"answer": "We could, but it would have the consequence you mentioned. Also, transporting water inland is a very expensive thing to do.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "22832295",
"title": "List of desalination plants in Australia",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "As a result of the water supply crisis during the severe 1997–2009 drought State governments around Australia began building desalination plants that purify seawater using reverse osmosis technology. Many of these plants have included in their overall cost the building of renewable energy sources such as wind farms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13966830",
"title": "Land clearing in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Salinity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 895,
"text": "Another consequence of land clearing is dryland salinity. Dryland salinity is the movement of salt to the land surface via groundwater. In Australia there are vast amounts of salt stored beneath the land surface. Much of Australian native vegetation has adapted to low rainfall conditions, and use deep root systems to take advantage of any available water beneath the surface. These help to store salt in the earth, by keeping ground water levels low enough so that salt is not pushed to the surface. However, with land clearing, the reduced amount of water that previously got pumped up by the roots of the trees means that the water table rises towards the surface, dissolving salt in the process. Salinity reduces plant productivity and affects the health of rivers and streams. Salinity also affects the lifespan of roads and other infrastructure, affecting the economy and transportation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24444091",
"title": "2000s Australian drought",
"section": "Section::::Effects of the drought.:Urban water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "Australia had previously relied solely on water from dams for agriculture and consumption. The drought changed the way Australia treated its water resources. Because of the long-term effects of the drought now showing, many state governments attempted to \"drought-proof\" their states with more permanent solutions such as grey-water water-recycling, government rebates for home-owners to install water tanks, and tougher restrictions on industries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1039944",
"title": "South Tarawa",
"section": "Section::::Environment.:Water.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 260,
"text": "Because of the shortage of fresh water, sanitation systems must use saltwater for flushing. The sanitation network on South Tarawa is performing very poorly, and a major project is underway to rehabilitate the system and improve sanitation and public hygiene.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1186356",
"title": "Salinity in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "Land clearing in Australia has resulted in a loss of this native vegetation, replaced largely by agriculture and pasture crops. These are often annual plants and shallow rooted, and thus, unable to intercept, and adequately absorb stored, and rising ground water. This creates an imbalance in the hydrological cycle, and results in dryland salinity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "6366673",
"title": "Acid sulfate soil",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Agricultural impacts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "When cultivated, acid sulfate soils cannot be kept wet continuously because of climatic dry spells and shortages of irrigation water, surface drainage may help to remove the acidic and toxic chemicals (formed in the dry spells) during rainy periods. In the long run surface drainage can help to reclaim acid sulfate soils. The indigenous population of Guinea Bissau has thus managed to develop the soils, but it has taken them many years of careful management and toil.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1186356",
"title": "Salinity in Australia",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "The soil in Australia naturally contains salt, having accumulated over thousands of years. This salt may come from prevailing winds carrying ocean salt, the evaporation of inland seas, and from weathered parent rocks. Rainfall absorbs this salt on the surface, and carries it down into the subsoil where it is stored in unsaturated soil profiles, until it is once again mobilised by ground water and rising water tables. When this ground water comes closer to the surface, this salt is also brought up. As the water eventually evaporates, it leaves behind all this concentrated salt, resulting in soil salinity. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
1jlh1v | what is an integrated circuit, what does it do, and how does it do it? | [
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"answer": "An integrated circuit is another word for s silicon chip where many components (transistors, resistors) are *integrated* on the same chip. Prior to the invention of the integrated circuit, all the individual resistors, transistors, diodes, and capacitors had to be wired into and soldered onto a breadboard.\n\nThe advantage is it uses less electricity and less space and generates less waste heat. \n\nIt accomplishes what it does by layering silicon that has been alloyed with various substances to make conductive, semi conductive, and non conductive layers - as well as metal layers to carry electricity and perform other effects. Depending on which layers are exposed to the metal tracery, various effects happen, which create transistors, resistors, etcetera.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "20165898",
"title": "Integrated circuit layout design protection",
"section": "Section::::International law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "(i) 'integrated circuit' means a product, in its final form or an intermediate form, in which the elements, at least one of which is an active element, and some or all of the inter-connections are integrally formed in and/or on a piece of material and which is intended to perform an electronic function,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "15150",
"title": "Integrated circuit",
"section": "Section::::Terminology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "An \"integrated circuit\" is defined as: A circuit in which all or some of the circuit elements are inseparably associated and electrically interconnected so that it is considered to be indivisible for the purposes of construction and commerce. Circuits meeting this definition can be constructed using many different technologies, including thin-film transistors, thick-film technologies, or hybrid integrated circuits. However, in general usage \"integrated circuit\" has come to refer to the single-piece circuit construction originally known as a \"monolithic integrated circuit\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30182396",
"title": "Timeline of United States inventions (1946–1991)",
"section": "Section::::Cold War (1946–1991).:1950s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 186,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 186,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "An integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material. Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic equipment in use today and have revolutionized the world of electronics. The integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using discrete electronic components. On September 12, 1958, Jack Kilby developed a piece of germanium with an oscilloscope attached. While pressing a switch, the oscilloscope showed a continuous sine wave, proving that his integrated circuit worked. A patent for a \"Solid Circuit made of Germanium\", the first integrated circuit, was filed by its inventor, Jack Kilby on February 6, 1959.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2437593",
"title": "Hybrid integrated circuit",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "\"Integrated circuit\" as the term is currently used refers to a monolithic IC which differs notably from a HIC in that a HIC is fabricated by inter-connecting a number of components on a substrate whereas an IC's (monolithic) components are fabricated in a series of steps entirely on a single wafer which is then diced into chips. Some hybrid circuits may contain monolithic ICs, particularly Multi-chip module (MCM) hybrid circuits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2681475",
"title": "Via (electronics)",
"section": "Section::::In IC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "In integrated circuit design, a via is a small opening in an insulating oxide layer that allows a conductive connection between different layers. A via on an integrated circuit is often called a through-chip via or through-silicon via (TSV). A via connecting the lowest layer of metal to diffusion or poly is typically called a \"contact\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2031045",
"title": "Hardware acceleration",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Integrated circuits can be created to perform arbitrary operations on analog and digital signals. Most often in computing, signals are digital and can be interpreted as binary number data. Computer hardware and software operate on information in binary representation to perform computing; this is accomplished by calculating boolean functions on the bits of input and outputting the result to some output device downstream for storage or further processing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3082038",
"title": "P–n junction isolation",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "\"The integrated circuit, as we conceived and developed it at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1959, accomplishes the separation and interconnection of transistors and other circuit elements electrically rather than physically. The separation is accomplished by introducing pn diodes, or rectifiers, which allow current to flow in only one direction. The technique was patented by Kurt Lehovec at the Sprague Electric Company\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5ybraz | why do storage devices have capacities that are multiples of 8? | [
{
"answer": "Computers operate on a binary number system (0/1, on/off), and it was decided that 8 *bits* make up one *byte*.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Flash memory makers mass produce one chip that holds a certain capacity. This reduces cost for them as they only need to produce one chip. Lets say a Samsung factory makes 8GB chips, so in order to produce a larger drive, let's say a 16GB drive, they will array two chips into one board. Three chips and you get 24, and so on.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "In fact, this is related to the powers of 2. Because computers use a binary language(0 or 1), the data is translated as a combination of different patterns with only these two options. Think like this: if you had a question, you would had only two possible answers, true or false(or on/off ), and you would need just one digit(bit) to answer it, which could be 0 or 1. That's 2^1. If you had two questions, and two possible answers for each one, that's 2 bits and four different representations(0/0, 0/1, 1/0, 1/1), 2^2. And the higher the information, the greater the power and so it goes...\n\nEDIT: Spelling.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "storage is a collection of 1's and 0's (bits) and 8 bits form a byte. all the information about your files, programs and anything else is stored in this binary form. lets just call this the data. \n\nhowever just storing the data isn't enough. you have to be able to manage all this data, and how to find it all. that way when you open a file, the computer knows where to go to find all the data that comes together to form the file. this is done by giving each location on the storage device an address. and since there are SO many addresses, we actually need a way to label them all. which we do - in binary.\n\nand because of this, a storage device has a certain number of locations we are able to reference before we run out. and without getting technical about binary (with 8 bits you can address 2^8, or 256 locations), multiples of 8 means we are using every single available location to store data. \n\nso if we had a 16GB USB and wanted to make it bigger, to expand it to 20GB would be silly. since we are already making more locations available to reference, we might as well use every single location and expand it to 32GB.\n\n*thougt id add this in in case you do want to get technical:\nso like i said, 8 bits mean you can address 256 locations. if we add one more bit, we get 2^9 different locations available to us, or 512. this continues... 1024, 2048, 4096..... so you can see that with the addition of each bit we get a twice as many more locations to store the data. this is why you often see 512mb, 1GB, 2Gb, 4Gb, 8Gb etc... sizes for storage!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They don't always.\n\nDigital language is in powers of 2. 8 is a multiple of 2. Anything that is a multiple of 8 is also a multiple of 2.\n\nIf you want to specify a memory address in digital, you have to use the language which lends itself to powers of 2. Every digital storage device has a maximum addressable range that is a power of two, however, they need not consume that entire range.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I guess the real questions is why is a byte made up of 8 bits?\n\nWikipedia: The byte (/ˈbaɪt/) is a unit of digital information that most commonly consists of eight bits. **Historically, the byte was the number of bits used to encode a single character of text in a computer and for this reason it is the smallest addressable unit of memory in many computer architectures.** The size of the byte has historically been hardware dependent and no definitive standards existed that mandated the size. The de facto standard of eight bits is a convenient power of two permitting the values 0 through 255 for one byte. The international standard IEC 80000-13 codified this common meaning. Many types of applications use information representable in eight or fewer bits and processor designers optimize for this common usage. The popularity of major commercial computing architectures has aided in the ubiquitous acceptance of the 8-bit size.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18075548",
"title": "Units of information",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "The most commonly used units of data storage capacity are the bit, the capacity of a system that has only two states, and the byte (or octet), which is equivalent to eight bits. Multiples of these units can be formed from these with the SI prefixes (power-of-ten prefixes) or the newer IEC binary prefixes (power-of-two prefixes).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "178300",
"title": "Intermodal container",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 550,
"text": "Container capacity is often expressed in twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU, or sometimes \"teu\"). A twenty-foot equivalent unit is a measure of containerized cargo capacity equal to one standard long container. This is an approximate measure, wherein the height of the box is not considered. For example, the tall high-cube, as well as containers are equally counted as one TEU. Similarly, extra long containers are commonly designated as two TEU, no different than standard long units. Two TEU are equivalent to one forty-foot equivalent unit (FEU).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15950012",
"title": "Timeline of binary prefixes",
"section": "Section::::1960s.:1961.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"Additional core storage provides two methods of using main storage: (1) The 65K mode—the computer program is enabled to address both of the main storage units, and (2) the 32K mode—the computer program is able to address only one storage unit, so that main storage capacity available to that program is effectively 32,768 words.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15950012",
"title": "Timeline of binary prefixes",
"section": "Section::::1960s.:1964.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 346,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"To facilitate understanding of the invention, the main storage area has been illustrated as being of 8K capacity; however, it is to be understood that the main storage area may be of larger capacity (e.g., 16K, 32K or 64K) by storing address selection control data in bit positions '2', '1' and '0' of M register 197, respectively.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13276879",
"title": "Racetrack memory",
"section": "Section::::Comparison to other memory devices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1437,
"text": "In most cases, memory devices store one bit in any given location, so they are typically compared in terms of \"cell size\", a cell storing one bit. Cell size itself is given in units of F², where \"F\" is the feature size design rule, representing usually the metal line width. Flash and racetrack both store multiple bits per cell, but the comparison can still be made. For instance, hard drives appeared to be reaching theoretical limits around 650 nm²/bit, defined primarily by the capability to read and write to specific areas of the magnetic surface. DRAM has a cell size of about 6 F², SRAM is much less dense at 120 F². NAND flash memory is currently the densest form of non-volatile memory in widespread use, with a cell size of about 4.5 F², but storing three bits per cell for an effective size of 1.5 F². NOR flash memory is slightly less dense, at an effective 4.75 F², accounting for 2-bit operation on a 9.5 F² cell size. In the vertical orientation (U-shaped) racetrack, nearly 10-20 bits are stored per cell, which itself would have a physical size of at least about 20 F². In addition, bits at different positions on the \"track\" would take different times (from ~10 to ~1000 ns, or 10 ns/bit) to be accessed by the read/write sensor, because the \"track\" would move the domains at a fixed rate of ~100 m/s past the read/write sensor. There are software utilities for modeling single and multi-bit racetrack memory designs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18075548",
"title": "Units of information",
"section": "Section::::Units derived from bit.:Systematic multiples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "However, for technical reasons, the capacities of computer memories and some storage units are often multiples of some large power of two, such as 2 = bytes. To avoid such unwieldy numbers, people have often repurposed the SI prefixes to mean the nearest power of two, e.g., using the prefix \"kilo\" for 2 = 1024, \"mega\" for 2 = , and \"giga\" for 2 = , and so on. For example, a random access memory chip with a capacity of 2 bytes would be referred to as a 256-megabyte chip. The table below illustrates these differences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53820576",
"title": "Layered charge storage",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 269,
"text": "In addition to storage for, for example, single-family houses with a few hundred to over one thousand litres, they can also be found in larger and significantly larger forms, for example, as long-term thermal storage tanks with a few thousand litres of storage volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
35r2s0 | how can a butcher "age" beef for a large period of time (21 days etc.) yet if you were to take the same cut of meat not aged and leave it in the fridge for a time after its expiry it would turn rancid and have to be thrown out? | [
{
"answer": "It has a lot to do with conditions and surface area.\n\nA butcher hangs meat in all one piece in a cold room, such as a full \"side\" of a cow, and that side of beef isn't touching anything besides the hook it hangs from, and generally is not handled while it hangs. No flies are allowed in the area thanks to multiple plastic sheet door protectors, bug lights and other means. So its exposure to germs is very much minimal, as is the surface area of meat that contacts the air. And the whole region's humidity, temperature, and other variables is really tightly controlled.\n\nWhen you take a steak or roast home, it's been de-packaged from the slaughterhouse, carved up, cut, and repackaged. All of this handling exposes it to germs and surfaces. Add to it all of your handling, the germs drifting around more freely in your house, and the already-advanced age of the fresh meat, and it'll go rancid a lot quicker.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They age it in a very cool fridge (that doesn't get the door opened several times a day, allowing warm air and pathogens to enter, in a large mass (so any spoilage happens on the surface) and remove the spoiled parts. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is dry aging and wet aging. Wet aging is when the cut is left in its vacuum sealed bag and aged in optimal refrigeration conditions. This is the simpler of the 2 and the most common. Dry aging is where the cut is allowed to aged in controlled conditions outside of its bag. This allows a mold to form on the outside of the cut. That shit is cut off before it is prepared. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Actually [you can](_URL_0_) dry age at home in your fridge. I've done it a number of times. It's just about knowing the correct conditions to prevent bad organisms from growing and encouraging the good ones. Kinda like beer in a rough manner of speaking.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "859227",
"title": "Beef aging",
"section": "Section::::Dry-aged beef.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "Dry-aged beef is beef that has been hung or placed on a rack to dry for several weeks. After the animal is slaughtered and cleaned, it is hung as a full or half carcass. Primal (large distinct sections) or sub primal cuts, such as strip loins, rib eyes, and sirloin, are placed in a refrigerator unit, also known as a \"hot box\". This process involves considerable expense, as the beef must be stored near freezing temperatures. Subprimal cuts can be dry aged on racks either in specially climate-controlled coolers or within a moisture-permeable drybag. Moreover, only the higher grades of meat can be dry aged, as the process requires meat with a large, evenly distributed fat content. Because of this, dry-aged beef is seldom available outside of steak restaurants and upscale butcher shops or groceries. The key effect of dry aging is the concentration and saturation of the natural flavour, as well as the tenderization of the meat texture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "859227",
"title": "Beef aging",
"section": "Section::::Dry-aged beef.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Dry-aged beef is typically not sold by most supermarkets in the U.S. today, because it takes time and there is a significant loss of weight during the aging process. Dry-aging can take from 15 to 28 days, and typically up to a third or more of the weight is lost as moisture. This type of beef is served in higher-priced steakhouses and by select restaurants. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30882227",
"title": "Meat hanging",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Meat has been hung and dry aged throughout history after butchers discovered that this method makes beef more tender and flavorful than meat eaten immediately after slaughter and butchering. In the 1960s, a combination of meat hanging’s expense and the new process of wet-aging caused meat hanging to almost stop entirely. Meat hanging experienced a surge of popularity in the 1980s though, and dry aged beef continues to be sold in high-end restaurants around the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30882227",
"title": "Meat hanging",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The process takes, at a minimum, eleven days. At this point, the meat will noticeably taste better. However, the longer the meat is hung, the better the flavor will be. This length of time also results in a greater chance that the meat will spoil. Therefore, most companies will only hang meat for 20–30 days. Furthermore, dry aged meat will shrink, as much of the water has been evaporated. This loss of mass causes the meat to shrink 10-15% in size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6494435",
"title": "Curing (food preservation)",
"section": "Section::::Necessity of curing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "Untreated meat decomposes rapidly if it is not preserved, at a speed that depends on several factors, including ambient humidity, temperature, and the presence of pathogens. Most meats cannot be kept at room temperature in excess of a few days without spoiling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52268254",
"title": "Brava cattle",
"section": "Section::::Use and management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "The meat may be subject to dark cutting, a discolouration caused by stress in the animal before death which then disrupts the normal post-mortem transformation of muscle tissue to meat. This can reduce the market value of the meat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "495814",
"title": "Butcher",
"section": "Section::::Duties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "After the carcasses are chilled (unless \"hot-boned\"), primary butchery consists of selecting carcasses, sides, or quarters from which primal cuts can be produced with the minimum of wastage; separating the primal cuts from the carcass; trimming primal cuts and preparing them for secondary butchery or sale; and storing cut meats. Secondary butchery involves boning and trimming primal cuts in preparation for sale. Historically, primary and secondary butchery were performed in the same establishment, but the advent of methods of preservation and low cost transportation has largely separated them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
61zs5d | Why did Hitler declare war on the US? | [
{
"answer": "Modified from an [earlier answer of mine](_URL_0_)\n\nAlthough it was in many respects a foolish blunder in hindsight, there was a lot of strategic calculation that went into German declaration of war on the United States. Hitler and the Germans did not so much see the declaration of war as the start of a *quid quo pro* process with Japan leading to a Japanese invasion of Siberia, but rather an opportunity to gain time and militarily isolate the United States by giving German armed forces a free hand in the Atlantic and encourage the Japanese to keep fighting in the Pacific. \n\nBoth Hitler and German military planners were not on board with the bombing of Pearl Harbor itself mostly because they were completely ignorant of Japanese the scale and extent of Japanese planning. Although the Japanese occupation of French Indochina and the resulting US blockade of strategic raw materials made it apparent that war in the Pacific was imminent, German leaders were in the dark about future military operations. Two days before Pearl Harbor, the German Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop actually hoped that America would be the one to instigate military aggression against Japan. \n\nVon Ribbentrop's thoughts on the situation in the Pacific was emblematic of much of German geostrategic thought in the winter of 1941. The actions of the USN in the Battle of the Atlantic in which US ships jettisoned most pretensions of neutrality indicated that the US was readying to enter into the war. Although an expansion of the war carried with it new uncertainties, a number of German military planners mistakenly concluded that Japan's entry into the was in the Pacific was largely beneficial to Germany's strategic interests. \n\nPart of this miscalculation stemmed from the dire situation Germany had found itself in at the end of 1941. Although Barbarossa had achieved spectacular gains, the German invasion had not achieved the desired result of a complete collapse of the Soviets. The strengthening Soviet resistance and counterattacks was a bitter pill for the Germans to swallow. Moreover, the strengthening of the British military position in North Africa and the Atlantic seemed to threaten German-occupied Europe's southern and western flanks. German planners hoped that Japanese conquests in East Asia and the Central Pacific would rectify this global strategic balance by forcing both the British and Americans to reorient their military resources to the Pacific. An OKW strategic assessment produced on 14 December outlined their expectations for the British response: \n\n > Securing her position in the Middle East has gained even greater importance for Britain since Japan's entry into the war-not only because of the Persian and Mesopotamian oil, on which the British navy in the Indian Ocean must depend once the oil wells of Borneo and Sumatra are lost to it, but also because of the especially important maintenance of sea communications through the Suez Canal and because of the air communications, based upon this region, between the mother country and India, East Asia, and Australia. Execution of this strategic task will no doubt be seen by Britain to be just as vital as the maintenance of her Indian-Malayan position, which is crucial for the safeguarding of India, Australia, and New Zealand. \n\nIn OKW's estimation, the Japanese conquest of SE Asian rubber, tin, and oil sources would deprive the British and Americans, and by extension the Soviets, of this strategic war material. The *Kriegsmarine*, facing its first serious reversals in the Battle of the Atlantic and Mediterranean, welcomed the thought that both the RN and USN meeting the Japanese naval challenge would give German and Italian naval forces time to regroup. The declaration of war gave the *Kriegsmarine* a free hand to attack American shipping without as much interference from the USN and RN. According to the Naval Staff's estimation, expanding the war would divide Allied naval power, which prior to Pearl Harbor was in seeming danger of uniting. \n\nUnderlying this German enthusiasm for Japanese belligerence was the hope that the Japanese would present enough of a strategic diversion to allow German military forces to complete the job in the USSR they had begun the previous June. The defeat of the USSR remained the main strategic priority for Germany military planning. Only the *Kriegsmarine* evinced any great interest for a grand military hookup with the Japanese in India. Although both the Navy and von Ribbentrop urged Hitler to agree to a joint Axis declaration on India, the German leader refused on the grounds that such an anticolonial measure was not in the strategic interests of Germany. Hitler held out hopes that an anti-Churchill faction would come to the fore once Stalin had been beaten and threatening India would supposedly undercut support for a separate peace. OKW began in 1942 tentative plans for a wider invasion of the Middle East, but only after the success of Blue's offensive in the Caucasus. \n\nHitler's declaration of war on America gave German military much greater latitude to plan for a western defensive barrier. Expanding the war would also cow the various neutrals on Germany's flanks (Turkey, Spain, and Sweden) to accede to German demands. German entry into the war on Japan's side would also prevent the latter from making a separate peace prematurely. Although Hitler's government did not want to give sanction to Japan's anticolonial pretext for the war, it was sympathetic to Tokyo's request on 2 December for the Axis partners to never hold a separate peace, which culminated in the 11 December declaration for no separate peace. This was in keeping with the Third Reich's strategic thinking with regards to the Anglo-American powers in that it was in German interests to keep them preoccupied outside of areas controlled by Germany. So long as Japan was stiffened up to resist the Anglo-Americans, Germany strategic interests would be secured. OKW's 14 December report claimed the prognosis for the following year good for these four reasons:\n\n > I) Within the period left to it before the full mobilization of the American war machine, Germany would reach its military objectives in the east, in the Mediterranean, and in the Atlantic.\n\n > II) Germany would succeed, by political means, not only in inducing its allies to intensify their war efforts, but also in securing the periphery by bringing the flanking powers-hitherto neutral-of Turkey, Spain, Portugal, and Sweden into the continental defensive bloc.\n\n > III) The Japanese offensive would have enough endurance and momentum to tie down a substantial part of the Anglo-American potential in the Pacific for a considerable time. \n \n > IV) Under these circumstances the United States would not be able to conduct an offensive two-ocean war in the foreseeable future.\n\nThe experience of 1942 would prove each of these suppositions unduly optimistic. In short, the Germans believed that they possessed both the time and the resources to meet the new strategic challenge. They fundamentally underestimated America's industrial capabilities and overestimated the ability of Japan to act as a sink for Anglo-American resources. Even more fatally, both Hitler and OKW overestimated both Germany's own ability to deliver a fatal blow in Operation Blue and their chances of securing their strategic flanks with secondary forces like DAK and the *Kriegsmarine*. \n\nThere was also a domestic component to Hitler's decision to declare war. One of the central mythologies at the center of National Socialism was that Germany was at the cusp of a victory in 1918 until stabbed in the back by the \"November Criminals.\" While much of the public invective of the NSDAP was directed at the Judeo-Bolshevik instigators of the November Revolution, there was a considerable concern behind the scenes that the German civilian population were duped into following peace. In this schema, Wilson's promise of an honest peace proved to be a siren call for the German public that had suffered greatly during the war. Consequently, the Third Reich devoted considerable resources to mollify domestic public opinion during the opening stages of the war. Goebbels's diary entries consistently noted an acute attention to German public opinion and disgruntlement. By taking the initiative out of the US's hands and declaring war on them, the declaration of war was being proactive by preventing another iteration of the 14 Points. Hitler's public declaration at the Reichstag went to great lengths to highlight America's Rainbow Plans and the pre-existing belligerency of the US in the Battle of the Atlantic. Hitler's speech troweled on a great deal of antisemitism as well, differentiating a strong Europe from an allegedly Jewish global conspiracy that stretched from Moscow, to London, and Washington. By painting the US as a self-interested power in thrall to Jews, Hitler was cutting off a possible redux of 1918 where America's offer of a geopolitical moral alternative ate away at German civilian support for the conflict. \n\n",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "40701380",
"title": "German declaration of war against the United States",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In fact, Hitler's declaration of war came as a great relief to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who feared the possibility of two parallel but disconnected wars – the UK and Soviet Union versus Germany in Europe, and the US and the British Empire versus Japan in the Far East and the Pacific. With Nazi Germany's declaration against the United States in effect, American assistance for Britain in both theaters of war as a full ally was assured. It also simplified matters for the American government, as John Kenneth Galbraith recalled:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "40701380",
"title": "German declaration of war against the United States",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
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"text": "The one advantage of the declaration of war against the US provided for Hitler was as a propaganda diversion for the German public, to distract them from the state of the war against the Soviet Union, in which Germany had suffered severe setbacks and an unexpectedly prolonged engagement. Hitler had assured the German people that the Soviet Union would be crushed well before the onset of winter, but that, in fact, did not happen, and there was little in the way of good news. The timing of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor enabled Hitler to angle his planned speech to the Reichstag in a more positive fashion, squeezing as much propaganda value out of it as possible. Hitler, in fact, put off the speech – and the declaration of war – for several days, trying to arrive at the proper psychological moment to make the announcement. Still, the propaganda motive was hardly sufficient to justify declaring war on the US, especially considering that doing so would create an otherwise \"unnatural alliance\" between two disparate and heretofore antagonistic polities, the United States and the Soviet Union. Joachim C. Fest, one of Hitler's biographers, has argued that Hitler's decision was \"really no longer an act of his own volition, but a gesture governed by a sudden awareness of his own impotence. That gesture was Hitler's last strategic initiative of any importance.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40701380",
"title": "German declaration of war against the United States",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 936,
"text": "Regardless of Hitler's reasons for the declaration, the decision is generally seen as an enormous strategic blunder on his part, as it allowed the United States to enter the European war in support of the United Kingdom and the Allies without much public opposition, while still facing the Japanese threat in the Pacific. Hitler had, in fact, committed Germany to fight the US while in the midst of a war of extermination against Russia, and without having first defeated the UK, instead of taking the option of putting off a conflict with the US for as long as possible, forcing it to concentrate on the war in the Pacific against Japan, and making it much more difficult for it to become involved in the European war. At least to some extent he had held in his hands the power to control the timing of the intervention of the US, and instead, by declaring war against America, he freed Roosevelt and Churchill to act as they saw fit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "765642",
"title": "Causes of World War II",
"section": "Section::::Specific developments.:Attacks on Pearl Harbor, the Philippines, British Malaya, Singapore and Hong Kong.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Four days later the U.S was brought into the European war when on December 11, 1941, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy declared war on the United States. Hitler chose to declare that the Tripartite Pact required that Germany follow Japan's declaration of war; although American destroyers escorting convoys and German U-boats were already de facto at war in the Battle of the Atlantic. This declaration effectively ended isolationist sentiment in the U.S. and the United States immediately reciprocated, formally entering the war in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40701380",
"title": "German declaration of war against the United States",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1454,
"text": "From the point of view of Hitler and much of the German political and military elite, declaring war against the U.S. in response to the Pearl Harbor attack was a calculated risk in fighting the U.S. before they were prepared to effectively defend themselves. By that time, the German leadership believed that the United States was effectively acting as a belligerent in the conflict, given actions such as Lend-Lease of supplies to Britain to sustain their war effort, President Roosevelt's public statements, the deployment of American soldiers and Marines to Iceland, and U.S. Navy escorts of convoys across the Atlantic, which sometimes came into contact with U-boats; these acts, as well as America's previous intervention in World War I, led to the assumption that war between them was inevitable. As such, the decision was made to use the attack as a rationale for an official declaration of war in order to drive Britain out of the conflict by widening submarine operations and directly attacking U.S. commercial shipping. While Hitler's declaration of war against the United States eventually led to his downfall, initially it seemed successful in its objective of more effectively cutting Britain's supply lines, as the U.S. military's lack of tactics, equipment, and procedures for fighting U-boats caused 1942 to be the most devastating year of the war for shipping losses; the war declaration made the Second Happy Time possible for U-boats.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38702523",
"title": "List of fictional United States presidencies of historical figures (P–R)",
"section": "Section::::R.:Franklin D. Roosevelt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 1205,
"text": "BULLET::::- In Newt Gingrich and William Forstchen's book \"1945\", Hitler did not declare war on the United States after Pearl Harbor. As a result, President Franklin Roosevelt had no pretext to take the US into the European war -much as he would have liked to do it. In the following years, the US concentrated its full military potential on Japan alone, achieving a complete victory by conventional means. At the same time, Roosevelt downgraded the Manhattan Project and in 1945 the US was still far from possessing a nuclear bomb. Meanwhile, Nazi Germany decisively defeated the Soviet Union and forced Britain to sign a peace recognizing German domination of Europe. Having won the war against Japan in 1944, Roosevelt declined to run again, and surprisingly designated as his heir Andrew Harrison, the (fictional) Junior Senator from Nebraska (the book does not explain why Harrison was preferred over Harry Truman). It was Harrison who had to bear the dire results of the above developments - when Hitler launched a surprise invasion of Britain, sent commandos under Otto Skorzeny to destroy the nuclear facility at Oak Ridge, Tennessee and seemed ahead of the US in the race to gain a nuclear bomb.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2198871",
"title": "Allies of World War I",
"section": "Section::::Co-belligerents; the United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 880,
"text": "The United States declared war on Germany in April 1917 on the grounds that Germany violated US neutrality by attacking international shipping with its unrestricted submarine warfare campaign. The remotely connected Zimmermann Telegram of the same period, within which the Germans promised to help Mexico regain some of its territory lost to the U.S nearly seven decades before in the event of the United States entering the war, was also a contributing factor. The US entered the war as an \"associated power\", rather than a formal ally of France and the United Kingdom, in order to avoid \"foreign entanglements\". Although the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria severed relations with the United States, neither declared war, nor did Austria-Hungary. Eventually, however, the United States also declared war on Austria-Hungary in December 1917, predominantly to help hard-pressed Italy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2dk7wd | What was Damascus steel? | [
{
"answer": "Truthfully, we are still trying to understand the process of Damascus steel! We still don't know how the ancients did it.\n\nIt's widely believed to be the process of tempering steel to make it stronger, studies have shown Damascus steel to contains nano-fibres which greatly increased it's strength and durability compared to other metals of the time.\n\nHowever we've only recently been able to duplicate the steel with modern techniques, as said we don't know how the it was actually done. And only in modern times have we had the technology to see and know that nano-fibres were the reason that made it stronger.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It was both!\n\nThere's two types of steel called Damascus steel, you can't see a difference with your naked eye.\n\n The first (pattern welding) is a folded steel, with two initial layers of high and low carbon steel. This is not actually remarkable other than its appearance compared to other steels of the time.\n\nThe second, which the legends come from (its not up to that level, but the stuff *is* unique), is a crucible steel. With and low carbon steel that contain one of vanadium, molybdenum or a third I forget. Very very small amounts of these elements are needed, around 100 parts per million, the technique was likely lost because the iron mine the crucible version was being made of was shut down, and it was actually budget concerns that led the metallurgist who discovered this to use an ore with appropriate impurities, he knew they were in the wootz damascus steel but thought them too trace to be significant.\n\nSource: \nThe key role of impurities in ancient damascus steel blades J. D. Verhoeven, A. H. Pendray, W. E. Dauksch \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8593",
"title": "Damascus steel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The steel is named after Damascus, the capital city of Syria and one of the largest cities in the ancient Levant. It may either refer to swords made or sold in Damascus directly, or it may just refer to the aspect of the typical patterns, by comparison with Damask fabrics (which are themselves named after Damascus).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8593",
"title": "Damascus steel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "Damascus steel was the forged steel comprising the blades of swords smithed in the Near East from ingots of Wootz steel imported from India and Sri Lanka. These swords are characterized by distinctive patterns of banding and mottling reminiscent of flowing water, or in a \"ladder\" or \"teardrop\" pattern. Such blades were reputed to be tough, resistant to shattering, and capable of being honed to a sharp, resilient edge.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10966696",
"title": "W. R. Case & Sons Cutlery Co.",
"section": "Section::::Steel types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "Damascus steels date back to the Crusades, and are named for the famous Syrian city where some of the first man-made metals were traded publicly. It consists of many thin layers of metal that are forged together to form a laminated solid. Designs take shape as layers are folded in then welded together by forging; while creating an intricate design and strong blade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27058",
"title": "Steel",
"section": "Section::::History of steelmaking.:Wootz steel and Damascus steel.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 1028,
"text": "The manufacture of what came to be called Wootz, or Damascus steel, famous for its durability and ability to hold an edge, may have been taken by the Arabs from Persia, who took it from India. It was originally created from a number of different materials including various trace elements, apparently ultimately from the writings of Zosimos of Panopolis. In 327 BC, Alexander the Great was rewarded by the defeated King Porus, not with gold or silver but with 30 pounds of steel. Recent studies have suggested that carbon nanotubes were included in its structure, which might explain some of its legendary qualities, though given the technology of that time, such qualities were produced by chance rather than by design. Natural wind was used where the soil containing iron was heated by the use of wood. The ancient Sinhalese managed to extract a ton of steel for every 2 tons of soil, a remarkable feat at the time. One such furnace was found in Samanalawewa and archaeologists were able to produce steel as the ancients did.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "8593",
"title": "Damascus steel",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1052,
"text": "The reputation and history of Damascus steel has given rise to many legends, such as the ability to cut through a rifle barrel or to cut a hair falling across the blade. A research team in Germany published a report in 2006 revealing nanowires and carbon nanotubes in a blade forged from Damascus steel. Although many types of modern steel outperform ancient Damascus alloys, chemical reactions in the production process made the blades extraordinary for their time, as Damascus steel was superplastic and very hard at the same time. During the smelting process to obtain Wootz steel ingots, woody biomass and leaves are known to have been used as carburizing additives along with certain specific types of iron rich in microalloying elements. These ingots would then be further forged and worked into Damascus steel blades. Research now shows that carbon nanotubes can be derived from plant fibers, suggesting how the nanotubes were formed in the steel. Some experts expect to discover such nanotubes in more relics as they are analyzed more closely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27863",
"title": "Sword",
"section": "Section::::History.:Early post-classical history.:Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 425,
"text": "Wootz steel which is also known as Damascus steel was a unique and highly prized steel developed on the Indian subcontinent as early as the 5th century BC. Its properties were unique due to the special smelting and reworking of the steel creating networks of iron carbides described as a globular cementite in a matrix of pearlite. The use of Damascus steel in swords became extremely popular in the 16th and 17th centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147113",
"title": "Experimental archaeology",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "BULLET::::- Attempts to manufacture steel that matches all the characteristics of Damascus steel, whose original manufacturing techniques have been lost for centuries, including computational fluid dynamics reconstructions by the University of Exeter of the Sri Lanka furnaces at Samanalawewa, thought to be the most likely sources for Damascus steel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
ryiub | How Did DNA Evolve? | [
{
"answer": "What do you mean by **complex**? What would you like to know about DNA?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Based on your previous comments, it sounds like your main question is something like \"how did DNA evolve in the first place when we now know that many different proteins are required for its function and propagation?\"\n\nIf that's an accurate representation, I would point you to the [RNA world hypothesis](_URL_0_). This is the idea that RNA, not DNA, was actually the first nucleic acid polymer to arise. The RNA is more satisfying as a starting material than DNA is because we know that RNA has the capacity to perform some limited catalytic functions. For instance, RNA is a major component of ribosomal structure and function and I'm not talking about mRNAs or tRNAs. \n\nBasically, it is hypothesized that initial RNA molecules were simple replicating machines that didn't really encode anything. The RNA was simply structured to provide catalytic activity to generate a copy of other RNA molecules it came across that had similar catalytic activity. Overtime, changes in RNA structure lead to different types of catalytic activity until a relationship between nucleic acids and amino acids could be formed. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I see that the RNA world hypothesis has already been raised. That's probably the easiest way to imagine things coming about. See [this](_URL_0_) -- in not too much time, scientists have made significant strides in putting together a much more cohesive picture in how these self-replicating RNAs may have been built.\n\nIn terms of how *DNA* got more complex, well, every time a cell replicates its own DNA, it makes mistakes. That is one of the bases of mutation, which drives evolution. The DNA sequence of the cell is a record of perhaps a billion years of imperfect replication. There's remnants of all kinds of things in there -- gene duplications, deletions, insertions by viral infections. There are pseudogenes (husks of dead genes), there are franken-genes consisting of a few genes spliced together, there are sometimes 20 copies of very similar genes in a row. That's genomics for you and a reason why there's a whole subset of biology devoted to it...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7955",
"title": "DNA",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 122,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 122,
"end_character": 1298,
"text": "DNA contains the genetic information that allows all forms of life to function, grow and reproduce. However, it is unclear how long in the 4-billion-year history of life DNA has performed this function, as it has been proposed that the earliest forms of life may have used RNA as their genetic material. RNA may have acted as the central part of early cell metabolism as it can both transmit genetic information and carry out catalysis as part of ribozymes. This ancient RNA world where nucleic acid would have been used for both catalysis and genetics may have influenced the evolution of the current genetic code based on four nucleotide bases. This would occur, since the number of different bases in such an organism is a trade-off between a small number of bases increasing replication accuracy and a large number of bases increasing the catalytic efficiency of ribozymes. However, there is no direct evidence of ancient genetic systems, as recovery of DNA from most fossils is impossible because DNA survives in the environment for less than one million years, and slowly degrades into short fragments in solution. Claims for older DNA have been made, most notably a report of the isolation of a viable bacterium from a salt crystal 250 million years old, but these claims are controversial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26769241",
"title": "Gladstone Institutes",
"section": "Section::::Researchers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "Katherine Pollard—Discovered short sequences of human DNA that have evolved rapidly since the human and ape lines diverged millions of years ago. Most of these fast-evolving sequences are genes that actually control other genes nearby. Many are located near genes that are active in the brain, and one appears to have a role in how the wrist and thumb develop in the fetus. These discoveries give us new insight not only into the evolutionary history of our species, but also into how genes control embryonic development—which gets us a step further to unraveling how to interrupt congenital defects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8597086",
"title": "Von Neumann universal constructor",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "This insight is all the more remarkable because it preceded the discovery of the structure of the DNA molecule by Watson and Crick, though it followed the Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment which identified DNA as the molecular carrier of genetic information in living organisms. The DNA molecule is processed by separate mechanisms that carry out its instructions and copy the DNA for insertion for the newly constructed cell. The ability to achieve open-ended evolution lies in the fact that, just as in nature, errors (mutations) in the copying of the genetic tape can lead to viable variants of the automaton, which can then evolve via natural selection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8406655",
"title": "Introduction to genetics",
"section": "Section::::How genes work.:Genes are copied.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 729,
"text": "When DNA is copied, the two strands of the old DNA are pulled apart by enzymes; then they pair up with new nucleotides and then close. This produces two new pieces of DNA, each containing one strand from the old DNA and one newly made strand. This process is not predictably perfect as proteins attach to a nucleotide while they are building and cause a change in the sequence of that gene. These changes in DNA sequence are called mutations. Mutations produce new alleles of genes. Sometimes these changes stop the functioning of that gene or make it serve another advantageous function, such as the melanin genes discussed above. These mutations and their effects on the traits of organisms are one of the causes of evolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37319629",
"title": "Genetic engineering techniques",
"section": "Section::::Gene manipulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "All genetic engineering processes involve the modification of DNA. Traditionally DNA was isolated from the cells of organisms. Later, genes came to be cloned from a DNA segment after the creation of a DNA library or artificially synthesised. Once isolated, additional genetic elements are added to the gene to allow it to be expressed in the host organism and to aid selection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44370851",
"title": "Neochromosome",
"section": "Section::::Cancer-associated neochromosomes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "Using statistical inference and mathematical modelling, the process of how neochromosomes initially form and evolve has been made clearer. Fragments of DNA, produced following chromothriptic shattering of chromosome 12 undergo DNA repair to form of a circular or ring chromosome. This undergoes hundreds of circular breakage-fusion-bridge cycles, causing random amplification and deletion of DNA with selection for the amplification of key oncogenes. DNA from additional chromosomes is somehow added during this process. Erosion of centromeres can lead to the formation of neocentromeres or the capture of new native centromeres from other chromosomes. The process ends when the neochromosome forms a linear chromosome following the capture of telomeric caps, which can be chromothriptically derived.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6012335",
"title": "History of biotechnology",
"section": "Section::::Genetic engineering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 733,
"text": "The origins of biotechnology culminated with the birth of genetic engineering. There were two key events that have come to be seen as scientific breakthroughs beginning the era that would unite genetics with biotechnology. One was the 1953 discovery of the structure of DNA, by Watson and Crick, and the other was the 1973 discovery by Cohen and Boyer of a recombinant DNA technique by which a section of DNA was cut from the plasmid of an E. coli bacterium and transferred into the DNA of another. This approach could, in principle, enable bacteria to adopt the genes and produce proteins of other organisms, including humans. Popularly referred to as \"genetic engineering,\" it came to be defined as the basis of new biotechnology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
1qmku1 | why don't baseball pitchers wear a protective helmet if a line drive could cause permanent brain damage among other things? | [
{
"answer": "Simply put, pitchers don't want to wear them. It's as simple as that. As far as I know, it's perfectly legal for players to wear helmets in the field and it has been done before (by first baseman John Olerud).\n\nHere are the reasons I've read about that account for the resistance to pitchers' helmets:\n\n1) While the effects of getting hit can be bad, it's not a frequent occurrence.\n\n2) Batters keep their heads steady as they swing. Pitching motions can be violent and shaky. As a result, helmets are likely to fall off or cover a pitcher's eyes.\n\n3) Fear that wearing a heavier object on one's head can affect the pitcher's mechanics (throwing motion). \n\n4) Concern that helmets would be hot, sweaty, and generally uncomfortable. \n\n5) Appearance. Right now, while pitchers almost universally wear hats, violating the trend could be embarrassing or make the pitcher less able to intimidate batters.\n\n6) A lack of knowledge/publicity surrounding devices designed specifically for pitchers. \n\n7) Tradition. Baseball has an unusually prominent focus on remaining traditional with the way things work on the field. That's not to say that big changes don't happen, but when they do, there's often resistance. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3806",
"title": "Hit by pitch",
"section": "Section::::Dangers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1478,
"text": "Serious injuries may result from being hit by a pitch, even when wearing a batting helmet. On August 18, 1967, Red Sox batter Tony Conigliaro was hit almost directly in the left eye by a fastball thrown by Jack Hamilton of the California Angels. His cheekbone was shattered; he nearly lost the sight of the eye, was unable to play for over a year, and never regained his earlier batting ability. Batting helmets at the time were not required to have an \"ear flap\"; it was not until 2002 that all Major League batters were required to wear helmets with side-protection. Ron Santo was the first player to wear a helmet with an improvised ear-flap, in 1966. He had it made after he was struck by a pitch from Jack Fisher that briefly knocked him unconscious and put him on the Disabled List for two weeks with a fractured cheekbone. On September 28, 1995, Kirby Puckett, of the Minnesota Twins, was struck in the cheek by a Dennis Martínez fastball, breaking his jaw and loosening two teeth. It would be his last regular-season game; during spring training the following year he developed glaucoma, which ended his career. Most recently, Mike Piazza, then of the New York Mets, was hit in the head by a pitch from Julián Tavárez of the St. Louis Cardinals on September 10, 2005. His helmet shattered, and he suffered a concussion. Other relatively minor injuries that are possible include broken fingers or hands, broken feet, broken ribs, injuries to the knee, or groin injuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "525071",
"title": "Batting helmet",
"section": "Section::::Recent developments (Since 2000).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "The no-flap helmet is still utilized in baseball. Catchers often wear a flapless helmet along with a facemask to protect the head when receiving pitches. Occasionally, players other than catchers will wear a batting helmet without earflaps while playing a defensive position in the field. This is usually done by a player who has a higher-than-normal risk of head injury. One example is former major-league player John Olerud, who started doing so after undergoing emergency surgery for a cerebral aneurysm while attending Washington State University. An earlier example was Richie Allen, who decided to wear a helmet in the field after at least one incident of being hit by objects thrown by fans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "351305",
"title": "Pitcher",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Currently there is a new trend of introducing a pitcher helmet to provide head protection from batters hitting line drives back to the pitcher. , MLB approved a protective pitchers cap which can be worn by any pitcher if they choose. San Diego Padres relief pitcher, Alex Torres was the first player in MLB to wear the protective cap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "525071",
"title": "Batting helmet",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "A batting helmet is worn by batters in the game of baseball or softball. It is meant to protect the batter's head from errant pitches thrown by the pitcher. A batter who is \"hit by pitch,\" due to an inadvertent wild pitch or a pitcher's purposeful attempt to hit him, may be seriously, even fatally, injured.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "525071",
"title": "Batting helmet",
"section": "Section::::Recent developments (Since 2000).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 700,
"text": "In 2009, Major League Baseball decided to take action and protect players from the increasing number of concussions and head injuries. Rawlings came out with the S100 baseball helmet, named for its impact capabilities. It was able to withstand the impact of a baseball traveling at from away. The other baseball helmets used are only required to withstand a impact from away. The first Major League Player to wear this helmet during a game was Canadian-born Ryan Dempster, a pitcher with the Chicago Cubs. The new helmet did not catch on because the players said it made them look like bobbleheads. Some players, including Mets third baseman David Wright, did decide to use the helmet while batting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1057414",
"title": "Traumatic brain injury",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Changes to common practices in sports have also been discussed. An increase in use of helmets could reduce the incidence of TBI. Due to the possibility that repeatedly \"heading\" a ball practicing soccer could cause cumulative brain injury, the idea of introducing protective headgear for players has been proposed. Improved equipment design can enhance safety; softer baseballs reduce head injury risk. Rules against dangerous types of contact, such as \"spear tackling\" in American football, when one player tackles another head first, may also reduce head injury rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31627160",
"title": "Tornado preparedness",
"section": "Section::::Actions taken during tornadoes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "A 2012 study of tornado injuries found that wearing a helmet such as those used for American football or bicycling, is an effective way to reduce injuries and deaths from head trauma. As of 2012, the CDC endorsed only general head protection, but recommended that if helmets are to be used, they be kept close by to avoid wasting time searching for them.\n",
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| null |
7gtwim | How do we know the electron is a fundamental particle and not composed of something smaller? | [
{
"answer": "Theories that suggest a composite electron just aren't as effective or accurate as the ones that assume it to be an elementary particle (Namely the [standard model](_URL_0_)).\n\nFurthermore, high-energy scattering experiments have revealed that it has a very tiny, nearly spherical charge distribution while also being very lightweight. That's hard to accomplish with a composite electron.",
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"answer": "The short answer is \"We don't\" but there's so far zero evidence suggesting that they are (and there have been many attempts to check if electrons have finer structure). Thus we continue with the theory that matches experiments AND has the least complexity. Complexity that has no predictive power serves no purpose (Occum's razor and all that).",
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"answer": "Scattering experiments have shown that if it has any size, it has to be really, really tiny, on the order of 10^-18 m. Now you could say that maybe its constituent particles are even tinier, but that seems unlikely for another reason. Due to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the product of the uncertainty on the position and the moment has to be larger than a certain constant. So if you confine some hypothetical particles in a space as small as experiments show the electron, their momenta need to be enormous to fulfill the principle. Momentum means energy, in fact, much more energy than the electron's mass is equivalent to.\n\nThis, together with [other considerations that show that the constituent particles need to be a million times heavier than the electron itself](_URL_0_) imply that any hypothetical interaction keeping the electron together would need to release this difference as binding energy. That isn't unusual, in fact a helium atom weighs about 3% less than its parts. However, it would have to release a massive amount of binding energy, which would also have to be fine-tuned very precisely to leave behind a millionth to a billionth of the constituent mass-energy. Such fine-tuning seems very unlikely.",
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"answer": "Most of the other answers are correct but perhaps a bit unsatisfying.\n\nI'd like to answer the question a little more broadly.\n\nConsider: **How do we define a fundamental particle?**\n\nAs discussed in Weinberg's \"The Quantum Theory of Fields\", a good definition of a fundamental particle is one which has no **continuous** degrees of freedom other than the momentum. That is, each particle should be uniquely describable with just its energy, momentum, and perhaps spin or helicity -- given two particles which have the exact same values of these variables, they should behave exactly identically in any conceivable experiment. However, within the theory, it is quite conceivable that there is some continuous degree of freedom which is accessible only at high energies; so the particles would not be fundamental if such energies are achievable in your experiment.\n\nThis is an important point, so I'll state it again: **it is most useful to think of \"fundamentalness\" as a function of energy.**\n\nIn the Standard Model of particle physics, photons and electrons have no structure at any energy. In addition, protons have no (accessible) structure until an energy of several GeV. So for most ordinary low-energy protons, it is perfectly reasonable to give their energy, momentum, and spin, and they can be considered fundamental particles at \"low\" energies (which includes all energies accessible outside nuclear experiments, including specifically all life and chemistry processes). Indeed for several decades after the discovery of the proton, it was regarded to be as fundamental as the electron.\n\nProton structure is accessible at higher energies -- if an electron is shot at a proton at several GeV, it can [\"probe\"](_URL_1_) the internal structure; at such energies, if you want to explain the experimental results, the only way out is to introduce the notion that a proton is composed of quarks with fractional charge, and that the electron is really interacting with these quarks. There are many different continuous degrees of freedom here: one of them, for instance, is the fraction of the total proton energy that is occupied by any one quark -- this is the intuitive meaning of [parton distribution functions](_URL_0_).\n\nBack to the original question -- there have been a few experiments that try to experimentally find some kind of internal structure. Generally, all such experiments involve extremely fine measurements of electrons at ever higher energies. But we have found no evidence of this so far.\n\nIn short, the theory states that there is no structure in an electron at any energy. Experimentally, this theory has been well-tested until extremely high energies. So for all purposes, we say that electrons are \"fundamental\", and we don't need to qualify the statement by adding \"at energies less than X GeV\" like we need to do with protons.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "9476",
"title": "Electron",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1036,
"text": "The electron is a subatomic particle, symbol or , whose electric charge is negative one elementary charge. Electrons belong to the first generation of the lepton particle family, and are generally thought to be elementary particles because they have no known components or substructure. The electron has a mass that is approximately 1/1836 that of the proton. Quantum mechanical properties of the electron include an intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of a half-integer value, expressed in units of the reduced Planck constant, \"ħ\". Being fermions, no two electrons can occupy the same quantum state, in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle. Like all elementary particles, electrons exhibit properties of both particles and waves: they can collide with other particles and can be diffracted like light. The wave properties of electrons are easier to observe with experiments than those of other particles like neutrons and protons because electrons have a lower mass and hence a longer de Broglie wavelength for a given energy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "237630",
"title": "Electron density",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "In chemistry electron density is the measure of the probability of an electron being present at a specific location. According to quantum mechanics, due to the uncertainty principle on an atomic scale the exact location of an electron cannot be predicted, only the probability of its being at a given position; therefore electrons in atoms and molecules act as if they are \"smeared out\" in space. For one-electron systems, the electron density at any point is proportional to the square magnitude of the wavefunction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143878",
"title": "Ramsey–Lewis method",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 500,
"text": "A scientific theory which attempts to describe \"electrons\" is inherently abstract, as no one has ever observed an electron directly. Thus, the origin and content of the concept of \"electron\" is questionable. What does the word exactly signify? Ramsey and Lewis proposed that the meaning of the term \"electron\" is implicitly generated by the scientific theory that describes it, via all its assertions about electrons. Electrons are those things about which all the statements of the theory are true.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41555255",
"title": "History of subatomic physics",
"section": "Section::::From atoms to nucleons.:First subatomic particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "However, near the end of 19th century, physicists discovered that Dalton's atoms are not, in fact, the fundamental particles of nature, but conglomerates of even smaller particles. Electron was discovered between 1879 and 1897 in works of William Crookes, Arthur Schuster, J. J. Thomson, and other physicists; its charge was carefully measured by Robert Andrews Millikan and Harvey Fletcher in their oil drop experiment of 1909. Physicists theorized that negatively charged electrons are constituent part of \"atoms\", along with some (yet unknown) positively charged substance, and it was later confirmed. Electron became the first elementary, truly fundamental particle discovered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "902",
"title": "Atom",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Subatomic particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 715,
"text": "The electron is by far the least massive of these particles at , with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques. It was the lightest particle with a positive rest mass measured, until the discovery of neutrino mass. Under ordinary conditions, electrons are bound to the positively charged nucleus by the attraction created from opposite electric charges. If an atom has more or fewer electrons than its atomic number, then it becomes respectively negatively or positively charged as a whole; a charged atom is called an ion. Electrons have been known since the late 19th century, mostly thanks to J.J. Thomson; see history of subatomic physics for details.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "67211",
"title": "Electron configuration",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "In atomic physics and quantum chemistry, the electron configuration is the distribution of electrons of an atom or molecule (or other physical structure) in atomic or molecular orbitals. For example, the electron configuration of the neon atom is 1s 2s 2p, using the notation explained below.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3201543",
"title": "Electron scattering",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 328,
"text": "The principle of the electron was first theorised in the period of 1838-1851 by a natural philosopher by the name of Richard Laming who speculated the existence of sub-atomic, unit charged particles; he also pictured the atom as being an 'electrosphere' of concentric shells of electrical particles surrounding a material core.\n",
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| null |
2e1s3j | when having diarrhea, why is it i can sit there for 20-30 minutes after going and nothing comes out. but when i get up, i immediately have to go again? | [
{
"answer": "You can get the sensation of excrement entering your anus without it actually being there. You technically feel like you have to go even while sitting down but that's only because you're actually contracting your \"poo muscles.\" When your body doesn't feel itself trying to \"go\" any more, it tells your brain \"hey, dude there's something big coming down\" and then you instinctively contract again, repeat until you actually poo.",
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"answer": "I would assume that it's because while seated on the toilet you have expelled everything that is possible whilst in that particular position, but when you move you are changing the physics sufficiently to release more.\n\nOr in pure ELI5 language; you hadn't finished yet, but your tummy thought you had as you hadn't moved in a while. \n\nAbsolutely not sure on this though, I'm not a fucking explosive shit doctor.",
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"answer": "Poo waits further up your bum.\n\nIt only moves down into the last part of your bum when the top part is full. When poo is in the bottom part, it makes you feel like you have to go. \n\nWhile you are sitting there, the bottom part is empty but the top part is filling up with diarrhea again. \n\nBecause of the angle, it doesn't flow down into the bottom part. When you stand up (and because it is liquid) it all pours down into the bottom part and you have to go again.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "When you sit down and lean forward slightly, you are actually decreasing the pressure on your abdominal cavity. This is why when you have a stomach ache or cramping you instinctively hunch over. When you stand up and start moving around, there is increased pressure on the abdominal cavity, and then you start feeling like you have to go again. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I don't see the rock-back-and-forth comment.\n\nrock back and forth about 10 times before getting up. You'll get the standing up sensation without standing up.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "the end of your intestines have two sets of muscles, one inner and one outer (the one that you can see), one or the other always stays closed to prevent you from seeping all day long, so when your anus is closed and you're not pooping the inner muscles relaxes allowing poop to enter your colon, once its full your body will tell you its time to go, you'll open your anus and the inner muscles Closes off your colon so you can empty it out.\n\nwhat happens with diahrea is that the liquid that goes with the poop will seep through the inner muscles and give you a constant feeling of having to go. so once you're sitting on the toilet, you'll subconciously keep \"pushing\"...but as long as your anus is relaxed, your inner muscle is closed, and you wont be able to evacuate, the pressure you apply with your stommach muscles will instead pile up the poop on the inside of the muscle in your intestines.\n\nThe moment you get up you close your anus and the inner muscles relaxes, and the piled-up-poop will immidiately fill your colon Again and you'll have to hit the shitter right away.\n\na good way to help it along is to tilt sideways lifting a butt cheek off the crapper, this makes it harder for the inner muscle to stay contracted and it'll be easier to squeeze out.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I remember once in college a student explaining why the Chinese culture squatted like that to go, he said it better line you up to go.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1606040",
"title": "Fecal impaction",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Symptoms include chronic constipation. There can be fecal incontinence and paradoxical or overflow diarrhea (encopresis) as liquid stool passes around the obstruction. Complications may include necrosis and ulcers of the rectal tissue. Abdominal pain and bloating could also be present depending on the severity of the condition. Loss of appetite can also occur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "53951",
"title": "Diarrhea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose, liquid, or watery bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss. Signs of dehydration often begin with loss of the normal stretchiness of the skin and irritable behaviour. This can progress to decreased urination, loss of skin color, a fast heart rate, and a decrease in responsiveness as it becomes more severe. Loose but non-watery stools in babies who are exclusively breastfed, however, are normal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "331556",
"title": "Enuresis",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Diurnal enuresis.:Infrequent voiding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Infrequent voiding refers to a child's voluntarily holding of urine for prolonged intervals. For example, a child may not want to use toilets at school or may not want to interrupt enjoyable activities, so he or she ignores the body's signal of a full bladder. In these cases, the bladder can overfill and leak urine. Additionally, these children often develop urinary tract infections (UTIs), leading to an irritable or overactive bladder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13391732",
"title": "Levator ani syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Symptoms include a dull ache to the left 2 inches above the anus or higher in the rectum and a feeling of constant rectal pressure or burning. The pain may last for 30 minutes or longer, and is usually described as chronic or intermittent with prolonged periods, in contrast to the brief pain of the related disorder proctalgia fugax. Pain may be worse when sitting than when standing or lying. Precipitating factors include extended sitting, defecation, stress, sexual intercourse, childbirth, and surgery. Palpation of the levator ani muscle may find tenderness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "92410",
"title": "Shigella",
"section": "Section::::Pathogenesis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "The most common symptoms are diarrhea, fever, nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps, and flatulence. It is also commonly known to cause large and painful bowel movements. The stool may contain blood, mucus, or pus. Hence, \"Shigella\" cells may cause dysentery. In rare cases, young children may have seizures. Symptoms can take as long as a week to appear, but most often begin two to four days after ingestion. Symptoms usually last for several days, but can last for weeks. \"Shigella\" is implicated as one of the pathogenic causes of reactive arthritis worldwide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "8724250",
"title": "Anorectal abscess",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "The condition can become extremely painful, and usually worsens over the course of just a few days. The pain may be limited and sporadic at first, but may worsen to a constant pain which can become very severe when body position is changed (e.g., when standing up, rolling over, and so forth). Depending upon the exact location of the abscess, there can also be excruciating pain during bowel movements, though this is not always the case. This condition may occur in isolation, but is frequently indicative of another underlying disorder, such as Crohn's disease.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "36805698",
"title": "Anismus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Symptoms include tenesmus (the sensation of incomplete emptying of the rectum after defecation has occurred) and constipation. Retention of stool may result in fecal loading (retention of a mass of stool of any consistency) or fecal impaction (retention of a mass of hard stool). This mass may stretch the walls of the rectum and colon, causing megarectum and/or megacolon, respectively. Liquid stool may leak around a fecal impaction, possibly causing degrees of liquid fecal incontinence. This is usually termed encopresis or soiling in children, and fecal leakage, soiling or liquid fecal incontinence in adults.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
4yvsck | Do insects, particularly cockroaches, use acid in their digestive system? | [
{
"answer": "It really depends on the insect. Mosquitoes, black flies and some lepidopterans actually have a basic stomach pH.\n\nHowever I did find a study on cockroaches that suggested that they seem to have an acidic stomach pH from around 6-2.\n\nIf you're interested here is the link\n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2499027",
"title": "Cockroach",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Digestive tract.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 684,
"text": "Cockroaches are generally omnivorous; the American cockroach (\"Periplaneta americana\"), for example, feeds on a great variety of foodstuffs including bread, fruit, leather, starch in book bindings, paper, glue, skin flakes, hair, dead insects and soiled clothing. Many species of cockroach harbor in their gut symbiotic protozoans and bacteria which are able to digest cellulose. In many species, these symbionts may be essential if the insect is to utilize cellulose; however, some species secrete cellulase in their saliva, and the wood-eating cockroach, \"Panesthia cribrata\", is able to survive indefinitely on a diet of crystallized cellulose while being free of micro-organisms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2499027",
"title": "Cockroach",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 969,
"text": "Cockroaches are social insects; a large number of species are either gregarious or inclined to aggregate, and a slightly smaller number exhibit parental care. It used to be thought that cockroaches aggregated because they were reacting to environmental cues, but it is now believed that pheromones are involved in these behaviors. Some species secrete these in their feces with gut microbial symbionts being involved, while others use glands located on their mandibles. Pheromones produced by the cuticle may enable cockroaches to distinguish between different populations of cockroach by odor. The behaviors involved have been studied in only a few species, but German cockroaches leave fecal trails with an odor gradient. Other cockroaches follow such trails to discover sources of food and water, and where other cockroaches are hiding. Thus, cockroaches have emergent behavior, in which group or swarm behavior emerges from a simple set of individual interactions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2499027",
"title": "Cockroach",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Tracheae and breathing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Like other insects, cockroaches breathe through a system of tubes called tracheae which are attached to openings called spiracles on all body segments. When the carbon dioxide level in the insect rises high enough, valves on the spiracles open and carbon dioxide diffuses out and oxygen diffuses in. The tracheal system branches repeatedly, the finest tracheoles bringing air directly to each cell, allowing gaseous exchange to take place.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "661100",
"title": "Oleic acid",
"section": "Section::::Occurrence.:As an insect pheromone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Oleic acid is emitted by the decaying corpses of a number of insects, including bees and \"Pogonomyrmex\" ants, and triggers the instincts of living workers to remove the dead bodies from the hive. If a live bee or ant is dabbed with oleic acid, it is dragged off for disposal as if it were dead. The oleic acid smell also may indicate danger to living insects, prompting them to avoid others who have succumbed to disease or places where predators lurk.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2467838",
"title": "Blattodea",
"section": "Section::::Cockroaches.:Chemical communication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "As in most insect species, cockroaches communicate with one another by the release of pheromones. It has also been discovered that cockroaches release hydrocarbons from their body that are transferred through interactions of the antennae. These hydrocarbons can aid in cockroach communication and can even tell whether an individual is a member of its kin or not to prevent inbreeding. Cockroaches that have been isolated in a lab setting have shown extreme behavioral effects and are less stimulated by these hydrocarbons and pheromones, possibly suggesting a group environment is required for development of these communication skills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "346558",
"title": "Roach bait",
"section": "Section::::Cockroach infestations.:Active ingredients.:Hydramethylnon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 714,
"text": "Hydramethylnon kills insects by disrupting energy production in their cells. Hydramethylnon is a slow-acting stomach poison (delayed toxicity) that does not need to be eaten to be effective. It is toxic to cockroaches both by topical application and by ingestion. Hydramethylnon residues are much less active against cockroaches by contact than by ingestion. A slow-acting poison is desirable, so they live long enough to return to the colony to share it with other cockroaches. In this way cockroaches that have eaten Hydramethylnon infect other cockroaches that have not had direct exposure to the baits. Hydramethylnon is known to cause cancer in rats, particularly uterine and adrenal tumours and lung cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24104729",
"title": "Insect morphology",
"section": "Section::::Internal of different taxa.:Blattodea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 164,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 164,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "Cockroaches, like all insects, breathe through a system of tubes called \"tracheae\". The tracheae of insects are attached to the spiracles, excluding the head. Thus cockroaches, like all insects, are not dependent on the mouth and windpipe to breathe. The valves open when the CO level in the insect rises to a high level; then the CO diffuses out of the tracheae to the outside and fresh O diffuses in. Unlike in vertebrates that depend on blood for transporting O and CO, the tracheal system brings the air directly to cells, the tracheal tubes branching continually like a tree until their finest divisions, tracheoles, are associated with each cell, allowing gaseous oxygen to dissolve in the cytoplasm lying across the fine cuticle lining of the tracheole. CO diffuses out of the cell into the tracheole. While cockroaches do not have lungs and thus do not actively breathe in the vertebrate lung manner, in some very large species the body musculature may contract rhythmically to forcibly move air out and in the spiracles; this may be considered a form of breathing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
42okwp | How legitimate are China's claims in the South China Sea? | [
{
"answer": "Disclaimer: I am a Filipino poster, but I am of Chinese ethnicity. I'm just calling it as I see it based on my knowledge of international law.\n\nIf we're going to go by the Nine-Dash Claim then quite frankly the claims are a whole bunch of nonsense.\n\nFirst of all, territorial waters are only supposed to extend 12 nautical miles from a nation's coast line. To claim the South China Sea would require China to massively increase this internationally agreed limit. Even using the Exclusive Economic Zone definition - which extends 200 nautical miles from the coast, simply isn't enough to cover the South China Sea. At this point China's attempt to claim the entire sea already falls apart. Here is a map showing the Exclusive Economic Zone limits versus China's claim to the entire South China Sea:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nHowever, some \"geniuses\" in China claim to have unearthed ancient documents that \"prove\" that the South China Sea was always Chinese along with the Spratley Islands. The problem is that these map actually date only from 1947, published by the Republic of China (Taiwan). Additionally, the Nine-Dash line is reliant on using reefs as the basis for extending territorial waters; which isn't recognized by international law.\n\nUnfortunately certain Chinese officials were apparently undeterred by the legal impossibilities, and instead had the reefs expanded using concrete until they could be considered real \"islands\" that could be considered for the purpose of counting territorial waters. This was why there was all this recent concern about Chinese construction in the South China Sea.\n\nAt this point the Philippines decided to literally take the Chinese to court at the UNCLOS (United Nation Convention on the Laws of the Seas) to stop the Chinese plans. And the Philippine team, to a lot of people's surprise, are actually winning the case handily at this point; by focusing on the \"ownership\" of a number of reefs in the Spratleys (e.g. Scarborough).\n\nTo elaborate, the Philippine government showed the records of several ships which were wrecked on these reefs in the late 1800s - and how _all_ of them chose _Manila_ (capital of the Philippines) as the court of arbitration when it came to resolving the insurance claim. These records were verified by neutral third parties (e.g. Lloyd's of London, which handled the insurance claims).\n\nHence, the Philippine government had _demonstrated_ that they they were already exercising legal jurisdiction over the disputed reefs since the late 1800s, or decades before the Nine-Dash Map was published. \n\nHad China really been serious about owning these reefs, then it should have filed complaints back in the 1800s protesting the arbitration in Manila courts. They never did, and thus by extension waived their own jurisdiction. And if you don't have jurisdiction over a piece of land, you certainly can't claim to have sovereignty over it.\n\nThis was why the general Chinese reaction to the hearings had been to snub it entirely and called for a return to negotiations. They knew they had been completely outfoxed on the legal front. That doesn't mean China is going to stop trying however; but it's certainly more cautious now as it does not want to be seen as breaking international law.\n\nEdit: Added a map.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "59502393",
"title": "Foreign policy of China",
"section": "Section::::South China Sea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "China has staked its territorial claims in the disputed South China Sea with the Nine-Dash Line. Its claims are disputed by other countries. The contested area in the South China Sea includes the Paracel Islands, the Spratly Islands, and various other areas including the Pratas Islands, the Macclesfield Bank and the Scarborough Shoal. The claim encompasses the area of Chinese land reclamation known as the \"Great Wall of Sand\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11659591",
"title": "Australia–China relations",
"section": "Section::::Political relations.:Turnbull Government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 432,
"text": "Australia has been among the firmest opponents of China's territorial claims to the South China Sea. In July 2016, following the ruling by an international tribunal which held that China holds \"no historical rights\" to the South China Sea based on the \"nine-dash line\" map, Australia issued a joint statement with Japan and the United States calling for China to abide by the ruling, as \"final and legally binding on both parties.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "394357",
"title": "International waters",
"section": "Section::::Disputes over international waters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "BULLET::::- South China Sea: See Territorial disputes in the South China Sea. Some countries consider (at least part of) the South China Sea as international waters, but this viewpoint is not universal. Notably, China, which opposes any suggestion that coastal States could be obliged to share the resources of the exclusive economic zone with other powers that had historically fished there, claims historical rights to the resources of the exclusive economic zones of all other coastal States in the South China Sea.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28741",
"title": "Southeast Asia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Contemporary history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "China has asserted broad claims over the South China Sea, based on its Nine-Dash Line, and has built artificial islands in an attempt to bolster its claims. China also has asserted an exclusive economic zone based on the Spratly Islands. The Philippines challenged China in the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague in 2013, and in \"Philippines v. China\" (2016), the Court ruled in favor of the Philippines and rejected China's claims.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23244",
"title": "Foreign relations of China",
"section": "Section::::Relations by region and country.:Asia.:Southeast Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 201,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 201,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "In 2010, China claimed \"indisputable sovereignty\" over the South China Sea, but said that the other nations in the area could continue to navigate its waters. Ted Carpenter of the Cato Institute has called these claims \"breathtakingly bold\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32005536",
"title": "Territorial disputes in the South China Sea",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "The disputes include the islands, reefs, banks, and other features of the South China Sea, including the Spratly Islands, Paracel Islands, Scarborough Shoal, and various boundaries in the Gulf of Tonkin. There are further disputes, including the waters near the Indonesian Natuna Islands, which many do not regard as part of the South China Sea. Claimant states are interested in retaining or acquiring the rights to fishing stocks, the exploration and potential exploitation of crude oil and natural gas in the seabed of various parts of the South China Sea, and the strategic control of important shipping lanes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31711652",
"title": "Nine-Dash Line",
"section": "Section::::Ongoing disputes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "According to former Philippine President Benigno Aquino III, \"China's nine-dash line territorial claim over the entire South China Sea is against international laws, particularly the United Nations Convention of the Laws of the Sea (UNCLOS)\". Vietnam also rejected the Chinese claim, citing that it is baseless and against the UNCLOS. In 2010, at a regional conference in Hanoi, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton announced that \"The United States has a national interest in freedom of navigation, open access to Asia's maritime commons, and respect for international law in the South China Sea\". The United States has also called for unfettered access to the area that China claims as its own, and accused Beijing of adopting an increasingly aggressive stance on the high seas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
56qt9e | why does holding hands with your so feel nice? | [
{
"answer": "Because physical contact releases dopamine in your brain which is a feel good chemical. Lots of recreational drugs have a similar effects.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "165458",
"title": "Handshake",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 277,
"text": "A handshake is a globally widespread, brief greeting or parting tradition in which two people grasp one of each other's like hands, in most cases accompanied by a brief up-and-down movement of the grasped hands. Handshakes are sometimes used to signify romantic relationships.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165458",
"title": "Handshake",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Using the right hand is generally considered proper etiquette. Customs surrounding handshakes are specific to cultures. Different cultures may be more or less likely to shake hands, or there may be different customs about how or when to shake hands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8119123",
"title": "Etiquette in Latin America",
"section": "Section::::Specific regions.:Haiti.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "BULLET::::- People holding hands is an ordinary display of friendship though women and men, but seldom show public affection toward the opposite sex but are affectionate in private. It is also common for people of the same sexes to hold hands, and is often mistakenly viewed as homosexuality to outsiders.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46741447",
"title": "Hand clasping",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Although some people do not exhibit a preference for one type of hand clasping, most do. Once adopted, the method of hand clasping tends to be consistent throughout life. When an individual attempts to clasp the hands in the opposite configuration from the usual one, that person may feel a sense that something is out of the ordinary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165459",
"title": "Holding hands",
"section": "Section::::Physical and psychological aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 203,
"text": "According to Tiffany Field, the director of the Touch Research Institute, holding hands stimulates the vagus nerve, which decreases blood pressure and heart rate and puts people in a more relaxed state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "165459",
"title": "Holding hands",
"section": "Section::::Cultural aspects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 596,
"text": "In Western culture, spouses and romantic couples often hold hands as a sign of affection or to express psychological closeness. Non-romantic friends may also hold hands, although acceptance of this varies by culture and gender role. Parents or guardians may hold the hands of small children to exercise guidance or authority. In terms of romance, handholding is often used in the early stages of dating or courtship to express romantic interest in a partner. Handholding is also common in advanced stages of a romantic relationship where it may be used to signify or seek solace and reassurance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "366663",
"title": "Body language",
"section": "Section::::Physical expressions.:Handshakes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "Handshakes are regular greeting rituals and commonly done on meeting, greeting, offering congratulations or after the completion of an agreement. They usually indicate the level of confidence and emotion level in people. Studies have also categorized several handshake styles, e.g. the finger squeeze, the bone crusher (shaking hands too strongly), the limp fish (shaking hands too weakly), etc. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
9czq7k | Why aren’t underwater windmills more of a thing? | [
{
"answer": "A few reasons,\n\n1. Maintenance. It's very costly to maintain underwater infrastructure.\n2. Corrosion is a big problem in salt water environments. Meaning more maintenance is needed.\n3. Biological buildup. Again in saltwater, the blades are going to end up getting fouled by barnacles and other aquatic life making them less efficient over time... also needing more maintenance.\n4. Limited useful locations - Tides are predictable, but you need to be in a place like a narrow bay inlet where the water actually flows inland and Outland. Out along most places on the coast, there's not actually a lot of tidal flow, just rising water. An ideal sort of location might be under the golden gate bridge. These high flow areas tend to be murky... complicating maintenance. That useful water flow also complicates maintenance because you can't easily service in high flow times.\n5. Lastly transporting that power requires infrastructure either underwater or on the shore. In many of the ideal locations, placing that infrastructure is probably politically complicated.\n\nCompared to wind turbines, the extra cost makes tidal systems less efficient over time. That's not to say there are no ideal places for it. It's just there are very few compared good wind production areas\n\nHydroelectric is more or less the same sort of thing mechanically, but you end up harvesting the potential energy from falling water flowing downhill. Frequently hydro project serves other purposes like flood control, fresh water collection, habitat and recreation. These other factors offset some of the higher capital and maintenance costs. It's also something that can be controlled and called upon in a time of need whereas a tidal system would be more like solar where it is predictable, but not controllable. Wind is neither predictable or controllable.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "I’ve installed underwater turbines. They make a lot of power at first and then they fall apart. Blades snap, seals flood, nacelles fly off, drive shafts bend...and they’re made sturdily enough. As another commenter said, if the current is strong enough to make the power it’s strong enough to rip them apart.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The density of water means that there is heaps of power available in flowing water. However it also means that the maximum loading that the turbines need to withstand are much greater.\n \nThere have been lots of different types of tidal stream and waver power devices, but many of them break from a case of extreme loading that they cannot handle, or wear out too quickly from things like cavitation.\n \nWith that said, hopefully we will be able to find something that can withstand the harsh environment, as tidal power in particular is a very reliable energy source.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They're trying out some new ones in the Pentland Firth just now. They hang down under a pontoon rather than being fixed to the sea floor. It puts less stress on them that way, so they don't come to bits. They're still experimental just now, but the results so far are promising.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "24363711",
"title": "Windmill ship",
"section": "Section::::Types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 613,
"text": "Several types can be made; these include windmill-only ships as well as hybrid ships which store wind power from the windmill when the ship does not need to be propelled. To reduce the energy required to propel the boat, windmill ships are often equipped with low-friction hull designs, such as multihulls, or they are hydrofoils. Boats without low-friction hulls or hydrofoils can be equipped with windmills, but often the force generated by the windmills alone is not sufficient to propel the craft. In this case, the windmills only provide supplemental force to conventional sails or other propulsion systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36975",
"title": "Electric boat",
"section": "Section::::Components.:Charger.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 755,
"text": "BULLET::::- Wind turbines are common on cruising yachts and can be very well suited to electric boats. There are safety considerations regarding the spinning blades, especially in a strong wind. It is important that the boat is big enough that the turbine can be mounted out of the way of all passengers and crew under all circumstances, including when alongside a dock, a bank or a pier. It is also important that the boat is big enough and stable enough that the \"top hamper\" created by the turbine on its pole or mast does not compromise its stability in a strong wind or gale. Large enough wind generators could produce a completely wind-powered electric boat. No such boats are yet known although a few \"mechanical\" wind turbine powered boats exist.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24363711",
"title": "Windmill ship",
"section": "Section::::Points of sail.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Because a windmill can rotate 360° into the wind, no matter what direction the ship is facing, a windmill ship can sail in any direction. In fact, because the power produced depends almost entirely on the apparent wind, they can produce the most power sailing directly upwind. Note that sailing upwind, while resulting in more power generation by the wind turbine, requires more power to be expended by the engine and thus it is still more efficient to sail down wind. To sail upwind, a conventional sailing vessel must tack across the wind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15416391",
"title": "Éolienne Bollée",
"section": "Section::::Unique feature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "The Éolienne Bollée is unique amongst other forms of windmill because of the stator. All windmills have a rotor, whether it is the sails on a traditional windmill or the blades of a modern wind turbine. The Éolienne Bollée is the only wind-powered turbine where the wind passes through a set of fixed blades (stator) before driving the windmill itself (rotor).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18881746",
"title": "Marine Current Turbines",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "The technology developed by MCT works much the same as a submerged windmill, driven by the flow of water rather than air. Tidal flows are more predictable than air flows both in time and maximum velocity and it is therefore possible to bring designs closer to the theoretical maximum. The turbines have a patented feature by which they can take advantage of the reversal of flow every 6 hours and generate on both flow and ebb of the tide. The tips of the blades are well below the surface so will not be a danger to shipping or be vulnerable to storms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27672",
"title": "Sailing",
"section": "Section::::Effects of sail types and plans.:Alternative wind-powered vessels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 105,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 105,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Some non-traditional rigs capture energy from the wind in a different fashion and are capable of feats that traditional rigs are not, such as sailing directly into the wind. One such example is the wind turbine boat, also called the windmill boat, which uses a large windmill to extract energy from the wind, and a propeller to convert this energy to forward motion of the hull. A similar design, called the autogyro boat, uses a wind turbine without the propellor, and functions in a manner similar to a normal sail. A more recent (2010) development is a cart that uses wheels linked to a propeller to \"sail\" dead downwind at speeds exceeding wind speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "623774",
"title": "Environmental impact of electricity generation",
"section": "Section::::Renewable energy.:Wind power.:Offshore wind.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "Offshore wind is similar to terrestrial wind technologies, as a large windmill-like turbine located in a fresh or saltwater environment. Wind causes the blades to rotate, which is then turned into electricity and connected to the grid with cables. The advantages of offshore wind are that winds are stronger and more consistent, allowing turbines of much larger size to be erected by vessels. The disadvantages are the difficulties of placing a structure in a dynamic ocean environment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2pdjpf | What did people in ancient times think of dreams? | [
{
"answer": "Well, at least in ancient Egypt, eating feces in your dream meant you were going to become wealthy. B. E. Shafer, ed., Religion in Ancient Egypt: Gods, Myths, and Personal Practice (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991).\n\nIn Mesopotamia, dreams were usually matters of interpretation. Some advanced scribes who had enough training would go on to specialize in dream interpretation. I haven't spent much time with those texts, but (suffice it to say for an only mildly helpful answer), some thought they were a big deal and had a significant impact on the religion and politics of their time.\n\nWe could also readily consider Joseph from Genesis 37-50, who had several dreams which were then interpreted as being portentous about things to come involving him and his family. Similarly, we see Daniel interpreting dreams for Nebuchadnezzar in the book of Daniel.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "44785",
"title": "Dream",
"section": "Section::::Cultural meaning.:Ancient history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "In ancient Egypt, as far back as 2000 BC, the Egyptians wrote down their dreams on papyrus. People with vivid and significant dreams were thought blessed and were considered special. Ancient Egyptians believed that dreams were like oracles, bringing messages from the gods. They thought that the best way to receive divine revelation was through dreaming and thus they would induce (or \"incubate\") dreams. Egyptians would go to sanctuaries and sleep on special \"dream beds\" in hope of receiving advice, comfort, or healing from the gods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "806414",
"title": "Oneiromancy",
"section": "Section::::Oneirocritic literature.:Ancient oneirocritic literature.:Mesopotamia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 1124,
"text": "The ancient Sumerians in Mesopotamia have left evidence of dream interpretation dating back to at least 3100 BC. Throughout Mesopotamian history, dreams were always held to be extremely important for divination and Mesopotamian kings paid close attention to them. Gudea, the king of the Sumerian city-state of Lagash (reigned 2144–2124 BC), rebuilt the temple of Ningirsu as the result of a dream in which he was told to do so. The standard Akkadian \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" contains numerous accounts of the prophetic power of dreams. First, Gilgamesh himself has two dreams foretelling the arrival of Enkidu. Later, Enkidu dreams about the heroes' encounter with the giant Humbaba. Dreams were also sometimes seen as a means of seeing into other worlds and it was thought that the soul, or some part of it, moved out of the body of the sleeping person and actually visited the places and persons the dreamer saw in his or her sleep. In Tablet VII of the epic, Enkidu recounts to Gilgamesh a dream in which he was saw the gods Anu, Enlil, and Shamash condemn him to death. He also has a dream in which he visits the Underworld.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50400",
"title": "Dream interpretation",
"section": "Section::::Early history.:Early civilizations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1688,
"text": "The ancient Sumerians in Mesopotamia have left evidence of dream interpretation dating back to at least 3100 BC. Throughout Mesopotamian history, dreams were always held to be extremely important for divination and Mesopotamian kings paid close attention to them. Gudea, the king of the Sumerian city-state of Lagash (reigned 2144–2124 BC), rebuilt the temple of Ningirsu as the result of a dream in which he was told to do so. The standard Akkadian \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" contains numerous accounts of the prophetic power of dreams. First, Gilgamesh himself has two dreams foretelling the arrival of Enkidu. In one of these dreams, Gilgamesh sees an axe fall from the sky. The people gather around it in admiration and worship. Gilgamesh throws the axe in front of his mother Ninsun and then embraces it like a wife. Ninsun interprets the dream to mean that someone powerful will soon appear. Gilgamesh will struggle with him and try to overpower him, but he will not succeed. Eventually, they will become close friends and accomplish great things. She concludes, \"That you embraced him like a wife means he will never forsake you. Thus your dream is solved.\" Later in the epic, Enkidu dreams about the heroes' encounter with the giant Humbaba. Dreams were also sometimes seen as a means of seeing into other worlds and it was thought that the soul, or some part of it, moved out of the body of the sleeping person and actually visited the places and persons the dreamer saw in his or her sleep. In Tablet VII of the epic, Enkidu recounts to Gilgamesh a dream in which he was saw the gods Anu, Enlil, and Shamash condemn him to death. He also has a dream in which he visits the Underworld.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44785",
"title": "Dream",
"section": "Section::::Cultural meaning.:Ancient history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1120,
"text": "The ancient Sumerians in Mesopotamia have left evidence of dream interpretation dating back to at least 3100 BC. Throughout Mesopotamian history, dreams were always held to be extremely important for divination and Mesopotamian kings paid close attention to them. Gudea, the king of the Sumerian city-state of Lagash (reigned 2144–2124 BC), rebuilt the temple of Ningirsu as the result of a dream in which he was told to do so. The standard Akkadian \"Epic of Gilgamesh\" contains numerous accounts of the prophetic power of dreams. First, Gilgamesh himself has two dreams foretelling the arrival of Enkidu. Later, Enkidu dreams about the heroes' encounter with the giant Humbaba. Dreams were also sometimes seen as a means of seeing into other worlds and it was thought that the soul, or some part of it, moved out of the body of the sleeping person and actually visited the places and persons the dreamer saw in his or her sleep. In Tablet VII of the epic, Enkidu recounts to Gilgamesh a dream in which he saw the gods Anu, Enlil, and Shamash condemn him to death. He also has a dream in which he visits the Underworld.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44785",
"title": "Dream",
"section": "Section::::Cultural meaning.:Classical history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 760,
"text": "Antiphon wrote the first known Greek book on dreams in the 5th century BC. In that century, other cultures influenced Greeks to develop the belief that souls left the sleeping body. Hippocrates (469–399 BC) had a simple dream theory: during the day, the soul receives images; during the night, it produces images. Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC) believed dreams caused physiological activity. He thought dreams could analyze illness and predict diseases. Marcus Tullius Cicero, for his part, believed that all dreams are produced by thoughts and conversations a dreamer had during the preceding days. Cicero's \"Somnium Scipionis\" described a lengthy dream vision, which in turn was commented on by Macrobius in his \"Commentarii in Somnium Scipionis\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44785",
"title": "Dream",
"section": "Section::::Cultural meaning.:Classical history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "The Greeks shared their beliefs with the Egyptians on how to interpret good and bad dreams, and the idea of incubating dreams. Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams, also sent warnings and prophecies to those who slept at shrines and temples. The earliest Greek beliefs about dreams were that their gods physically visited the dreamers, where they entered through a keyhole, exiting the same way after the divine message was given.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "806414",
"title": "Oneiromancy",
"section": "Section::::Oneirocritic literature.:Ancient oneirocritic literature.:Greek.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "Dream divination was a common feature of Greek and Roman religion and literature of all genres. Aristotle and Plato discuss dreams in various works. The only surviving Greco-Roman dreambook, the Oneirocritica, was written by Artemidorus. Artemidorus cites a large number of previous authors, all of whom are now lost. These include Artemidoros, Astrampsychos, Nikephoros, Germanos, and Manuel Palaiologos.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
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| null |
31dv0c | Why does the elephant have such a big brain? Is most of it dedicated to controlling a massive body? | [
{
"answer": "At its heart this is an Encephalisation Quotient (EQ) question, so we should start there.\n\nMost psychometric texts will talk of [encephalisation quotient](_URL_0_) (EQ) as a better predictor of intelligence than brain size. So many texts state this that that most assume they must be correct. There is only only one small problem: these texts never reference any survey data in support. The reason is that, until very recently, we didn't have any quantitative metric of intelligence that we can use across species. Put simply, it was a wild guess by leading experts borne by the need to explain why elephants aren't smarter than humans (all terrestrial animals have been well studied, and this is the only one of them with a bigger brain than us). We have part of that answer now.\nElephants brains hve recently been studied in detail and have > 97% of their neurons devoted body control and sensory input (in the cerebellum) - much higher than any other mammal. Their trunk is the only other organ that is known to have similar 'dexterity' to a human hand, except hands have a score or so of movable joints, but a trunk has hundreds of muscle blocks to control. The assumption is that controlling these is what has driven their brain expansion over time. In their higher centres (neocortex) they have far fewer neurons than humans, and slightly less than other great apes. It should be no surprise then that they are still thought to be slightly less intelligent that chimps. Now let's go to more recent data on EQ.\n\nFor quite some time now, EQ has been know to be [invalid for primates](_URL_3_) – the group on which most psychometric analysis has been performed. If you go to the Wikipedia page on EQ, you will find the only survey it links to shows that raw brain size is by far the best predictor of intelligence in non-human primates. Until last year, we never had a quantitative metric that could take us beyond comparisons within that one order. We now have one, and (so far only one) survey that can. The stunning surprise from it is that, once more, [raw brain size is far and away the best predictor of intelligent behaviour](_URL_1_), and, if we adjust brain size for body size this predictive power for complex behaviour almost vanishes. So what is my guess as to the true answer to your question?\n\nI think elephants may well need that great brain - but only to control the trunk. Sperm whales may also need theirs to be huge, but for reasons that have nothing to do with body size. Sperm whales are the ONLY animal for which the culture to which they belong [has more impact on its growth rate and reproductive success than its genetics or location](_URL_2_) there are other reasons too to expect that their social complexity rivals or exceeds even our own. [Here](_URL_4_) is my own webpage that gives further details and peer reviewed references to that possibility.",
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},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37256524",
"title": "Captive elephants",
"section": "Section::::Behaviour and training.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "Elephants have the largest brains of all land animals, and ever since the time of Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, have been renowned for their cognitive skills, with behavioural patterns shared with humans. Pliny the Elder described the animal as being closest to a human in sensibilities. They also have a longer lifespan than most livestock. Elephants exhibit a wide variety of behaviors, including those associated with grief, learning, allomothering, mimicry, play, altruism, use of tools, compassion, cooperation, self-awareness, memory, and language. The adult male elephant occasionally goes through a \"musth\" period, making him dangerously aggressive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10909065",
"title": "Elephant cognition",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Most contemporary ethologists view the elephant as one of the world's most intelligent animals. With a mass of just over 5 kg (11 lb), an elephant's brain has more mass than that of any other land animal, and although the largest whales have body masses twenty times those of a typical elephant, a whale's brain is barely twice the mass of an elephant's brain. In addition, elephants have a total of 300 billion neurons. Elephant brains are similar to humans' and many other mammals' in terms of general connectivity and functional areas, with several unique structural differences. The elephant cortex has as many neurons as a human brain, suggesting convergent evolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10909065",
"title": "Elephant cognition",
"section": "Section::::Structure of the brain.:Cerebral cortex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "The elephant brain exhibits a gyral pattern more complex and with more numerous convolutions, or brain folds, than that of humans, other primates, or carnivores, but less complex than cetaceans, although elephants have as many cortical neurons (nerve cells) and cortical synapses as that of humans, which is more than that of the cetaceans such as whales and dolphins. Elephants are believed to rank equal with dolphins in terms of problem-solving abilities, and many scientists tend to rank elephant intelligence at the same level as cetaceans; a 2011 article published by ABC Science states that, \"elephants [are as] smart as chimps, [and] dolphins\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10909065",
"title": "Elephant cognition",
"section": "Section::::Structure of the brain.:Other areas of the brain.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "Elephants also have a very large and highly convoluted hippocampus, a brain structure in the limbic system that is much bigger than that of any human, primate or cetacean. The hippocampus of an elephant takes up about 0.7% of the central structures of the brain, comparable to 0.5% for humans and with 0.1% in Risso's dolphins and 0.05% in bottlenose dolphins.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1416251",
"title": "African elephant",
"section": "Section::::Behavior and ecology.:Intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "African elephants are highly intelligent, and they have a very large and highly convoluted neocortex, a trait they share with humans, apes and some dolphin species. They are amongst the world's most intelligent species. With a mass of just over , elephant brains are larger than those of any other land animal, and although the largest whales have body masses twentyfold those of a typical elephant, whale brains are barely twice the mass of an elephant's brain. The elephant's brain is similar to that of humans in terms of structure and complexity. For example, the elephant's cortex has as many neurons as that of a human brain, suggesting convergent evolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10909065",
"title": "Elephant cognition",
"section": "Section::::Structure of the brain.:Cerebral cortex.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Asian elephants have the greatest volume of cerebral cortex available for cognitive processing of all existing land animals. Elephants have a volume of cerebral cortex available for cognitive processing that exceeds that of any primate species, with one study suggesting elephants be placed in the category of great apes in terms of cognitive abilities for tool use and tool making.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9279",
"title": "Elephant",
"section": "Section::::Characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1210,
"text": "An elephant's skull is resilient enough to withstand the forces generated by the leverage of the tusks and head-to-head collisions. The back of the skull is flattened and spread out, creating arches that protect the brain in every direction. The skull contains air cavities (sinuses) that reduce the weight of the skull while maintaining overall strength. These cavities give the inside of the skull a honeycomb-like appearance. The cranium is particularly large and provides enough room for the attachment of muscles to support the entire head. The lower jaw is solid and heavy. Because of the size of the head, the neck is relatively short to provide better support. Lacking a lacrimal apparatus, the eye relies on the harderian gland to keep it moist. A durable nictitating membrane protects the eye globe. The animal's field of vision is compromised by the location and limited mobility of the eyes. Elephants are considered dichromats and they can see well in dim light but not in bright light. The core body temperature averages , similar to that of a human. Like all mammals, an elephant can raise or lower its temperature a few degrees from the average in response to extreme environmental conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3mq23p | Do some plants legitimately have medicinal properties? | [
{
"answer": "Your question sort of has two sub-questions that are non-trivially distinct:\n\n1. Do plants (used as a plant or plant extract) have medicinal properties?\n\n2. Do plants (any component thereof) have medicinal properties?\n\nAs to the first, the court is still out on the vast majority of candidates, save a few known examples (such as cinchona and willow bark for malaria and painkilling, with evidence for marijuana piling up). One of the difficulties in measuring efficacy is that each plant produces a very diverse cocktail of many compounds, and are wildly variable in how much of any given compound they make between individual plants. The lack of control in compound production in plants/fungi makes it preferable to isolate active compounds for drug development - you can control dosage far more easily, and adverse effects are minimized to only what the active compound itself does.\n\nThis leads into the second question, where the answer is overwhelmingly yes. Basically, if a plant is found to be truly (or even potentially) medicinal, it usually undergoes a lot of analysis (screening) until the active compound is identified, purified, and modified to either amplify efficacy or reduce adverse effects. Two major historical examples are the aforementioned willow bark (to aspirin) and cinchona (to quinine). In more recent times, two major cancer drug families, the taxanes (such as Taxol) and camptothecin-analogs (such as Camptosar) were derived from pacific yew and camptotheca tree bark respectively. It's estimated that around 60% of drugs on the market are derived from natural sources, the majority of which come from plants or fungi.\n\nSo basically, yes, a few plants are medicinal and many have compounds that can potentially be medicinal, but the vast majority need pharmaceutical development to be worthwhile.\n\nA relatively unbiased review on the subject can be found [here](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5161942",
"title": "Biodiversity and drugs",
"section": "Section::::Plant drugs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 249,
"text": "A lot of plant species are used in today's studies and have been exhaustively studied for their potential value as source of drugs. It is possible that some plant species may be a source of drugs against high blood pressure, AIDS or heart troubles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "822244",
"title": "Medicinal plants",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 699,
"text": "Medicinal plants, also called medicinal herbs, have been discovered and used in traditional medicine practices since prehistoric times. Plants synthesise hundreds of chemical compounds for functions including defense against insects, fungi, diseases, and herbivorous mammals. Numerous petrochemicals with potential or established biological activity have been identified. However, since a single plant contains widely diverse phytochemicals, the effects of using a whole plant as medicine are uncertain. Further, the phytochemical content and pharmacological actions, if any, of many plants having medicinal potential remain unassessed by rigorous scientific research to define efficacy and safety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "822244",
"title": "Medicinal plants",
"section": "Section::::In practice.:Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 830,
"text": "A 2012 phylogenetic study built a family tree down to genus level using 20,000 species to compare the medicinal plants of three regions, Nepal, New Zealand and the South African Cape. It discovered that the species used traditionally to treat the same types of condition belonged to the same groups of plants in all three regions, giving a \"strong phylogenetic signal\". Since many plants that yield pharmaceutical drugs belong to just these groups, and the groups were independently used in three different world regions, the results were taken to mean 1) that these plant groups do have potential for medicinal efficacy, 2) that undefined pharmacological activity is associated with use in traditional medicine, and 3) that the use of a phylogenetic groups for medicines in one region may predict their use in the other regions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39096834",
"title": "Astianthus",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "As with almost every plant, medicinal value has been alleged, but no verifiable evidence of efficacy has been observed. Isolated compounds and a crude extracts from \"Astianthus\" have failed to show any antimicrobial activity. They also showed no cytotoxicity for tumor cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "261899",
"title": "Entheogen",
"section": "Section::::History.:1950s–present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 339,
"text": "There now exist many synthetic drugs with similar psychoactive properties, many derived from the aforementioned plants. Many pure active compounds with psychoactive properties have been isolated from these respective organisms and chemically synthesized, including mescaline, psilocybin, DMT, salvinorin A, ibogaine, ergine, and muscimol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "822244",
"title": "Medicinal plants",
"section": "Section::::Phytochemical basis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "All plants produce chemical compounds which give them an evolutionary advantage, such as defending against herbivores or, in the example of salicylic acid, as a hormone in plant defenses. These phytochemicals have potential for use as drugs, and the content and known pharmacological activity of these substances in medicinal plants is the scientific basis for their use in modern medicine, if scientifically confirmed. For instance, daffodils (\"Narcissus\") contain nine groups of alkaloids including galantamine, licensed for use against Alzheimer's disease. The alkaloids are bitter-tasting and toxic, and concentrated in the parts of the plant such as the stem most likely to be eaten by herbivores; they may also protect against parasites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1659266",
"title": "Calophyllum",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Plants of the genus are also known for their chemistry, with a variety of secondary metabolites isolated, such as coumarins, xanthones, flavonoids, and triterpenes. Compounds from the genus have been reported to have cytotoxic, anti-HIV, antisecretory, cytoprotective, antinociceptive, molluscicidal, and antimicrobial properties. Some plants are used in folk medicine to treat conditions such as peptic ulcers, tumors, infections, pain, and inflammation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
wuefz | how does mazda's rotary engines work? | [
{
"answer": "_URL_0_ \n\nAnyone who has owned an RX7 will get this. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "146227",
"title": "Sports car",
"section": "Section::::Asia.:1959—1968: Beginnings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Mazda is noted for its use of rotary engines, beginning in 1967 with the Mazda Cosmo. The Cosmo was a two-seat coupe with a rotary engine producing up to . Mazda continued to produce sports cars with rotary engines (sometimes turbocharged) until the Mazda RX-8 ended production in 2012.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33303",
"title": "Wankel engine",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Vehicle range extender.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 177,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 177,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Mazda has undertaken research on Spark Controlled Compression Ignition (SPCCI) ignition on rotary engines stating that any new rotary engines will incorporate SPCCI. SPCCi incorporates spark and compression ignition combining the advantages of gasoline and diesel engines to achieve environmental, power and fuel consumption goals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "732922",
"title": "List of Mazda engines",
"section": "Section::::Piston engines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Although Mazda is well known for their Wankel \"rotary\" engines, the company has been manufacturing piston engines since the earliest years of the Toyo Kogyo company. Early on, they produced overhead camshaft, aluminum blocks, and an innovative block containing both the engine and transmission in one unit. This section summarizes piston engine developments. Note that only Mazda's V-twin, Inline-4, and V6 configurations have made it to market. The company has engineered and completed a W12 engine by 1990 for use in their proposed Amati luxury car brand. Due to financial hardships during that time, the luxury brand was abandoned as well as those two engines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9470970",
"title": "Max Bentele",
"section": "Section::::Impact.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Although the unique rotary engine was designed by Felix Wankel, the commercial success and worldwide applications of these engines were largely achieved by Bentele. Today compact and efficient rotary engines have commercial applications in automobiles, notably in Mazda sports and racing cars. Toyo Kogyo Kaisha, Limited (dba Mazda Motor Corporation) was one of the first to acquire a license for the Wankel in July 1960 (later ratified by the Japanese Government in July 1961) and spent many years refining the design. Rotary engines are also found in marine craft, and small custom airplanes, built by enthusiasts and small aircraft companies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19370",
"title": "Mazda",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "Mazda refocused its efforts and made the rotary engine a choice for the sporting motorist rather than a mainstream powerplant. Starting with the lightweight RX-7 in 1978 and continuing with the modern RX-8, Mazda has continued its dedication to this unique powerplant. This switch in focus also resulted in the development of another lightweight sports car, the piston-powered Mazda MX-5 Miata (sold as the Eunos and later Mazda Roadster in Japan), inspired by the concept 'jinba ittai'. Introduced in 1989 to worldwide acclaim, the Roadster has been widely credited with reviving the concept of the small sports car after its decline in the late 1970s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19370",
"title": "Mazda",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 672,
"text": "Beginning in the 1960s, Mazda was inspired by the NSU Ro 80 and decided to put a major engineering effort into development of the Wankel rotary engine as a way of differentiating itself from other Japanese auto companies. The company formed a business relationship with German company NSU and began with the limited-production Cosmo Sport of 1967, and continuing to the present day with the Pro Mazda Championship, Mazda has become the sole manufacturer of Wankel-type engines for the automotive market, mainly by way of attrition (NSU and Citroën both gave up on the design during the 1970s, and prototype Corvette efforts by General Motors never made it to production.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "964723",
"title": "Mazda K engine",
"section": "Section::::KL.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 778,
"text": "Mazda introduced a key technology with these engines, known as the Variable Resonance Induction System (VRIS). A series of two butterfly valves coupled with electronically controlled actuators varied the volume and length of a resonant chamber within the intake manifold. The valves actuate at particular engine frequencies (i.e. rpms) to produce optimal torque/horsepower output at any given engine speed. The valve operates to create three specific first-order resonant frequencies that increase cylinder air charge. All three resonances are used from 0 to 6250 rpm (6800 for the KL-ZE). Above that threshold, the first primary resonant chamber is again used, but at this engine speed the pressure wave from the second-order resonant frequency aids in charging the cylinder. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2vfjsf | When the Titanic sunk due to hitting an iceberg, how iceberg filled was that part of the ocean? | [
{
"answer": "The Titanic had taken a somewhat more northerly route than most liners normally had, and it was also sailing into an area (near the Grand Banks) where it had received warnings of floating bergs. At the time, no large ship had been lost to an iceberg, and it was thought that bergs did not pose a large danger to contemporary ships. (A similar passenger liner had rammed an iceberg in 1907 and was able to complete its voyage, though with damage.) \n\nSo yes, the ship was in known iceberg territory, which was not uncommon, and cutting the corner slightly closer to Newfoundland than most ships did, but there would not have been a sense on the ship that the situation or those waters were unusually dangerous. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "not saying this isn't an r/askhistorians thing (it definitely is!) but are you cross posting this at something like r/askscience? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "15012531",
"title": "Louise Kink",
"section": "Section::::Aboard \"Titanic\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "The \"Titanic\"'s collision with the iceberg at 11:40 pm on April 14 woke Anton and his brother and the two ran to the ship's welldeck where they clearly saw the iceberg. They returned to their cabin and dressed, barely finishing before water began to pour into their cabin. Anton ran to his wife's cabin and woke its occupants. The entire Kink family made their way to the boat's deck, but Maria and Vinzenz were lost in the crowd.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10185776",
"title": "Sinking of the RMS Titanic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The sank in the early morning of 15 April 1912 in the North Atlantic Ocean, four days into the ship's maiden voyage from Southampton to New York City. The largest ocean liner in service at the time, \"Titanic\" had an estimated 2,224 people on board when she struck an iceberg at around 23:40 (ship's time) on Sunday, 14 April 1912. Her sinking two hours and forty minutes later at 02:20 (ship's time; 05:18 GMT) on Monday, 15 April, resulted in the deaths of more than 1,500 people, making it one of the deadliest peacetime marine disasters in history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46290909",
"title": "RMS Wray Castle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 390,
"text": "At 11:40 p.m., on 14 April 1912 the RMS Titanic hit an iceberg. The collision opened five of her watertight compartments to the sea; the ship gradually filled with water and by 2:20 a.m., she broke apart and foundered, with well over one thousand people still aboard. Two hours after \"Titanic\" foundered, the Cunard liner RMS \"Carpathia\" arrived and took aboard an estimated 705 survivors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "615283",
"title": "Edward Smith (sea captain)",
"section": "Section::::\"Titanic\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Shortly after 11:40 p.m. on 14 April, Smith was informed by First Officer William Murdoch that the ship had just collided with an iceberg. It was soon apparent that the ship was seriously damaged; designer Thomas Andrews reported that all of the first five of the ship's watertight compartments had been breached and that \"Titanic\" would sink in under two hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "477394",
"title": "Harold Bride",
"section": "Section::::RMS \"Titanic\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "The \"Titanic\" hit the iceberg at 11:40 pm that night and began sinking. Bride woke up shortly after and asked Phillips what was happening. Phillips said they struck something; Bride acknowledged Phillips and began to get ready to go on duty. Captain Edward Smith soon came into the wireless room alerting Bride and Phillips to be ready to send out a distress signal. Shortly after midnight he came in and told them to request help and gave them the ship's position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2286680",
"title": "International Ice Patrol",
"section": "Section::::History.:Founding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "On her maiden voyage from Southampton, England bound for New York, \"Titanic\" collided with an iceberg just south of the tail of the Grand Banks and sank in less than three hours. The loss of life was enormous with more than 1,500 of the 2,224 passengers and crew perishing. \"Titanic\", the brand new ship of the White Star Line, was the largest passenger liner of her time displacing 45,000 tons and capable of sustained speed in excess of . The loss of \"Titanic\" gripped the world with a sobering awareness of an iceberg's potential for tragedy. The sheer dimensions of the \"Titanic\" disaster created sufficient public reaction on both sides of the Atlantic to prod reluctant governments into action, producing the first Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) convention in 1914. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10185776",
"title": "Sinking of the RMS Titanic",
"section": "Section::::14 April 1912.:\"Iceberg right ahead!\".:Effects of the collision.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 1189,
"text": "The impact with the iceberg was long thought to have produced a huge opening in \"Titanic\" hull, \"not less than in length, above the level of the keel\", as one writer later put it. At the British inquiry following the accident, Edward Wilding (chief naval architect for Harland and Wolff), calculating on the basis of the observed flooding of forward compartments forty minutes after the collision, testified that the area of the hull opened to the sea was \"somewhere about \". He also stated that \"I believe it must have been in places, not a continuous rip\", but that the different openings must have extended along an area of around 300 feet, to account for the flooding in several compartments. The findings of the inquiry state that the damage extended about 300 feet, and hence many subsequent writers followed this statement. Modern ultrasound surveys of the wreck have found that the damage consisted of six narrow openings in an area of the hull covering only about in total. According to Paul K. Matthias, who made the measurements, the damage consisted of a \"series of deformations in the starboard side that start and stop along the hull ... about above the bottom of the ship\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
985l7t | Any studies of the changing preferences for androgyny vs. polarized masculinity and femininity through history? | [
{
"answer": "if the topic is overly vague: specifically I’m interested in any correlations between a timeline of these trends and the corresponding social moment, especially in terms of the political economy",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "58849",
"title": "Gender studies",
"section": "Section::::Influences.:Post-modern influence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "In addition to the expansion to include sexuality studies, under the influence of post-modernism gender studies has also turned its lens toward masculinity studies, due to the work of sociologists and theorists such as R. W. Connell, Michael Kimmel, and E. Anthony Rotundo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "862471",
"title": "Effeminacy",
"section": "Section::::Gay men.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 300,
"text": "Since the 2000s, Peter Hennen's cultural analysis of gay masculinities has found effeminacy to be a “historically varying concept deployed primarily as a means of stabilising a given society’s concept of masculinity and controlling the conduct of its men based upon the repudiation of the feminine”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "372962",
"title": "Societal attitudes toward homosexuality",
"section": "Section::::Anti-homosexual attitudes.:Association with child abuse and pedophilia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 483,
"text": "Past societal attitudes toward homosexuality have sometimes been compared to present societal attitudes toward pedophilia, since each was at one time viewed as self-evidently wrong, particularly in light of the lack of a marital relationship between the sexual partners. Lawmakers and social commentators have sometimes expressed a concern that normalizing homosexuality would also lead to normalizing pedophilia, if it were determined that pedophilia too were a sexual orientation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240058",
"title": "Masculinity",
"section": "Section::::Development.:Nature versus nurture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "In contrast to earlier perspectives of the nature versus nurture debate, contemporary social scientists suggest masculinity to stem from both nature \"and\" nurture, as both biological predispositions and social factors intersect to give rise to masculine gender identities. Scholars suggest that innate differences between the sexes are compounded and/or exaggerated by the influences of social factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "240058",
"title": "Masculinity",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "The relative importance of socialization and genetics in the development of masculinity is debated. Although social conditioning is believed to play a role, psychologists and psychoanalysts such as Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung believed that aspects of \"feminine\" and \"masculine\" identity are subconsciously present in all human males.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5644238",
"title": "Female Sabotage",
"section": "Section::::The female sabotage theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "Abraham's explanation reunites the major split in sexual selection—intrasexual selection (male combat) and intersexual selection (female choice)--together under one rubric. Under female sabotage, the increase in resources becomes the critical factor, and the cause of increased male mortality is secondary. The theory also offers new, feminist approaches to leks, harems, resource guarding and mate location.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9137915",
"title": "Susan Fiske",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Ambivalent sexism theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "Fiske and Peter Glick developed the ambivalent sexism inventory (ASI) as a way of understanding prejudice against women. The ASI posits two sub-components of gender stereotyping: hostile sexism (hostility towards nontraditional women), and benevolent sexism (idealizing and protecting traditional women). The theory posits that men and women's intimate interdependence, coupled with men's average status advantage, requires incentives for women to cooperate (benevolent sexism) and punishment for women who resist (hostile sexism). Both men and women can endorse hostile sexism and benevolent sexism, though men on average score higher than women, especially on hostile sexism. The ASI appears useful across nations. The authors have also developed a parallel scale of ambivalence toward men.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1rzuyt | how does netflix stream movies in high quality smoothly while youtube can't even stream a minute long video without buffering? | [
{
"answer": "This might have more to do with your internet connection and how your ISP has set up its network - depending on how your ISP deals with making partnerships with other networks/ISPs in the area, its possible that YouTube's content delivery servers are slow because your ISP doesn't have the infrastructure or partnership deals to provide sufficient bandwidth/reliability to those servers.\n\nEdit: The process of ISPs making deals as far as how to work with neighboring ISPs/backbones/networks is [Peering](_URL_2_), and depending on how those peering agreements work, its possible either a Netflix CDN (content distribution network) or Youtube CDN are on the wrong side of a bad peering arrangement.\n\nEdit Edit: I assume some people might feel like 'no its because youtube sucks lol.' Your ISP *is* involved, whether actively through some form of bandwidth throttle, or because of crappy peering agreements for your area. [Guides like this](_URL_1_) wouldn't exist (or work) if that wasn't the case. I'm not saying ISPs are responsible for all of this, but if you look at the reaction to Netflix attempting to create a system where [bad peering agreements](_URL_0_) wouldn't be an issue, then clearly there is something else to this beyond 'youtube sucks.'",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You pay for netflix",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Netflix posts isp scores, so there is a consequence to slowing them down. I do not believe the same is true with YouTube ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ISP are in a war against Youtube. They want Google to pay for bandwidth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Short answer: Netflix has purpose built (or contracted) a well designed [Content Delivery Network] (_URL_0_) with specialized technology designed solely for delivery of streaming media to paying subscribers. Google/YT, who must be all things to all users, also has a major CDN but there's a huge difference in purpose, scale, cost, mission (ad delivery, tracking), load and technology between the two. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "That's strange. When Netflix came to Finland, I tried it for a month, but I didn't continue the contract, because it was so slow. Youtube here streams 1440p with no noticeably buffering even on long videos, but Netflix couldn't handle even 720p.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The main problem is the video player. In order for YouTube to keep better tracking of who is watching what everytime you click somewhere else it has to re buffer. If you recall the pre-Google era of YouTube (yes, Google didn't own YouTube in the glory days) you didn't have to worry about clicking around the areas of the video that had already buffered. The video player sucks by design.\ntl;dr Porn sites have better streaming because they don't care if you skip to the good part",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Lately, they don't.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The main reason is that Netflix is devoted to and can afford a higher-quality experience for its users.\n\n- Netflix\n\nVideos are controlled by Netflix themselves. No need to worry about converting files server-side or checking videos for copyright infringement, and aside from some minor stuff like star ratings the servers are entirely devoted to serving up content. This means they can afford to buffer your videos well beyond the current point, especially since its users pay for the content.\n\n- YouTube\n\nAnyone can upload video, anytime. Google's YouTube-related servers have to balance converting video, scanning video for illegal/copyright-infringing content, handling comments and uploads from billions of users, and streaming to an audience that dwarfs Netflix. Their servers are filled with garbage like \"my recent webcam upload\" or \"my shitty 200-play Let's Play with 5 views per video\". And people don't pay for a cent of it. And with all this going on, you also have to deal with guys mass-downloading your videos despite using protected streaming methods to deliver video only at the exact moment it's requestied (hence the constant buffering when you skip - notice that almost every other site will buffer the video significantly further than the point you're watching).\n\nSo is it any wonder that Netflix is faster?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Youtube uses a system called [DASH playback](_URL_0_), essentially breaking up the video into small pieces and sending the pieces to you individually according to what your network connection can handle. Ideally this improves playback quality without added waiting times since you're always getting the best quality segment that you can receive. If you have an unstable connection, you'll just get a lower quality segment sometimes, but it \\*should be fairly transparent to the person watching.\n\nIn practice, at least on youtube, it's fucking terrible and everyone hates it. It's responsible for constant buffering, performance issues when streaming on a low powered computer, inability to rewatch a part of the video without rebuffering, etc. etc.\n\nThere's an extension called Youtube center that will let you disable DASH, I highly recommend it.\n\nAs for Netflix, I'm unsure if it supports DASH or not, but if it does it has a much better implementation.\n\nedit: Since people keep replying with same-ish info, some clarifications:\n\n* There's nothing inherently bad about DASH or adaptive streaming in general, it's just the way Youtube uses it that causes a lot of problems for people.\n* Some of the blame might also go to Flash, or to your ISP, or to somewhere else in the chain. \n* Some fortunate people have no problems with DASH playback, which is nice for them because it will mean DASH probably give the benefits it's supposed to with minimal or no downsides.\n* Similarly some unfortunate people might have problems with youtube even with DASH disabled. Can't help you there, sorry :(",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You are referring to DASH Buffering. DASH buffering buffers youtube videos in blocks instead of the whole video. You should disable DASH buffering in order to load the entire video. [Click here for instructions to disable DASH buffering](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Netflix uses Amazon's data centres. Whenever the site needs more computing power, they add more virtual machines to handle the load. My cousin works for Amazon cloud services. Dropbox uses amazon as well. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Netflix has invested a lot of time and money in deploying a content delivery network. Youtube has not (to the same extent).\n\nIt's also worth considering that Netflix has a finite video library that probably numbers in the tens of terabytes. Youtube's content library numbers in the Petabytes - meaning it is a much more complex problem to solve. I can build a single box computer that stores all of Netflix's library, that isn't possible with Youtube. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There is a proven method to increase the speed of youtube videos load time.. I cannot recall it off the top of my head.. but you blocked a certain IP address and it forced youtube traffic through other nodes which ran faster.. While ISPs are not specifically throttling youtube... what they are doing is forcing 90% of youtube traffic through the same core nodes and it cant handle all that traffic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I'm not a tech person, but surely the most obvious two answers are:\n\na) You pay for netflix. They can balance subscription fees against delivering content. They only add things to the library which they think will make profit by attracting more people. Youtube has billions of videos, and very few of them would ever create profit.\n\nb) Netflix library is finite and entirely controlled by them. Youtube library must be 1000's of times larger, and they have to deal with uploads/conversions too.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There really are a number of factors here, I'l try to give some of my ideas on why. \n\n*1) YouTube is free, Netflix is paid. It's safe to assume YT gets perhaps and order of magnitude of traffic.\n*2) Technology: Netflix uses Silverlight with a Windows Media Codec (Last I checked it was WM9, but it might have been axed for h.264 all together) Youtube uses Mpeg and h.264. Windows Media is quite good at streaming. It has variable speed detection and adapts on the fly. Youtube's mechanism for this is to down shift in quality. Swapping quality on MPG in the middle of a video is a rather new-ish way of handling it.\n*3) Backbone: The internet backbones can throttle traffic from destination to destination depending on load. If one pipe is full of YT traffic, it'll throttle it via QoS (quality of service, which is traffic prioritization).\n*4) Netflix is in Amazon's datacenters. This one is likely of no substance, but Amazon is used to large amounts of media traffic.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "(Disclaimer I am by no means an expert so feel-free to correct me! This is what I was told by a friend who works in the content delivery industry)\n\nVideos are kept on what's called a CDN, a content delivery network. This is a big net of servers spread across the land, and they hold copies of.. content! Now, YouTube tries desperately to make sure every video loads fast - but obviously this is a pretty daunting task (keep in mind how many videos YouTube has versus Netflix - it's not even close). So, since they don't have unlimited space and instant transmission across the world, what happens is a computer system moves files around inside of the CDN based on demand. If there's a viral trending video, you're going to have copies of every resolution on every content server around the country - so that requests for this video are as snappy as possible. On the other hand, some random video that only a couple hundred people have watched in the past 3 years is not as widespread. It has fewer copies, in fewer locations - based on lack of demand, hence, it's more susceptible to delays in getting to you. Keep in mind a given youtube video might come in 5 resolutions. You think it's the same video, but it's really 5 different copies of the video in different resolutions - and each copy might have different levels of demand. So if you've ever wondered why the 1080p version loads better than the 720p... well that's simply because more people have been wanting 1080p, so that version of the video is more widespread on the CDN. As a result the majority of end-users will find the 1080p version easier to access than the 720p. On an individual basis, this can be maddening - but in the big picture, it's an elaborately managed and very dynamic system trying to keep the highest average performance possible for the most amount of people.\n\n\nIn contrast, Netflix has a lot less data to manage, a lot fewer requests... so this is all purely speculation, but perhaps Netflix just doesn't allow gaps in their CDN? They maintain every copy on every node?\n\n\nJust a theory based on off-hand knowledge. (edits for grammar/clarity)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My youtube works fine. Always. I'm not sure what reddits obsessions is with bashing youtube lately. I don't know a single person outside of the reddit who has constant problems with youtube",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't understand why I seem to be in a minority for which Netflix is inconsistent and often unwatchable. I can load one episode in full HD, and the next drops the quality to minimum and can't keep up with buffering. I have 30-50Mb/s, through Comcast and I don't see any connection dropouts from other applications. If one were so inclined, an entire season can often be acquired through other means before Netflix can buffer the opening scene of an episode.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ITT: Like 90% people speculating.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to all of this, Netflix also does a lot of awesome analytics on movies and shows that you are going to stream to get the content closer to your physical location *before* you watch it.\n\nFor example, if a few people in your area are watching Breaking Bad Season 1, Netflix knows based on previous customers that you have a high likelihood of watching Season 2. Season 2 files are then mirrored to a physical server, likely in your ISP, before you even click \"play\" on S02 E01. Physical proximity is important, as it reduces latency (better speed) as well as cost.\n\nVery popular shows are stored on massive, very fast hardware -- if I recall correctly, they are served from SSDs, whereas less popular shows are stored on slower hardware.\n\nISPs love these local caching servers, as it reduces the amount of bandwidth they have to purchase from upstream providers.\n\nIn addition, Netflix's streaming library is much smaller than the YouTube library.\n\nYet further, Netflix pre-generates stream files for different devices and connection speeds. If you're on a slower connection, you automatically get adjusted to a lower-quality stream. This is why you'll sometimes see an HD stream suddenly get a little less crisp -- Netflix hedges that users would rather continue watching their show in a bit lower quality than to have it stop and buffer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "YouTube has a thing on it that stops it from pre-loading, Netflix doesn't. You can install things that turn that thing off on YouTube, and then it loads extremely well and plays through with no buffering. I'm on my phone right now, but I think the one I use is YouTube center or something? Someone link that if you know it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depends on your cable provider. Youtube instantly loads once I got youtube center and a VPN connection. It circumvents the throttling.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Get the userscript YouTube Center and then disable dash playback. It also fixes other YouTube annoyances. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because Youtube is a free service and Netlfix isn't? Come on guy, you should know the answer.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "DevOps here, we've done an analysis of Netflix streaming, and the fact is that Netflix sends several streams at once over the wire. Your local client has an algorithm to switch between streams finding the optimal one, and even collating them if necessary. The local client also sends constant information back to Netflix, that's why they always know exactly where you left off. \n\nThere are also facts about their smart Content Delivery Network, which is mostly on top of Amazon Web Services, balanced and optimized for local delivery. Netflix also works with major Internet Service Providers to create a local Content Delivery Network to serve that specific ISP.\n\nThere are other facts and techniques they use to develop, build, deploy, and serve the Netflix service. All in all, in my field (DevOps), Netflix is one of the few companies that innovate in awesome ways.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When you ask for a video, Netflix has 5 answers and YouTube has 5000. Imagine how quickly you could answer a question if you've answered it 1000 times today already versus being YouTube and answering it for the first time in weeks.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "and how is vimeo so much better technically in every way than youtube. \n\nIts free (to debate all the \"because you pay\" comments)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It streams so much faster with HTML5 webm video. I suggest switching to HTML5 video. This script forces HTM5 as default for Youtube. There's also some suggestions that Google intentionally makes flash videos in Firefox not work as well to make people switch to Chrome. No clue if there's any truth to that. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nIt's a little buggy since you have to update it every time there's any change to Youtube itself. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I highly regret the notion that I don't \"pay\" for google. First and foremost, the google products that I use personally I pay dearly for. I pay by providing them with a constant, intimate stream of market research. Their entire business platform depends on the intricate data they receive from ME (and every other user), without us using their \"free\" products, they would have no income stream from... and this leads me to the second way I \"pay\" for google. My company realizes that google is GOOD at advertising to the right people at the right time, so in turn we pay huge ad dollars (almost $100k this year) which is a lot for a small/medium sized business and we have great returns on our google ad dollars. a lot of these dollars goes toward development of new products like gmail, android, maps, etc. \n\nSo google offers NOTHING for free. Youtube is very much paid for by every user that watches videos and ads. \n\nBalancing bandwidth at YouTube is very intricate and touchy, they load balance based on the popularity of video, along with several other aspects including your connection history, they algorithmically try to guess how much video to stream to you at what speed in order to try to stay JUST head of the glitch curve. When this breaks down is when you're dealing with mobile devices which notoriously jump all over the place. Mobile connections can also have inconsistent ping times which plays a big part in video streaming. If you settle on a connection profile with youtube, start steaming a video, and your ping time jumps to 100ms+.. youtube could have never predicted that, so they do their best to play catchup, but it still can result in a glitch. \n\nRest assured, every time your youtube client stalls a video the connection info is logged and these logs are poured over by google engineers in order to tweak the algorithm and improve it. \n\nsource: I'm somewhat connected to someone inside, and we've had detailed conversations about this exact issue.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The reason is quite simple:\n\nImagine you go to a video shop that has thousands of movies and you ask for a title, the store clerk will start looking for it maybe by it's name and then go retrieve it from the right shelve, as most movies are popular, that store makes sure the most requested titles are available on the closest shelve so you don't have to wait, then the store clerk give you your movie and you are on your way. This is what happens for netflix, just look for a poppular title among maybe in the thousands of movie titles.\n\nNow, for youtube, imagine you go into a book store that has almost everybook everyperson has written, no matter how long or short the book, 600 pages or just two paragraphs, so this book store has millions and millions of books, if it's a book the youtube book store has to have it, now you go ask for a popular book, of course the librarian is going to have it at hand and hand it to you, however to make sure you read the whole thing and not just grab the whole book and not read it completely he's going to start giving you only two pages of the book at the time when you are done with one page the librarian is going to give you another page, this is buffering, usually it performs well, but then again, a lot of people complaint about the youtube book stote retrieving time, Why does it take so long for the librarian to come back with a request book? because the most unpopular books are stored somewhere in the library so the librarian has to send someone to retrieve that book for you and have you wait, \n\nThat takes a lot more times as there are millions of books to look into, and there's so many book shelves it takes more time that looking through a few thousands of movie titles.\n\nThis is the main reason why youtube ads play right away, they are popular videos and are ready to be fetched right away, even the hottest videos play right away thanks to this approach, but ask youtube for a really old video and you'll have to wait until a small robot goes to the storage inside Youtube Datacenter and retrieves the video, sometimes that small robot might delay and your video won't play at all until you refresh the page one more time. Netflix has an easiest job at the video store.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For me Youtube is far better at streaming than Vimeo, which tends to just sit there like a rock most of the time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "one is free an one aint. now go to bed.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because flash is a horrible unoptimized platform that uses far more resources than it needs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The question is simple, but the answer is far more complex. Netflix and YouTube might seem like they'd be similar on the surface, but at their cores they aren't. Netflix works within a very limited set of parameters to provide you with digital content supplied by professional publishers, where YouTube has a HUGE amount of unknowns that they're working with because literally anybody can be a content publisher recording in any format at any number of different qualities and they're providing it for free.\n\nWatch this video for a much more in-depth explanation on buffering from two engineers at Google: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Im not sure where/what you watch on netflix but for the past few months that shit has been straight potato quality for me. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Originally posted by /u/Ryokukitsune\n\nYouTube has a feature called \"Dash Playback\" that it hasn't really nailed down yet. its a good concept but not very good in practice as most people have figured out. the reason for this is Dash takes advantage of a process called JIT or Just In Time to stream. it buffers 5-10 seconds of video at a time then stops. they developed this for two reasons, one to put a Governor on downloads during peak hours and to accommodate users with spotty internet connections.\n\nDash is supposed to resume once the end of the buffer is reaches but as we all know that's not reliable sometimes for a plethora of reasons, most common ones are errors in a browser (easily solved by restarting a few times in a blue moon) or misconfiguration of browsers blocking the feature and the unlikely scenario of ISPs blocking the cache servers that the player looks for.\n\nin contrast to Dash there is linear streaming which downloads a clip from start to finish. Every file you get on the internet from HTML to an FLV \"streamed\" to you from YouTube is downloaded in some way. you are not really getting tiny bits, you are getting the whole file, they just tend to be protected in temp directories now regardless of how they are downloaded. \n\nlinear streaming was a problem in the beginning when YouTube didn't have a bunch of cache servers around the world. videos would stop buffering on bad internet connections forcing users to refresh the page and hope it buffered past a problem point. now that YouTube has gotten much bigger its not really a big worry unless you have one of those crappy connections.\n\nThe problem however is that Dash is enabled by default, there is no easy way to disable it without digging threw a few obscure Google back pages and even then its kind of cryptic as to what you are actually agreeing to.\n\nI have found a plugin called \"YouTube Center\" for FireFox and Chrome that adds options to YouTube that will juggle the various setting for you including disabling Dash or defaulting player type and resolution to something other than the Flash version.\n\nas for why Netflix can provide a better experience over YouTube, Darth hit on it pretty well. Youtube is a free service and limited by the resources Google throws at them. they have done a good job of keeping the community afloat (sans g+ integration) but are trying to keep up with user volumes, content rights and technology on a very public stage.\n\nNetflix on the other hand exists in a different realm with less demanding requirements to a certain point. most of their content is licensed and limited meaning they don't have to have as much resources for new content on a regular basis. they can create as many cache servers as they need to support a more consistent viewing experience without making compromises to quality or users because most of those features have been built in from the start. \n\n**Tl;Dr** YouTube has Dash, dash is bad. I have a solution but you'll have to read to find it. \n\nNetflix has less stuff to host and can have more servers to pick up the slack when the internet demands it. they both have features to preserve the viewing experience but it depends on your network or theirs...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[you really want to know don't you](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I use Netflix on an almost daily basis, and while it's a great service, it does have some flaws. During peak viewing periods (example, on weekends), I've notice that the quality of video changes frequently while playing. Sometimes it's HD, and other times the video is blurry and choppy. I have not experienced any \"buffering\" per se, and it might just be my shitty internet (Comcast), but I have yet to experience the flawless streaming everyone's raving about.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "YouTube uses a DRM and anti copy mechanic called DASH, this means it only buffers small parts of the video at a time, then once you have almost finished watching that it buffers the next little bit. It will start deleting the parts you have already watched.\n\nDASH is designed to prevent people from downloading videos from YouTube, it was one of the conditions the music industry required before they would put their videos on youtube.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "better question....why did you post this in two threads?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Posting this to Askreddit wasn't enough?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "And meanwhile, a 15 second gif takes 2 minutes to load.... ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Really? I have an easier time streaming youtube in HD than netflix.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ELI5: How does the same question posted in two different subreddits by the same user end up [right next to each other](_URL_0_) on my front page?\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Damn, /u/chuloreddit, banking on the Karma with this question. Ask Reddit AND ELI5? What's next, /r/pics?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Explain like you're 5? Easy. Here's the link the same question you asked and was answered: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "* YouTube's free to play. **(Less money to throw around)**\n\n* Netflix is pay to play. **(More money to throw around)**\n\n* YouTube has hundreds and thousands of videos uploaded to it's servers each day, these all have to be converted. Netflix uploads a movie once. **(More work for YouTube, less work for Netflix)**\n\n* YouTube has a MUCH higher user base than Netflix **(More work for YouTube, less work for Netflix)**\n\n* The typical use of YouTube is 10~ connections to YouTube's servers to view 10 different videos, rather than 1 connection on Netflix **(More work for YouTube, less work for Netflix)**\n\n* YouTube doesn't pay any money to ISP's for bandwidth, Netflix does (rumored) **(More work for YouTube, less work for Netflix)**\n\n* YouTube has users who upload duplicated material stolen from another person's YouTube channel **(Even more useless work YouTube's doing because of a user's greed**\n\n* YouTube also has A LOT of comments being posted every second, which again takes up a lot of bandwidth, cpu... etc\n\nIf I'm right in thinking they both use the same sort of technology, just one gets priority and one doesn't.\n\nFor example in the United Kingdom, the iPlayer (BBC), 4OD, ITV Player... etc all stream beautifully for most UK residents that's because they don't have as much work to do, not as many people viewing their content and they get network priority.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "YouTube has a feature called \"Dash Playback\" that it hasn't really nailed down yet. its a good concept but not very good in practice as most people have figured out. the reason for this is Dash takes advantage of a process called JIT or Just In Time to stream. it buffers 5-10 seconds of video at a time then stops. they developed this for two reasons, one to put a Governor on downloads during peak hours and to accommodate users with spotty internet connections.\nDash is supposed to resume once the end of the buffer is reaches but as we all know that's not reliable sometimes for a plethora of reasons, most common ones are errors in a browser (easily solved by restarting a few times in a blue moon) or misconfiguration of browsers blocking the feature and the unlikely scenario of ISPs blocking the cache servers that the player looks for.\nin contrast to Dash there is linear streaming which downloads a clip from start to finish. Every file you get on the internet from HTML to an FLV \"streamed\" to you from YouTube is downloaded in some way. you are not really getting tiny bits, you are getting the whole file, they just tend to be protected in temp directories now regardless of how they are downloaded.\nlinear streaming was a problem in the beginning when YouTube didn't have a bunch of cache servers around the world. videos would stop buffering on bad internet connections forcing users to refresh the page and hope it buffered past a problem point. now that YouTube has gotten much bigger its not really a big worry unless you have one of those crappy connections.\nThe problem however is that Dash is enabled by default, there is no easy way to disable it without digging threw a few obscure Google back pages and even then its kind of cryptic as to what you are actually agreeing to.\nI have found a plugin called \"YouTube Center\" for FireFox and Chrome that adds options to YouTube that will juggle the various setting for you including disabling Dash or defaulting player type and resolution to something other than the Flash version.\nas for why Netflix can provide a better experience over YouTube, Darth hit on it pretty well. Youtube is a free service and limited by the resources Google throws at them. they have done a good job of keeping the community afloat (sans g+ integration) but are trying to keep up with user volumes, content rights and technology on a very public stage.\nNetflix on the other hand exists in a different realm with less demanding requirements to a certain point. most of their content is licensed and limited meaning they don't have to have as much resources for new content on a regular basis. they can create as many cache servers as they need to support a more consistent viewing experience without making compromises to quality or users because most of those features have been built in from the start.\nTl;Dr YouTube has Dash, dash is bad a little broken. I have a solution but you'll have to read to find it.\nNetflix has less stuff to host and can have more servers to pick up the slack when the internet demands it. they both have features to preserve the viewing experience but it depends on your network or theirs...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My Netflix buffers in the evenings",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I like how someone can post the same question to both AskReddit and ELI5 and they both make the front page.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Youtube can stream ads pretty well",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sorry if this has already been posted, but I believe the answer is largely related to net neutrality and the willingness of ISPs to carry content from particular online providers.\n\n_URL_0_",
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{
"answer": "Except for youtube advertisements. That shit is HD quality",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Netflix eats up bandwidth like a fat man at buffet eats up shitty buffet food.",
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},
{
"answer": "$7.99 a month plus tax",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I might not be correct, but it's also related to your ISP [obviously]. Since YouTube has such a gigantic traffic-feed, ISP's throttle (and charge YouTube/Google a lot) for using such a large portion of their network. Again, I might not be correct. But Netflix has a much smaller traffic, and doesn't have to process thousands upon thousands of gigabytes of video every second like YouTube does. YouTube also goes in blocks, which is why rewinding a buffered video isn't instantaneous, as that 'block' of the video is no longer downloaded. However, Netflix uses Silverlight streaming, which I have no idea how it works.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "How? Assholes being assholes.\n\nISPs throttle the Youtube connections.\n\nIt's for this same reason that everyone else has Netflix just fine but when I try to use it the damn site glitches up and asks for me to sign up and pay them money I don't have.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because Youtube has DASH enabled, while Netflix doesn't.\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "amount of people waching. and SLA cost/benefit. service level agreement.\n\nsla up to 95% availability and low latency is dirty cheap. any .1% on top of that costs exponentially (taking numbers from my ass. will not reasearch to talk to a 5yold)\n\nyoutube has lots of people watching short crap cat videos. so initial caching/buffering is void. ...end of video cached? too bad, user clicked cat with pancake on head thumbnail. also, little delays will not bother free users (they are the product etc)\n\nnetflix has much less users. users watch the same video 30min to 2h, so caching/buffering is awesomely effective. and users are paying their increasingly monthly price while seeing the content diminish (where the fuck is sponge bob, netflix?!) so they demand that netflix provides for better sla.\n\n (1st comment of the day, and i got a \"you are doing this too much\". why do i bother?)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1628312",
"title": "Fast forward",
"section": "Section::::Usage in video.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "Unlike analogue video streams in which only serial access is possible, digital video allows for random access to the media, which raises the possibility of alternative fast forwarding algorithms and visualizations. In video streaming formats, such as H.264, fast forward algorithms use the I-frames to sample the video at faster than normal speed. In streaming videos, fast-forward represents a useful search or browsing mechanism, but introduces extra network overhead when non-I-frames are transmitted in addition to the viewed I-frames and extra computational complexity in the video transcoder. Finding more network bandwidth-conserving and computationally efficient algorithms for accommodating both fast-forward and normal speed viewing is an active area of research.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10964573",
"title": "Vudu",
"section": "Section::::Movie format.:HDX and TruFilm.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "BULLET::::- Statistical Variable Bitrate: Ensures optimal video quality throughout the film by allocating a higher encoding budget to high detail and high motion segments of the film, while conserving the budget during slower sequences. With peaks as high as 20Mbit/s and as low as 2 Mbit/s, this process allows for the highest possible video quality streaming over a broadband Internet connection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "307467",
"title": "RealVideo",
"section": "Section::::Technology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "To facilitate real-time streaming, RealVideo (and RealAudio) normally uses constant bit rate encoding, so that the same amount of data is sent over the network each second. Recently, RealNetworks has introduced a variable bit rate form called RealMedia Variable Bitrate (RMVB). This allows for better video quality, however this format is less suited for streaming because it is difficult to predict how much network capacity a certain video stream will need. Video with fast motion or rapidly changing scenes will require a higher bit rate. If the bit rate of a video stream increases significantly, it may exceed the speed at which data can be transmitted over the network, leading to an interruption in the video.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37602602",
"title": "Video optimization",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "When streaming over-the-top (OTT) content and video on demand, systems do not typically recognize the specific size, type, and viewing rate of the video being streamed. Video sessions, regardless of the rate of views, are each granted the same amount of bandwidth. This bottlenecking of content results in longer buffering time and poor viewing quality. Some solutions, such as upLynk and Skyfire’s Rocket Optimizer, attempt to resolve this issue by using cloud-based solutions to adapt and optimize over-the-top content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56459958",
"title": "Zettabyte Era",
"section": "Section::::Factors that led to the Zettabyte Era.:Increased video streaming.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The amount of data used by video streaming services depends on the quality of the video. Thus, Android Central breaks down how much data is used (on a smartphone) with regards to different video resolutions. According to their findings, per hour video between 240p and 320p resolution uses roughly 0.3GB. Standard video, which is clocked in at a resolution of 480p, uses approximately 0.7GB per hour. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2711613",
"title": "P2PTV",
"section": "Section::::Technology and use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "In a P2PTV system, each user, while downloading a video stream, is simultaneously also uploading that stream to other users, thus contributing to the overall available bandwidth. The arriving streams are typically a few minutes time-delayed compared to the original sources. The video quality of the channels usually depends on how many users are watching; the video quality is better if there are more users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24029605",
"title": "21:9 aspect ratio",
"section": "Section::::Standardization.:Streaming services.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "Video streaming and download services use a proprietary technical infrastructure, and are not confined to the same strict rules about frame aspect ratios as standardized distribution services (such as broadcast and optical discs). They therefore often encode content as just the active frame, without any aspect ratio adjustment bars (letterbox or pillarbox bars). Movies with a 2.39:1 aspect ratio are a natural match for 21:9 output video timings, as long as the streaming clients support such video modes, and even content with other wide aspect ratios such as 2.20:1 and 2.00:1 are inherently maximizing the use of the output frame on such systems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
h4zlu | What does intergalactic space look like? | [
{
"answer": "Disclaimer: I am a layperson.\r\n\r\nThe sky would be different--it would be completely black to the naked eye if you were at the center of the Boötes Void. At 250 million light years in diameter, if you were in the center, the closest galaxy would be 125 million light years away. The Andromeda Galaxy is our closest non-dwarf galaxy neighbor at only 2.5 million light years away and magnitude 3.44, and it's a barely-perceptible splotch in the night sky. If it was 125 million light years away, it would be 2500 times fainter, at a magnitude of 11.9. The faintest object visible with the naked eye is magnitude 6 or below (higher magnitudes are harder to see. Also, it's a logarithmic scale.). Even if you had a telescope, you would only be able to observe galaxies. No stars (except for bright supernovae within the galaxies), no nebulae, nothing. Just distant galaxies that you'd have no hope of ever reaching.\r\n\r\nFor all practical purposes, there probably wouldn't be anything larger than a [mote of dust](_URL_1_) for light years around you. I can't access the article referenced in this Wikipedia entry, but I believe it focuses on intergalactic dust *clouds*. The space between these clouds (which are probably few and *very* far between) will be filled with a [rareified hot plasma](_URL_2_) with a density of a few tens of particles per cubic meter.\r\n\r\nThere are some [extragalactic stars](_URL_0_) that have been observed, but, considering that they'd necessarily be much rarer than stars in a galaxy, you'd probably be hundreds of thousands of light years from one, on average, if not further (just my guess based on nothing more than a hunch). See also [hypervelocity stars](_URL_3_).\r\n\r\nEdit: The galaxy brightness calculation above assumes the galaxy is similar to the Andromeda galaxy. The brightest galaxies are about ten times brighter, so they still would not be visible from the center of the Boötes Void.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you are travelling in a convential space craft, going slower than light, you certainly wouldn't see stars flash by your window. I hate that in some movies...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Reminds me of a David Deutsche TED talk: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "77178",
"title": "Spaceflight",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Intergalactic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Intergalactic travel involves spaceflight between galaxies, and is considered much more technologically demanding than even interstellar travel and, by current engineering terms, is considered science fiction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177602",
"title": "Outer space",
"section": "Section::::Regions.:Intergalactic space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 435,
"text": "Intergalactic space is the physical space between galaxies. Studies of the large scale distribution of galaxies show that the Universe has a foam-like structure, with groups and clusters of galaxies lying along filaments that occupy about a tenth of the total space. The remainder forms huge voids that are mostly empty of galaxies. Typically, a void spans a distance of (10–40) \"h\" Mpc, where \"h\" is the Hubble constant in units of .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22364466",
"title": "Timeline of United States discoveries",
"section": "Section::::Twentieth century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 469,
"text": "BULLET::::- Extragalactic astronomy is the branch of astronomy concerned with objects outside the Milky Way Galaxy. In other words, it is the study of all astronomical objects which are not covered by galactic astronomy. It was started by Edwin Hubble when, in 1925, he discovered the existence of Cepheid variables in the Andromeda Galaxy. This discovery proved the existence of a galaxy over one million light-years away and thus extragalactic astronomy was created.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "958508",
"title": "Science North",
"section": "Section::::Facilities.:Fourth level.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "BULLET::::- Space Place - This lab focuses on astronomy and space exploration. Exhibits include a gravity well, a microgravity drop tower, exhibits on SNOLAB, and information on Canadian space exploration. The entrance to the \"Between the Stars\" object theatre is also found in Space Place. This show explores the topic of dark matter - why we know it exists, and how we are trying to detect it. Between the Stars opened in June 2010 and is designed to appeal to all age ranges with a cartoon character named String Man narrating the story of a topic that is quite complex.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "69453",
"title": "Interstellar medium",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 442,
"text": "In astronomy, the interstellar medium (ISM) is the matter and radiation that exists in the space between the star systems in a galaxy. This matter includes gas in ionic, atomic, and molecular form, as well as dust and cosmic rays. It fills interstellar space and blends smoothly into the surrounding intergalactic space. The energy that occupies the same volume, in the form of electromagnetic radiation, is the interstellar radiation field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15187857",
"title": "Mark Askwith",
"section": "Section::::Space & CHUM/CTV.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Space is effectively the Canadian equivalent of The Sci Fi Channel, an English language cable television specialty channel owned and operated by CTVglobemedia. It features mainly sci-fi and fantasy movies, documentaries and television series.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18420982",
"title": "Artificial gravity in fiction",
"section": "Section::::Rotational gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "In the movie \"Interstellar (film)\" co-produced by \"Christopher Nolan\", the \"Endurance\" space stations and capsules create artificial gravity by rotating at a certain rotational frequency to simulate gravity. At the outer ring of the structure, the gravity experienced is similar to that on Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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}
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]
| null |
bywccq | Collapse of the Tatars | [
{
"answer": "I wrote an [answer](_URL_0_) on the history and idea of Tatars a few months ago, that might be of interest.\n\nThe rough idea is that a Chingissid state called the \"Golden Horde\" , which in turn broke up into a number of successor states, that were conquered by Muscovy/Russia in the 16th-18th centuries.\n\nBut Tatar people didn't \"all die\". There are still millions of ethnic Tatars! There are a number of different Tatar communities, the largest being the community in Russia that largely lives along the Volga River near the city of Kazan. Volga Tatars are the second-largest ethnic group in Russia after ethnic Russians, and have their own autonomous republic known as Tatarstan.\n\nAnother significant community of Tatars lives in Crimea, currently under Russian control. Large numbers of this community emigrated to Anatolia in the 19th century, when they stopped being a majority of the population, and the whole community was deported to Central Asia by the Soviet government in 1944 (they were allowed to return in 1991). \n\nThere are smaller communities of Tatars in Siberia, and in Poland-Lithuania, the latter known as \"Lipka Tatars\". This group is mostly assimilated into the local population (although some remain practicing Muslims), but have played a role in Polish history, notably aiding in the Polish defense of Vienna against the Ottomans in 1683. Some more famous people of Polish heritage who have Lipka Tatar ancestry include Charles Bronson and Martha Stewart.",
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},
{
"answer": "Many make a mistake by putting an equal sign between the Tatars and the Mongols. We have not only different languages (Tatars belong to the Turkic group and are therefore closer to Turks or Uzbeks), but also the origin itself. Tatars went from the Turkic people of the Bulgars, and the Mongols have a completely different ethnogenesis.\n\nTatars themselves suffered from the Mongols as well as the Russians. The ancient city of Bulgar was destroyed by the Mongol conquerors, and its inhabitants conquered. But later, due to the small number of Mongols, they assimilated with the local Türks and formed khanates like the Golden Horde, which had some of the attributes even from the Mongols and where Genghisides ruled, that is, descendants of Genghis Khan. And initially it, and then other khanates on its land, kept Russian principalities and surrounding peoples at bay, but over time they weakened due to internal unrest, which resulted in the conquest of Muscovy (I personally hold the view that Russia essentially became the heir Golden Horde and other khanates, as she subjugated all the former khanates and headed for a similar policy.)\n\nWhat happened to the Turkic peoples conquered by the empire of Russia? They still live, some got freedom, some, I hope, will get it in the future.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32784178",
"title": "Tatar confederation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "After the establishment of the Mongol Empire, the Tatars were subjugated by the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan. Under the leadership of his grandson Batu Khan, they moved westwards, driving with them many of the Turkic peoples toward the plains of Russia in the Turkic migrations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56877",
"title": "Tatars",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "The end of absolute Tatar dominance came in the late 15th century, heralded by the Great stand on the Ugra river in 1480. During the 16th through 18th centuries, the gradual expansion of Russia led to the absorption of the Tatar khanates into Russian territory. The Crimean Tatars attacked Russia in 1507, followed by two centuries of Russo-Crimean Wars for the Volga basin. Similarly, the Russo-Kazan Wars lasted for the best part of a century and ended with the Russian conquest of the Kazan khanate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "735530",
"title": "Bashkortostan",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "After the early-feudal Mongolian state had broken down in the 14th century, the territory of modern Bashkortostan became divided between the Kazan and Siberia Khanates and the Nogai Horde. The tribes that lived there were headed by \"bi\" (tribal heads). After Kazan fell to Ivan the Terrible in 1554–1555, representatives of western and northwestern Bashkir tribes approached the Tsar with a request to voluntarily join Muscovy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21469047",
"title": "Fortress of Klis",
"section": "Section::::History.:Mongol siege.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 989,
"text": "Tatars under the leadership of Kadan experienced a major failure in March 1242 at Klis Fortress, when they were hunting for Béla IV of Hungary. The Tatars believed that the king was in the Klis Fortress, and so they began to attack from all sides, launching arrows and hurling spears. However, the natural defenses of the fortress gave protection, and the Tatars could cause only limited harm. They dismounted from their horses and began to creep up hand over hand to higher ground. But the fortress defenders hurled huge stones at them, and managed to kill a great number. This setback only made the Tatars more ferocious, and they came right up to the great walls and fought hand to hand. They looted the houses in the outskirt of the fortress and took away much plunder, but failed to take Klis altogether. Upon learning that the king was not there, they abandoned their attack, and ascending their mounts rode off in the direction of Trogir, a number of them turning off toward Split.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25391",
"title": "Russia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Kievan Rus'.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "Ultimately Kievan Rus' disintegrated, with the final blow being the Mongol invasion of 1237–40 that resulted in the destruction of Kiev and the death of about half the population of Rus'. The invading Mongol elite, together with their conquered Turkic subjects (Cumans, Kipchaks, Bulgars), became known as Tatars, forming the state of the Golden Horde, which pillaged the Russian principalities; the Mongols ruled the Cuman-Kipchak confederation and Volga Bulgaria (modern-day southern and central expanses of Russia) for over two centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "607902",
"title": "Khanate of Kazan",
"section": "Section::::History.:Downfall.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "After the fall of Kazan, territories such as Udmurtia and Bashkortostan joined Russia without a conflict. The administration of the khanate was wiped out; pro-Moscow and neutral nobles kept their lands, but others were executed. Tatars were then resettled far away from rivers, roads and Kazan. Free lands were settled by Russians and sometimes by pro-Russian Tatars. Orthodox bishops such as Germogen forcibly baptized many Tatars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1184490",
"title": "Islam in Russia",
"section": "Section::::History of Islam in Russia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "The Tatars of the Crimean Khanate, the last remaining successor to the Golden Horde, continued to raid Southern Russia and burnt down parts of Moscow in 1571. Until the late 18th century, Crimean Tatars maintained a massive slave-trade with the Ottoman Empire and the Middle East, exporting about 2 million slaves from Russia and Ukraine over the period 1500–1700.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
aasfr1 | The Goonies got me to wondering -- was there ever any actual piracy along America's Pacific coast? If so, what was it like? | [
{
"answer": "Most of the piracy along the America's Pacific Coasts were privateers, not piracy, and were limited to the South American Coast. It tended to not be as blood thirsty and prisoners were routinely released. And it was nowhere near as common as it was in the Atlantic, Caribbean/Gulf of Mexico and African coasts. \n\nKeep in mind that Spain had a pretty good strangle hold on Pacific Ocean and guarded the Southern Passage between the Pacific and Atlantic Ocean's pretty heavily between Drake's voyage and into the 1800s. On top of that, the Spanish didn't like to advertise that ships had been lost so they tended to keep things quiet when they were. They routinely surpassed ships logs and maps created by even their own explorers in an attempt to keep the \"undiscovered\" \"Northwest Passage\" a secret from other European powers. But even in the Pacific Ocean and with all their military might they still ran huge heavily armed Galleons and trade fleets to discourage piracy. \n\nThe other huge problem is logistics. From the 1500s through to the 1750s or so, Spain ruled the Pacific Coast and many the coastal cities there. From about the area of San Francisco northward was \"unsettled\" land populated only by Indians. If you were a pirate there were few places to go to get supplies or sell the treasure so you had to attempt to cross the Atlantic to China or India, or sail back around through the Southern Passage. There are some rumors of Spanish Pirates working the Pacific Coast, which makes sense as they would have been able to hoist up the Spanish flag before sailing into port to sell their goods. \n\nThe most famous privateer was Sir Francis Drake. He was involved in several expeditions as early as 1563 on the African Coast and in the Caribbean. In 1572 he commanded an expedition that successfully raided around Panama in 1572-73, and even captured the Spanish Silver Train at Nombre de Dios. That success led to Elizabeth I sending him to the Spanish owned Pacific Coast and in 1578 he captured a Spanish ship near Lima, and then chased down and captured the treasure ship Cacafuego. From there his travels are murky, speculation is that he may have sailed as far north as 55 degrees Latitude before turning around due to the cold weather. That would have put him somewhere about the Alaska Peninsula. He definitely claimed land for England. The exact location he did so is still unknown but today is generally accepted as being Drake's Bay in California. He might have even planted a colony there, an fact that is supported by how many less men he had later on. But the English falsified Log books and maps to keep Spanish spies from getting them. And all of them from this expedition were lost in a fire in 1698 at Whitehall palace. \n\nFrom there out most piracy was at the hands of Privateers actively challenging Spain's military might and supporting various South American countries in their attempts at independence from Spain. In the late 1700s England was directly challenging Spanish control of Pacific Coast between Northern California and Alaska. The Russians were pushing down the Alaska coast, and Spain was still dealing with rebellions through out South America which had severely sapped their military might in the previous centuries. A lot of these privateers were working incognito to dodge Spanish Spies in Europe, and again records were still routinely falsified so concrete evidence is hard to find. \n\nThe Spanish pushed back at these incursions. In 1789 the Nootka Incident happened after Esteban José Martínez seized two British and two American ships in order to strengthen Spanish Claims on Nootka Sound. The ships were later returned, and a treaty between America, Britain, and Spain established a trading zone that all three countries violated years later. Two of the ships involved in this incident (but not seized,) are still well known. One was the Columbia Ridiviva, of which the Columbia River was named after. The second is the Lady Washington, who's replica is a well known tall ship used in the Pirate of the Caribbean Movies.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nBut.... \n\n & #x200B;\n\nThere are also tantalizing Native American legends all up and down the Pacific Coast that tell tales of what can only be ship battles and ship wrecks. Stories of huge \"war canoes\" crewed with light skinned men and creating clouds from their decks are a common tale. Men landing on beaches, killing captives and then burying them and heavy chests on the beach. Early explorers running across extremely fair or dark skinned Natives who must have taken ship wrecked crews into their tribes, Chiefs of tribes who are of obvious African decent, and even an occasional gold or silver trinket. Many of these legends still fuel rumors of pirate treasure, one of the most famous being of a location called \"Neahkahnie Mountain.\" [Here is a copy of the legend I picked up many years ago for those who want a flavor of the tale](_URL_1_). I personally know people who still travel here after every major storm with metal detectors and shovels. \n\nIt doesn't help that for many decades [huge slabs of beeswax were found washed up on shore nearby](_URL_0_) directly fueling further speculation of treasure. \n\nThere are enough tales that I find it hard to believe that a portion of them aren't true, even accounting for people stretching the truth. \n\nAnother tale surrounds Iron Jim Sallow, who was said to have buried treasure somewhere around what would become Seattle. But any information about him is of the same, rumors and uncertain stories with no evidence to back them up. In fact I can not find a single primary source for him, and suspect he may be a creation of one of the local \"Pirate\" groups that put on shows throughout the summer. \n\n & #x200B;\n\n & #x200B;",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19522726",
"title": "The Pirate Bay raid",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 374,
"text": "The Pirate Bay is considered part of an international anti-copyright movement. The documentary \"Steal This Film\" was produced and distributed (via BitTorrent) in the months following the raid. In the words of its speakers, it aimed to present the other side of the debate, until that time dominated by the media industry. The film was made available free, as donationware. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "297882",
"title": "Isla de la Juventud",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 380,
"text": "Pirate activity in and around the area left its trace in English literature; notably, \"Treasure Island\" by Robert Louis Stevenson, and \"Peter Pan\" by J. M. Barrie, each drawing on accounts of the island and its native and pirate inhabitants, by reflecting the long dugout canoes that both pirates and the indigenous peoples used, and the American crocodile (\"Crocodylus acutus\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27575867",
"title": "Battle of Boca Teacapan",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 881,
"text": "In the Pacific Ocean, piracy continued into the 1870s off the coasts of both Asia and North America. In the summer of 1870, the Mexican pirate gunboat \"Forward\", with about 120 to 200 men of several nationalities, was attacking primarily Mexican and American shipping off Sinaloa. Pirates of \"Forward\" had also attacked Guaymas in June 1870. They occupied the customs house and then robbed the foreign residents. The pirates then forced the United States consulate in Guaymas to supply the steamer with 200 pounds of coal. These attacks led to the involvement of the Pacific Squadron. In May 1870 USS \"Mohican\" was newly assigned to the station and sent to destroy the pirate threat off Mazatlan. On June 15 about seventy-five United States marines and sailors in one launch, armed with a howitzer and five boats rigged as cutters were sent on an expedition to find the \"Forward\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28274228",
"title": "List of former Dreamworld attractions",
"section": "Section::::Temporary attractions.:Pirates of the Pacific.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "\"Pirates of the Pacific\" was a one-off circus style show themed to Pirates. It was held from 26 December 2007 through to late January 2008. The 30 minute show was set on a pirate ship which sat at the centre of a rectangular circus tent. The pirate ship concealed the poles to support the roof. The audience were seating in one of three grandstands which surrounded the pirate ship. The show featured stunts, lighting and pyrotechnics. It was located on the former location of the Thunderbolt roller coaster with an entrance beside the Vortex (now AVPX).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12419099",
"title": "Port Sinister",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 289,
"text": "The 17th-century Caribbean city of Port Royal has been long rumored to have been visited by pirates who rise from the ocean floor. However, when a scientist goes to investigate (at the same time that local thugs plan to steal all the gold there), all are suddenly attacked by giant crabs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15131650",
"title": "The Pirates of Coney Island",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "The Pirates of Coney Island is an eight-issue comic book series published by Image Comics, first released in October 2006. It is written by Rick Spears and penciled and inked by Vasilis Lolos. The series has been on hiatus since 2007 with only six of the planned eight issues being released.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "109509",
"title": "Fort Walton Beach, Florida",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "Contrary to popular belief, there is no documentary evidence of pirates using the area as a base of operations. Piracy was rampant in the Gulf of Mexico from pirates working out of Hispaniola, the Caribbean, and the Florida Keys. Notable raids occurred in 1683 and 1687 against the Spanish fort at San Marcos de Apalachee (by French and English buccaneers), a 1712 raid against Port Dauphin (now Alabama) by English pirates from Martinique, and the actions of the late 18th-century adventurer William Augustus Bowles, who was based in Apalachicola. Bowles was never referred to as \"Billy Bowlegs\" in period documentation; his Creek name was \"Eastajoca\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5s8i03 | how will autonomous cars handle not being able to see the road, ie snow | [
{
"answer": "Unless road standards are followed perfectly and the roads mapped exactly, the extreme conditions will still defer control to the driver. \n\nThe typical rules the car has to follow will not be applicable in extreme conditions. \n\nYou could see it the same as a car driving across the desert. Where are the lanes? \n\nSnow could additionally interfere with sensor functionality depending on the type. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It certainly will be harder for an autonomous car to do this than normal driving.\n\nEarly autonomous cars will likely have a failsafe mode, where if they can't handle the road conditions, they will pull over and return control to the driver. \n\nAlso remember that these cars will have a lot of advantages, like 360^o vision, radar, IR, and future enhancements might allow them to talk to the road and to each other. What might appear as a white out to us would be no different than a sunny day to them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "All these cars have LIDAR and radar to sense other cars and things around them. They use cameras to see road signs and lane lines. So you are right that the lines on the road disappear as far as the cars sensors are concerned but like us the car can see things like curbs and sign posts. Basically as the tech becomes more prevalent cars will map out road sign posts and curbs using LIDAR and radar. When the camera cant see the road it will match terrain contours, road posts, curbs and anything else it can detect with radar and LIDAR to previous information or maps of the given GPS coordinates. The programming has been used in other areas for years so its not super difficult just tweaking it for autonomous vehicles and creating usable databases of all the roads is kind of a big task. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Right now it's not advised to use autopilot in snow. With that said there are plans to where it will be ok in the future and there are different ways to do it. One is to create detailed surroundings which include data sent from the cars themselves when conditions were not snowy. This allows the car to look for multiple different markers (curbs, telephone poles, signs, and other landmarks) to determine its location and drive in the same way as previous cars did in good conditions.\n\nThis of course has issues with rather rural areas with little historical data and in those instances the car will advise not using autopilot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The same way that you do when you can't see the road - you do your best to get by with other visual cues other than the road itself, and information you have access to. Vision is just one aspect, there are many cameras of many types as well as recieving other kinds of data i.e GPS, lidar, physical sensors. The software controlling these things are getting better also. You don't just track the road itself, you track all objects and their spacing and their motion and parallax, their shape, how they're lit etc etc. Just like in your brain there are areas that track edges in your vision, and within there there's bits that deal with angles of those edges and so on, in addition to areas that track colour, brightness, occlusion etc. all of this information is put together into a model that you use to make decisions. We're improving it's models of the world beyond simply tracking the floor. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "19746798",
"title": "Here (company)",
"section": "Section::::Automotive services.:New technologies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 677,
"text": "Also part of the field of autonomous vehicles and automated driving is the Live Roads technology. Here is currently developing such a technology that will be able to alert drivers of conditions such as weather to alert other drivers of possible hazards, or to avoid a particular area whilst driving. An example is the aggregation of data from windshield wipers and slipping tyres to notify other drivers to avoid an ice-filled area. The company is also investigating Humanised Driving where data is collected on driving habits on roads, and provisioning this data to allow automated cars to follow how drivers behave (speed, traffic lights etc.) when driving on certain roads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "245926",
"title": "Self-driving car",
"section": "Section::::Human factor challenges.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "Self-driving cars are already exploring the difficulties of determining the intentions of pedestrians, bicyclists, and animals, and models of behavior must be programmed into driving algorithms. Human road users also have the challenge of determining the intentions of autonomous vehicles, where there is no driver with which to make eye contact or exchange hand signals. Drive.ai is testing a solution to this problem that involves LED signs mounted on the outside of the vehicle, announcing status such as \"going now, don't cross\" vs. \"waiting for you to cross\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "245926",
"title": "Self-driving car",
"section": "Section::::Nature of the digital technology.:Digital traces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Autonomous vehicles are equipped with different sorts of sensors and radars. As said, this allows them to connect and interoperate with computers from other autonomous vehicles and/or roadside units. This implies that autonomous vehicles leave digital traces when they connect or interoperate. The data that comes from these digital traces can be used to develop new (to be determined) products or updates to enhance autonomous vehicles' driving ability or safety.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "245926",
"title": "Self-driving car",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "Self-driving cars combine a variety of sensors to perceive their surroundings, such as radar, lidar, sonar, GPS, odometry and inertial measurement units. Advanced control systems interpret sensory information to identify appropriate navigation paths, as well as obstacles and relevant signage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5071866",
"title": "Vehicular automation",
"section": "Section::::Ground vehicles.:Shared autonomous vehicles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 741,
"text": "Following recent developments in autonomous cars, shared autonomous vehicles are now able to run in ordinary traffic without the need for embedded guidance markers. So far the focus has been on low speed, , with short, fixed routes for the \"last mile\" of journeys. This means issues of collision avoidance and safety are significantly less challenging than those for automated cars, which seek to match the performance of conventional vehicles. Aside from 2getthere (\"ParkShuttle\"), three companies - Ligier (\"Easymile EZ10\"), Navya (\"ARMA\" & \"Autonom Cab\") and RDM Group (\"LUTZ Pathfinder\") - are manufacturing and actively testing such vehicles. Two other companies have produced prototypes, Local Motors (\"Olli\") and the GATEway project.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44787757",
"title": "History of self-driving cars",
"section": "Section::::History.:2010s.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "Although as of 2013, fully autonomous vehicles are not yet available to the public, many contemporary car models have features offering limited autonomous functionality. These include adaptive cruise control, a system that monitors distances to adjacent vehicles in the same lane, adjusting the speed with the flow of traffic; lane assist, which monitors the vehicle's position in the lane, and either warns the driver when the vehicle is leaving its lane, or, less commonly, takes corrective actions; and parking assist, which assists the driver in the task of parallel parking.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31839460",
"title": "Fatigue detection software",
"section": "Section::::Driver drowsiness detection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Primarily uses steering input from electric power steering system, radar systems and cameras. These systems could facilitate autonomous braking in the case of drowsiness or distraction, when a driver physically does not act quickly enough. It also has the facility of autonomous driving in the prevention of an accident, when the driver reacts too slowly or not at all. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2i5dao | What was religion like in the Palmyrene Empire? | [
{
"answer": "Like other religions of the Near East of the time. The polytheist religion of Palmyra worshiped a number of gods and goddesses. There was the triad of Beelshamem, Aglibol, and Yarhibol- who represent storm god, moon god, and sun god. Other gods worshiped there include Baal Hammon, Manat, El, Allat, Poseidon, Shamash, Bel, Arsu and Azizu (the twin gods of morning and evening stars).\n\nCheck out 'The Pantheon of Palmyra' by Javier Teixidor. There's plenty of information in there about the various gods and goddesses worshiped by the Palmyrenes.\n\nAs for the empire itself under Queen Zenobia, it would include the local cults of the gods of the people conquered, as well as Jews and Christians, in addition to the gods worshiped in Palmyra itself.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1379173",
"title": "Odaenathus",
"section": "Section::::Rise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "Palmyra was an autonomous city subordinate to Rome and part of the province of Syria Phoenice. Odaenathus descended from an aristocratic family, albeit not a royal one as the city was ruled by a council and had no tradition of hereditary monarchy. For most of its existence, the Palmyrene army was decentralized under the command of several generals, but the rise of the Sasanian Empire in 224, and its incursions which affected Palmyrene trade, combined with the weakness of the Roman Empire, probably prompted the Palmyrene council to elect a lord for the city in order for him to lead a strengthened army.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46709309",
"title": "Palmyra",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "By the third century AD Palmyra had become a prosperous regional center. It reached the apex of its power in the 260s, when the Palmyrene King Odaenathus defeated Persian Emperor Shapur I. The king was succeeded by regent Queen Zenobia, who rebelled against Rome and established the Palmyrene Empire. In 273, Roman emperor Aurelian destroyed the city, which was later restored by Diocletian at a reduced size. The Palmyrenes converted to Christianity during the fourth century and to Islam in the centuries following the conquest by the 7th-century Rashidun Caliphate, after which the Palmyrene and Greek languages were replaced by Arabic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7515849",
"title": "Syria",
"section": "Section::::History.:Classical antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Palmyra, a rich and sometimes powerful native Aramaic-speaking kingdom arose in northern Syria in the 2nd century; the Palmyrene established a trade network that made the city one of the richest in the Roman empire. Eventually, in the late 3rd century AD, the Palmyrene king Odaenathus defeated the Persian emperor Shapur I and controlled the entirety of the Roman East while his successor and widow Zenobia established the Palmyrene Empire, which briefly conquered Egypt, Syria, Palestine, much of Asia Minor, Judah and Lebanon, before being finally brought under Roman control in 273 AD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "161685",
"title": "Alexander II Zabinas",
"section": "Section::::King of Syria.:Epithets and Royal image.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1490,
"text": "The native Syro-Phoenician religious complex was based on triads that included a supreme god, a supreme goddess, and their son; the deities taking those roles were diverse. It is possible that by 145 BC, Dionysus took the role of the son. The Levant was a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural region, but the religious complex was a unifying force. The Seleucid monarchs understood the possibility of using this complex to expand their support base amongst the locals by integrating themselves into the triads. Usage of the radiate crown, a sign of divinity, by the Seleucid kings, probably carried a message; that the king was the consort of Atargatis, Syria's supreme goddess. The radiate crown was utilised for the first time at an unknown date by Antiochus IV, who chose Hierapolis-Bambyce, the most important sanctuary of Atargatis, to ritually marry Diana, considered a manifestation of the Syrian goddess in the Levant. Alexander I's nickname, Balas, was probably used by the king himself. It is the Greek rendering of Ba'al, the Levant's supreme god. By using such an epithet, Alexander I was declaring himself the embodiment of Ba'al. Alexander I also used the radiate crown to indicate his ritual marriage to the supreme goddess. Alexander II made heavy use of the motifs of Dionysus in his coins. It is possible that, by utilising Dionysus, the son of the supreme god, Alexander II presented himself as the spiritual successor of his god-father, in addition to being his political heir.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "93965",
"title": "Sogdia",
"section": "Section::::Language and culture.:Religious beliefs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 887,
"text": "The Sogdians practiced a variety of religious faiths. However, Zoroastrianism was most likely their main religion as demonstrated by material evidence. For instance, the discovery of murals depicting votaries making offers before fire-holders and ossuaries from Samarkand, Panjakent and Er-Kurgan held the bones of the dead in accordance with Zoroastrian ritual. At Turfan, Sogdian burials shared similar features with traditional Chinese practices, yet they still retained essential Zoroastrian rituals, such as allowing the bodies to be picked clean by scavengers before burying the bones in ossuaries. They also sacrificed animals to Zoroastrian deities, including the supreme deity Ahura Mazda. Zoroastrianism remained the dominant religion among Sogdians until after the Islamic conquest, when they gradually converted to Islam, as is shown by Richard Bulliet's \"conversion curve\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46709309",
"title": "Palmyra",
"section": "Section::::Government.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 106,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 106,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "From the beginning of its history to the first century AD Palmyra was a petty sheikhdom, and by the first century BC a Palmyrene identity began to develop. During the first half of the first century AD, Palmyra incorporated some of the institutions of a Greek city (polis); the concept of citizenship (demos) appears in an inscription, dated to AD 10, describing the Palmyrenes as a community. In AD 74, an inscription mentions the city's boule (senate). The tribal role in Palmyra is debated; during the first century, four treasurers representing the four tribes seems to have partially controlled the administration but their role became ceremonial by the second century and power rested in the hands of the council.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46709309",
"title": "Palmyra",
"section": "Section::::History.:Hellenistic and Roman periods.:Autonomous Palmyrene region.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 926,
"text": "Palmyrene trade reached its acme during the second century, aided by two factors; the first was a trade route built by Palmyrenes, and protected by garrisons at major locations, including a garrison in Dura-Europos manned in 117 AD. The second was the Roman conquest of the Nabataean capital Petra in 106, shifting control over southern trade routes of the Arabian Peninsula from the Nabataeans to Palmyra. In 129 Palmyra was visited by Hadrian, who named it \"Hadriane Palmyra\" and made it a free city. Hadrian promoted Hellenism throughout the empire, and Palmyra's urban expansion was modeled on that of Greece. This led to new projects, including the theatre, the colonnade and the Temple of Nabu. Roman garrisons are first attested in Palmyra in 167, when the cavalry Ala I Thracum Herculiana was moved to the city. By the end of the second century, urban development diminished after the city's building projects peaked.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
welfw | What would be the consequences for the neighbouring areas of the Atucha Power Plant in Argentina if it underwent something similar to other known nuclear disasters? | [
{
"answer": "Just some context: the [plant](_URL_0_) is by a river, some 100 km upstream from Buenos Aires. What would be the risk to the city?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You aren't really asking a question that is answerable in any clear defined scope. Plants within their design basis will virtually never have an accident. Plants outside of their design basis (Chernobyl, TMI, Fukushima) will, and the results are unknown because it is outside of the analysis for that plant. At that point, the best you can do is look at the general consequence outcome. See something like the NRC's SOARCA [(State of the Art, Reactor Consequences Analysis)](_URL_0_) for a decent overview.\n\nIf you ask a more specific question, I would be able to help out more. If you have any nuclear specific questions such as how accidents progress, or consequences let me know.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61056241",
"title": "2019 Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay blackout",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "At 7:07 a.m. (UTC-3) on 16 June 2019, Argentina's power grid \"collapsed\", according to Gustavo Lopetegui, the country's Energy Secretary. The failure occurred in the Argentine Interconnection System. In total, an estimated 48 million people lost power. The blackout affected most of Argentina (Tierra del Fuego in the country's far south was not affected) and Uruguay, along with parts of Paraguay. Although some media reported blackouts in parts of Chile and parts of southern Brazil, this claim was denied by the Chilean and Brazilian national authorities. Argentina's President Mauricio Macri called it \"unprecedented\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "105856",
"title": "Three Mile Island accident",
"section": "Section::::Mitigation policies.:Effect on nuclear power industry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "The 1979 TMI accident did not initiate the demise of the U.S. nuclear power industry, but it did halt its historic growth. Additionally, as a result of the earlier 1973 oil crisis and post-crisis analysis with conclusions of potential overcapacity in base load, forty planned nuclear power plants already had been canceled before the TMI accident. At the time of the TMI incident, 129 nuclear power plants had been approved, but of those, only 53 (which were not already operating) were completed. During the lengthy review process, complicated by the Chernobyl Disaster seven years later, Federal requirements to correct safety issues and design deficiencies became more stringent, local opposition became more strident, construction times were significantly lengthened and costs skyrocketed. Until 2012, no U.S. nuclear power plant had been authorized to begin construction since the year before TMI.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2589713",
"title": "Chernobyl disaster",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 233,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 233,
"end_character": 644,
"text": "Following the accident, questions arose about the future of the plant and its eventual fate. All work on the unfinished reactors No. 5 and No. 6 was halted three years later. However, the trouble at the Chernobyl plant did not end with the disaster in reactor No. 4. The damaged reactor was sealed off and of concrete was placed between the disaster site and the operational buildings. The work was managed by Grigoriy Mihaylovich Naginskiy, the deputy chief engineer of Installation and Construction Directorate – 90. The Ukrainian government continued to let the three remaining reactors operate because of an energy shortage in the country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10638591",
"title": "Nuclear safety in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Accidents.:Chernobyl.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 83,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 83,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "While we hope that their occurrence is unlikely, there are accident sequences for U.S. plants that can lead to rupture or by-passing of the containment in U.S. reactors which would result in the off-site release of fission products comparable or worse than the releases estimated by the NRC to have taken place during the Chernobyl accident.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61056241",
"title": "2019 Argentina, Paraguay and Uruguay blackout",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "On 16 June 2019, a large-scale power outage struck most of Argentina, all of Uruguay, and parts of Paraguay, leaving an estimated total of 48 million people without electrical supply. By the following day it was confirmed that power had been restored to most of Argentina and Uruguay, and Argentine President Mauricio Macri promised a full investigation. Preliminary reports later suggested problems with several 500-kilovolt transmission lines disrupted the flow of electricity from two dams to Argentina's power grid.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32822562",
"title": "Fukushima disaster cleanup",
"section": "Section::::Proposed building protections.:Scrapping reactor Daiichi 1, 2, 3, 4.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 69,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 69,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "This scheme was partly based on the experience gained from the 1979 Three Mile Island accident. In Fukushima, however, with three meltdowns at one site, the damage was much more extensive. It could take 30 years or more to remove the nuclear fuel, dismantle the reactors, and remove all the buildings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13536905",
"title": "Electricity sector in Chile",
"section": "Section::::History of the electricity sector.:Recent developments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 1261,
"text": "Major problems have resulted from the aftermath of the 2002 Argentine crisis. In Argentina, sharp economic recovery has boosted energy demand and led to power cuts. This led Argentina to unilaterally decide, in 2004, on a reduction of its gas exports to Chile, which had been subject to a 1995 treaty between the two countries. These cuts have had serious implications for Chile, leading to an expensive substitution of fuel oil for gas in the midst of a shortage of hydroelectric capacity. In addition, gas supply shortages fueled the debate for investment in expensive liquid natural gas (LNG) import facilities. Construction of the country's first liquefied natural gas re-gasification plant, at Quintero (Region V), near the capital city of Santiago, started in 2007 under the coordination of the state oil company Enap (National Petroleum Company). The partners are British Gas, with 40% of the shares, while ENAP, ENDESA and METROGAS have 20% each. The project is built under an Engineering, Procurement and Construction Contract by the Chicago Bridge & Iron company, while BG will be the long term supplier of LNG. The plant received project finance for US$1.1 billion from a consortium of international banks and is due to start operating in July 2009.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
euj350 | why is texture so important in our enjoyment of a food? | [
{
"answer": "Texture is a major indicator of food quality. A carrot that's mushy isn't good. We develop expectations for what foods are supposed to be like texture-wise and deviation in these expectations set off our reptile brain alarms",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Since in general most vegetables and fruits change their texture when they go bad bad, our brains automatically think that the different texture could be the food having gone bad. It makes us not like it so we don't get potentially poisoned by it",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you actually tried a blended Pad Thai though?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Using Thai as an example each element (salt, sweet, acid, fire) different parts of your toung senses different flavors. Texture of the components, noodles, peanuts, sauce add to the experience. Blend it and the uniqueness of the flavors are lost as well as the nuances of texture.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10646",
"title": "Food",
"section": "Section::::Cuisine.:Contrast in texture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 130,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 130,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Texture plays a crucial role in the enjoyment of eating foods. Contrasts in textures, such as something crunchy in an otherwise smooth dish, may increase the appeal of eating it. Common examples include adding granola to yogurt, adding croutons to a salad or soup, and toasting bread to enhance its crunchiness for a smooth topping, such as jam or butter.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17741443",
"title": "Applied aesthetics",
"section": "Section::::Gastronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 607,
"text": "Although food is a basic and frequently experienced commodity, careful attention to the aesthetic possibilities of foodstuffs can turn eating into gastronomy. Chefs inspire our aesthetic enjoyment through the visual sense using colour and arrangement; they inspire our senses of taste and smell using spices, diversity/contrast, anticipation, seduction, and decoration/garnishes. In regard to drinking water, there are formal criteria for aesthetic value including odour, colour, total dissolved solids and clarity. There are numerical standards in the U.S. for aesthetic acceptability of these parameters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10646",
"title": "Food",
"section": "Section::::Cuisine.:Contrast in taste.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 132,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 132,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Another universal phenomenon regarding food is the appeal of contrast in taste and presentation. For example, such opposite flavors as sweetness and saltiness tend to go well together, as in kettle corn and nuts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31660921",
"title": "Comfort",
"section": "Section::::Concepts.:Comfort food.:Physiological responses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Comfort food are usually chosen because of previous experiences of happiness linked with it. For example, chocolate is held as a popular comfort food as it is follows the pleasurable sweetness and the positive association with gifts/rewards.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47654501",
"title": "Edible art",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Edible art refers to food created to be art. It is distinguished from Edible Arrangements (which predominantly consist of fruit) because it is usually more elaborate dessert food. A common form of edible art is wedding cakes, but options for artistic confections range far beyond marital celebrations. Cakes made into art include birthday cakes, cakes for baby showers, for graduation celebrations, and many other types of event. Each piece looks unique, even if created for the same event, because each creator has their own idea in mind when creating their food art.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32251796",
"title": "Sensory design",
"section": "Section::::Use in Food and Beverage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Sensory design plays a critical role the modern food and beverage industry. The food and beverage industry attempts to maintain specific sensory experiences. In addition to smell and flavor, the color of food (e.g. ripe fruits), and texture of food (e.g. potato chips) are critical. Even the environment is important as \"Color affects the appetite, in essence, the taste of food\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33744145",
"title": "Food moisture analysis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "Food moisture analysis involves the whole coverage of the food items in the world because foods are comprising a considerable amount of water rather than other ingredients. Foods are vital components which are consumed by the people at each and every moment for the surviving in the world. Basically there are several kinds of foods are available for the consumption as raw foods, processed foods and modified foods in the market. Moisture content of the food material is important to consider the food is suitable before the consumption, because moisture content affects the physical, chemical aspects of food which relates with the freshness and stability for the storage of the food for a long period of time and the moisture content determine the actual quality of the food before consumption and to the subsequent processing in the food sector by the food producers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1s32my | skylanders. specific questions about what things are. | [
{
"answer": "1. The series 1 and series 2 are the same thing/interchangeable/etc, as far as I know, but the series 3 portal is different due to the swappable characters in Swap Force. As for the portals connectivity to the different consoles, so far that I've seen from various comments, only the Xbox One doesn't register other systems portals.\nSo, with the newest portal, all characters, series 1-3 work with it.\n\n2. Yep.\n3. Some of the things are new levels. Some of them are for example, a cannon that pops up and helps you out by attacking enemies. You put them right on the portal alongside the Skylander. Not all of the level unlocking items from Spyro's Adventure and Giants unlock a level in Swap Force, though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42563638",
"title": "Skylanders: Trap Team",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 843,
"text": "The Skylanders and Flynn track Wolfgang to Time Town, where they get help from the stereotypical Italian-speaking Mabu Da Pinchy. Fighting their way through town, they arrive too late as Wolfgang has already headed to the far future. Arriving in that time period, they discover that Wolfgang has completely taken over and constructed the \"Big Bad Woofer\", a giant speaker that amplifies his painful music 10-fold. The Skylanders make their way to the sinister speaker and shut it down, fight Wolfgang, and cage the Big Bad Man-Beast before he can freeform the ultimate concert. However, the rotten cheese was sent to the Golden Queen in the present, and she completed the weapon. Holding Skylands hostage, she demands her fellow Doom Raiders to be freed and all the gold in the world as tribute. Oh, and to make infinite number of more rules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42563638",
"title": "Skylanders: Trap Team",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1253,
"text": "The Skylanders and their comrades steal a rocket from the Trolls and use it to get to the Skyhighlands, where they find a crystal to locate the Golden Queen's lair. Traveling there, Cali is imprisoned in gold, and the Skylanders have to fight their way through the lair to rescue her. In an epic battle against the Queen, the Skylanders are victorious in trapping the queen and putting and end to her tyranny once and for all. But just when it looks like its over, Kaos takes the weapon for himself and absorbs the combined stinkocity and energy from the collected Traptanium. His skin turns purple as a result, also developing enhanced senses, being able to see everything. He then realizes it was not the Skylanders he had to the destroy, but the one thing that was always in his way, the player, or portal master, and sets his sights on Earth. With both worlds hanging in the balance, the Skylanders make their way through the weapon and battle Kaos, who transforms into an enhanced traptainium version of himself. In this final battle Kaos pulls out all the stops, but is finally defeated and put in a trap of his own. The weapon then over loads and explodes, freeing the trapped cities. The game ends with the residents of the academy celebrating.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30833856",
"title": "Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "Players take on the role of a powerful Portal Master, who can control over 30 different Skylanders, including the purple dragon, Spyro. Each of these heroes is a protector of an amazing, mysterious world, but they have been ejected from their world by the sinister Portal Master known as Kaos, and now, they are frozen in our world as toys. Only the players of \"Skylanders Spyro's Adventure\" can get them back into their world, by embarking on a fantastical journey where they will explore mythical lands, battle menacing, outlandish creatures, collect treasures, and solve challenging puzzles as a part of the quest to save their world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3337009",
"title": "Skyland",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Skyland (full French title: \"Skyland, Le Nouveau Monde\", or \"Skyland, The New World\"), is a CGI animated series developed in France in partnership with Canada and Luxembourg for television channels France 2, Teletoon, Nicktoons, ABC and CITV. The show is a co-production between Paris's Method Films and Toronto's 9 Story Entertainment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34661959",
"title": "Ylem (Stockhausen)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1246,
"text": "\"Ylem\" is \"phoenix music\", in that it represents the continual rebirth of the universe, according to the theory of the oscillating universe, which holds that the universe periodically explodes every 80,000,000,000 years. The title of the work is taken from the term \"ylem\", a word used in medieval Latin, the accusative of the borrowed Greek term \"hylē\" (ὕλη, \"matter\"), and adopted in the 1940s by the physicists George Gamow and Ralph Alpher to refer to the essential material of the universe, in the context of the \"Big Bang theory . The subject of the composition is, in short, \"the 'breath' of the universe\" . The score is dedicated to the composer's son Simon, who was five years old at the time of composition. It was composed in December 1972 for a tour with the London Sinfonietta, who gave the premiere on 9 March 1973 under the composer's direction, at the Queen Elizabeth Hall, Southbank Centre, London . The next evening, the same forces rehearsed and performed the piece on a live television broadcast from 10:50 to 11:30 pm on BBC2's \"Full House\", hosted by John Bird, with questions from the studio audience and phoned in by viewers. Three studio recordings of this version were made on 21 March 1973 in the EMI Studios, London .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33123836",
"title": "Skylanders",
"section": "Section::::Universe.:Skylands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The Skylands is the main setting of the series, a world lying at the very center of the universe. It consists of many floating islands where each one has its own ecosystems like forests, rainforests, deserts, arctic areas, swamps, mountains, and sea-like areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33123836",
"title": "Skylanders",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 391,
"text": "\"Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure\" received generally favorable reviews, many praising the technological use of the \"Portal of Power.\" Although some reviewers criticized the absence of online multiplayer, the toys for the Skylanders were widely praised. \"Skylanders: Spyro's Adventure\" was nominated for two Toy Industry Association awards: \"Game of the Year\" and \"Innovative Toy of the Year.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
4ue9mk | Were civilians able to cross "borders" during the US Civil War? | [
{
"answer": "It was definitely possible, though it wouldn't have been without considerable hassles, and a few favors cashed in along the way. So, I assume by the way OP phrased the question that they are referring to sanctioned crossings through enemy lines (and not stealth missions where permission wasn't granted). In this case, yes, it was possible for civilians to cross from the Confederacy into the Union (and vice versa). We definitely have some examples of this, too. What was needed in most cases was a pass (a letter, really), granting specific permission for one person to move through a military district or region. These would have been written personally by the military commander in charge of that area, or someone very near the top of the military pecking order in that region. Yet even this would have only helped a person get out of an area, and would have done only so much to get them into the OTHER \"enemy\" region. For example, British observer Arthur Fremantle arrived in Texas in March 1863, and worked his way all the way to Richmond in time to move with Lee's army towards Gettysburg. Strictly an observer, Fremantle had managed to get permission from various generals along the way to move freely through the Confederacy, until he got a pass from Robert E. Lee himself attesting to his neutral status (the note essentially promised that Fremantle was not a spy). This pass allowed Fremantle to travel north into Union lines to continue observing (though it wasn't without some suspicion...however, Lee's note actually got him pretty far). The fact that Fremantle had several notes from high ranking Confederate officers attesting to his neutral status (and the basic fact that he was British) surprisingly got him into the Union, so it shows that such movement was possible under the right circumstances and with the right people attesting for them. \n\nOn the flip side, Mary Todd Lincoln had a half-sister named Emilie Todd Helm, which made her Abe Lincoln's step half-sister. Emilie Helm's husband fought and died for the Confederacy, and Mary Todd asked Abe to grant Emilie a pass north so that the woman could visit for purely social reasons after the death of Helm's husband. Lincoln granted the request, and after the visit, wrote a pass for Emilie to go back south, which was honored. Obviously, if the president gives the okay, soldiers manning checkpoints are obliged to allow passage, so again, it wasn't without precedent for such a request to be granted. \n\nThis was not a normal occurrence, however, and would have required a high-ranking individual to sign the pass allowing movement, and some level of trust on the other side to recognize the validity of the enemy pass, and accept that the person was not a spy (so, a pass signed by Lincoln or Robert E. Lee would have been looked upon as fairly safe, as their \"word\" on the matter was seen as somewhat sacrosanct). \n\nA normal person without political connections on the level of Lee or Lincoln would have needed a pass from the commanding general in the area to get out of that side's lines, and would have needed some pre-arranged agreement to get into the other side's lines (so a parlay would have needed to have been called, where it was established that a person was coming through, and agreements would have been made to allow it based on extenuating circumstances). \n\n[Sources: Doris Kearns Goodwin, 'Team of Rivals'; Bruce Catton, 'Glory Road']",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1466150",
"title": "Army of the Border",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "The Army of the Border was a Union army during the American Civil War. It was created from units in the Department of Kansas to oppose Sterling Price's Raid in 1864. Samuel R. Curtis was in command of the army throughout its duration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6386433",
"title": "Blackwater River (Virginia)",
"section": "Section::::Colonial and later history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "During the American Civil War, the Blackwater River was for a time the dividing line between Union-occupied territory and Confederate Virginia. The boundary was not well defended, allowing thousands of \"contrabands\" (as the slaves were called during the war) the chance to flee east out of Southampton County, across the Blackwater River and into freedom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "94515",
"title": "Sullivan County, Missouri",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "During the U.S. Civil War (1861–1865), a Union Army post stood in Milan. The Union cause was supported by four Union volunteer infantry regiments, two Union cavalry volunteer regiments, two Missouri Militia units, one provisional militia unit, and a large unit of Sullivan County Home Guards. The Confederate side was supported by four units of Missouri State Guard infantrymen. Soldiers from Sullivan County fought at the Battle of Shiloh, Battle of Atlanta, Battle of Jonesborough, and other major engagements throughout the war. Military skirmishes within the county were mostly confined to bushwhackers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14893934",
"title": "Little Arkansas Treaty",
"section": "Section::::The Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 276,
"text": "The Civil War was ending, and the Union did not want to have to keep hundreds of thousands of men under arms to defend immigrants against Indian attacks. Therefore the government sent highly respected Commissioners to the Plains Tribes, and asked them to meet and talk peace.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91323",
"title": "Fluvanna County, Virginia",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "While no Civil War battles were fought in Fluvanna, Union soldiers burned mills and bridges and damaged the James River and Kanawha Canal to disrupt traffic and commerce. During the American Civil War more than 1,200 of the county's citizens served in the Confederate forces. Its citizens served in infantry, cavalry, and artillery units during the war, including the Fluvanna Artillery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2726726",
"title": "Military logistics",
"section": "Section::::History.:19th century.:Railways.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "In the American Civil War (1861–65), both armies used railways extensively, for transport of personnel, supplies, horses and mules, and heavy field pieces. Both tried to disrupt the enemy's logistics by destroying trackage and bridges. Military railways were built specifically for supporting armies in the field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2345789",
"title": "Harpers Ferry National Historical Park",
"section": "Section::::John Brown's Raid and the American Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1457,
"text": "The American Civil War (1861–1865) found Harpers Ferry right on the boundary between the Union and Confederate forces. The strategic position along this border and the valuable manufacturing base was a coveted strategic goal for both sides, but particularly the South due to its lack of manufacturing centers. Consequently, the town exchanged hands no less than eight times during the course of the war. Union forces abandoned the town immediately after the state of Virginia seceded from the Union, burning the armory and seizing 15,000 rifles. Colonel Thomas J. Jackson, who would later become known as \"Stonewall\", secured the region for the Confederates a week later and shipped most of the manufacturing implements south. Jackson spent the next two months preparing his troops and building fortifications, but was ordered to withdraw south and east to assist P.G.T. Beauregard at the First Battle of Bull Run. Union troops returned in force, occupying the town and began to rebuild parts of the armory. Stonewall Jackson, now a major general, returned in September 1862 under orders from Robert E. Lee to retake the arsenal and then to join Lee's army north in Maryland. Jackson's assault on the Federal forces there, during the Battle of Harpers Ferry led to the capitulation of 12,500 Union troops, which was the largest number of Union prisoners taken at one time during the war. The town exchanged hands several more times over the next two years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1l0dkq | how does image compression like .jpg work? a 500x500 pixel image can vary massively in filesize depending on 'detail' and file extention | [
{
"answer": "Compression, in general, aims to remove redundant information. Some forms of compression, such as a zip file, do this without much special knowledge of what it is compressing, and also has to make sure it can get back the exact data before it was compressed (ie be lossless). \n\nOther types of compression are specialised, such as audio (eg mp3), video (mp4), or images (jpg). Because they are specialised, this allows them to throw away information people don't perceive and to use clever tricks that improve compression vs lossless techniques. \n\nSo in the case of jpg, tricks are used to intentionally drop the quality of the image vs the original, but in ways that are only minutely perceptible. By focusing on aspects of the image we notice (edges, colour gradients etc) and degrading others (blocks of colour, textures) high compression can be achieved without losing much visual quality. \n\nIts the ratio between these important bits and the unimportant bits that determines how compressed it can become. A scene full of interest, colour and shapes? Not much can be thrownaway, so big file. A scene of a polar bear in the snow? Lots to throw away, small file. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2679981",
"title": "Image file formats",
"section": "Section::::Image file sizes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1214,
"text": "The size of raster image files is positively correlated with the number of pixels in the image and the color depth (bits per pixel). Images can be compressed in various ways, however. A compression algorithm stores either an exact representation or an approximation of the original image in a smaller number of bytes that can be expanded back to its uncompressed form with a corresponding decompression algorithm. Images with the same number of pixels and color depth can have very different compressed file size. Considering exactly the same compression, number of pixels, and color depth for two images, different graphical complexity of the original images may also result in very different file sizes after compression due to the nature of compression algorithms. With some compression formats, images that are less complex may result in smaller compressed file sizes. This characteristic sometimes results in a smaller file size for some lossless formats than lossy formats. For example, graphically simple images (i.e. images with large continuous regions like line art or animation sequences) may be losslessly compressed into a GIF or PNG format and result in a smaller file size than a lossy JPEG format.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3246514",
"title": "ECW (file format)",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "Image data of up to 65,535 bands (layers or colors) can be compressed into the ECW v2 or v3 file format at a rate of over 25 MB per second on an i7 740QM (4-cores) 1.731 GHz processor using v4.2 of the ECW/JP2 SDK. Data flow compression allows for compression of large images with small RAM requirements. The file format can achieve typical compression ratios from 1:2 to 1:100.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30860279",
"title": "Image editing",
"section": "Section::::Digital data compression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 362,
"text": "Many image file formats use data compression to reduce file size and save storage space. Digital compression of images may take place in the camera, or can be done in the computer with the image editor. When images are stored in JPEG format, compression has already taken place. Both cameras and computer programs allow the user to set the level of compression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16009",
"title": "JPEG",
"section": "Section::::JPEG codec example.:Compression ratio and artifacts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 131,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 131,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "Some programs allow the user to vary the amount by which individual blocks are compressed. Stronger compression is applied to areas of the image that show fewer artifacts. This way it is possible to manually reduce JPEG file size with less loss of quality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63285",
"title": "JPEG 2000",
"section": "Section::::Improvements over the 1992 JPEG standard.:Multiple resolution representation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "JPEG 2000 decomposes the image into a multiple resolution representation in the course of its compression process. This pyramid representation can be put to use for other image presentation purposes beyond compression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265643",
"title": "ILBM",
"section": "Section::::File format.:BODY: Image data.:Compression.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "If an image is compressed, each row of data (but not each bitplane) is compressed individually, including the mask data if present. The compression is a variety of RLE Compression using flags. It can be decoded as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50905",
"title": "Haar wavelet",
"section": "Section::::Haar transform.:Application.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 514,
"text": "Modern cameras are capable of producing images with resolutions in the range of tens of megapixels. These images need to be compressed before storage and transfer. The Haar transform can be used for image compression. The basic idea is to transfer the image into a matrix in which each element of the matrix represents a pixel in the image. For example, a 256×256 matrix is saved for a 256×256 image. JPEG image compression involves cutting the original image into 8×8 sub-images. Each sub-image is an 8×8 matrix.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1z1etm | why do pc's become slow and "aggravating" to use after little time, but macs seem to stay at top performace for a long time? | [
{
"answer": "IT professional here: Can you please define \"slow\"? This word is thrown around often when it comes to computer complaints but details matter. Is it taking a long time to boot up? Is netflix choppy? Is it slow when you open a third powerpoint deck? Those can help me answer you better.\n\nThe shorter answer is RAM, that helps keep things quick. Additionally, macs I have found are less inclined to have background processes initiated and installed silently. When you hit ctrl-alt-Dlt and go to task manager, then to the \"processes tab\" that shows you all of those things your computer is doing that you can't see. That list may be longer and thus taking up more of the computer's resources than it is on a mac.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are several reasons, but what I have found to be very effiective at speeding up a Windows PC is to disable prefetching.\nPrefetch is a mechanism where Windows, at least up thought Windows 7, loads a small piece of every program you've used recently into memory, in an ironic attempt to make them load faster.\n\nIf you disable prefetch (it's a registry setting) and clean out the prefetch folder under the \"Windows\" folder you'll find that booting and a lot of general operations will speed up.\n\nGoogle \"Windows Prefetch\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I hear people complain about this a lot, but I have yet to experience it. I'm using a PC I built in 2010 (using fairly outdated parts at the time) and it's still pretty performs the same as day 1.\n\nAre you cleaning the dust out?\n\nAre you running more programs than before?\n\nAre you defragging your HDD?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yeah this is a misnomer. I've used both PCs and Macs, they both get a little bogged down after years of use. Like other people on here are saying, you need to be more specific when you say it gets slow. \n\nWhat sort of programs do you install? What websites do you visit? What browser do you use? What kind of computer do you have? What are its specs? Where did you buy it? \n\nThere are a lot of things that could be making your machine slow. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't know the OPs expertise level, but I generally find that Windows PCs become slow and useless when novices are allowed to have access to an administrator-level account.\n\nI built a new computer for a relative that always had \"computer problems\". On the new build, she did not get access to an admin account. The computer still runs fast, 2+ years after it was built.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Everybody knows that Windows machines slow down after some time of use. Why all the deniers here??\n\nSome of the explanations seen here:\n\n1. \"Dust\" lol\n\n2. You damaged it by performing incorrect administrator actions.\n\n3. It was always slow and you just didn't notice it.\n\nReally helpful...\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3408213",
"title": "Memory bound function",
"section": "Section::::Using memory bound functions to prevent spam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1264,
"text": "The major problem of using the above scheme is that fast CPUs compute much faster than slow CPUs. Further, higher-end computer systems also have sophisticated pipelines and other advantageous features that facilitate computations. As a result, a spammer with a state-of-the-art system will hardly be affected by such deterrence while a typical user with a mediocre system will be adversely affected. If a computation takes a few seconds on a new PC, it may take a minute on an old PC, and several minutes on a PDA, which might be a nuisance for users of old PCs, but probably unacceptable for users of PDAs. The disparity in client CPU speed constitutes one of the prominent roadblocks to widespread adoption of any scheme based on a CPU bound function. Therefore, researchers are concerned with finding functions that most computer systems will evaluate at about the same speed, so that high-end systems might evaluate these functions somewhat faster than low-end systems (2-10 times faster, but not 10-100 faster) as CPU disparities might imply. These ratios are “egalitarian\" enough for the intended applications: the functions are effective in discouraging abuses and do not add a prohibitive delay on legitimate interactions, across a wide range of systems. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12185739",
"title": "Criticism of Microsoft Windows",
"section": "Section::::Windows rot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 335,
"text": "Adrian Kingsley-Hughes, writing for ZDNet, believes that the slow-down over time is due to loading too much software, loading duplicate software, installing too much free/trial/beta software, using old, outdated or incorrect drivers, installing new drivers without uninstalling the old ones and may also be due to malware and spyware.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14408604",
"title": "Macintosh hardware",
"section": "Section::::Expandability and connectivity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "Historically, Macs were not designed to be taken apart. Ever since the original closed-box Macintosh in 1984, Apple has always preferred that upgrades take place outside the case. While PC users would open up their computer to install a second hard drive, Mac users would simply plug an external hard drive into their computer; this adds slight cost and the external hard drive performs more slowly, but is easier for the average user to perform.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1110028",
"title": "Ruputer",
"section": "Section::::Response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "The Ruputer and onHand PC failed to achieve widespread success, for a number of reasons. First, their screen is too small to display more than a handful of text, making it awkward to view data. Second, their joystick input requires entering text in a process similar to that of entering one's initials in an arcade game high-score list. Finally, they run through their non-rechargeable batteries more swiftly than is convenient for a device meant to be worn as a timepiece, although it was later found that the slightly larger CR2032 battery can be used which gives substantially better battery life.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4705441",
"title": "Mac gaming",
"section": "Section::::Windows games.:Boot Camp.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 608,
"text": "In April 2006 Apple released a beta version of Boot Camp, a product which allows Intel-based Macintoshes to boot directly into Windows XP or Windows Vista. The reaction from Mac game developers and software journalists to the introduction of Boot Camp has been mixed, ranging from assuming the Mac will be dead as a platform for game development to cautious optimism that Mac owners will continue to play games within Mac OS rather than by rebooting to Windows. The number of Mac ports of Windows games released in 2006 was never likely to be very great, despite the steadily increasing number of Mac users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "82921",
"title": "Disk image",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Software distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "or no disruption to the user. Some can even be scheduled to update only at night so that machines are not disturbed during business hours. These technologies reduce end-user impact and greatly reduce the time and man-power needed to ensure a secure corporate environment. Efficiency is also increased because there is much less opportunity for human error. Disk images may also be needed to transfer software to machines without a compatible physical disk drive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12258479",
"title": "Links 2003",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Goble wrote that much of the game felt sluggish, while Sulic stated that the game would play slowly on older computers. Johnson complained of slow screen redrawing, and Keith Pullin of \"PC Zone\" stated that the screen redraw could take up to 30 seconds on less-powerful computers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
6e2rai | why are there different levels of sunscreen? wouldn't someone want to use the highest level that is most effective against sunburns? | [
{
"answer": "[Here](_URL_0_) is an article detailing some issues with high SPF sunscreen with points that include:\n\n* High SPF only give marginally better protection, SPF50 blocks 98% of uvb rays, SPF100 blocks 99%\n* Different chemicals (or concentrations of chemicals) in high SPF sunscreen may cause different adverse effects for people.\n\nAustralian regulations cap SPF ratings at 30 with other countries capping them at 50 or 50+ since there is generally little difference once you go beyond those numbers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because SPF 100 sounds way more awesome than SPF 15 and people might pay more money for it. \n\nThe difference between sunscreens above SPF 50 is basically negligible. SPF 15 blocks about 93% of the harmful UV features from the sun. SPF 30 about 97% and SPF 50 blocks 99%. Any higher and you're just adding fractions of a percent of additional protection. So yes, higher levels of sunscreen are \"more effective\", but are you more likely to get a sunburn with SPF 50 than SPF 100? Not really. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "716631",
"title": "Melanoma",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Sunscreen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 99,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 99,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Sunscreen appears to be effective in preventing melanoma. In the past, use of sunscreens with a sun protection factor (SPF) rating of 50 or higher on exposed areas were recommended; as older sunscreens more effectively blocked UVA with higher SPF. Currently, newer sunscreen ingredients (avobenzone, zinc oxide, and titanium dioxide) effectively block both UVA and UVB even at lower SPFs. Sunscreen also protects against squamous cell carcinoma, another skin cancer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "294419",
"title": "Sunscreen",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Potential risks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 247,
"text": "These earlier studies were confirmed in 2019 which showed that sunscreen with a high UVA protection factor enabled significantly higher vitamin D synthesis than a low UVA protection factor sunscreen, likely because it allows more UVB transmission\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1485054",
"title": "Sunless tanning",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 347,
"text": "Since sunscreen absorbs ultraviolet light and prevents it from reaching the skin, it will prevent tanning. It has been reported that sunscreen with a sun protection factor (SPF) of 8 based on the UVB spectrum can decrease vitamin D synthetic capacity by 95 percent, whereas sunscreen with an SPF of 15 can reduce synthetic capacity by 98 percent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9040547",
"title": "Human skin",
"section": "Section::::Permeability.:Sunblock and sunscreen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 102,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 102,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Sunscreen—Sunscreen is more transparent once applied to the skin and also has the ability to protect against UVA/UVB rays, although the sunscreen's ingredients have the ability to break down at a faster rate once exposed to sunlight, and some of the radiation is able to penetrate to the skin. In order for sunscreen to be more effective it is necessary to consistently reapply and use one with a higher sun protection factor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24998247",
"title": "Vitamin D",
"section": "Section::::Biosynthesis.:Synthesis in the skin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 115,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 115,
"end_character": 251,
"text": "Sunscreen absorbs or reflects ultraviolet light and prevents much of it from reaching the skin. Sunscreen with a sun protection factor (SPF) of 8 based on the UVB spectrum decreases vitamin D synthetic capacity by 95%, and SPF 15 decreases it by 98%.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20647810",
"title": "Sunburn",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Sunscreen.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Sunscreen is effective and thus recommended for preventing melanoma and squamous cell carcinoma. There is little evidence that it is effective in preventing basal cell carcinoma. Typical use of sunscreen does not usually result in vitamin D deficiency, but extensive usage may.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2065847",
"title": "Ecamsule",
"section": "Section::::Efficacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 248,
"text": "A 5% ecamsule containing sunscreen can prevent early changes leading to photoaging in humans. A broad spectrum sunscreen with ecamsule, avobenzone and octocrylene significantly reduces the skin damage associated with UV exposure in human subjects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2k4dpw | how are large, intricate corn maze designs made? | [
{
"answer": "Using a board with strings attached to each end, the artist holds a string in each hand and keeps the board under foot pushing the cornstalks down with the board and using the strings to pull the board back up. The board is used to keep a uniform width of the lines in the corn, and the motion of kicking down and then pulling up the board helps them do this rapidly.\n\nTL;DR Aliens",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7658428",
"title": "Corn maze",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1135,
"text": "A corn maze or maize maze is a maze cut out of a corn field. The first corn maze was in Annville, Pennsylvania. Corn mazes have become popular tourist attractions in North America, and are a way for farms to generate tourist income. Many are based on artistic designs such as characters from movies. Corn mazes appear in many different designs. Some mazes are even created to tell stories or to portray a particular theme. Most have a path which goes all around the whole pattern, either to end in the middle or to come back out again, with various false trails diverging from the main path. In the United Kingdom, they are known as maize mazes, and are especially popular with farms in the east of England. These mazes are normally combined with other farm attractions of interest to families and day trippers. Some of these attractions include hay rides, a petting zoo, play areas for children, and picnic areas. Each year a few of the mazes are featured in national newspapers and TV. In the U.S., corn mazes typically are cut down circa the first week of November; in the UK typically in September after children return to school.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20161",
"title": "Maze",
"section": "Section::::Maze construction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 874,
"text": "Mazes have been built with walls and rooms, with hedges, turf, corn stalks, straw bales, books, paving stones of contrasting colors or designs, and brick, or in fields of crops such as corn or, indeed, maize. Maize mazes can be very large; they are usually only kept for one growing season, so they can be different every year, and are promoted as seasonal tourist attractions. Indoors, mirror mazes are another form of maze, in which many of the apparent pathways are imaginary routes seen through multiple reflections in mirrors. Another type of maze consists of a set of rooms linked by doors (so a passageway is just another room in this definition). Players enter at one spot, and exit at another, or the idea may be to reach a certain spot in the maze. Mazes can also be printed or drawn on paper to be followed by a pencil or fingertip. Mazes can be built with snow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4800470",
"title": "Edmonton Corn Maze",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 312,
"text": "It is a giant maze cut into a field of corn approximately . It is open from August to October annually and is themed around a local event or attraction. The Edmonton Corn Maze is part of \"The MAiZE\". The MAiZE is the largest corn maze company in the world and helps with the design and operation of corn mazes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20656228",
"title": "Maize",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Ornamental and other uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 173,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 173,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "An unusual use for maize is to create a \"corn maze\" (or \"maize maze\") as a tourist attraction. The idea of a maize maze was introduced by the American Maze Company who created a maze in Pennsylvania in 1993. Traditional mazes are most commonly grown using yew hedges, but these take several years to mature. The rapid growth of a field of maize allows a maze to be laid out using GPS at the start of a growing season and for the maize to grow tall enough to obstruct a visitor's line of sight by the start of the summer. In Canada and the US, these are popular in many farming communities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4944959",
"title": "Haunted attraction (simulated)",
"section": "Section::::Types of haunted attractions.:Cornfield maze.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "A cornfield maze is an attraction that uses cornstalks to form paths for people to walk through. Patrons can expect to experience turns, twists, straight paths and dead ends. The cornfield maze might be designed to resemble a popular character, public figure, event or holiday. Most cornfield mazes are open during the day and are appropriate for all ages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5282159",
"title": "Hedge maze",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "Hedge mazes evolved from the knot gardens of Renaissance Europe, and were first constructed during the mid-16th century. These early mazes were constructed from evergreen herbs, but, over time, dwarf box became a more popular option due to its robustness. Italian architects had been sketching conceptual garden labyrinths as early as 1460, and hundreds of mazes were constructed in Europe between the 16th and 18th centuries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23602250",
"title": "Dave Phillips (maze designer)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Since 2000, Phillips has partnered with Hugh McPherson of MaizeQuest, a corn maze company to design corn mazes, interactive games, and walk-through mazes (such as bamboo, hedge, and fence) for locations throughout the United States, Canada, and England. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2vwx4k | when companies like facebook track their user's activity to sell it, who do they sell it to? and what do the buyers do with the data? | [
{
"answer": "Facebook doesn't sell it, not directly. What they do is they use it to target ads. If I'm making a product that I think will appeal to 18-22 year old women who like hip hop and live in the southern US, I can go to Facebook and pay them to show my ad to just those people (and then I don't have to worry about getting charged for my ad being viewed by 60 year old Norwegian men who clearly want nothing to do with my product). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Have you ever used Hulu, and seen one of those ads that asks you to pick the one that is most relevant to you? Basically, companies like Facebook are selling user data so that marketing companies can do this without additional input and target ads to you. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Advertising companies to target their ads so they can target their ads at specific people/groups (e.g. an eight-year-old boy obsessed with professional wrestling will have no use for menstural products or car insurance, but could be interestsed in WWE merchandise.) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2041117",
"title": "Social networking service",
"section": "Section::::Issues.:Data mining.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 92,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 92,
"end_character": 819,
"text": "Through data mining, companies are able to improve their sales and profitability. With this data, companies create customer profiles that contain customer demographics and online behavior. A recent strategy has been the purchase and production of \"network analysis software\". This software is able to sort out through the influx of social networking data for any specific company. Facebook has been especially important to marketing strategists. Facebook's controversial \"Social Ads\" program gives companies access to the millions of profiles in order to tailor their ads to a Facebook user's own interests and hobbies. However, rather than sell actual user information, Facebook sells tracked \"social actions\". That is, they track the websites a user uses outside of Facebook through a program called Facebook Beacon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28259534",
"title": "Social data revolution",
"section": "Section::::Business sector and social data.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Companies often use the data that is shared via social networking sites and other forms of data sharing avenues, advertisers, etc. Social networking sites, for example, can sell user data to advertisers and other entities which they can then influence consumer decisions. Data mining is also used to gather this information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "699052",
"title": "Ethics of technology",
"section": "Section::::History of technoethics.:Future developments.:User Data.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 785,
"text": "Large companies share their users' data constantly. In 2018, the U.S, government cracked down on Facebook selling user data to other companies after declaring that it had made the data in question inaccessible. One such case was in a scandal regarding Cambridge Analytica, in which Facebook sold user data to the company without consent from the users whose data was being accessed. The data was then used for several political agendas, such as the Brexit vote and the U.S. Presidential Election of 2016. In an interview with CBS' 60 Minutes, Trump campaign manager Brad Parscale described in detail how he used data taken from different social media websites to create ads that were both visually appealing to potential voters and targeted the issues that they felt strongest about. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47761177",
"title": "Dataveillance",
"section": "Section::::Benefits and concerns.:Pros.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Businesses also rely on dataveillance to help them understand the online activity for potential clients by tracking their online activity. By tracking their online activity through cookies, as well as various other methods, businesses are able to better understand what sort of advertisements work with their existing and potential clients. While making online transactions users often give away their information freely which is later used by the company for corporate or private interests. For businesses this information can help boost sales and attract attention towards their products to help generate revenue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12878216",
"title": "Criticism of Facebook",
"section": "Section::::Privacy issues.:2010 application privacy breach.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 751,
"text": "In 2010, the \"Wall Street Journal\" found that many of Facebook's top-rated apps were transmitting identifying information to \"dozens of advertising and Internet tracking companies\". The apps used an HTTP referer that exposed the user's identity and sometimes their friends' identities. Facebook said that \"While knowledge of user ID does not permit access to anyone’s private information on Facebook, we plan to introduce new technical systems that will dramatically limit the sharing of User ID’s\". A blog post by a member of Facebook's team further stated that \"press reports have exaggerated the implications of sharing a user ID\", though still acknowledging that some of the apps were passing the ID in a manner that violated Facebook's policies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58704188",
"title": "Facebook Portal",
"section": "Section::::Privacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "During the product announcement, Facebook initially claimed that data obtained from Portal would not be used for targeted advertising. One week after the announcement, Facebook changed its position and stated that \"usage data such as length of calls, frequency of calls\" and \"general usage data, such as aggregate usage of apps, etc., may also feed into the information that we use to serve ads\". The company later clarified that it analyzes the metadata, not the content, of video calls made through Portal.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12878216",
"title": "Criticism of Facebook",
"section": "Section::::Privacy issues.:Data mining.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 487,
"text": "A second clause that brought criticism from some users allowed Facebook the right to sell users' data to private companies, stating \"We may share your information with third parties, including responsible companies with which we have a relationship.\" This concern was addressed by spokesman Chris Hughes, who said, \"Simply put, we have never provided our users' information to third party companies, nor do we intend to.\" Facebook eventually removed this clause from its privacy policy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
93a4mp | Can anyone recommend a good book of world maps with political borders from various periods throughout history? | [
{
"answer": "I can't give you any advice on the pre-USSR map specifically, but one I can personally vouch for is [this book](_URL_1_) called *Great City Maps*. It's a full-color collection of various surviving maps of great cities dating from Roman times up until about 1900. There are a couple of maps of Moscow and a couple of maps of St. Petersburg in there.\n\nI have it and it's a pretty great coffee table book. You're not going to get a huge in-depth study of any particular city, but the maps are all big and colorful, and are full reproductions of the originals. So you'll see stuff like a map of London in 1572, and the text will point out some of the highlights on the map from then, and what still exists and what doesn't and, to some extent, what happened. It also serves as a good overview of the history of maps, as you can see how much more detailed and accurate they got over the centuries.\n\nYou can see the table of contents in the link above, and a few more pages can be seen in [its Amazon preview](_URL_2_). Hopefully, that gives you enough to see if it's worth it. It should be said that the pages in the preview are from the first pages in the book, which are the oldest maps. As they move into the 1400s and later, they begin to have the detail that we're now used to. The dimensions of the book are large, so it looks better in real life than it does in the preview.\n\nBy the same publisher is [*Great Maps*](_URL_4_) which seems to be basically the same thing, except the maps are mostly country-wide, or continent-wide instead of city maps.\n\nFor the Russian maps, though I can't vouch for them myself, it looks like [*Restless Empire: A Historical Atlas of Russia*](_URL_0_) from Harvard University Press and [*The Penguin Historical Atlas of Russia*](_URL_3_) from Penguin Publishing are going to be two of your best bets. They both have smaller dimensions than the *Great Maps* books, but the *Restless Empire* book is 8.5\" x 11\"--the standard size of a sheet of paper. The Penguin book is smaller.\n\nI hope this helps. Good luck!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Cultural Atlas series has come out from several publishers, including Stonehenge, Facts on File, and Time-Life. *The Cultural Atlas of Russia and the Former Soviet Union* would be your target. It would have maps as the primary source of information with photographs and short essays on the development of countries in this area. I don't have this particular volume, but among the modern ones, I've found China and Japan good. (There are historical atlases in the series, like Ancient Egypt or The Greek World.)\n\nLook for it at Amazon, _URL_0_, and Ebay to find best condition at best price.\n\nGenerally, what you're looking for is called an historical atlas. That is, it shows the world as it was, like pre-Revolutionary France or colonized Africa, rather than the present day. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "60536387",
"title": "Map of Iran at the end of the Safavid period",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "This map covers areas which today are countries including Iraq, Afghanistan, Iran, Kuwait, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Armenia, and the republic of Azerbaijan. The map also contains parts of today’s Russia, Pakistan, Turkey, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and the Arabian Peninsula. In the map Gilom has also drawn mountains and connecting roads between cities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "21967348",
"title": "Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente",
"section": "Section::::Documentary Assets and Museum Collections.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The Map Library on the other hand is a rich collection comprising three thousand geographic maps for a total of fourteen thousand sheets, inherited from the Map Service of the Ministry for Italian Africa. The collection, which covers the last decade but one of the 19th century to the first half of the 20th, is the largest and most important of its kind in Italy and takes in Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia and Libya in particular.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "3386837",
"title": "Mapparium",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Built in 1935 and based upon Rand McNally political maps published the previous year, the Mapparium shows the political world as it was at that time, including such long-disused labels as Italian East Africa and Siam, as well as more recently defunct political entities such as the Soviet Union. In 1939, 1958, and 1966 the Church considered updating the map, but rejected it on the basis of cost and the special interest it holds as a historical artifact.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "61325273",
"title": "A History of the World in Twelve Maps",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "A History of the World in Twelve Maps is a 2012 book by British historian Jerry Brotton, on the relationship between cartography, history, and geography. The book examines the roles that twelve maps have played in influencing diplomacy, geopolitics and how people view the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28969195",
"title": "Map collection",
"section": "Section::::Major map collections.:Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "The authoritative guide \"World directory of map collections\" (2000) lists 714 map collections in 121 countries. With few exceptions, the most valuable map collections are held in either Europe or North America. There are also some map collections in South America, Africa and South Asia, but those collections are comparatively rare and of much lower value.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "28861895",
"title": "Jose de Mazarredo y Salazar",
"section": "Section::::References.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "BULLET::::- Guthrie, William. \"A New Geographical, Historical And Commercial Grammar And Present State Of The World\". Complete With 30 Fold Out Maps - All Present. J. Johnson Publishing (1808) ASIN B002N220JC\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10124637",
"title": "John Carter Brown Library",
"section": "Section::::Scope and holdings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "The Library also holds many important maps and prints relating to the New World. These maps include one of the first printed attempts to depict America in cartographic form (the so-called Stevens-Brown map, a prototype of the 1513 Ptolemy Orbis Typus); the first printed map of Hernán Cortés’s Mexico City, built on the ruins of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlán; the earliest known printed plan of a European settlement in what is now the United States (a plan of Fort Caroline built by Huguenot settlers in 1565 near present-day Jacksonville, Florida); and one of the earliest maps to show the French exploration of the Mississippi River, attributed to Louis Joliet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
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| null |
1syh0s | How did the Romans brush their teeth | [
{
"answer": "The Natural History by Pliny the Elder is a very good source for this. \nA substance called *dentifricium* which was quite similar to our toothpaste was produced from powdered pumice [Plin. HN 36.42](_URL_1_) (\"Considered medicinally, pumice is of a resolvent and desiccative nature; for which purpose it is submitted to calcination, no less than three times, on a fire of pure charcoal, it being quenched as often in white wine. It is then washed, like cadmia,5 and, after being dried, is put by for keeping, in a place as free from damp as possible. [...] dentifrices, too, are prepared from it\"), or the calcinated bones of several animal species (e. g. the ashes of deers horns, wolf's heads, heads of mice, the pastern-bone of an ox). The latter are mentioned in [Plin. HN 28.49](_URL_0_) which is generally a good read on roman dentistry. \n",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "147728",
"title": "Toothbrush",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The predecessor of the toothbrush is the chew stick. Chew sticks were twigs with frayed ends used to brush the teeth while the other end was used as a toothpick. The earliest chew sticks were discovered in Sumer in southern Mesopotamia in 3500 BC, an Egyptian tomb dating from 3000 BC, and mentioned in Chinese records dating from 1600 BC. The Greeks and Romans used toothpicks to clean their teeth, and toothpick-like twigs have been excavated in Qin Dynasty tombs. Chew sticks remain common in Africa, the rural Southern United States, and in the Islamic world the use of chewing stick Miswak is considered a pious action and has been prescribed to be used before every prayer five times a day. Miswaks have been used by Muslims since 7th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "9812712",
"title": "Tooth brushing",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "As long ago as 3000 B.C., the ancient Egyptians constructed crude toothbrushes from twigs and leaves to clean their teeth. Similarly, other cultures such as the Greeks, Romans, and Indians cleaned their teeth with twigs. Some would fray one end of the twig so that it could penetrate between the teeth more effectively. The Arabs, especially after the rise of Islam, used Miswak, a kind of natural toothbrush.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14878724",
"title": "Oral hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Preventative care.:Tooth brushing.:Manual tooth brush.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 619,
"text": "The modern manual tooth brush is a dental tool which consists of a head of nylon bristles attached to a long handle to help facilitate the manual action of tooth brushing. Furthermore, the handle aids in reaching as far back as teeth erupt in the oral cavity. The tooth brush is arguably a person's best tool for removing dental plaque from teeth, thus capable of preventing all plaque-related diseases if used routinely, correctly and effectively. Oral health professionals recommend the use of a tooth brush with a small head and soft bristles as they are most effective in removing plaque without damaging the gums.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "14878724",
"title": "Oral hygiene",
"section": "Section::::Preventative care.:Single-tufted brushes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
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"text": "The tooth brush is designed to reach the ‘hard to reach places’ within the mouth. This tool is best used behind the lower front teeth, behind the back molars, crooked teeth and between spaces where teeth have been removed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "9812712",
"title": "Tooth brushing",
"section": "Section::::Toothbrushing guidelines.:Proper technique.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
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"text": "The front and backs of teeth should be brushed with the toothbrush at a 45 degree angle towards the gum line, moving the brush in a back and forth rolling motion that makes contact with the gum line and tooth. To brush the backs of the front teeth the brush should be held vertically to the tooth and moved in an up and down motion. The chewing surfaces of the teeth are brushed with a forward and back motion, with the toothbrush pointing straight at the tooth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "9812712",
"title": "Tooth brushing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Tooth brushing is the act of scrubbing teeth with a toothbrush equipped with toothpaste. Interdental cleaning (with floss or an interdental brush) can be useful with tooth brushing, and together these two activities are the primary means of cleaning teeth, one of the main aspects of oral hygiene.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2316321",
"title": "Dentifrice",
"section": "Section::::Types of dentifrices.:Tooth powder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "Tooth powder was historically used among the Romans to clean and whiten teeth, to fix them when loose, to strengthen the gums, and to assuage toothache. They made tooth powder from a variety of substances, such as the bones, hoofs, and horns of certain animals; crabs; oyster and murex shells; and egg-shells. These ingredients were reduced to a fine powder, sometimes after having been previously burnt. Some versions contained honey, ground myrrh, nitre, salt, and hartshorn, which would be added after the initial powdering process. Pliny the Elder reported the use of pounded pumice as a dentifrice. The earliest mention of tooth care among the Romans comes from a letter by Apuleius, complaining that using tooth powder is nothing to be ashamed of, especially compared to the \"utterly repulsive things they do in Spain.\" Apuleius quotes Catullus in saying that he would be using his own urine \"to brush his teeth and his red gums.\"\n",
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8aaly5 | When did rhyming in poetry start? What culture implemented it, and how did it get passed on to the way we view rhyming poetry today? | [
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"answer": "I will presume you're thinking of European poetry of Dante, Cavalcanti and Petrarca in particular as rhyme is found across the world, [including pre-Columbian America](_URL_0_) and [Ancient China](_URL_1_).\n\nUntil a better answer comes around I'll discuss the academic opinions known to the modernist poet Ezra Pound way back in the beginning of the century. \n\nThe problem with writing a narrative is that we will have to connect dots of poetry different times and in different languages and these dots can be connected in different ways.\n\nWell, the Florentine language poets explicitly harkened back to the troubadours of the Provence (Jaufré Rudel, Bernart de Ventandorn, Daniel Arnaut...). Their culture and language came to a downfall with the Cathar Crusade in the 13th century, but, presumably, *their* example has also been followed in Germany (Minnesang) and went, through France (Trouvères), to England, with the Anglo-Norman poets Maistre Wace, Richard the Lionheart and Tumas de Britanje. For some reason, they are rarely even mentionned as *English* poets, so that you get a gaping nothingness between the Middle English of a Geoffrey Chausser and the Beowulf. \n\nSpeaking of which: one of the academic opinions mentionned by Pound seeks the roots of a troubadour's rhyme in such Germanic staff rhymed poetry as Beowulf and the Ludwigslied. Here academics (mostly German ones) count the lines that rhyme and come to the conclusion that a fashion is arising to rhyme together with the middle ages. The French academics instead sought the beginning of troubadours in North Africa (which happened to be French at that time), by drawing parallels between Andalusian Arabic poetry (such as that of ibn Zaydun) and, through christian Spanish folk poetry (such as the cantigas de Santa Maria), to Southern France. Pound finds the French position more convincing than the German one but we still have no explicit credit given by any of the troubadours.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26226",
"title": "Rhyme",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
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"text": "The earliest surviving evidence of rhyming is the Chinese Shi Jing (ca. 10th century BC). Rhyme is also occasionally used in the Bible. Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not usually rhyme, but rhyme was used very occasionally. For instance, Catullus includes partial rhymes in the poem \"Cui dono lepidum novum libellum\". The ancient Greeks knew rhyme, and rhymes in \"The Wasps\" by Aristophanes are noted by a translator.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "26226",
"title": "Rhyme",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
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"text": "Rhyme entered European poetry in the High Middle Ages, in part under the influence of the Arabic language in Al Andalus (modern Spain). Arabic language poets used rhyme extensively from the first development of literary Arabic in the sixth century, as in their long, rhyming qasidas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "26226",
"title": "Rhyme",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
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"text": "Rhyme is central to classical Arabic poetry tracing back to its 6th century pre-Islamic roots. According to some archaic sources, Irish literature introduced the rhyme to Early Medieval Europe, but that is a disputed claim. In the 7th century, the Irish had brought the art of rhyming verses to a high pitch of perfection. The leonine verse is notable for introducing rhyme into High Medieval literature in the 12th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2341440",
"title": "Syriac sacral music",
"section": "Section::::Syrian hymnody.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
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"end_character": 1044,
"text": "From the ninth century the influence of Arabic poetry made itself felt in Syriac hymnody, especially by the introduction of rhyme, this manner of marking the final stroke of a verse had been hitherto unknown, the rare examples held to have been discovered among older authors being merely voluntary or fortuitous assonances. But the Syrians made varied use of rhyme. There are poems in which all the verses have the same rhyme as in the \"Kasida\" of the Arabs. In others, and these are more numerous, the verses of each strophe have a single rhyme that is not the same for all the strophes. In others the verses of a strophe rhyme among themselves, with the exception of the last, which repeats the rhyme of the first strophe like a refrain. In acrostic poems the rhyme is sometimes supplied by the corresponding letter of the alphabet; thus the first strophe rhymes with a, the second with b, etc. There may also be a different rhyme for the first two measures and for the last. These are the most frequent combinations, but there are others. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "22926",
"title": "Poetry",
"section": "Section::::Elements.:Rhyme, alliteration, assonance.:Rhyming schemes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In many languages, including modern European languages and Arabic, poets use rhyme in set patterns as a structural element for specific poetic forms, such as ballads, sonnets and rhyming couplets. However, the use of structural rhyme is not universal even within the European tradition. Much modern poetry avoids traditional rhyme schemes. Classical Greek and Latin poetry did not use rhyme. Rhyme entered European poetry in the High Middle Ages, in part under the influence of the Arabic language in Al Andalus (modern Spain). Arabic language poets used rhyme extensively from the first development of literary Arabic in the sixth century, as in their long, rhyming qasidas. Some rhyming schemes have become associated with a specific language, culture or period, while other rhyming schemes have achieved use across languages, cultures or time periods. Some forms of poetry carry a consistent and well-defined rhyming scheme, such as the chant royal or the rubaiyat, while other poetic forms have variable rhyme schemes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "453120",
"title": "Envoi",
"section": "Section::::History and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In the 14th century French poetry was tending to move away from song and towards written text. The two main forms used in this new literary poetry were the ballade, which employed a refrain at first but evolved to include an envoi, and the \"chant royal\", which used an envoi from the beginning.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "7700069",
"title": "Swedish ballad tradition",
"section": "Section::::Tradition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 514,
"text": "The genre started with Carl Michael Bellman in the late 18th century. In the 19th century, poetic songwriting fell into decline in favour of academic student choirs, until it was revived in the 1890s by Sven Scholander. Poets increasingly continued the tradition of having their poetry put to music to give it a wider audience. In the early 1900s, a lot of poetry of the 90s poets Gustaf Fröding and Erik Axel Karlfeldt had been put to music, and the popularity of those poets largely depended on the troubadours.\n",
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| null |
24j50j | Does World War I actually deserve the title of World War? | [
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"answer": "The UK in 1914 was a world power having bases and territory directly and indirectly under its control on every continent. \n\nGermany also had land (though much smaller then the UK) on several continents.\n\nThere where battles that took place outside of the trenches and the middle east. For example the [Siege of Tsingtao](_URL_1_) was in the Pacific while the [Battle of Coronel](_URL_0_) was in South America.\n\nThus we can see Battles taking place in South America, Africa, China, Europe, and the Middle East. By any definition that is world wide combat. \n\nHowever it is also considered a world war because it involved thanks to Empire every continent and almost all the major power of the day. The US, Russia, Germany, France, UK, Italy, and Japan where all involved.",
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"answer": "The majority of the fighting took place in Europe (the Western and Eastern fronts, Italy, the Balkans, Gallipoli), but non-European Ottoman territory saw plenty of combat, too (Egypt/Palestine, Arabia, Mesopotamia, the Caucasus). The naval war stretched around the world, with German commerce raiders active in the Pacific and Indian oceans early in the war, and major battles at Coronel and the Falkland Islands. On land, the German colonies saw varying degrees of conflict: most of Germany's colonies fell very quickly, but Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck led a successful guerilla campaign in German East Africa which lasted until the end of the war.\n\nStill, *most* of the fighting was in Europe. But there's another reason to call WWI a *World* war--belligerents from all over the world participated. Tens of thousands of soldiers from the British Commonwealth, as well as the British and French colonial empires, fought in Europe and elsewhere. Other belligerents included Japan, the United States, and a [long list of others](_URL_0_). \n\nReally, I think the question to ask is whether the First World War actually deserves the title of *First*.",
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"answer": "The term 'world war' only entered English, most likely from the German term 'Weltkrieg', which means world war, a handful of years before the First World War. Contrary to what the term would lead you to think it didn't mean a war fought across the globe. According to the Oxford English Dictionary the definition of world war was a war involving the world's major nations. Under that definition it was obviously a world war as the world's major nations were involved. \n\n\n",
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"answer": "/u/winterking07 touched on this a little bit, but there was significant fighting in Africa. German Southwest Africa (Namibia) was invaded by the British, which was initially repulsed before finally succeeding. In German East Africa Paul Von Lettow Vorbeck beat the British at Tanga and then ran circles around an invading South African Army. \n\nThe Japanese attacked Germany's colonies in the Pacific and occupied them. The other instances have been touched on by the other posters.\n\nHowever, there's another reason that I haven't seen why WWI is a global war. Even if most parts of the world didn't see fighting, the vast majority of the world was mobilized for war production, and sent millions of men to fight in Europe. This was because to have the resources to fight such a massive conflict all the major powers had to lean on their Empires, which gave the entire world at least some stake in the conflict.\n\nThe First World War Episode Two: Global War, has a great overview of this. Also, chapter two or three of Peter Hart's \"The Great War\" has a great overview of the naval warfare in a global context.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "142735",
"title": "World war",
"section": "Section::::Origin of the term.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"text": "The term \"World War I\" was coined by \"Time\" magazine on page 28b of its June 12, 1939 issue. In the same article, on page 32, the term \"World War II\" was first used speculatively to describe the upcoming war. The first use for the actual war came in its issue of September 11, 1939. One week earlier, on September 4, the day after France and the United Kingdom declared war on Germany, the Danish newspaper \"Kristeligt Dagblad\" used the term on its front page, saying \"The Second World War broke out yesterday at 11 a.m.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4747726",
"title": "List of retronyms",
"section": "Section::::Historiographic retronyms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 264,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 565,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"World War I/First World War\" : Originally this was called \"The Great War\" and commonly believed to be \"\"the war to end all wars\"\". However, when a second war enveloped Europe, Asia, and much of the Pacific, it became necessary to distinguish them. This convention has been used for many series of wars, going back as far as the First Peloponnesian War or earlier. Most recently, the 1991 war in the Persian Gulf, formerly called \"Desert Storm\" or just the \"Gulf War\", is now (since the 2003 invasion of Iraq) often referred to as \"The First Gulf War\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4764461",
"title": "World War I",
"section": "Section::::Names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 568,
"text": "Prior to World War II, the events of 1914–1918 were generally known as the Great War or simply the World War. In October 1914, the Canadian magazine \"Maclean's\" wrote, \"Some wars name themselves. This is the Great War.\" Contemporary Europeans also referred to it as \"the war to end war\" or \"the war to end all wars\" due to their perception of its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. After World War II began in 1939, the terms became more standard, with British Empire historians, including Canadians, favouring \"The First World War\" and Americans \"World War I\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "4764461",
"title": "World War I",
"section": "Section::::Names.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
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"text": "The term \"First World War\" was first used in September 1914 by German biologist and philosopher Ernst Haeckel, who claimed that \"there is no doubt that the course and character of the feared 'European War' ... will become the first world war in the full sense of the word,\" citing a wire service report in \"The Indianapolis Star\" on 20 September 1914.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "65307",
"title": "World War III",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Prior to the beginning of the Second World War, the First World War (1914–1918) was believed to have been \"the war to end all wars,\" as it was popularly believed that never again could there possibly be a global conflict of such magnitude. During the interwar period, WWI was typically referred to simply as \"The Great War.\" The outbreak of World War II in 1939 disproved the hope that mankind might have already \"outgrown\" the need for such widespread global wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59746086",
"title": "Global issue",
"section": "Section::::Global issues.:Conflict-related.:Potential for World War III.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Prior to the beginning of the Second World War, the First World War (1914–1918) was believed to have been \"the war to end all wars,\" as it was popularly believed that never again could there possibly be a global conflict of such magnitude. During the inter-war period between the two world wars, WWI was typically referred to simply as \"The Great War.\" The outbreak of World War II in 1939 disproved the hope that mankind might have already \"outgrown\" the need for such widespread global wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "360435",
"title": "Events preceding World War II in Europe",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath of World War I.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"end_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "World War II is generally viewed as having its roots in the aftermath of World War I, in which the German Empire under Wilhelm II, with its Central Powers, was defeated, chiefly by the United Kingdom, France, and the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
27yirw | How did the lion, an African animal, come to be so prominent in Chinese art and sculpture? | [
{
"answer": "Not a direct answer to your question, but just to point out that historically, the range of the lion extended across much of the Near East and well into South Asia. See [this map](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": " > an African animal\n\n I can't comment on why Chinese culture focuses on lions, but it's worth pointing out that lions once ranged throughout much of Asia as well. Although by now the only Asian lions left are in the Gir forest in India. \n\nConsidering their [historic range]( _URL_0_), it's not surprising that they could have a significant influence on a lot of Asian cultures",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "36896",
"title": "Lion",
"section": "Section::::Cultural significance.:East Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 152,
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"end_paragraph_id": 152,
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"text": "The lion is a common motif in Chinese art; it was first used in art during the late Spring and Autumn period (fifth or sixth century BC) and became more popular during the Han Dynasty (206 BC – AD 220) when imperial guardian lions started to be placed in front of imperial palaces for protection. Because lions have never been native to China, early depictions were somewhat unrealistic; after the introduction of Buddhist art to China in the Tang Dynasty after the sixth century AD, lions were usually depicted wingless with shorter, thicker bodies and curly manes. The lion dance is a traditional dance in Chinese culture in which performers in lion costumes mimic a lion's movements, often with musical accompaniment from cymbals, drums and gongs. They are performed at Chinese New Year, the August Moon Festival and other celebratory occasions for good luck.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "7595969",
"title": "Cultural depictions of lions",
"section": "Section::::In religion and mythology.:Hindu-Buddhist traditions.:East Asian traditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
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"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 577,
"text": "The common motif of the \"majestic and powerful\" lion was introduced to China by Buddhist missionaries from India, somewhere in the first century AD. Lions themselves, however, are not native to China, yet appear in the art of China and the Chinese people believe that lions protect humans from evil spirits, hence the Chinese New Year lion dance to scare away demons and ghosts. Chinese guardian lions are frequently used in sculpture in traditional Chinese architecture. For instance, in the Forbidden City in Beijing, two lion statues are seen in almost every door entrance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7595969",
"title": "Cultural depictions of lions",
"section": "Section::::In religion and mythology.:Hindu-Buddhist traditions.:Southeast Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 520,
"text": "Lions were never native animals of Southeast Asia in recorded history. As the result, the depiction of lion in ancient Southeast Asian art, especially in ancient Java and Cambodia, is far from naturalistic style as depicted in Greek or Persian art counterparts, since the artist who carved the lion sculpture never saw the lion before, and all were based on perception and imagination. The cultural depictions and the reverence of lion as the noble and powerful beast in Southeast Asia was influenced by Indian culture.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1635424",
"title": "Asiatic lion",
"section": "Section::::In culture.:South and East Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 96,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 96,
"end_character": 1162,
"text": "BULLET::::- The lion is the basis of the lion dances that form part of the traditional Chinese New Year celebrations, and of similar customs in other Asian countries. Chinese guardian lions and their Eastern, Southeastern and Southern Asian counterparts depicted in Chinese art were modeled on the basis of lions found in Indian temples. Buddhist monks, or possibly traders, possibly brought descriptions of sculpted lions guarding the entry to temples to China. Chinese sculptors then used the description to model \"Fo-Lions\" (\"Fo\" () is a character for the Buddha) temple statues after native dogs (possibly the Tibetan Mastiff) by adding a shaggy mane. Depictions of these \"Fo-lions\" have been found in Chinese religious art as early as 208 BC. The Tibetan Snow Lion (Tibetan: གངས་སེང་གེ་; Wylie: \"gangs seng ge\") is a mythical animal of Tibet. It symbolizes fearlessness, unconditional cheerfulness, the eastern quadrant and the element of Earth. It is said to range over mountains, and is commonly pictured as being white with a turquoise mane. Two Snow Lions appear on the flag of Tibet. Many East Asian languages borrowed from the Sanskrit word for lion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12713",
"title": "Giant panda",
"section": "Section::::Uses and human interaction.:Early references.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 368,
"text": "The comparative obscurity of the giant panda throughout most of China's history is illustrated by the fact that, despite there being a number of depictions of bears in Chinese art starting from its most ancient times, and the bamboo being one of the favorite subjects for Chinese painters, there are no known pre-20th-century artistic representations of giant pandas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14352251",
"title": "Komainu",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "\"Komainu\" strongly resemble Chinese guardian lions and in fact originate from Tang dynasty China. The Chinese guardian lions are believed to have been influenced by lion pelts and lion depictions introduced through trade from either the Middle East or India, countries where the lion existed and was a symbol of strength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55891731",
"title": "Golden Cock and Hen",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 904,
"text": "In the traditional Chinese culture, the rooster had been given a significant place. Ancient Chinese people believed that the rooster was a kind of moral animal with excellent qualities. This aspect also affected the neighboring Asian countries. In the Joseon dynasty of the Korean peninsula, auspicious creatures such as the tiger, dragon, crane and deer were represented in a series of artworks demonstrating the importance and universality of these creatures in the Korean Art and culture. The painting, \"Golden Cock and Hen\" was created in the early 19th century AD, during Korean peninsula’s Joseon dynasty. The painting itself measures 114.3 cm in height and 45.7 cm in width. With the external decorative elements, the complete piece measures 200.7 cm in height and 62.9 cm in width. Due to the lack of documentation, the artist and the specific creation date of the painting cannot be predicated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5axzal | how do spiders make noises? | [
{
"answer": "A couple ways.\n\nFirst, they have bristles all around their body that can be rubbed to make purring or buzzing noises.\n\nSecond, some types can force air out of their breathing holes (spiders don't breath through their mouths!) to create hissing or screaming noises (think, like a kettle with air being forced out of it -- or a balloon with air being squeezed out).\n\nEdit: [Here's my favourite spider gif. Conveniently, it's also my favourite ant gif.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Crickets use the rough edge if their wings not their legs to create the noise btw. The more you know :D",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "286817",
"title": "Huntsman spider",
"section": "Section::::Sound production in mating rituals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 845,
"text": "Males of \"Heteropoda venatoria\", one of the huntsman spiders that seems to easily find its way around the world, have recently been found to deliberately make a substrate-borne sound when they detect a chemical (pheromone) left by a nearby female of their species. The males anchor themselves firmly to the surface onto which they have crawled and then use their legs to transmit vibrations from their bodies to the surface. Most of the sound emitted is produced by strong vibrations of the abdomen. The characteristic frequency of vibration and the pattern of bursts of sound identify them to females of their species, who will approach if they are interested in mating. This sound can often be heard as a rhythmic ticking, somewhat like a quartz clock, which fades in and out and can be heard by human ears in a relatively quiet environment. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174868",
"title": "Stridulation",
"section": "Section::::Arthropod stridulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 584,
"text": "It is also widespread among decapod crustaceans, e.g., rock lobsters. Most spiders are silent, but some tarantula species are known to stridulate. When disturbed, \"Theraphosa blondi\", the Goliath tarantula, can produce a rather loud hissing noise by rubbing together the bristles on its legs. This is said to be audible to a distance of up to 15 feet (4.5 m). One of the wolf spiders, \"Schizocosa stridulans\", produces low-frequency sounds by flexing its abdomen (tremulation, rather than stridulation) or high-frequency stridulation by using the cymbia on the ends of its pedipalps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5819718",
"title": "Portia labiata",
"section": "Section::::Senses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Spiders, like other arthropods, have sensors, often modified setae (bristles), for smell, taste, touch and vibration protruding through their cuticle (\"skin\"). Unlike insects, spiders and other chelicerates do not have antennae. A \"Portia\" can sense vibrations from surfaces, and use these for mating and for hunting other spiders in total darkness. It can use air- and surface \"smells\" to detect prey which it often meets, to identify members of the same species, to recognise familiar members, and to determine the sex of other member of the same species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33352793",
"title": "Portia schultzi",
"section": "Section::::Senses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "Spiders, like other arthropods, have sensors, often modified setae (bristles), for smell, taste, touch and vibration protruding through their cuticle (\"skin\"). Unlike insects, spiders and other chelicerates do not have antennae. A \"Portia\" can sense vibrations from surfaces, and use these for mating and for hunting other spiders in total darkness. It can use air- and surface \"smells\" to detect prey which it often meets, to identify members of the same species, to recognise familiar members, and to determine the sex of other member of the same species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32006786",
"title": "Portia fimbriata",
"section": "Section::::Senses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "Spiders, like other arthropods, have sensors, often modified setae (bristles), for smell, taste, touch and vibration, protruding through their cuticle (\"skin\"). A \"Portia\" can sense vibrations from surfaces, and use these for mating and for hunting other spiders in total darkness. It can use air- and surface \"smells\" to detect prey which it often meets, to identify members of the same species, to recognise familiar members, and to determine the sex of other member of the same species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3242429",
"title": "Geoffroy's spider monkey",
"section": "Section::::Behavior.:Communication and intelligence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 808,
"text": "Sounds produced by Geoffroy's spider monkey include barks, whinnies, squeals, squeaks and screams. Barks are typically alarm calls. Whinnies and screams can be used as distress calls, and are also made at dawn and at dusk. Each monkey makes a unique sound, which may allow monkeys to recognize each other through vocal communication alone. Several researchers have investigated the use of whinnies, which consist of between two and 12 quick increases and decreases in pitch, in more detail. This research has indicated one additional purpose of whinnies is to call other group members to a food source. Other purposes of whinnies suggested by this research have included maintaining vocal contact with other group members while traveling and distinguishing between group members and members of other groups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31734009",
"title": "Crossopriza lyoni",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 561,
"text": "They also possess two types of stridulatory organs. The first type is located at the posterior tips of their cephalothorax (the prosoma) in the form of two triangular protrusions. The spiders rub these structures with a matching pair of sclerotized plates at the anterior portion of the abdomen, producing sound. These structures are more prominent in females. They also possess stridulatory files (in the form of a series of small ridges) on their chelicerae which are rubbed against the pedipalps to produce sound. The second type is more prominent in males.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5m9kum | Old paintings and portraits | [
{
"answer": "Could you specify what you mean by \"weird\"?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18622193",
"title": "Painting",
"section": "Section::::Types of painting.:Portrait painting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "Portrait paintings are representations of a person, in which the face and its expression is predominant. The intent is to display the likeness, personality, and even the mood of the person. The art of the portrait flourished in Ancient Greek and especially Roman sculpture, where sitters demanded individualized and realistic portraits, even unflattering ones. One of the best-known portraits in the Western world is Leonardo da Vinci's painting titled \"Mona Lisa\", which is thought to be a portrait of Lisa Gherardini, the wife of Francesco del Giocondo.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57768949",
"title": "Self-Portrait (El Greco)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "Self-Portrait or Portrait of an Old Man is an oil on canvas painting by El Greco, dating to between 1595 and 1600 and usually identified as a self-portrait. It shows the influence of Titian and Tintoretto, picked up by El Greco in Venice. It is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3085396",
"title": "Portrait painting",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ancient world.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 1124,
"text": "Much the largest group of painted portraits are the funeral paintings that survived in the dry climate of Egypt's Fayum district (see illustration, below), dating from the 2nd to 4th century AD. These are almost the only paintings of the Roman period that have survived, aside from frescos, though it is known from the writings of Pliny the Elder that portrait painting was well established in Greek times, and practiced by both men and women artists. In his times, Pliny complained of the declining state of Roman portrait art, \"The painting of portraits which used to transmit through the ages the accurate likenesses of people, has entirely gone out…Indolence has destroyed the arts.\" These full-face portraits from Roman Egypt are fortunate exceptions. They present a somewhat realistic sense of proportion and individual detail (though the eyes are generally oversized and the artistic skill varies considerably from artist to artist). The Fayum portraits were painted on wood or ivory in wax and resin colors (encaustic) or with tempera, and inserted into the mummy wrapping, to remain with the body through eternity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "537402",
"title": "National Portrait Gallery, London",
"section": "Section::::Collection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 925,
"text": "Not all of the portraits are exceptional artistically, although there are self-portraits by William Hogarth, Sir Joshua Reynolds and other British artists of note. Some, such as the group portrait of the participants in the Somerset House Conference of 1604, are important historical documents in their own right. Often, the curiosity value is greater than the artistic worth of a work, as in the case of the anamorphic portrait of Edward VI by William Scrots, Patrick Branwell Brontë's painting of his sisters Charlotte, Emily and Anne, or a sculpture of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert in medieval costume. Portraits of living figures were allowed from 1969. In addition to its permanent galleries of historical portraits, the National Portrait Gallery exhibits a rapidly changing selection of contemporary work, stages exhibitions of portrait art by individual artists and hosts the annual BP Portrait Prize competition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "210093",
"title": "Portrait",
"section": "Section::::History.:Historical portraiture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 667,
"text": "The art of the portrait flourished in Ancient Greek and especially Roman sculpture, where sitters demanded individualized and realistic portraits, even unflattering ones. During the 4th century, the portrait began to retreat in favor of an idealized symbol of what that person looked like. (Compare the portraits of Roman Emperors Constantine I and Theodosius I at their entries.) In the Europe of the Early Middle Ages representations of individuals are mostly generalized. True portraits of the outward appearance of individuals re-emerged in the late Middle Ages, in tomb monuments, donor portraits, miniatures in illuminated manuscripts and then panel paintings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23661242",
"title": "Andrea del Sarto",
"section": "Section::::Later works in Florence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "A number of his paintings were considered to be self-portraits. A \"Portrait of a Young Man \"in the National Gallery, London was formerly believed to be a self-portrait, as was the Portrait of Becuccio Bicchieraio in National Gallery of Scotland, but both are now known not to be. There is a self-portrait at Alnwick Castle, a young man about twenty years, with his elbow on a table. Another youthful portrait is in the Uffizi Gallery, and the Pitti Palace contains more than one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3085396",
"title": "Portrait painting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Historically, portrait paintings have primarily memorialized the rich and powerful. Over time, however, it became more common for middle-class patrons to commission portraits of their families and colleagues. Today, portrait paintings are still commissioned by governments, corporations, groups, clubs, and individuals. In addition to painting, portraits can also be made in other media such as prints (including etching and lithography), photography, video and digital media.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1bf9p8 | how do billboards work? | [
{
"answer": " > Who owns them?\n\nMost billboards will have a small sign on them that states who owns it. Most in my area are owned by VIACOM. That might be true everyware or not, I assume it depends on area. \n\n > Who regulates them and determines how many billboards can appear in a certain area?\n\nSome city's would have rules where they can or cannot be placed, some don't. It's something that is goverened at the local level.\n\n > Do the landowners where they appear get paid for allowing them to be built on their property?\n\nYes, the company would likely lease a small strip of the land.\n\n > How much do they cost?\n\nAs with all things, this is determined by supply and demand. So billboards that are in high traffic areas would cost much more and ones in the middle of nowhere would cost less. There is no hard price guide. But for the most part they are priced with a large payment to cover the construction of the new sign (you would likely need to provide the design) and then have a monthly rent component depending on how long you wanted it to stay up.\n\n > How successful are they and have they been negatively affected since the Internet (a la the newspaper industry's ads)?\n\nNewspaper adds are down because fewer people are looking at newspapers. As the internet has not affected peoples need to get around (much) I do not imagine there has been much slump in billboard adds. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "246415",
"title": "Billboard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "A billboard (also called a hoarding in the UK and many other parts of the world) is a large outdoor advertising structure (a billing board), typically found in high-traffic areas such as alongside busy roads. Billboards present large advertisements to passing pedestrians and drivers. Typically showing witty slogans and distinctive visuals, billboards are highly visible in the top designated market areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "246415",
"title": "Billboard",
"section": "Section::::Multi-purpose billboards.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "Billboards may be multi-purpose. An advertising sign can integrate its main purpose with telecommunications antenna or public lighting support. Usually the structure has a steel pole with a coupling flange on the above-fitted advertising billboard structure that can contain telecommunications antennas. The lighting, wiring, and any antennas are placed inside the structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1444999",
"title": "JCDecaux",
"section": "Section::::Activities.:Billboard advertising.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 250,
"text": "Billboard advertising includes advertising billboards of more than 8m². These formats can be adapted for many different purposes, such as for event artworks (for example: building wraps), which is operated by JCDecaux under the brand \"Artvertising\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8219871",
"title": "Human billboard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "A human billboard is someone who applies an advertisement on his or her person. Most commonly, this means holding or wearing a sign of some sort, but also may include wearing advertising as clothing or in extreme cases, having advertising tattooed on the body. Sign holders are known as human directionals in the advertising industry, or colloquially as sign walkers, sign wavers, sign twirlers or (in British territories) sandwich men. Frequently, they will spin or dance or wear costumes with the promotional sign in order to attract attention.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1307994",
"title": "Out-of-home advertising",
"section": "Section::::Printed out-of-home.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "Billboard – Billboards (or Bulletins) are usually located in highly visible, heavy traffic areas such as expressways, primary arterials, and major intersections. In the U.S. bulletins are usually illuminated. The ad artwork, commonly digitally printed on large vinyl coated fabric membranes, is often \"rotated\" by the outdoor plant operator amongst several locations in a metropolitan area to achieve the desired reach of the population as defined in the sales contract. With extended periods of high visibility, billboard advertisements provide advertisers with significant impact on commuters. This is the largest standard out of home advertising format, usually measuring at 14ftx48ft in overall size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1990694",
"title": "Mobile billboard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "A mobile billboard is a device used for advertising on the sides of a truck or trailer that is typically mobile. Mobile billboards are a form of out-of-home advertising (OOH); radio, static billboards, and mall/airport advertising fall into this same category. Using a mobile billboard for advertising is an advertising niche called mobile outdoor advertising.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "246415",
"title": "Billboard",
"section": "Section::::Usages.:Non-commercial use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 547,
"text": "Not all billboards are used for advertising products and services—non-profit groups and government agencies use them to communicate with the public. In 1999 an anonymous person created the God Speaks billboard campaign in Florida \"to get people thinking about God\", with witty statements signed by God. \"Don't make me come down there\", \"We need to talk\" and \"Tell the children that I love them\" were parts of the campaign, which was picked up by the Outdoor Advertising Association of America and continues today on billboards across the country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1jmgjs | Are there other theoretical dimensions that are not spatial or temporal? | [
{
"answer": "In relativity, the difference between a spacial and temporal dimension is how we measure distances. If two events are separated only by time (say you now and you still sitting on your chair in 5 minutes), the distance between these two events is negative (or positive, in the other convention). In the case where the distance is spatial (say you and the statue of liberty, measured now), then this distance is positive (or negative, in the other convention).\n\nThat being said, if you introduce another dimension and require the metric to be real, then this extra dimension can only give a positive or a negative contribution to the distance, thus making it either spatial or temporal.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Supersymmetry adds fermionic degrees of freedom in addition to the spacetime-coordinates. At least [some authors](_URL_0_) (pdf, page 15) call this dimensions.\n\n > So we may say that SUSY invites us to\n > contemplate ‘fermionic dimensions’, and enlarge space-time to ‘superspace’.\n ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10188326",
"title": "B-theory of time",
"section": "Section::::B-theory in theoretical physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 267,
"text": "It is therefore common (though not universal), for B-theorists to be four-dimensionalists, that is, to believe that objects are extended in time as well as in space and therefore have temporal as well as spatial parts. This is sometimes called a time-slice ontology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7190885",
"title": "Four-dimensionalism",
"section": "Section::::Contrast with three-dimensionalism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 823,
"text": "Unlike the four dimensionalist, the three dimensionalist considers time to be a unique dimension that is not analogous to the three spatial dimensions: length, width and height. Whereas the four dimensionalist proposes that objects are extended across time, the three dimensionalist adheres to the belief that all objects are wholly present at any moment at which they exist. While the three dimensionalist agrees that the parts of an object can be differentiated based on their spatial dimensions, they do not believe an object can be differentiated into temporal parts across time. For example, in the three dimensionalist account, \"Descartes in 1635\" is the same object as \"Descartes in 1620\", and both are identical to Descartes, himself. However, the four dimensionalist considers these to be distinct temporal parts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7190885",
"title": "Four-dimensionalism",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 421,
"text": "In philosophy, four-dimensionalism (also known as the \"doctrine of temporal parts\") is an ontological position that an object's persistence through time is like its extension through space. Thus, an object that exists in time has temporal parts in the various subregions of the total region of time it occupies, just like an object that exists in a region of space has at least one part in every subregion of that space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2792",
"title": "Anthropic principle",
"section": "Section::::Applications of the principle.:Dimensions of spacetime.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "There are two kinds of dimensions, spatial (bidirectional) and temporal (unidirectional). Let the number of spatial dimensions be \"N\" and the number of temporal dimensions be \"T\". That \"N\" = 3 and \"T\" = 1, setting aside the compactified dimensions invoked by string theory and undetectable to date, can be explained by appealing to the physical consequences of letting \"N\" differ from 3 and \"T\" differ from 1. The argument is often of an anthropic character and possibly the first of its kind, albeit before the complete concept came into vogue.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8398",
"title": "Dimension",
"section": "Section::::In physics.:Time.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "A temporal dimension is a dimension of time. Time is often referred to as the \"fourth dimension\" for this reason, but that is not to imply that it is a spatial dimension. A temporal dimension is one way to measure physical change. It is perceived differently from the three spatial dimensions in that there is only one of it, and that we cannot move freely in time but subjectively move in one direction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19595676",
"title": "Superstring theory",
"section": "Section::::Extra dimensions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "Our physical space is observed to have three large spatial dimensions and, along with time, is a boundless 4-dimensional continuum known as spacetime. However, nothing prevents a theory from including more than 4 dimensions. In the case of string theory, consistency requires spacetime to have 10 dimensions (3D regular space + 1 time + 6D hyperspace). The fact that we see only 3 dimensions of space can be explained by one of two mechanisms: either the extra dimensions are compactified on a very small scale, or else our world may live on a 3-dimensional submanifold corresponding to a brane, on which all known particles besides gravity would be restricted.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5308894",
"title": "Space (mathematics)",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomy of spaces.:Relations between species of spaces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "A three-dimensional Euclidean space is a special case of a Euclidean space. In Bourbaki's terms, the species of three-dimensional Euclidean space is \"richer\" than the species of Euclidean space. Likewise, the species of compact topological space is richer than the species of topological space.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
6fblxy | how can it been cheaper to buy something new than to repair it? | [
{
"answer": "You have to pay for the labor too. It's not just buying parts, you have to pay for people to spend their time fixing it, and they're trying to make a profit too",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Manufacturing is a streamlined process. Especially now with automation and years of engineering, it has become incredibly efficient to source materials, form them, and ship them out. Also, since you're making so many, the cost per unit goes down drastically.\n\nWhen you repair, you don't get any of those efficiencies. Unless it's a very routine fix, often someone has open up the contraption and try to find what's wrong. Then they have to order or make any piece that needs to be fixed and install it. It's a decent number of hours for only one machine, and requires someone with an intimate knowledge of how it works, which is expensive. A massive manufacturing plant with robots is just so much more efficient.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Making something on an assembly line with 1000's of others is incredibly efficient and the labor costs per item are minor relative to the cost of the good--especially if made in a 3rd world country.\n\nTo fix the item means somebody -- usually a highly trained technician -- had to spend time to diagnose that single item, figure out what needs to be fixed and fix it, along with any part(s) needed, for that single item.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Two answers you were given so far reference something called [economies of scale](_URL_0_) which means that making a whole lot of something means each one by itself can be made cheaper than by not making a lot of something.\n\nAnd that's not a wrong answer to your question. But it's also not the only answer to your question. Sometimes the creation process for something is just easier than the repair process. Let me demonstrate with a set of instructions that I want you to imagine yourself doing.\n\n1. Go make a cake. Two layers, with cream and icing, decorated with \"Congratulations\" and little icing flowers on top.\n\n2. Punch the cake. Put a nice big hole in it.\n\nNow you have two options. You can spend time to clean up the splatter, take measurements of the dimensions and volume of the hole, make some extra bit of cake and carve it into the exaact shape of the hole, place in in, fill cream again in the right places, add the bits of frosting needed to complete the words and flowers as they looked before and smooth everything over so you can't see any seems. \n\nOr you can just make a whole new cake.\n\nWhich one do you think will take less time?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26861891",
"title": "Reproduction auto part",
"section": "Section::::Advantages and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "BULLET::::- The first, obvious advantage is having the item available again, which aides in the restoration of a vehicle to the correct, factory specifications. It also cancels the need to find a good used part otherwise not available new, or the sourcing out of NOS parts (New Old Stock) which can be a difficult, time consuming task and often an expensive one due to their rarity. Many auto manufacturers actually discard or even destroy new parts that have been stocked unused for long periods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1470065",
"title": "Repairable component",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Repairable components tend to be more expensive than non-repairable components (consumables). This is because for items that are inexpensive to procure, it is often more cost-effective not to maintain (repair) them. Repair costs can be expensive, including costs for the labor for the removal the broken or worn out part (described as unserviceable), cost of replacement with a working (serviceable) from inventory, and also the cost of the actual repair, including possible shipping costs to a repair vendor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "997664",
"title": "Used good",
"section": "Section::::Types of transfers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "When an item is no longer of use to a person they may sell or \"pawn\" it, especially when they are in need of money. Items can also be sold (or taken away free of cost) as scrap (e.g. a broken-down old car will be towed away for free for its scrap metal value). Owners may sell the good themselves or to a dealer who then sells it on for a profit. They may also choose to give it away to another person this is often referred to as freecycling. However, because the process takes some effort on part of the owner they may simply keep possession of it or dump it at a landfill instead of going to the trouble of selling it. It has been common to buy secondhand or used good on markets or bazaars for long time. When the web became popular, it became common with websites such as eBay and Yahoo! Classifieds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38008659",
"title": "Eight dimensions of quality",
"section": "Section::::Durability.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "In other cases, consumers must weigh the expected cost, in both dollars and personal inconvenience, of future repairs against the investment and operating expenses of a newer, more reliable model. Durability, then, may be defined as the amount of use one gets from a product before it breaks down and replacement is preferable to continued repair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6433770",
"title": "Preservation and restoration of automobiles",
"section": "Section::::Mechanical.:Reassembly.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 782,
"text": "Restoration of a car is a daunting task, not one to be undertaken lightly, or by the inexperienced. A full restoration can take many years and can cost tens of thousands of dollars; often, and generally, well in excess of what the finished value of the car will be. Many jobs will have to be farmed out to specialty shops; those with the special knowledge and equipment to do the job. Often a restoration once started is left unfinished and the car and parts can be purchased for a fraction of their worth. However, if a person buys an unfinished project, it is imperative to be sure that all of the parts are there. Finding parts for an orphan or rare car can sometimes be impossible. This necessitates the fabrication of parts from scratch, generally at great effort and expense.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11437361",
"title": "Sale of Goods Act 1979",
"section": "Section::::Part V, rights of unpaid seller.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 295,
"text": "BULLET::::- Consumer requires repair or replacement: The seller must repair or replace the goods within a reasonable amount of time, incurring all costs necessary to perform this task. This cannot be required if it is impossible or disproportionate in consideration of other available remedies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32859210",
"title": "Mobility car",
"section": "Section::::Benefits of Mobility Cars.:Wear and Tear.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 225,
"text": "If the car is returned in a damaged state that affects re-sale at the end of the contract, a fee will be imposed to repair the damage. If the car is returned in good condition, the customer may be rewarded with a £250 bonus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1ip1zh | Does air quality get better after a storm passed through an area? | [
{
"answer": "This might be of interest:\n\n_URL_0_ ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes for a time air quality improves after a storm passes through. The mechanism is called \"precipitation scavenging\" in which droplets of rain will absorb particulate matter as they fall towards the ground. This is the primary mechanism - removal of PM in the air.\n\nThere is no Wikipedia page I could find specifically on this subject, but [here](_URL_0_) is a paper from Lawrence Livermore that has a good introduction on the topic.\n\nIncidentally, a scrubber used to remove pollutants from an industrial process (or even mobile ones used for ships at berth) works on basically the same principle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "nitrogen oxides are byproducts of combustion of cars and factories. they are what make the air appear brown. when it rains the water picks these particles up through a process called wet deposition. that's why visibility is good after it rains. \n\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2236730",
"title": "Kitchen cabinet",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Considering that North Americans spend a large proportion of their lives indoors, it’s clear why this is a key issue in designing healthy spaces. Additionally, air quality is not a stand-alone problem; rather, every other component of the home can affect air quality. Air quality can be compromised by off-gassing from cabinetry, countertops, flooring, wall coverings or fabrics; by cooking by-products released into the air, and by mold caused by excess moisture or poor ventilation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67042",
"title": "Weatherization",
"section": "Section::::Air Quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 281,
"text": "Weatherization can have a negative impact on indoor air quality, especially among occupants with respiratory illnesses. This occurs because of a decrease in air exchange in the home, and resulting increase in moisture. This leads to higher concentrations of pollutants in the air.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30206738",
"title": "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease",
"section": "Section::::Prevention.:Air pollution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 210,
"text": "Both indoor and outdoor air quality can be improved, which may prevent COPD or slow the worsening of existing disease. This may be achieved by public policy efforts, cultural changes, and personal involvement.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26437353",
"title": "MyEnvironment",
"section": "Section::::Environmental Information in MyEnvironment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 400,
"text": "There are geographic patterns to air quality problems and MyEnvironment provides a map so that citizens can see what their relative exposure may be especially as they live near major traffic areas, near regulated facilities, or in proximity to confined animal feeding operations. The Clean Air Act is the law that defines EPA's responsibilities for protecting and improving the national air quality.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "205576",
"title": "Fraser Valley",
"section": "Section::::Air quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "In certain weather conditions during the summer, prevailing westerly winds blow air pollution from vehicles and from ships in Vancouver harbour east up the triangular delta, trapping it between the Coast Mountains on the north and the Cascades on the southeast. Air quality suffers. This usually occurs during a temperature inversion, and lasts for a few days. Ground-level ozone tends to be from local sources in the valley and varies with prevailing winds. With prevailing winds from the northeast during the late fall and winter, air quality is seldom a problem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485196",
"title": "Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge",
"section": "Section::::Physical environment.:Air quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "Good air quality is vital for the refuge to maintain itself. A few problems dealing with air pollution are carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide. The primary producers of these pollutants are vehicle emissions, power plants, and industrial activities. The Indian River Lagoon area is said to have good air quality. Sometimes occasional temperate increases can temporarily degrade the air quality below the accepted levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "67042",
"title": "Weatherization",
"section": "Section::::Air Quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Weatherization generally does not cause indoor air problems by adding new pollutants to the air. (There are a few exceptions, such as caulking, that can sometimes emit pollutants.) However, measures such as installing storm windows, weather stripping, caulking, and blown-in wall insulation can reduce the amount of outdoor air infiltrating into a home. Consequently, after weatherization, concentrations of indoor air pollutants from sources inside the home can increase.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
p5oby | Can a deaf person become bilingual? | [
{
"answer": "You're asking a few different questions here.\n\nFirst off, the deaf person in your example is already bilingual in English and a signed language. There are many different signed languages in the world, and they are not based on spoken languages. For example, British Sign Language and American Sign Language are very different, despite the language users' proximity to a shared spoken language - English. In contrast, French Sign Language and American Sign Language are very similar. (As a side-note, there are several signing systems that attempt to combine the syntax of a spoken language with the vocabulary of a signed language. However, these are not naturally acquirable systems, and are really just a subset of the spoken language rather than a true signed language.) So the short answer here is yes, they can become bilingual just like any other person. However, you're specifically wondering about spoken languages, so there's more to my answer.\n\nIt's important to recognize that being able to read lips does not necessarily indicate fluency in the language. A lot of it is very context-dependent. Try this on a friend some time: Let them know you're going to say something silently and ask them what you've side. First, make eye contact, smile, and silently say \"Hello, how are you today?\" Be sure to keep your lip movements as natural as possible. Odds are that they'll understand what youve said fairly easily. Now try \"purple monkey dishwasher\" or some other unexpected combination of words and notice how they are unable to understand what you've said. That's because only 30% of speech sounds in English are visible. Your lips are pretty much in the same position for \"boat,\" \"but,\" \"butt,\" \"bat,\" etc. Your tongue and vocal tract are shaping most of the sound. Hopefully that gives you some idea of how context-dependent lipreading is. This should also show that people who are very good at picking apart contextual clues and have a wide vocabulary of content words (such as nouns and verbs) could get by without a strong knowledge of function words or language structure. Unfortunately, I don't have statistics for speech sounds in Spanish, but I know there are sounds that exist in Spanish that do not exist in English (the trilled r comes to mind.) This is conjecture on my part, but I would imagine that would make lip reading more difficult than it already is.\n\nThe final component is second language acquisition and the age the person lost their hearing. Children acquire language much more readily before a certain age (what exactly that age is is still being fiercely debated, but it is a widely-accepted hypothesis nonetheless.) It's also much easier to learn a second language if you have a first language (more on this in a moment.) So someone who loses their hearing at age 10 is going to have a much easier time acquiring a second language, either spoken or signed, than someone who loses their hearing at 40. However, it's a different story for children born deaf. It used to be, and in many cases still is, that a child's deafness is not discovered until they are several months to several years old. Since 90% of deaf children are born to hearing parents, this also means that the parents have to decide whether they want to teach their child a signed language first (which the parents have to learn and are unlikely to become fluent in,) or whether they want to try to force the child to learn their spoken language (a good analogy is \"like trying to read Sanskrit without ever having heard it spoken.\" That is, it's hard to explain to an infant the connection between the fact that their parents seem to move their mouths when looking at each other, the fact that squiggles on a page are somehow related to concrete concepts, etc.) By the time this is all resolved, the child has missed out on lots of critical language exposure, and in some cases, impacts their ability to acquire a first language normally. This also makes sense - hearing children are surrounded by rich language input all day every day, more than a deaf child will ever have access to. Not only do the majority of people in the deaf child's life not use an accessible language, but even deaf children of deaf parents aren't able to see how their parents talk to each other in the other room, something a hearing child takes for granted.\n\nSo basically, yes, under the circumstances you described and under most circumstances, a deaf person can become bilingual (many deaf people are already bilingual in a signed and spoken language.) However, if they fail to adequately acquire a first language, second language acquisition can be difficult or impossible. As a side note, one of my former sign language teachers was fluent in five signed languages and two spoken languages.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5505463",
"title": "Bimodal bilingualism",
"section": "Section::::Similarities to oral-language bilingualism.:Diverse range of language competency.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1061,
"text": "To be defined as bilingual, an individual need not have perfect fluency or equal skill in both languages. Bimodal bilinguals, like oral-language bilinguals, exhibit a wide range of language competency in their first and second languages. For Deaf people (the majority of bimodal bilinguals in the U.S.), level of competency in ASL and English may be influenced by factors such as degree of hearing loss, whether the individual is prelingually or post-lingually deaf, style of and language used in their education, and whether the individual comes from a hearing or Deaf family. Regardless of English competency in other areas, no Deaf individual is likely to comprehend English in the same way as a hearing person when others are speaking it because only a small percentage of English phonemes are clearly visible through lip reading. Additionally, many Deaf bilinguals who have fluency in written English choose not to speak it because of the general social unacceptability of their voices, or because they are unable to monitor factors like pitch and volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5505463",
"title": "Bimodal bilingualism",
"section": "Section::::Similarities to oral-language bilingualism.:Denial of their own bilingualism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 443,
"text": "Like hearing oral-language bilinguals, Deaf bimodal bilinguals generally \"do not judge themselves to be bilingual\". Whether because they do not believe the sign language to be a legitimate and separate language from the majority oral language, or because they don't consider themselves sufficiently fluent in one of their languages, denial of one's bilingualism is a common and well-known phenomenon among bilinguals, be they hearing or Deaf.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5505463",
"title": "Bimodal bilingualism",
"section": "Section::::Differences from oral-language bilingualism.:Bilingual language mode: Contact signing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "Because almost all members of the American Deaf community are to some extent bilingual in ASL and English, it is rare that a Deaf person will find themselves conversing with a person who is monolingual in ASL. Therefore, unless an American Deaf person is communicating with someone who is monolingual in English (the majority language), he or she can expect to be conversing in a \"bilingual language mode”. The result of this prolonged bilingual contact and mixing between a sign language and an oral language is known as contact sign.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3060346",
"title": "Child of deaf adult",
"section": "Section::::Potential challenges facing hearing codas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 744,
"text": "The challenges facing the hearing children of deaf adults parallel those of many second-generation immigrant children. Just as many first-generation immigrant parents frequently struggle to communicate in the majority (spoken) language, and come to rely on the greater fluency of their bilingual children, so deaf parents may come to rely on hearing children who are effectively fluent bilinguals. This dynamic can lead codas to act as interpreters for their parents, which can be especially problematic when a child coda is asked to interpret messages that are cognitively or emotionally inappropriate for their age. For example, a school-aged child may be called on to explain a diagnosis of a serious medical condition to their deaf parent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1570983",
"title": "Multilingualism",
"section": "Section::::Acquisition.:Receptive bilingualism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 2519,
"text": "Receptive bilinguals are those who have the ability to understand a second language but who cannot speak it or whose abilities to speak it are inhibited by psychological barriers. Receptive bilingualism is frequently encountered among adult immigrants to the U.S. who do not speak English as a native language but who have children who do speak English natively, usually in part because those children's education has been conducted in English; while the immigrant parents can understand both their native language and English, they speak only their native language to their children. If their children are likewise receptively bilingual but productively English-monolingual, throughout the conversation the parents will speak their native language and the children will speak English. If their children are productively bilingual, however, those children may answer in the parents' native language, in English, or in a combination of both languages, varying their choice of language depending on factors such as the communication's content, context, and/or emotional intensity and the presence or absence of third-party speakers of one language or the other. The third alternative represents the phenomenon of \"code-switching\" in which the productively bilingual party to a communication switches languages in the course of that communication. Receptively bilingual persons, especially children, may rapidly achieve oral fluency by spending extended time in situations where they are required to speak the language that they theretofore understood only passively. Until both generations achieve oral fluency, not all definitions of bilingualism accurately characterize the family as a whole, but the linguistic differences between the family's generations often constitute little or no impairment to the family's functionality. Receptive bilingualism in one language as exhibited by a speaker of another language, or even as exhibited by most speakers of that language, is not the same as mutual intelligibility of languages; the latter is a property of a pair of \"languages\", namely a consequence of objectively high lexical and grammatical similarities between the languages themselves (\"e.g.\", Iberian Spanish and Iberian Portuguese), whereas the former is a property of one or more \"persons\" and is determined by subjective or intersubjective factors such as the respective languages' prevalence in the life history (including family upbringing, educational setting, and ambient culture) of the person or persons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3289550",
"title": "Simultaneous bilingualism",
"section": "Section::::Beliefs about simultaneous bilingualism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Despite these findings, many therapists and other professionals maintain that simultaneous bilingualism can be harmful for a child's cognitive development. One side argues that only one language should be spoken until fluently spoken and then incorporate the second language. The other side argues that the child, whether simultaneously bilingual or not, would still have speech issues. Some bilingual families have chosen to stop speaking a language after hearing about the supposed negative developmental effects of child bilingualism from people in authority.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5505463",
"title": "Bimodal bilingualism",
"section": "Section::::Similarities to oral-language bilingualism.:Unequal social status of the languages involved.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "As is the case in many situations of oral-language bilingualism, bimodal bilingualism in the U.S. involves two languages with vastly different social status. ASL has traditionally not even had the status of being considered a legitimate language, and Deaf children have been prevented from learning it through such \"methods\" as having their hands tied together. Hearing parents of Deaf children have historically been advised not to allow their children to learn ASL, as they were informed it would prevent the acquisition of English. Despite the fact that Deaf children's early exposure to ASL has now been shown to enhance their aptitude for acquiring English competency, the unequal social status of ASL and English, and of sign languages and oral languages, remains.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1hptr6 | how did the u.s., a country only a few centuries old, become the world's largest economy so quickly? | [
{
"answer": "You've been somewhat misinformed. \n\n[The US is the worlds third largest producer of oil, behind Saudi Arabia and Russia](_URL_5_), as well as the second largest producer of coal and natural gas.\n\nThe US auto industry has been the largest in the world since the invention of the car, and it's only fairly recently that china has been outproducing the US, though their cars have much worse reputations, and have difficulty reaching foreign markets. \n\n[In fact, The US had been the largest manufacturing country in the world for over a century, until china over took them in 2010](_URL_2_)\n\nAs for natural resources, The US has the most [arable land](_URL_4_), [#1 in timber](_URL_3_), [is #2 in copper](_URL_7_) [# 3 in gold](_URL_1_), as well as a [few other things](_URL_6_)\n\nBut the US has a few huge advantages over other countries. One, it's massive population. The best resource a country can have is people, everything else is secondary. The reason China has been able to catch up to the US economy is by leveraging it's massive population, and if they're careful, it's what will allow their economy to double ours in the next 100 years. \n\nTwo, it's isolation from the rest of the world. While Europe was conquering Africa, robbing China blind, and extracting every cent from India, the US was left on it's own to grow as they wished. While Europe was blowing it's self up, both times, the US saw approximately 0 fighting on it's homeland, leaving all of it's infrastructure and production capabilities intact while European factories and roads were all destroyed. When the wars were over, the first thing Europeans would do is buy American goods. \n\nThree, technology. I won't go too into it, but read up on [Big Science](_URL_0_). Essentially, WWII made it very clear how important technology was, and the US starting funding it large-scale. \n\nFour, The US is really good at exporting it's culture. When was the last time you saw an Indian movie? They make thousands every year. Or a french one? they're very well respected by movie critics. Or heard a German song? or read an Italian book? Or ate at a Spanish chain restaurant? Probably not very often, but anyone in Germany can go see the latest Hollywood batman movie, buy a Lady Gaga cd, and grab some McDonalds on the way home. Not many countries can do that that well. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "ITT, no mention of how slavery, war or the extortion of it's people has thus far helped the economy. One pretty good answer but it is far too pc. I'm not saying that the reason the u.s does so well is all bad, but it certainly isn't all rainbows and butterflies either. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38385744",
"title": "World Bank historical list of ten largest countries by GDP",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 721,
"text": "This historical list of the ten largest countries by GDP according to the World Bank shows how the membership and rankings of the world's ten largest economies has changed. Historically, the United States was consistently year after year the world's largest economy since the early twentieth century. However, the report from 2014 shockingly showed that for the very first time China overtook the United States as the largest economy in the world taking into account purchasing power parity (PPP). Indeed, the margin of power between nations had generally widened and then lessened over time, and over the last fifty years the world has seen the rapid rise and fall in relative terms of the economies of other countries.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1240175",
"title": "American Century",
"section": "Section::::Post-1945 characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 1105,
"text": "The American Century includes the political influence of the United States but also its economic influence. Many states around the world would, over the course of the 20th century, adopt the economic policies of the Washington Consensus, sometimes against the wishes of their populations. The economic force of the US was powerful at the end of the century due to it being by far the largest economy in the world. The US had large resources of minerals, energy resources, metals, and timber, a large and modernized farming industry and large industrial base. The United States dollar is the dominant world reserve currency under the Bretton Woods system. US systems were rooted in capitalist economic theory based on supply and demand, that is, production determined by customers' demands. America was allied with the G7 major economies. US economic policy prescriptions were the \"standard\" reform packages promoted for crisis-wracked developing countries by Washington, DC-based international institutions such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, as well as the US Treasury Department.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41195713",
"title": "International Hat Company",
"section": "Section::::History.:First location and early company history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 967,
"text": "On the macroeconomic level, the company was founded at a time of ascendance for the United States. In 1916, the United States economic output, for the first time in history, was greater than that of the British Empire, establishing the United States as the world's largest economic superpower. From World War I to the beginnings of the Great Depression, it was under these economic environmental conditions that the company originally produced a product line of harvest hats. Such hats of the period were a staple of farmers and field hands across the US. By the 1920s, St. Louis replaced New England as the world's dominant manufacturing center for harvest hats. International Harvest Hat was a major contributor to this regional shift in industrialization. By the early 1920s, the company had become the largest industrial producer of harvest hats in the world. In 1928, the company produced over 36,000 per day and approximately 9.4 million harvest hats per year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "265084",
"title": "History of the United States (1865–1918)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "By the late nineteenth century, the United States had become a leading global industrial power, building on new technologies (such as the telegraph and steel), an expanding railroad network, and abundant natural resources such as coal, timber, oil, and farmland, to usher in the Second Industrial Revolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28083427",
"title": "List of countries by largest historical GDP",
"section": "Section::::Main GDP countries.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "The United States represented 28.69% of the world's economy in 1960 (highest point), and was at its lowest point at 21.42% in 2011. It accounted for 1.8% of the world's economy in 1820, 8.9% in 1870, and 19.1% in 1913.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1610496",
"title": "Economic history of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Late 19th century.:Commerce, industry and agriculture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 247,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 247,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "In the last third of the 19th century the United States entered a phase of rapid economic growth which doubled per capita income over the period. By 1895, the United States leaped ahead of Britain for first place in manufacturing output. For the first time, exports of machinery and consumer goods became important. For example, Standard Oil led the way in exporting kerosene; Russia was its main rival in international trade. Singer Corporation led the way in developing a global marketing strategy for its sewing machines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "532813",
"title": "Technological and industrial history of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1159,
"text": "The technological and industrial history of the United States describes the United States' emergence as one of the most technologically advanced nations in the world. The availability of land and literate labor, the absence of a landed aristocracy, the prestige of entrepreneurship, the diversity of climate and a large easily accessed upscale and literate free market all contributed to America's rapid industrialization. The availability of capital, development by the free market of navigable rivers, and coastal waterways, and the abundance of natural resources facilitated the cheap extraction of energy all contributed to America's rapid industrialization. Fast transport by the very large railroad built in the mid-19th century, and the Interstate Highway System built in the late 20th century, enlarged the markets and reducing shipping and production costs. The legal system facilitated business operations and guaranteed contracts. Cut off from Europe by the embargo and the British blockade in the War of 1812 (1807–15), entrepreneurs opened factories in the Northeast that set the stage for rapid industrialization modeled on British innovations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
8s03db | why does honey form small coils when it's being poured? | [
{
"answer": "Destin from Smarter Every Day has a video on this: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12582266",
"title": "Abbamele",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1504,
"text": "According to the traditional methods of preparation, honeycombs are crushed, and the balls of wax containing 20-30% of honey are collected in generic containers. In the days immediately after all the honey extract has settled, the remaining combs containing honey and pollen are dipped in hot water (~ 50 °C), so that the water dissolves all the honey still present in the combs. At this point, any remaining lumps of wax and pollen are broken up through the use of a suitable mixer or by hand. The remaining wax is then pressed further to squeeze out any remaining liquid and is then stored in appropriate containers. The remaining liquid from the previous step is filtered, for example with a linen cloth, at least twice, and then placed in a suitable high-capacity boiler (sometimes made of copper) where it is boiled and concentrated via decoction. During this concentration process, finely cut lemon or orange rinds are added, and any impurities on the surface of the liquid are removed. The content of the boiler becomes gradually syrupy and must be kept in constant motion to prevent the product from sticking on the bottom and developing a smokey flavour. The liquid also becomes caramelized, becoming dark like molasses but much more complex, with a toasty flavour that has hints of coffee and caramel. When the liquid assumes a consistency similar to that of honey, the heating is interrupted, and the boiler is deposited in a secluded place and allowed to cool before the abbamele is drained.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41101796",
"title": "Fluid thread breakup",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Drops of honey.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 217,
"text": "Honey is sufficiently viscous that the surface perturbations that lead to breakup are almost fully damped from honey threads. This results in the production of long filaments of honey rather than individual droplets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14361",
"title": "Honey",
"section": "Section::::Physical and chemical properties.:Rheology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Most types of honey are Newtonian liquids, but a few types have non-Newtonian viscous properties. Honeys from heather or manuka display thixotropic properties. These types of honey enter a gel-like state when motionless, but then liquify when stirred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14361",
"title": "Honey",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Indicators of quality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "High-quality honey can be distinguished by fragrance, taste, and consistency. Ripe, freshly collected, high-quality honey at should flow from a knife in a straight stream, without breaking into separate drops. After falling down, the honey should form a bead. The honey, when poured, should form small, temporary layers that disappear fairly quickly, indicating high viscosity. If not, it indicates excessive water content (over 20%)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14361",
"title": "Honey",
"section": "Section::::Physical and chemical properties.:Hygroscopy and fermentation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 415,
"text": "Fermentation of honey usually occurs after crystallization, because without the glucose, the liquid portion of the honey primarily consists of a concentrated mixture of fructose, acids, and water, providing the yeast with enough of an increase in the water percentage for growth. Honey that is to be stored at room temperature for long periods of time is often pasteurized, to kill any yeast, by heating it above .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1717272",
"title": "Honey extractor",
"section": "Section::::Types of Extractors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Both rely on the use of centrifugal force to force the honey out of the cells. During the extraction process the honey is forced out of the uncapped wax cells, runs down the walls of the extractor and pools at the bottom. A tap or honey pump allows for the removal of honey from the extractor. Honey must be removed in time and always stay below the rotating frames as otherwise it prevents extractor from spinning with sufficient speed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "483630",
"title": "Horizontal top-bar hive",
"section": "Section::::Kenyan top-bar hive – KTBH.:Harvesting honey.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "The most popular method of harvesting honey from a top-bar hive is by cutting the comb from the top-bar, crushing the comb and straining the honey. This results in honey with a higher pollen content than honey that is extracted by flinging out without crushing the comb. Top-bar hive comb can be extracted by flinging motion e.g. in a hobbyist or commercial rotary extractor, but it can be problematic, because (a) if no foundation was used, the comb will break more easily during rotary movement, (b) top-bar hives combs have irregular or non-standard sizes that do not fit into commercially available extractors, (c) if the comb is not uniformly flat, it may be difficult to uncap the cells, which is required for rotary extraction and (d) not all rotary extractors have cages or mesh to prevent loose pieces of comb from falling into the drum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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}
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| null |
295tf6 | Is there anything saltier than table salt? | [
{
"answer": "Well, how strongly you taste something is mostly determined by how \"well-fitting\" molecules of the substance are to your tastebud receptors. For sodium, there are specific receptors that have evolved to strongly fit Na+, termed ENaC. Though there are other receptors that are taste ions from salt more broadly (K+, NH4+, etc), I think the implication is that since there are specific ones for Na+, we will taste the Na+ part of NaCl more strongly than any other salt.\n\nCheck the paper [here](_URL_0_) for more details.",
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"answer": "Since table salt is NaCl (with a little Iodine usually) and a \"real\" salt is pretty much just a 1:1 ionic bond to a halogen, there are a number of other things that would be just about as \"salty\" as salt. However, the human tongue's supposed salt receptor really only reacts with two alkali metals: Sodium and Lithium.\n\nBut that right there is the key. The tongue recognizes \"saltiness\" by absorbing the alkali metals (namely Sodium) because it needs them for all the Sodium Potassium pumps/channels. Thus it doesn't need to be a true salt (halogen + alkali) to register in the body as salty.\n\nSo since the only metals that really work when binding to the tongue are Li and Na, and Na is more reactive, we would want to find a simple chemical that releases as much aqueous Na per unit measurement when dissolved at room temperature. Pulling a chemical out of my ass I'll guess Na2_S because it has two Sodium ions when dissolved. Other than that free Na +1 poured right on the tongue might work, although neither method should be done because, well, it's dangerous to your health. Table salt is already REALLY salty tasting.\n\n",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1605200",
"title": "Salt",
"section": "Section::::Edible salt.:Sodium consumption and health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 835,
"text": "Table salt is made up of just under 40% sodium by weight, so a 6g serving (1teaspoon) contains about 2,300mg of sodium. Sodium serves a vital purpose in the human body: via its role as an electrolyte, it helps nerves and muscles to function correctly, and it is one factor involved in the osmotic regulation of water content in body organs (fluid balance). Most of the sodium in the Western diet comes from salt. The habitual salt intake in many Western countries is about 10 g per day, and it is higher than that in many countries in Eastern Europe and Asia. The high level of sodium in many processed foods has a major impact on the total amount consumed. In the United States, 75% of the sodium eaten comes from processed and restaurant foods, 11% from cooking and table use and the rest from what is found naturally in foodstuffs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1605200",
"title": "Salt",
"section": "Section::::Edible salt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "Salt is essential to the health of humans and other animals, and it is one of the five basic taste sensations. Salt is used in many cuisines around the world, and it is often found in salt shakers on diners' eating tables for their personal use on food. Salt is also an ingredient in many manufactured foodstuffs. Table salt is a refined salt containing about 97 to 99 percent sodium chloride. Usually, anticaking agents such as sodium aluminosilicate or magnesium carbonate are added to make it free-flowing. Iodized salt, containing potassium iodide, is widely available. Some people put a desiccant, such as a few grains of uncooked rice or a saltine cracker, in their salt shakers to absorb extra moisture and help break up salt clumps that may otherwise form.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1723515",
"title": "Kosher salt",
"section": "Section::::Usage.:General cooking.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 691,
"text": "Because the salt has a purer flavor due to the lack of metallic or bitter-tasting additives such as iodine, fluoride or dextrose, it is often used in the kitchen instead of additive-containing table salt, so such flavors are not introduced to prepared food. Estimating the amount of salt when salting by hand can also be easier due to the larger grain size. Some recipes specifically call for volume measurement of kosher/kitchen salt, which weighs less per measure due to its lower density and is therefore less salty than an equal volume measurement of table salt. Different brands of different salt vary dramatically; a measure of one brand may be twice as salty as a measure of another.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "231065",
"title": "Sea salt",
"section": "Section::::Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 282,
"text": "The health consequences of eating sea salt or regular table salt are the same, as the content of sea salt is still mainly sodium chloride. Table salt is more processed than sea salt to eliminate minerals and usually contains an additive such as silicon dioxide to prevent clumping.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "15983150",
"title": "Himalayan salt",
"section": "Section::::Uses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Himalayan salt is used to flavor food. It is recognized by its distinctive pink hue, which has led to a misconception that it is healthier than common table salt. There is no scientific evidence to support such assertions. Blocks of salt are also used as serving dishes, baking stones, and griddles. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration warned a manufacturer about marketing the salt as a dietary supplement with unproven claims of health benefits. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "9414730",
"title": "Salt substitute",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 795,
"text": "Salt substitutes are low-sodium table salt alternatives marketed to circumvent the risk of high blood pressure and cardiovascular disease associated with a high intake of sodium chloride while maintaining a similar taste. They usually contain mostly potassium chloride (also known as potassium salt), whose toxicity is approximately equal to that of table salt in a healthy person (the is about 2.5 g/kg, or approximately 190 g for a person weighing 75 kg). Potassium lactate may also be used to reduce sodium levels in food products. It is commonly used in meat and poultry products. The recommended daily allowance of potassium is higher than that for sodium, yet a typical person consumes less potassium than sodium in a given day. Seaweed granules are also marketed as alternatives to salt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1555251",
"title": "History of salt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 739,
"text": "Salt, also referred to as table salt or by its chemical formula NaCl, is an ionic compound made of sodium and chloride ions. All life has evolved to depend on its chemical properties to survive. It has been used by humans for thousands of years, from food preservation to seasoning. Salt's ability to preserve food was a founding contributor to the development of civilization. It helped to eliminate dependence on seasonal availability of food, and made it possible to transport food over large distances. However, salt was often difficult to obtain, so it was a highly valued trade item, and was considered a form of currency by certain peoples. Many salt roads, such as the via Salaria in Italy, had been established by the Bronze age.\n",
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| null |
70pz3i | What did being wealthy look like in the bronze age? | [
{
"answer": "This is a pretty broad question both geographically and chronologically, so I'll limit my answer to Middle and New Kingdom Egypt and can provide comparisons with other regions and time periods if necessary.\n\nTurning first to houses, the site of Lahun provides examples of houses of different sizes and levels of complexity. Lahun was founded as a pyramid town of Senusret II and flourished during the Middle Kingdom; a town plan can be seen [here](_URL_16_). Domestic space at Lahun consists of the \"mayor's house\" on the acropolis, five northern mansions, three southern mansions, eastern housing, and western housing. The latter two were fairly simple compared to the mansions; comparative floor plans [can be seen here](_URL_24_). A mansion at Lahun consisted of a reception hall, sleeping quarters, an office, servants' quarters, and workshops and food preparation areas. Egyptian tomb models depict many of the parts of the house of an elite Egyptian family, including the [granary](_URL_25_), [butchery](_URL_7_), [livestock pens](_URL_13_), [weaving workshop](_URL_9_), [baking and brewing facilities](_URL_11_), and [carpentry workshop](_URL_3_). A [garden and pool](_URL_19_) formed the center of the house. Finally, the exterior of the house contained porticoes used for public appearances and [cattle counts](_URL_5_). \n\nWealthy Egyptians had many different ways to entertain themselves. [Banquets](_URL_8_) were quite popular, and [musicians and dancers](_URL_10_) as well as [harpists and storytellers](_URL_14_) were hired to entertain guests. To relax and escape the heat, wealthy Egyptians often took boat excursions into the marshes for [fishing and fowling](_URL_2_). These [boating excursions](_URL_17_) often involved numerous people. \n\nAncient Egypt had several grades of linen, including \"royal linen\" (*sšr nsw*) and \"fine linen\" (*šmat nfrt*). Elite clothing was therefore distinguished from the clothing of commoners by quality as much as complexity. For a comparison of the clothing worn by commoners and the clothing of the Egyptian elite, see this [New Kingdom tomb painting](_URL_27_); note the quality of the sheer linen worn by Nakht, the tomb owner. Egyptian male nobles sometimes received the [gold of honor](_URL_6_) from the king as a sign of favor, and elite Egyptian women wore elaborate [jewelry](_URL_21_) and [wigs](_URL_20_) as a mark of their status. The elite also used [makeup](_URL_15_) and [perfume](_URL_23_), which was indicated in art as a cone atop the head.\n\nMany, but certainly not all, wealthy Egyptians were literate. The [Heqanakht papyri](_URL_22_) provide a rare glimpse of literacy within a middle class family during the Middle Kingdom. The papyri, written in a lovely hieratic hand, are the remnants of a correspondence between a priest and his family. Heqanakht seems to have been a rather irritable fellow, and his letters are full of indignation and criticisms on how the household is being run in his absence. One of his sons, for example, seems to have been harassing his father's new wife.\n\n > As this man lives for me - it's Ip l'm referring to - whoever shall make any sexual advance against my new wife, he is against me and I against him. Since this is my new wife and it is known how a man's new wife should be helped, so as for whoever shall help her, it's the same as helping me. Would even one of you be patient if his wife has been denounced to him? So should I be patient! How can I remain with you in the same community if you won't respect my new wife for my sake? \n\nEgyptian status was in many ways tied to literacy, and the \"Satire of the Trades\" notes the benefits of being a scribe while denigrating other professions.\n\n > See, there's no profession without a boss, \n\n > Except for the scribe; he is the boss. \n\n > Hence if you know writing,\n\n > It will do better for you\n\n > Than those professions I've set before you,\n\n > Each more wretched than the other.\n\nElite Egyptian men were responsible for producing and copying almost all surviving Egyptian literature, such as the [library of Qenherkhopeshef](_URL_0_) at Deir el-Medina. \n\nWhen wealthy Egyptians died, they were buried in elaborate tombs that they prepared before their death. Burials typically consisted of a [rock-cut tomb](_URL_26_), a [painted coffin](_URL_4_), and [canopic jars](_URL_12_) for internal organs. Elite burials of the 18th Dynasty often included [food and furniture](_URL_18_) as well. Tombs often contained lengthy biographies outlining the career of the tomb owner. For example, the tomb of Weni contained an autobiography shedding light on Old Kingdom history. An excerpt:\n\n > When there was a secret charge in the royal harem against Queen Weret-yamtes, his majesty made me go in to hear (it) alone. No chief judge and vizier, no official was there, only I alone; because I was worthy, because I was rooted in his majesty's heart; because his majesty had filled his heart with me. Only I put (it) in writing together with one other senior warden of Nekhen, while my rank was (only) that of overseer of royal tenants. Never before had one like me heard a secret of the king's harem; but his majesty made me hear it, because I was worthy in his majesty's heart beyond any official of his, beyond any noble of his, beyond any servant of his.\n\n > When his majesty took action against the Asiatic Sand-dwellers, his majesty made an army of many tens of thousands from all of Upper Egypt: from Yebu in the south to Medenyt in the north; from Lower Egypt: from all of the Two-Sides-of-the-Houses and from Sedjer and Khen-sedjru; and from lrtjet-Nubians, Medja-Nubuians, Yam-Nubians, Wawat-Nubians, Kaau-Nubians; and from Tjemeh-land.\n\n > His majesty sent me at the head of this army, there being counts, royal seal-bearers, sole companions of the palace, chieftains and mayors of towns of Upper and Lower Egypt, companions, scout-leaders, chief priests of Upper and Lower Egypt, and chief district officials at the head of the troops of Upper and Lower Egypt, from the villages and towns that they governed and from the Nubians of those foreign lands. I was the one who commanded them - while my rank was that of overseer of royal tenants - because of my rectitude, so that no one attacked his fellow, so that no one seized a loaf or sandals from a traveler, so that no one took a cloth from any town, so that no one took a goat from anyone...\n\nFor further reading, I highly recommend [*High Culture and Experience in Ancient Egypt*](_URL_1_) by John Baines.\n\n\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Related question: would the Iliad and Odyssey provide a partial answer to OP's question? The events take place during the Bronze Age in Greece, and the main characters are wealthy people. The issue that remains is how accurate those depictions are.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1445142",
"title": "Prehistoric Cyprus",
"section": "Section::::Iron Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "The 8th century BC saw a marked increase of wealth in Cyprus. Communications to the east and west were on the ascent and this created a prosperous society. Testifying to this wealth are the so-called royal tombs of Salamis, which, although plundered, produced a truly royal abundance of wealth. Sacrifices of horses, bronze tripods and huge cauldrons decorated with sirens, griffins etc., chariots with all their ornamentation and the horses' gear, ivory beds and thrones exquisitely decorated were all deposited into the tombs' \"dromoi\" for the sake of their masters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1377321",
"title": "Kilwa Kisiwani",
"section": "Section::::History and archaeology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 923,
"text": "Evidence of growth in wealth can be seen with the appearance of stone buildings around the 13th century CE, before which all of the buildings were wattle-and-daub. The socio-economic status of the individuals residing there could be clearly seen in the type of structure they were living in. Among Kilwa's exports were spices, tortoiseshell, coconut oil, ivory, and aromatic gums, as well as gold. At around this time, Kilwa had seized control over the trade of gold at Sofala. The wealthy also possessed more commercial goods than the individuals who were of the lower class did. Luxury cloths and foreign ceramics were among a few of the items they would have owned, though some items, such as luxury clothes, do not preserve in the archaeological record. For approximately 500 years, Kilwa was minting coins. This lasted from about 1100-1600 CE and the coins have been found across the region, including Great Zimbabwe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "73327",
"title": "Minoan civilization",
"section": "Section::::Chronology and history.:Overview.:Early Minoan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The Early Bronze Age (3500 to 2100 BC) has been described as indicating a \"promise of greatness\" in light of later developments on the island. The Bronze Age began on Crete around 3200 BC. In the late third millennium BC, several locations on the island developed into centers of commerce and handiwork, enabling the upper classes to exercise leadership and expand their influence. It is likely that the original hierarchies of the local elites were replaced by monarchies, a precondition for the palaces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31275529",
"title": "Tell es-Sultan",
"section": "Section::::History.:Bronze Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 948,
"text": "During the Middle Bronze Age Tell es-Sultan was a small prominent city of the Canaan region, reaching its greatest Bronze Age extent in the period from 1700 to 1550 BCE. It seems to have reflected the greater urbanization in the area at that time, and has been linked to the rise of the Maryannu, a class of chariot-using aristocrats linked to the rise of the Mitannite state to the north. Kathleen Kenyon reported \"...the Middle Bronze Age is perhaps the most prosperous in the whole history of Kna'an. ... The defenses ... belong to a fairly advanced date in that period\" and there was \"a massive stone revetment... part of a complex system\" of defenses (pp. 213–218). The Bronze-Age city fell in the 16th century at the end of the Middle Bronze Age, the calibrated carbon remains from its City-IV destruction layer dating to 1617–1530 BCE. Notably this carbon dating 1573 BCE confirmed the accuracy of the stratigraphical dating 1550 by Kenyon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53275137",
"title": "Steppe Route",
"section": "Section::::History.:Bronze Age.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "The end of the Bronze age on the Eurasian Steppe route shows that production and a new economic organisation led to the accumulation of riches by a number of families and new economic interactions. Their male leaders then became warlords clashing and striking alliances for the control of the best pastures or migrating to start what may become civilizations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "667598",
"title": "Palace economy",
"section": "Section::::Mediterranean and Middle Eastern Bronze Age.:Other locations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "The palace economies in Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and the Levant were waning in the late Bronze Age, being replaced by primitive market economies led by private merchants or officials who owned private businesses on the side. The last holdout and epitome of the palace system was Mycenaean Greece which was completely destroyed during the Bronze Age collapse and the following Greek Dark Ages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3409675",
"title": "Limmen",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "When the people of Limmen became more dependent on agriculture instead of trade at the beginning of the 15th century, the more wealthy moved away. For three centuries Limmen did not develop or grow, despite some efforts made to make the town more attractive. Around the year 1850 Limmen had only 450 inhabitants left.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
6km1it | why is plastic surgery "plastic"? | [
{
"answer": "It's not plastic - the material - itself. It's the fact that the body is \"plastic\" - it is modeled. Simple as that.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Plastic\" means \"capable of being molded or shaped into forms\". The substance called \"plastic\" was named after this property, and the surgery term uses the first meaning.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It comes from the English word \"plasticity\" , which means the capacity to take up a shape and to change its shape.\n\nWhat we common call \"plastic\", is just a short way to say \"Plastic materials\" , because these can be given lots of shapes.\n\nPlastic surgery is plastic, because you are actually changing the shape of the 'flesh'.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "42048",
"title": "Plastic surgery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "Plastic surgery is a surgical specialty involving the restoration, reconstruction, or alteration of the human body. It can be divided into two categories. The first is reconstructive surgery which includes craniofacial surgery, hand surgery, microsurgery, and the treatment of burns. The other is cosmetic or aesthetic surgery. While reconstructive surgery aims to reconstruct a part of the body or improve its functioning, cosmetic surgery aims at improving the appearance of it. Both of these techniques are used throughout the world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26145195",
"title": "Plastic",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "Plastics have many uses in the medical field as well, with the introduction of polymer implants and other medical devices derived at least partially from plastic. The field of plastic surgery is not named for use of plastic materials, but rather the meaning of the word plasticity, with regard to the reshaping of flesh.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14126826",
"title": "Pediatric plastic surgery",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Surgery is defined as treating injuries or conditions with operative instrumental treatment. Plastic is a derivative of the Greek word \"plastikos\", which means \"to build up\" or \"to take form\". This is a logical prefix, as parts of the body are remade or reformed during most reconstructive and cosmetic surgical procedures. Children make up roughly 3% of all plastic surgery procedures, and the majority of these procedures correct a congenital deformity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42048",
"title": "Plastic surgery",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "In the term \"plastic surgery,\" the adjective \"plastic\" implies \"sculpting\" and/or \"reshaping\", which is derived from the Greek πλαστική (τέχνη), \"plastikē\" (\"tekhnē\"), \"the art of modelling\" of malleable flesh. This meaning in English is seen as early as 1598. The surgical definition of \"plastic\" first appeared in 1839, preceding the modern \"engineering material made from petroleum\" sense of plastic (coined by Leo Baekeland in 1909) by 70 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42048",
"title": "Plastic surgery",
"section": "Section::::Sub-specialties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 209,
"text": "Plastic surgery is a broad field, and may be subdivided further. In the United States, plastic surgeons are board certified by American Board of Plastic Surgery. Subdisciplines of plastic surgery may include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "258893",
"title": "Disfigurement",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "Plastic surgery or reconstructive surgery is available in many cases to disfigured people. Some health insurance companies and government health care systems cover plastic surgery for these problems when they do not generally cover plastic surgery for what is labeled as \"cosmetic purposes\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "464779",
"title": "Building material",
"section": "Section::::Man-made substances.:Plastics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "The term \"plastics\" covers a range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic condensation or polymerization products that can be molded or extruded into objects, films, or fibers. Their name is derived from the fact that in their semi-liquid state they are malleable, or have the property of plasticity. Plastics vary immensely in heat tolerance, hardness, and resiliency. Combined with this adaptability, the general uniformity of composition and lightness of plastics ensures their use in almost all industrial applications today. High performance plastics such as ETFE have become an ideal building material due to its high abrasion resistance and chemical inertness. Notable buildings that feature it include: the Beijing National Aquatics Center and the Eden Project biomes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
imiit | Is Carl Jung's work relevant? | [
{
"answer": "The psychiatrists I know don't think much of Jung (YMMV). However, I would point you to [Joseph Campbell](_URL_0_). His work is heavily derived from Jung's and is considered quite relevant in fields like cultural anthropology. In fact more people learn about Jung's ideas from exposure to Campbell than from reading Jung. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think it depends upon 'relevant to whom'. There are theoretical foundations underpinning many different areas: clinical psych, cognition, education, human development, etc. Each researcher *should* have some theorist whose underpinnings they use when researching or explaining phenomena. While some would say that he's a crackpot, others (such as those in counseling, etc.) may say that his ideas still have merit. Sure, there are many things that we now know that may discredit some of his ideas, but some were very foundational in other ways.\n\nIn the words of Santayana: \"We must welcome the future, remembering that soon it will be the past; and we must respect the past, remembering that it was once all that was humanly possible.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "448370",
"title": "Analytical psychology",
"section": "Section::::Clinical theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Jung's writings have been studied by people of many backgrounds and interests, including theologians, people from the humanities, and mythologists. Jung often seemed to seek to make contributions to various fields, but he was mostly a practicing psychiatrist, involved during his whole career in treating patients. A description of Jung's clinical relevance is to address the core of his work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "448370",
"title": "Analytical psychology",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 505,
"text": "Jung began his career as a psychiatrist in Zürich, Switzerland. There, he conducted research for the Word Association Experiment at the Burghölzli Clinic. Jung's research earned him a worldwide reputation and numerous honours, including an honorary degree from Clark University, Massachusetts, in 1904; another honorary degree from Harvard University in 1936; recognition from the University of Oxford and the University of Calcutta; and appointment as a Fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine, England.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42031",
"title": "Carl Jung",
"section": "Section::::Thought.:Paranormal beliefs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "Jung had an apparent interest in the paranormal and occult. For decades he attended seances and claimed to have witnessed \"parapsychic phenomena\". Initially he attributed these to psychological causes, even delivering 1919 lecture in England for the Society for Psychical Research on \"The Psychological Foundations for the belief in spirits\". However, he began to \"doubt whether an exclusively psychological approach can do justice to the phenomena in question\" and stated that \"the spirit hypothesis yields better results\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "448370",
"title": "Analytical psychology",
"section": "Section::::Clinical theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "It is important to state that Jung seemed to often see his work as not a complete psychology in itself but as his unique contribution to the field of psychology. Jung claimed late in his career that only for about a third of his patients did he use \"Jungian analysis\". For another third, Freudian psychology seemed to best suit the patient's needs, and for the final third Adlerian analysis was most appropriate. In fact, it seems that most contemporary Jungian clinicians merge a developmentally grounded theory, such as Self psychology or Donald Winnicott's work, with the Jungian theories in order to have a \"whole\" theoretical repertoire for actual clinical work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59412834",
"title": "Rex Jung",
"section": "Section::::Education and academic duties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 495,
"text": "Jung obtained a bachelor degree from the University of Colorado in 1986 and obtained his PhD in clinical psychology from the University of New Mexico in 2001. Jung is a member of the American Psychological Association (division 40, clinical neuropsychology), the International Society of Intelligence Research (ISIR), and Heterodox Academy. Jung sits on the editorial board of \"Intelligence\", \"Frontiers in Psychiatry\" (neuroimaging and stimulation), and \"Public Library of Science\" (PLoS ONE).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42031",
"title": "Carl Jung",
"section": "Section::::Thought.:Spirituality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 949,
"text": "Jung's work on himself and his patients convinced him that life has a spiritual purpose beyond material goals. Our main task, he believed, is to discover and fulfill our deep, innate potential. Based on his study of Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Gnosticism, Taoism, and other traditions, Jung believed that this journey of transformation, which he called individuation, is at the mystical heart of all religions. It is a journey to meet the self and at the same time to meet the Divine. Unlike Freud's objectivist worldview, Jung's pantheism may have led him to believe that spiritual experience was essential to our well-being, as he specifically identifies individual human life with the universe as a whole. Jung's ideas on religion counterbalance Freudian skepticism. Jung's idea of religion as a practical road to individuation is still treated in modern textbooks on the psychology of religion, though his ideas have also been criticized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17170659",
"title": "Clifford Mayes",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "A Jungian scholar, Mayes has produced the first book-length studies in English on the pedagogical applications of Jungian and post-Jungian psychology, which is based on the work of Carl Gustav Jung (1875–1961). Jungian psychology is also called analytical psychology. Mayes' work, situated in the humanities and depth psychology, is thought to offer an alternative to the social sciences model. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
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| null |
8wjd2x | AskHistorians Podcast 115 - The Friends They Loathed - Quaker Religion and Persecution in the American Revolution | [
{
"answer": "Thank you as always to the incredible podcast team and all of you who participate on it! Looking forward to sitting down and having a listen. ",
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},
{
"answer": "I’m happy to answer any questions!",
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"answer": "This was really interesting. You mentioned briefly that by the 1760s, Quaker dominance in Pennsylvania was declining. Can you tell us anything more about the changing religious demographics of Pennsylvania in the mid-to-late 18th century? Was this shift due mostly to immigration or because people were converting to other religious communities?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18748761",
"title": "Joel Engardio",
"section": "Section::::Knocking Documentary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 2039,
"text": "Engardio's documentary film \"Knocking\" explored how the unpopular religion of Jehovah's Witnesses played a major role in First Amendment history, setting Supreme Court precedents that expanded individual liberties for all Americans. In interviews, Engardio said \"Knocking\" is not about the theology of Jehovah's Witnesses but instead uses the religion as a case study to examine how disparate and disagreeable groups can hold their unique beliefs without marginalizing or limiting the freedom of others. \"We may not be each others' cup of tea,\" Engardio said on NPR, \"but tolerance allows a variety of kettles to peacefully share the stove.\" \"Knocking\" won several film festival awards including Best Documentary at the USA Film Festival and was covered in Newsweek, USA Today and newspapers across the United States. Entertainment Weekly named it \"What to Watch.\" \"Knocking\" was broadcast in the United States on PBS. It was also broadcast in Australia, Canada, Greece and Israel. \"Knocking\" was released on DVD in English, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian and Korean. Critics of Jehovah's Witnesses said the film did not deal harshly enough with controversies surrounding the religion, like the practice of shunning. Engardio told film festival audiences that \"Knocking\" contained criticism organic to the film's story. Engardio has written Washington Post essays critical of Jehovah's Witness practices, including shunning and refusal of blood transfusions. Engardio has also written essays for the Washington Post and USA Today about civil rights issues involving Jehovah's Witnesses outside the scope of his film. Most notable was the 2010 ruling by a federal judge that overturned California's ban on gay marriage, in which the key legal precedent cited by the judge was a 1943 Supreme Court case won by Jehovah's Witnesses. Another Washington Post essay by Engardio warns that a ban on Jehovah's Witnesses in Russia is a dangerous precedent that could lead to the loss of freedoms for other unpopular groups in the emerging democracy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145245",
"title": "Swarthmore College",
"section": "Section::::Campus.:Friends Historical Library.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 977,
"text": "Friends Historical Library was established in 1871 to collect, preserve, and make available archival, manuscript, printed, and visual records concerning the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) from their origins mid-seventeenth century to the present. Besides the focus on Quaker history, the holdings are a significant research collection for the regional and local history of the middle-Atlantic region of the United States and the history of American social reform. Quakers played prominent roles in almost every major reform movement in American history, including abolition, African-American history, Indian rights, women's rights, prison reform, humane treatment of the mentally ill, and temperance. The collections also reflect the significant role Friends played in the development of science, technology, education, and business in Britain and America. The Library also maintains the Swarthmore College Archives and the papers of the Swarthmore Historical Society.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "50280455",
"title": "Quakers in the American Revolution",
"section": "Section::::After the war.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
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"text": "The Revolution's legacy impacted American Quakers in one other major way. Before the war, many Quakers possessed extensive economic and political power in several states, most notably in Pennsylvania and New Jersey. However, the war had alienated the pacifist Quakers from their neighbors, causing most Friends in power to begin withdrawing from active political life as early as the 1760s. The Revolution increased American Quakers' sense of isolation, consequently making postwar Quakerism less culturally diverse and more dogmatically unified. American Quakers would never regain the amount of political influence they had once possessed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1717234",
"title": "History of the Quakers",
"section": "Section::::Nineteenth century.:Native Americans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 981,
"text": "The Quakers were involved in many of the great reform movements of the first half of the 19th century. After the Civil War they won over President Grant to their ideals of a just policy toward the American Indians, and became deeply involved in Grant's \"Peace Policy\". Quakers were motivated by high ideals, played down the role of conversion to Christianity, and worked well side by side with the Indians. They had been highly organized and motivated by the anti-slavery crusade, and after the Civil War were poised to expand their energies to include both ex-slaves and the western tribes. They had Grant's ear and became the principal instruments for his peace policy. During 1869–85, they served as appointed agents on numerous reservations and superintendencies in a mission centered on moral uplift and manual training. Their ultimate goal of acculturating the Indians to American culture was not reached because of frontier land hunger and Congressional patronage politics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "4425671",
"title": "Knocking (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "\"Knocking\" explored how the unpopular religion of Jehovah's Witnesses played a major role in First Amendment history, setting Supreme Court precedents that expanded individual liberties for all Americans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50280455",
"title": "Quakers in the American Revolution",
"section": "Section::::During the war.:Alternative Quaker responses.:Quakers active in the Revolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "Several notable figures in the American Revolution were also Quakers. Thomas Paine, author of the pamphlet \"Common Sense\", was born into a Quaker family, and Quaker thought arguably influenced his writings and philosophies. Similarly, the American General Nathanael Greene was raised Quaker, and, as historian William C. Kashatus III states, \"wrestled with a fundamental ideological dilemma: 'Was it possible to balance an allegiance to the state without deviating from the principles of the Society of Friends?'\" Greene likely dealt with this internal conflict throughout his life, and after the war never completely returned to the Society of Friends.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11112589",
"title": "Michael Francis Burbidge",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Bishop of Raleigh.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "In 2013, Burbidge was one of many clerical leaders to show support for the Moral Mondays protests in North Carolina, a movement started by religious progressives encouraging civil disobedience and arguing for reforms to North Carolina laws regarding the environment, racial justice, gender equality, social programs, education, and other issues, by signing \"A Joint Statement by Episcopal, Lutheran, Presbyterian, Roman Catholic and United Methodist Leaders in North Carolina\", although he did not permit Catholic priests to join the protests.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
]
| null |
1dt203 | A couple questions about redshift and relativity. | [
{
"answer": "I don't think you need relativity. Non-relativistic Doppler effect alone tells you that the spectrum of the parts of the sun in front of the probe will be blue-shifted, and the spectrum of the parts behind it red-shifted.\n\nBoth the Sun and nearby stars produce not only visible light, but also ultraviolet and infrared. If visible light is blue-shifted, infrared will be visible, and if it is red-shifted, ultraviolet will be visible.\n\nIf you accelerate something to nearly light speed, cosmic microwave background radiation will be blue-shifted to gamma rays, and reacting with the protons in the probe produce pi-mesons, which will take energy away from the probe. The speed where it happens is called the GZK limit.",
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"answer": "I don't know if I follow your first scenario very well, but I will try my best to answer what I can. \n\nFirst off, there is no system which can \"measure redshift.\" All you can do is measure the frequency. Now, there are times you can use that frequency and determine the amount of red shift if you know what frequencies of light you are looking at (for instance, find where the absorption lines are looking at the Sun, know that they are actually helium and hydrogen lines, and calculate). However, you can never directly measure red shift. \n\nOk, so now to your question about heading towards a distant star. Yes, if you traveled fast enough, the light coming towards you would be blue shifted to the gamma range, and all of the negatives of gamma radiation would affect you unless you protected yourself from them. That also means that if you traveled at an object quickly enough, it could become invisible to you, unless it was emitting long enough wavelength (so a low heat perhaps?) that was blue-shifted to the visible spectrum. \n\nThe reverse is also true, you could travel away from the Sun quickly enough so that its light would be red-shifted away from you and thus you could no longer see it. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "42975",
"title": "Hubble's law",
"section": "Section::::Discovery.:Combining redshifts with distance measurements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "At the time of discovery and development of Hubble's law, it was acceptable to explain redshift phenomenon as a Doppler shift in the context of special relativity, and use the Doppler formula to associate redshift \"z\" with velocity. Today, in the context of general relativity, velocity between distant objects depends on the choice of coordinates used, and therefore, the redshift can be equally described as a Doppler shift or a cosmological shift (or gravitational) due to the expanding space, or some combination of the two.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "26262",
"title": "Redshift",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 732,
"text": "A special relativistic redshift formula (and its classical approximation) can be used to calculate the redshift of a nearby object when spacetime is flat. However, in many contexts, such as black holes and Big Bang cosmology, redshifts must be calculated using general relativity. Special relativistic, gravitational, and cosmological redshifts can be understood under the umbrella of frame transformation laws. There exist other physical processes that can lead to a shift in the frequency of electromagnetic radiation, including scattering and optical effects; however, the resulting changes are distinguishable from true redshift and are not generally referred to as such (see section on physical optics and radiative transfer).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8724",
"title": "Doppler effect",
"section": "Section::::Application.:Astronomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Note that redshift is also used to measure the expansion of space, but that this is not truly a Doppler effect. Rather, redshifting due to the expansion of space is known as cosmological redshift, which can be derived purely from the Robertson-Walker metric under the formalism of General Relativity. Having said this, it also happens that there \"are\" detectable Doppler effects on cosmological scales, which, if incorrectly interpreted as cosmological in origin, lead to the observation of redshift-space distortions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "26262",
"title": "Redshift",
"section": "Section::::Redshift formulae.:Expansion of space.:Distinguishing between cosmological and local effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Popular literature often uses the expression \"Doppler redshift\" instead of \"cosmological redshift\" to describe the redshift of galaxies dominated by the expansion of spacetime, but the cosmological redshift is not found using the relativistic Doppler equation which is instead characterized by special relativity; thus is impossible while, in contrast, is possible for cosmological redshifts because the space which separates the objects (for example, a quasar from the Earth) can expand faster than the speed of light. More mathematically, the viewpoint that \"distant galaxies are receding\" and the viewpoint that \"the space between galaxies is expanding\" are related by changing coordinate systems. Expressing this precisely requires working with the mathematics of the Friedmann-Robertson-Walker metric.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "4116",
"title": "Big Bang",
"section": "Section::::Misconceptions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "\"Doppler redshift vs cosmological red-shift\": Astronomers often refer to the cosmological red-shift as a Doppler shift which can lead to a misconception. Although similar, the cosmological red-shift is not identical to the classically derived Doppler redshift because most elementary derivations of the Doppler redshift do not accommodate the expansion of space. Accurate derivation of the cosmological redshift requires the use of general relativity, and while a treatment using simpler Doppler effect arguments gives nearly identical results for nearby galaxies, interpreting the redshift of more distant galaxies as due to the simplest Doppler redshift treatments can cause confusion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26262",
"title": "Redshift",
"section": "Section::::Redshift formulae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "In general relativity one can derive several important special-case formulae for redshift in certain special spacetime geometries, as summarized in the following table. In all cases the magnitude of the shift (the value of ) is independent of the wavelength.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42975",
"title": "Hubble's law",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.:Redshift velocity and recessional velocity.:Redshift velocity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "The redshift \"z\" is often described as a \"redshift velocity\", which is the recessional velocity that would produce the same redshift \"if\" it were caused by a linear Doppler effect (which, however, is not the case, as the shift is caused in part by a cosmological expansion of space, and because the velocities involved are too large to use a non-relativistic formula for Doppler shift). This redshift velocity can easily exceed the speed of light. In other words, to determine the redshift velocity \"v\", the relation:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
37q4oi | how do you train messenger birds? | [
{
"answer": "Messenger birds can't deliver messages to arbitrary locations. They're birds (generally pigeons) that have a homing instinct that helps them return to their roost over long distances. So you raise one at your location, release them from further and further away from their roost to help them learn the area, and then give them to people you want to be able to send you messages.\n\nLikewise, if you want to be able to send someone messages, you have to have one of their pigeons delivered to you.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "26987555",
"title": "Contact call",
"section": "Section::::Birds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "Birds use contact calls in flight to establish location and to keep aware of each other's presence while flying and feeding. For some species, this call consists of a short, high-pitched sound, recognized and duplicated exactly by mates. Some fowl, such as geese,\"honk\" while in migration to communicate location and proximity to others in their flock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15776378",
"title": "Parrot training",
"section": "Section::::Flight tricks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1335,
"text": "Flight training a bird to be a reliable flyer requires expertise on the trainer's part. If the trainer is not dedicated to both positive reinforcement and negative punishment training, then problems will occur in the training. Birds may learn to fly away from the owner or new objects as a result of flooding. Trainers who do not rely exclusively on positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement training will often use harnesses on their birds because of the poor training techniques they apply such as; grabbing the bird when it does not want to train, snatching the bird out of flight, launching the bird off the hand, and dropping the hand to make a bird fly, all of which increase the fear response in a bird. Harnesses can be a great tool when used properly as a rarely used backup plan to keep the bird safe. But if the trainer heavily relies on a harness to keep the bird safe, then it is an obvious sign that the training methods used where not positive reinforcement and negative punishment. Trainers who use the harness too much often have problems controlling the bird in an outdoor environment and have problems with birds flying off and not coming back. This problem can be remedied by refining the person's training skills and by eliminating negative reinforcement and positive punishment from the training routine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "599784",
"title": "Greater honeyguide",
"section": "Section::::Diet.:Guiding of humans.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "Guiding is unpredictable and is more common among immatures and females than adult males. A guiding bird attracts a person's attention with wavering, chattering \"'tya' notes compounded with peeps or pipes\", sounds it also gives in aggression. The guiding bird flies toward an occupied nest (greater honeyguides know the sites of many bees' nests in their territories) and then stops and calls again. As in other situations, it spreads its tail, showing the white spots, and has a \"bounding, upward flight to a perch\", which make it conspicuous. If the followers are native honey-hunters, when they reach the nest they incapacitate the adult bees with smoke and open the nest with axes or \"pangas\" (machetes). After they take the honey, the honeyguide eats whatever is left.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3159140",
"title": "Pigeon post",
"section": "Section::::Early history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 397,
"text": "As a method of communication, it is likely as old as the ancient Persians from whom the art of training the birds probably came. The Romans used pigeon messengers to aid their military over 2000 years ago. Frontinus said that Julius Caesar used pigeons as messengers in his conquest of Gaul. The Greeks conveyed the names of the victors at the Olympic Games to their various cities by this means.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8616426",
"title": "United States Army Pigeon Service",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "The United States Army Pigeon Service ( Signal Pigeon Corps) was a unit of the United States Army during World War I and World War II. Their assignment was the training and usage of homing pigeons for communication and reconnaissance purposes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206964",
"title": "Homing pigeon",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "The messenger pigeon is a variety of domestic pigeon (\"Columba livia domestica\") derived from the rock pigeon, selectively bred for its ability to find its way home over extremely long distances. The wild rock pigeon has an innate homing ability, meaning that it will generally return to its nest, (it is believed) using magnetoreception. This made it relatively easy to breed from the birds that repeatedly found their way home over long distances. Flights as long as have been recorded by birds in competitive pigeon racing. Their average flying speed over moderate distances is around and speeds of up to have been observed in top racers for short distances.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "369978",
"title": "Bird vocalization",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Communication through bird calls can be between individuals of the same species or even across species. Birds communicate alarm through vocalizations and movements that are specific to the threat, and bird alarms can be understood by other animal species, including other birds, in order to identify and protect against the specific threat. Mobbing calls are used to recruit individuals in an area where an owl or other predator may be present. These calls are characterized by wide-frequency spectra, sharp onset and termination, and repetitiveness that are common across species and are believed to be helpful to other potential \"mobbers\" by being easy to locate. The alarm calls of most species, on the other hand, are characteristically high-pitched, making the caller difficult to locate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2fnwq6 | why is it illegal to record a phone call without the person's consent? | [
{
"answer": "Because there is a certain level of expect privacy when on the phone having a conversation from the privacy of your own home. \n\nOr at least this is the thought process when the laws were originally written. Obviously the vast use of cell phones have changed that, but many states still keep these laws. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You are mistaken. Michigan courts have said it is eavesdropping for anyone not a part of the conversation to record the call. Federal law requires only one party on the call know that it is being recorded.\n\nBack in the old days, there were multi-party phone lines, which made it cheaper for people living in rural areas to get phone service. It meant that many people 'shared' a single phone line. If you wanted to use the phone, you would need to check and make sure someone else wasn't already using it. You could also listen to a conversation taking place by quietly picking up any phone in the loop. That behavior was inconsiderate and rude to your neighbors, and made illegal to protect persons from gossip or blackmail.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6803252",
"title": "Telephone call recording laws",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Call recording laws in some U.S. states require only one party to be aware of the recording, while other states require both parties to be aware. Several states require that all parties consent when one party wants to record a telephone conversation. Telephone scammers and others intentionally violating the federal Do Not Call list may try to locate in those states, or use their area codes. Many businesses and other organizations record their telephone calls so that they can prove what was said, train their staff, or monitor performance. This activity may not be considered telephone tapping in some, but not all, jurisdictions because it is done with the knowledge of at least one of the parties to the telephone conversation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6803252",
"title": "Telephone call recording laws",
"section": "Section::::Sweden.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "According to the Swedish Penal Code (Brottsbalken) Chapter 4, 8–9 §§, it is illegal to make \"unauthorized\" recordings of telephone conversations. A court can grant permission for law enforcement agencies to tap telephone lines. Also, anyone participating in the telephone call may record the conversation — at least one party in the call must be aware of the recording being made. A recording is always admissible as evidence in a court, even if obtained in illegal matters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "91221",
"title": "Telephone tapping",
"section": "Section::::Legal status.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 593,
"text": "The telephone call recording laws in most U.S. states require only one party to be aware of the recording, while twelve states require both parties to be aware. In Nevada, the state legislature enacted a law making it legal for a party to record a conversation if one party to the conversation consented, but the Nevada Supreme Court issued two judicial opinions changing the law and requiring all parties to consent to the recording of a private conversation for it to be legal. It is considered better practice to announce at the beginning of a call that the conversation is being recorded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59021790",
"title": "Voice computing",
"section": "Section::::Legal considerations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "In the United States, the states have varying telephone call recording laws. In some states, it is legal to record a conversation with the consent of only one party, in others the consent of all parties is required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6803252",
"title": "Telephone call recording laws",
"section": "Section::::United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Federal law requires that at least one party taking part in the call must be notified of the recording (18 U.S.C. §2511(2)(d)). For example, it would be illegal to record, without notification, the phone calls of people who come into a place of business and ask to use the telephone. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19011538",
"title": "Legality of recording by civilians",
"section": "Section::::Exceptions.:Voice recording.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "In Canada, telephone calls may be recorded without a court order if one of the parties to the call consents to the recording . It is to a judge's discretion as to whether or not to admit the recording into evidence if both parties are not aware of the conversation having been recorded. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38595725",
"title": "Dashcam",
"section": "Section::::Legality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "BULLET::::- In the state of Maryland, for example, it is illegal to record anybody's voice without their consent, but it is legal to record without the other party's consent if the non-consenting party does not have a reasonable expectation of privacy with respect to the conversation that is being recorded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1nmyx0 | Did Ancient Greece ever have sectarian conflicts? What were the major religious lines of division? | [
{
"answer": "By Sectarian, I’m taking from your question that you mean religious and not territorial sectarian violence. Because the Greeks had a whole lot of territorial violence that could be defined as Sectarian. Religions could be used as a spark for a conflict but there wasn’t constant sectarian religious warfare like the Catholics/IRA v. England, Catholics v. Protestants, Muslim v. Christian,Muslim v. Hindu,etc...\n\n While we rattle off names like Zeus,Ares,Artemis,Hera,etc… the various city-states had their own interpretations of each usually. The Idea of Ares in Sparta would be different than the one in Athens or Argo. They’d also often have their own holidays/festivals/holy days. The Spartans were famously late for the Battle of Marathon because they had a religious observance(The Carnea festival honoring Apollo) and couldn’t march until it was completed. Athens didn’t wasn’t beholden to the Carnea so they marched to Marathon to meet the Persians.\n\nAlso, cities and areas would have their own preferred gods like Athena and Athens, Helios for Rhodes,etc.. As to them fighting over their various interpretations, it was never a primary reason. It may have been thrown out as a secondary reason but the Greek City-States fought amongst themselves over the normal things: Land, Supplies,Money or Insults.\n\nI think a big reason for a lack of large-scale religious sectarian violence is that there were just so many different religions,cults, mystery cults,etc… floating around Greece. The island of Delos was a major port for trading so it came in contact with the levant, north Africa, Italy,etc… It had Greek religious temples, a temple to the Philistine god Baal and even a synagogue. It’d be real hard to fight solely from a religious sectarian view when your neighbors,family members,etc.. have different religions. It’d be exhausting.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7491899",
"title": "Hellenistic religion",
"section": "Section::::Classical Greek religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 408,
"text": "There is, however, no reason to suppose that there was a decline in the traditional religion. There is plenty of documentary evidence that the Greeks continued to worship the same gods with the same sacrifices, dedications, and festivals as in the classical period. New religions did appear in this period, but not to the exclusion of the local deities, and only a minority of Greeks were attracted to them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "274099",
"title": "Ancient Greek religion",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern revivals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Greek religion and philosophy have experienced a number of revivals, firstly in the arts, humanities and spirituality of Renaissance Neoplatonism, which was certainly believed by many to have effects in the real world. During the period of time (14th - 17th centuries) when the literature and philosophy of the ancient Greeks gained widespread appreciation in Europe, this new popularity did not extend to ancient Greek religion, especially the original theist forms, and most new examinations of Greek philosophy were written within a solidly Christian context.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42056",
"title": "Greeks",
"section": "Section::::History.:Roman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 937,
"text": "In the religious sphere, this was a period of profound change. The spiritual revolution that took place, saw a waning of the old Greek religion, whose decline beginning in the 3rd century BC continued with the introduction of new religious movements from the East. The cults of deities like Isis and Mithra were introduced into the Greek world. Greek-speaking communities of the Hellenized East were instrumental in the spread of early Christianity in the 2nd and 3rd centuries, and Christianity's early leaders and writers (notably Saint Paul) were generally Greek-speaking, though none were from Greece. However, Greece itself had a tendency to cling to paganism and was not one of the influential centers of early Christianity: in fact, some ancient Greek religious practices remained in vogue until the end of the 4th century, with some areas such as the southeastern Peloponnese remaining pagan until well into the 10th century AD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "274099",
"title": "Ancient Greek religion",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 605,
"text": "Mainstream Greek religion appears to have developed out of Proto-Indo-European religion and although very little is known about the earliest periods there are suggestive hints that some local elements go back even further than the Bronze Age or Helladic period to the farmers of Neolithic Greece. There was also clearly cultural evolution from the Late Helladic Mycenaean religion of the Mycenaean civilization. Both the literary settings of some important myths and many important sanctuaries relate to locations that were important Helladic centres that had become otherwise unimportant by Greek times.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5178",
"title": "Classics",
"section": "Section::::Classical Greece.:Mythology and religion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 392,
"text": "Greek religion encompassed the collection of beliefs and rituals practiced in ancient Greece in the form of both popular public religion and cult practices. These different groups varied enough for it to be possible to speak of Greek religions or \"cults\" in the plural, though most of them shared similarities. Also, the Greek religion extended out of Greece and out to neighbouring islands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12108",
"title": "Greece",
"section": "Section::::History.:Archaic and Classical period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 814,
"text": "Lack of political unity within Greece resulted in frequent conflict between Greek states. The most devastating intra-Greek war was the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), won by Sparta and marking the demise of the Athenian Empire as the leading power in ancient Greece. Both Athens and Sparta were later overshadowed by Thebes and eventually Macedon, with the latter uniting most of the city-states of the Greek hinterland in the League of Corinth (also known as the \"Hellenic League\" or \"Greek League\") under the control of Phillip II. Despite this development, the Greek world remained largely fragmented and would not be united under a single power until the Roman years. Sparta did not join the League and actively fought against it, raising an army led by Agis III to secure the city-states of Crete for Persia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151992",
"title": "Hellenism (religion)",
"section": "Section::::History.:20th century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 997,
"text": "During the 1970s, some began to reject the influence of Hermeticism and other heavily syncretic forms of Greek religion in preference of practices reconstructing earlier or more original forms of Hellenic worship. Early reconstructionists of Hellenic religion tended to be individuals working alone, and early attempts to organize adherents into larger groups failed. The first successful attempt was made by the Supreme Council of Ethnikoi Hellenes (or YSEE). In 1993, a variety of adherents to the Hellenic religion in Greece and elsewhere came together and began the process of organization. This resulted in a \"Hellenic National Assembly\", initiated at a gathering in southern Olympus on the 9th of September 1995. The process culminated with the formal establishment of the YSEE as a non-profit in Greece, in June 1997. Twenty years later, the organization was given legal status as a \"known religion\", granting them permission to establish a formal place of worship by the Greek government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
4d4u0i | How did scientists figure out that the mantis shrimp can see 12 different wavelengths if humans can only see three? | [
{
"answer": "They extracted the proteins from the retina of the Mantis Shrimp. We have three types of cone cells in our eyes that are activated when differing wavelengths of light hit them. The mantis shrimp is the same, except they found up to 12 different types of detectors; each for a slightly different wavelength.\n\nThe real question is: with a visual cortex so small, can the Shrimp really perceive all the beauty he could see? Or is he limited by the small size and power of his brain and able to only really see one or two wavelengths at a time?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "297924",
"title": "Mantis shrimp",
"section": "Section::::Eyes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Mantis shrimp can perceive wavelengths of light ranging from deep ultraviolet (UVB) to far-red (300 to 720 nm) and polarized light. In mantis shrimp in the superfamilies Gonodactyloidea, Lysiosquilloidea, and Hemisquilloidea, the midband is made up of six omatodial rows. Rows 1 to 4 process colours, while rows 5 and 6 detect circularly or linearly polarized light. Twelve types of photoreceptor cells are in rows 1 to 4, four of which detect ultraviolet light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297924",
"title": "Mantis shrimp",
"section": "Section::::Eyes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Six species of mantis shrimp have been reported to be able to detect circularly polarized light, which has not been documented in any other animal, and whether it is present across all species is unknown. Some of their biological quarter-waveplates perform more uniformly over the visual spectrum than any current man-made polarising optics, and this could inspire new types of optical media that would outperform the current generation of Blu-ray Disc technology.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26541583",
"title": "Mycosporine-like amino acid",
"section": "Section::::Functions.:Ultraviolet light responses.:Photoreceptors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "The eyes for the mantis shrimp contain four different kinds of mycosporine-like amino acids as filters, which combined with two different visual pigments assist the eye to detect six different bands of ultraviolet light. Three of the filter MAAs are identified with porphyra-334, mycosporine-gly, and gadusol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297924",
"title": "Mantis shrimp",
"section": "Section::::Eyes.:Suggested advantages of visual system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "The eyes of mantis shrimps may enable them to recognise different types of coral, prey species (which are often transparent or semitransparent), or predators, such as barracuda, which have shimmering scales. Alternatively, the manner in which they hunt (very rapid movements of the claws) may require very accurate ranging information, which would require accurate depth perception.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "297924",
"title": "Mantis shrimp",
"section": "Section::::Eyes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 1076,
"text": "The eyes of the mantis shrimp are mounted on mobile stalks and can move independently of each other. They are thought to have the most complex eyes in the animal kingdom and have the most complex visual system ever discovered. Compared to the three types of photoreceptor cells that humans possess in their eyes, the eyes of a mantis shrimp have between 12 and 16 types of photoreceptors cells. Furthermore, some of these shrimp can tune the sensitivity of their long-wavelength colour vision to adapt to their environment. This phenomenon, called \"spectral tuning\", is species-specific. Cheroske et al. did not observe spectral tuning in \"Neogonodactylus oerstedii\", the species with the most monotonous natural photic environment. In \"N. bredini\", a species with a variety of habitats ranging from a depth of 5 to 10 m (although it can be found down to 20 m below the surface), spectral tuning was observed, but the ability to alter wavelengths of maximum absorbance was not as pronounced as in \"N. wennerae\", a species with much higher ecological/photic habitat diversity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "305136",
"title": "Visual system",
"section": "Section::::Other animals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 1046,
"text": "Different species are able to see different parts of the light spectrum; for example, bees can see into the ultraviolet, while pit vipers can accurately target prey with their pit organs, which are sensitive to infrared radiation. The mantis shrimp possesses arguably the most complex visual system in any species. The eye of the mantis shrimp holds 16 color receptive cones, whereas humans only have three. The variety of cones enables them to perceive an enhanced array of colors as a mechanism for mate selection, avoidance of predators, and detection of prey. Swordfish also possess an impressive visual system. The eye of a swordfish can generate heat to better cope with detecting their prey at depths of 2000 feet. Certain one-celled micro-organisms, the warnowiid dinoflagellates have eye-like ocelloids, with analogous structures for the lens and retina of the multi-cellular eye. The armored shell of the chiton \"Acanthopleura granulata\" is also covered with hundreds of aragonite crystalline eyes, named ocelli, which can form images.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55858163",
"title": "Justin Marshall (neuroscientist)",
"section": "Section::::Career and research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "His study of the mantis shrimp revealed it has the world’s most complex visual system of any known animal, with 12-channel colour channels. His research also showed that octopus and other cephalopods are colour blind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
33cfy7 | can we pump greenhouse gases into space? | [
{
"answer": "The boundary between our atmosphere and space is called the [Kármán line](_URL_0_) and lays at a height of 62 miles. It's not possible to build a 62 mile high chimney with current technology. even at that height the gasses would probably fall back down rather than dissipate.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": " > If not, why not. \n\nThe only way we know to get it into space would be to literally load it onto rockets and launch them. The cost of this would be astronomical and we would not be able to keep up with how quickly we produce them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No. None of us have the money, very few of us have the technology.\n\n**Problem #1:** Sorting out the \"bad gases\" from the \"good gases\". It's easy to verify those gases are present, but difficult to collect amounts of just that gas from the atmosphere in any reasonable amount. Most production of greenhouse gases for industrial use is done by making that gas with a chemical reaction.\n\n**Problem #2:** Pumping them out of the atmosphere. To make any reasonable dent in global warming, modern estimates usually figure a few *million tons* of greenhouse gas need to go. In order to get them into space, you have to somehow transport all those millions of tons straight up. Pressure pumping alone won't work: you would need a pipe that goes straight up out of the atmosphere. Google the space elevator problem for why this is problematic.\n\n**Problem #3:** You gotta keep all of it up there. Figuring out where to put all that gas would be difficult enough: you can't keep it in orbit, because it would pose a serious risk to spacecraft. That means that you are already transporting/piping this gas some 384000 km away.\n\n\n\nSo tl;dr: No we can't, it's way too hard to do.\n\nEDIT: Some formatting",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4923933",
"title": "Terraforming of Mars",
"section": "Section::::Proposed methods and strategies.:Use of fluorine compounds.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 905,
"text": "Because long-term climate stability would be required for sustaining a human population, the use of especially powerful fluorine-bearing greenhouse gases, possibly including sulfur hexafluoride or halocarbons such as chlorofluorocarbons (or CFCs) and perfluorocarbons (or PFCs), has been suggested. These gases are proposed for introduction because they produce a greenhouse effect many times stronger than that of . This can conceivably be done by sending rockets with payloads of compressed CFCs on collision courses with Mars. When the rockets crash onto the surface they would release their payloads into the atmosphere. A steady barrage of these \"CFC rockets\" would need to be sustained for a little over a decade while Mars changes chemically and becomes warmer. However, their lifetime due to photolysis would require an annual replenishing of 170 kilotons, and they would destroy any ozone layer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50402274",
"title": "TRAPPIST-1",
"section": "Section::::Planetary system.:Spectroscopy of planetary atmospheres.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Observations by future telescopes, such as the \"James Webb Space Telescope\" or European Extremely Large Telescope, will be able to assess the greenhouse gas content of the atmospheres, allowing better estimation of surface conditions. They may also be able to detect biosignatures like ozone or methane in the atmospheres of these planets, if life is present there.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16230510",
"title": "Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 653,
"text": "The Greenhouse Gases Observing Satellite (GOSat), also known as , is an Earth observation satellite and the world's first satellite dedicated to greenhouse-gas-monitoring. It measures the densities of carbon dioxide and methane from 56,000 locations on the Earth's atmosphere. The GOSAT was developed by the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) and launched on 23 January 2009, from the Tanegashima Space Center. Japan's Ministry of the Environment, and the National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES) use the data to track gases causing the greenhouse effect, and share the data with NASA and other international scientific organizations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4548379",
"title": "Atmosphere of Mars",
"section": "Section::::Current chemical composition.:Carbon dioxide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 538,
"text": "Despite of the high concentration of CO in the Martian atmosphere, the greenhouse effect is relatively weak on Mars (about 5 °C) because of the low concentration of water vapor and low atmospheric pressure. While water vapor in Earth's atmosphere has the largest contribution to greenhouse effect on modern Earth, it is present in only very low concentration in the Martian atmosphere. Moreover, under low atmospheric pressure, greenhouse gases cannot absorb infrared radiation effectively because the pressure-broadening effect is weak.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "944638",
"title": "Earth's energy budget",
"section": "Section::::Natural greenhouse effect.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "The major atmospheric gases (oxygen and nitrogen) are transparent to incoming sunlight but are also transparent to outgoing thermal (infrared) radiation. However, water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane and other trace gases are opaque to many wavelengths of thermal radiation. The Earth's surface radiates the net equivalent of 17 percent of the incoming solar energy in the form of thermal infrared. However, the amount that directly escapes to space is only about 12 percent of incoming solar energy. The remaining fraction, 5 to 6 percent, is absorbed by the atmosphere by greenhouse gas molecules.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32518425",
"title": "Propulsive fluid accumulator",
"section": "Section::::Harvesting at about 200 kilometers altitude (LOX-LEO).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "Klinkman and Wilkes proposed, at the AIAA Space 2007 and Space 2009 conferences, that gases could be harvested at the very edge of the earth's atmosphere by a high vacuum pump. An ion propulsion engine would consume a portion of the harvested gases and would restore the spacecraft's orbital momentum. Klinkman's proposal has a fairly low energy threshold for a small-scale harvesting operation, and air friction is far more forgiving at 200 km than at 100 km.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21350772",
"title": "Greenhouse gas",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "A greenhouse gas (sometimes abbreviated GHG) is a gas that absorbs and emits radiant energy within the thermal infrared range. Greenhouse gases cause the greenhouse effect. The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and ozone. Without greenhouse gases, the average temperature of Earth's surface would be about , rather than the present average of . The atmospheres of Venus, Mars and Titan also contain greenhouse gases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3x0brs | If you're breed into a war driven society like the Spartans, Mongols, Romans, etc. Is it a highly likely chance the soldiers still experience PTSD. | [
{
"answer": "Insofar as PTSD is the result of neurological changes due to overexposure to traumatic situations, there is no reason why conditioning and training should make anyone less susceptible to it. Arguably the training itself, depending on the methods used, could become a cause of PTSD in itself.\n\nIn any case, I'm not sure to what extent the societies you mention were \"war driven\". Recent work by Stephen Hodkinson has shown that Sparta, for one, was not a militaristic society at all. It did not even have a military. Its social conditioning was focused on fostering obedience and endurance, and the outward features of its culture were intended to minimise and hide differences of wealth and status within the citizen body. The purpose of this entire system was not to create perfect soldiers, but to create a perfectly stable society, in which neither the destitution of the common people nor the rivalries of the elite would lead to an overthrow of the established political and legal institutions, as it did everywhere else in Greece on a regular basis. Sparta was not a military powerhouse but an elaborate and remarkably successful experiment in social engineering.\n\nThe Roman approach to warfare became more organised and disciplined during the mid-Republic, but I doubt the average Roman citizen would regard himself as bred for war. Most of them were farmers and labourers who were called to arms only at need. The rise of the professional army went hand in hand with the release of ordinary citizens from military duties, allowing them to focus entirely on their normal everyday activities as war became the business of those who chose a career in it.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "72214",
"title": "Children in the military",
"section": "Section::::Impact on children.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 765,
"text": "Since the \"Machel Report\" further research has shown that child recruits who survive armed conflict face a markedly elevated risk of debilitating psychiatric illness, poor literacy and numeracy, and behavioural problems. Research in Palestine and Uganda, for example, has found that more than half of former child soldiers showed symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder and nearly nine in ten in Uganda screened positive for depressed mood. Researchers in Palestine also found that children exposed to high levels of violence in armed conflict were substantially more likely than other children to exhibit aggression and anti-social behaviour. The combined impact of these effects typically includes a high risk of poverty and lasting unemployment in adulthood.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "72214",
"title": "Children in the military",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Child recruits who survive armed conflict frequently suffer psychiatric illness, poor literacy and numeracy, and behavioural problems such as heightened aggression, leading to a high risk of poverty and unemployment in adulthood. Research in the UK and US has also found that the enlistment of adolescent children, even when they are not sent to war, is accompanied by a higher risk of attempted suicide, stress-related mental disorders, alcohol misuse, and violent behaviour.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16886145",
"title": "Education in ancient Greece",
"section": "Section::::Spartan system.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "The Spartan society desired that all male citizens become successful soldiers with the stamina and skills to defend their polis as members of a Spartan phalanx. There is a misconception that Spartans killed weak children, but that is not true. It was a rumor started by Plutarch, a Greek historian, who evidently got his history wrong. After examination, the council would either rule that the child was fit to live or would reject the child sentencing him to a death by abandonment and exposure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36678379",
"title": "Human rights in Sierra Leone",
"section": "Section::::Historical background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "About one quarter of the soldiers serving in the government armed forces during the civil war were under age 18. \"Recruitment methods were brutal – sometimes children were abducted, sometimes they were forced to kill members of their own families so as to make them outcasts, sometimes they were drugged, sometimes they were forced into conscription by threatening family members.\" Child soldiers were deliberately overwhelmed with violence \"in order to completely desensitize them and make them mindless killing machines\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34781859",
"title": "Child labour in Nepal",
"section": "Section::::Impact.:Mental Health.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "There is a higher proportion of mental illnesses such as anxiety and post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) for Nepali child soldiers than for Nepali children who were never conscripted. This is especially true for female child soldiers as found in a study about the mental health of conscripted child soldiers by Kohrt (2008). Female child soldiers also experienced gender-based stigma from their community after their work in the military. One year after the war 55% of the child soldiers participating in the study were found to have PTSD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16710173",
"title": "Human rights in the Democratic Republic of the Congo",
"section": "Section::::Respect for the integrity of the person.:Use of excessive force and other abuses in internal conflicts.:Abuses by armed groups outside government control.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 144,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 144,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Armed groups, including Mai Mai, continued to abduct and forcibly recruit children to serve as forced laborers, porters, combatants, war wives, and sex slaves. Credible estimates of the total number of children associated with armed groups, many of whom were between the ages of 14 and 16, varied widely from 15,000 to 30,000 in 2005. Credible sources estimated that at least 3,000 child soldiers had not yet been demobilized countrywide by year's end.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42426471",
"title": "Child soldiers in Africa",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Risk factors for recruitment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "However, there are still child soldiers that join armed groups of their own volition. Children in countries led into poverty resort to joining warring groups that provide materials they would no otherwise have, such as three meals a day, clean clothes, and medical care. In a 2004 study of children in military organizations around the world, Rachel Brett and Irma Specht pointed to a complex of factors that incentivize joining an armed group, particularly:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
dzvv6v | dry shampoo | [
{
"answer": "Dry shampoo is basically a powder that absorbs hair oils. No, it's not just laziness. Washing hair every day can be bad for your scalp (not only does it remove oil, as you mentioned, but shampoo ingredients can be incredibly harsh. Styling hair can also be incredibly damaging. If your hair gets wet, it needs to be restyled. For all of these reasons, people may want to extend the time between shampoo washes. Doesn't mean they aren't showering). \n\nFor people with thicker hair, washing and letting your hair air dry can mean you have a wet head for *hours*. If I shower before bed, I wake up with still damp hair. If I braid it, it could be wet for over a day. And my hair isn't particularly long or thick. Someone with longer, thicker hair might need to wash their hair less often or else they will just *always* have wet hair. Which is awful. \n\n\nThe other reason people use dry shampoo is because they want the texture that it gives hair. It might make their hair look fuller, more voluminous, or help hold certain styles better. Dirtier hair in general is seen as easier to style and dry shampoo can be a way for people to get the styling ease in still-clean hair. \n\nAlso, some people like the smell. \n\n\nThere are also dry conditioners for people who don't have greasy hair. They're basically anti static/frizz ingredients combined with dry conditioners to add shine and smooth flyaways.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They use it in hospitals and nursing homes for bed-bound patients. Easier than the showercap method.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842002",
"title": "Shampoo",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 354,
"text": "Shampoo () is a hair care product, typically in the form of a viscous liquid, that is used for cleaning hair. Less commonly, shampoo is available in bar form, like a bar of soap. Shampoo is used by applying it to wet hair, massaging the product into the hair, and then rinsing it out. Some users may follow a shampooing with the use of hair conditioner.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24282148",
"title": "Dry shampoo",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "Dry shampoo is a type of shampoo which reduces hair greasiness without the need for water. It is in powder form and is typically administered from an aerosol can. Dry shampoo is often based on corn starch or rice starch. In addition to cleansing hair, it can also be used as a tool for hair-styling as it can create volume, help tease hair, keep bobby pins in place, and be used in place of mousse in wet hair. Dry shampoo proponents attest that daily wash-and-rinse with detergent shampoo can strip away natural oils from hair. However, others attest that spraying dry shampoo every day will lead to a build-up of product that can dull hair color and irritate the scalp, arguing that the scalp needs regular cleansing and exfoliating to get rid of bacteria, remove dead skin cells, and stay healthy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27243949",
"title": "No poo",
"section": "Section::::Benefits.:Chemical additives' effect on the body.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 1115,
"text": "One reason is concern about the effect of ingredients typically found in commercial hair care products. Shampoo typically contains chemical additives such as sodium lauryl sulfate and sodium laureth sulfate, which can irritate sensitive skin or if not thoroughly rinsed. Such chemical additives are also believed by some consumers to dry out their hair. The Environmental Working Group (EWG) compared the ingredients in 42,000 personal care products against 50 toxicity and regulatory databases and found that most shampoos have at least one chemical that \"raises concern\" (although the hair care industry counters by claiming that the chemicals are safe in the concentrations used). The group flagged the following groups of ingredients as hazardous: fragrances, due to containing unknown constituents, parabens, possibly linked to endocrine disruption and neurotoxicity, DMDM hydantoin, due to possible allergy concerns, and 1,4-dioxane, which the Environmental Protection Agency has labelled as a probable human carcinogen. Some disagree with the EWG’s assessments while others think they aren’t strong enough. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13687179",
"title": "Head Shampoo",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 214,
"text": "The product is a shampoo first produced in 1971 by two Los Angeles-based hairstylists who were concerned about the harm they feared traditional shampoos might cause to hair and who created the formula in a garage.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24282148",
"title": "Dry shampoo",
"section": "Section::::Types of Dry Shampoos.:Homemade Dry Shampoo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "This product has also been made at home, in addition to being purchased in stores. DIY dry shampoos usually have some sort of starch base, which is one of the key products in commercially produced dry shampoos, and often contains essential oils for scent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18842002",
"title": "Shampoo",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 257,
"text": "The word \"shampoo\" entered the English language from the Indian subcontinent during the colonial era. It dates to 1762 and is derived from Hindi \"chāmpo\" (चाँपो ), itself derived from the Sanskrit root \"chapati\" (चपति), which means to press, knead, soothe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3919574",
"title": "Carpet cleaning",
"section": "Section::::Dry-cleaning.:Shampoo.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 740,
"text": "Wet shampoo cleaning with rotary machines, followed by thorough wet vacuuming, was widespread until about the 1970s, but industry perception of shampoo cleaning changed with the advent of encapsulation. Hot-water extraction, also regarded as preferable by all manufacturers, had not been introduced either. Wet shampoos were once formulated from coconut oil soaps; wet shampoo residues can be foamy or sticky, and steam cleaning often reveals dirt unextracted by shampoos. Since no rinse is performed, the powerful residue can continue to collect dirt after cleaning, leading to the misconception that carpet cleaning can lead to the carpet getting \"dirtier faster\" after the cleaning. The best method is truckmounted hot water extraction.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
ux4k0 | Why is belly fat different from other fat? | [
{
"answer": "The idea is that the 'belly' fat surrounds and puts pressure on your important organs as opposed to say leg fat. The fat itself is the same.\n\nNutrition/sports nerd - no references except info picked up at seminars.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "abdominal fat is more correlated with insulin resistance. We don't know if the belly fat causes insulin resistance or if insulin resistance makes you more likely to store belly fat. \n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Additionally, your body \"likes\" to store fat around the belly, buttocks, and hips. This is because your torso moves the least. Think about it - if all your belly fat was instead located in your fingertips, it would take a lot more energy to move your hand around with the extra weight on it, as your arms and legs move quite often. Since your torso moves the least in comparison to your limbs, it is much more efficient for your body to store excess weight there.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "419094",
"title": "Adipose tissue",
"section": "Section::::Anatomical features.:Visceral fat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 703,
"text": "Visceral fat or abdominal fat (also known as organ fat or intra-abdominal fat) is located inside the abdominal cavity, packed between the organs (stomach, liver, intestines, kidneys, etc.). Visceral fat is different from subcutaneous fat underneath the skin, and intramuscular fat interspersed in skeletal muscles. Fat in the lower body, as in thighs and buttocks, is subcutaneous and is not consistently spaced tissue, whereas fat in the abdomen is mostly visceral and semi-fluid. Visceral fat is composed of several adipose depots, including mesenteric, epididymal white adipose tissue (EWAT), and perirenal depots. Visceral fat is often expressed in terms of its area in cm (VFA, visceral fat area).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "419094",
"title": "Adipose tissue",
"section": "Section::::Anatomical features.:Visceral fat.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 349,
"text": "Men are more likely to have fat stored in the abdomen due to sex hormone differences. Female sex hormone causes fat to be stored in the buttocks, thighs, and hips in women. When women reach menopause and the estrogen produced by the ovaries declines, fat migrates from the buttocks, hips and thighs to the waist; later fat is stored in the abdomen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3337726",
"title": "Waist–hip ratio",
"section": "Section::::Indicator of health.:Stress.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Abdominal fat is a marker of visceral fat (stored around important internal organs such as the liver, pancreas and intestines) and has greater blood flow and more receptors for cortisol than peripheral fat. The greater the number of cortisol receptors, the more sensitive the visceral fat tissue is to cortisol. This heightened sensitivity to cortisol stimulates fat cells to further increase in size.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54712",
"title": "Abdominal obesity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "Visceral fat, also known as organ fat or \"intra-abdominal fat\", is located inside the peritoneal cavity, packed in between internal organs and torso, as opposed to subcutaneous fat, which is found underneath the skin, and intramuscular fat, which is found interspersed in skeletal muscle. Visceral fat is composed of several adipose depots including mesenteric, epididymal white adipose tissue (EWAT) and perirenal fat. An excess of visceral fat is known as central obesity, the \"pot belly\" or \"beer belly\" effect, in which the abdomen protrudes excessively. This body type is also known as \"apple shaped\", as opposed to \"pear shaped\", in which fat is deposited on the hips and buttocks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21490868",
"title": "Female body shape",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Fat distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "Body fat percentage recommendations are higher for females, as this fat may serve as an energy reserve for pregnancy. Males have less subcutaneous fat in their faces due to the effects of testosterone; testosterone also reduces fat by aiding fast metabolism. The lack of estrogen in males generally results in more fat being deposited around the waist and abdomen (producing an \"apple shape\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11831909",
"title": "Body shape",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Fat distribution, muscles and tissues.:Fat distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Estrogen causes fat to be stored in the buttocks, thighs, and hips in women. When women reach menopause and the estrogen produced by ovaries declines, fat migrates from their buttocks, hips and thighs to their waists. Later fat is stored in the belly. Thus females generally have relatively narrow waists and large buttocks, and this along with wide hips make for a wider hip section and a lower waist-hip ratio compared to men. Hormonal and genetic factors may produce male-like distribution of fat in women i.e. around the belly instead of buttocks and thighs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11831909",
"title": "Body shape",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Fat distribution, muscles and tissues.:Fat distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Estrogen increases fat storage in the body, which results in more fat stored in the female body. Body fat percentage recommendations are higher for females, as this may serve as an energy reserve for pregnancy. Males have less subcutaneous fat in their faces due to the effects of testosterone; testosterone also reduces fat by aiding fast metabolism. Males generally deposit fat around waists and abdomens (producing an \"apple shape\") due to the lack of estrogen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
tgkn1 | Is it possible that Earth has had moons in the past and they were destroyed? | [
{
"answer": "Not only is it possible, but there is actually evidence suggesting the Earth did in fact used to have two moons: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The earth captures many small objects for short periods of time, making them transient moons of sorts. _URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are objects in space which come close to being a second moon currently.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Before our moon formed, the ejecta from the impact would have been a very substantial ring around the earth..",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "8453893",
"title": "Claimed moons of Earth",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "Claims of the existence of other moons of Earth—that is, of one or more natural satellites that orbit Earth, other than the Moon (Luna)—have existed for some time. Several candidates have been proposed, but none has been confirmed. Since the 19th century, scientists have made genuine searches for more moons, but the possibility has also been the subject of a number of dubious non-scientific speculations as well as a number of likely hoaxes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "594865",
"title": "Welteislehre",
"section": "Section::::Premise.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 417,
"text": "It was also claimed that the Earth had had several satellites before it acquired the Moon; they began as planets in orbits of their own, but over long spans of time were captured one by one and slowly spiralled in towards the Earth until it disintegrated and its debris became part of the Earth's structure. One can supposedly identify the rock strata of several geological eras with the impacts of these satellites.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38058647",
"title": "Origin of the Moon",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "Some theories have been stated that presume the proto-Earth had no large moons early in the formation of the Solar System, 4.6 billion years ago, Earth being basically rock and lava. Theia, an early protoplanet the size of Mars, hit Earth in such a way that it ejected a considerable amount of material away from Earth. Some proportion of these ejecta escaped into space, but the rest consolidated into a single spherical body in orbit about Earth, creating the Moon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7592",
"title": "Caldera",
"section": "Section::::Extraterrestrial calderas.:The Moon.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 1038,
"text": "The Moon has an outer shell of low-density crystalline rock that is a few hundred kilometers thick, which formed due to a rapid creation. The craters of the Moon have been well preserved through time and were once thought to have been the result of extreme volcanic activity, but actually were formed by meteorites, nearly all of which took place in the first few hundred million years after the Moon formed. Around 500 million years afterward, the Moon's mantle was able to be extensively melted due to the decay of radioactive elements. Massive basaltic eruptions took place generally at the base of large impact craters. Also, eruptions may have taken place due to a magma reservoir at the base of the crust. This forms a dome, possibly the same morphology of a shield volcano where calderas universally are known to form. Although caldera-like structures are rare on the Moon, they are not completely absent. The Compton-Belkovich Volcanic Complex on the far side of the Moon is thought to be a caldera, possibly an ash-flow caldera.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206386",
"title": "What If the Moon Didn't Exist",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "What if the Moon Didn’t Exist is a collection of speculative articles about different versions of Earth, published in book form in 1993. They were originally published in \"Astronomy\" magazine. The individual scenarios are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "174883",
"title": "Catastrophism",
"section": "Section::::Current application.:Moon-formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 620,
"text": "Modern theories also suggest that Earth's anomalously large moon was formed catastrophically. In a paper published in \"Icarus\" in 1975, William K. Hartmann and Donald R. Davis proposed that a catastrophic near-miss by a large planetesimal early in Earth's formation approximately 4.5 billion years ago blew out rocky debris, remelted Earth and formed the Moon, thus explaining the Moon's lesser density and lack of an iron core. The impact theory does have some faults; some computer simulations show the formation of a ring or multiple moons post impact, and elements are not quite the same between the earth and moon.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38749694",
"title": "The Engines of God",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.:Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 308,
"text": "However, there were two anomalies. First, the largest of the planet's four moons featured a giant cube of stone, which was damaged and scorched just like the Monuments at Quraqua and Nok. Second, they discovered an artificial space station in orbit around the world. They immediately set out to investigate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
h9re5 | Power Transformer explosions in Ft. Worth, TX. What could cause this? | [
{
"answer": "I actually just saw a lecture about this. The explosions are caused when the oil used as a coolant ignites. The thing has to fail prior to this happening, for instance by a component melting.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well there's a lot of things that can cause a single transformer to fail. To have so many fail, I'd have to guess there was a pretty significant short somewhere and a circuit breaker failed to trip. Transformers are filled with an oil that both cools and prevents arcing. Transformers also produce enormous magnetic flux which can cause spot heating that can vaporize that oil, that can in turn cause the transformer to explode if the pressure isn't relieved. \n\nIf the transformer loses its oil, it can start arcing as air is more sensitive to dielectric breakdown than the transformer oil. Arcing can cause voltage spikes, which can damage other transformers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ECE undergrad here. Once that much charge gets put into the grid it starts throwing breakers left and right. Eventually it has nowhere to go and starts breaking down the materials in the lines and overloading transformers. The excess charge would continue to bounce back and fourth along an isolated section of the grid for some time since the only place for the charge to go is into the surroundings as heat and light. Its no surprise that it took over a half hour for the action to calm down, since the excess charge could only escape in comparatively tiny, albeit violent, bursts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "61276589",
"title": "Manhattan blackout of July 2019",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "However, Con Edison later said that the power failure originated at a substation on West 49th Street. Gov. Cuomo further specified that an explosion and resulting fire at the substation caused damage to other substations. New York Mayor Bill de Blasio initially said via Twitter that a \"manhole fire\" was the cause, though he later stated that the outage was due to a transformer fire, and that no foul play was suspected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26108463",
"title": "2010 Connecticut power plant explosion",
"section": "Section::::Explosion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 633,
"text": "The blast at the , Siemens combined cycle gas and oil-fired power plant occurred at 11:17 am, and was reported at 11:25 am EST. The plant's manager, Gordon Holk, said that contractors and other workers from O & G Industries, Ducci Electric, and Keystone Construction and Maintenance Services were at the site when the blast occurred. The explosion occurred at the rear of the largest building, the turbine hall, which was destroyed. Some residents reported \"earthquake-like tremors\" from at least away, although the blast proved not to be seismically detectable. Another resident of the area felt that it was more like a sonic boom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "425061",
"title": "St. Francis Dam",
"section": "Section::::Collapse and flood wave.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "At the Bureau of Power and Light at both Receiving Stations in Los Angeles and the Water Works and Supply at Powerhouse there was a sharp voltage drop at Simultaneously, a transformer at Southern California Edison's Saugus substation exploded, a situation investigators later determined was caused by wires up the western hillside of San Francisquito canyon about ninety feet above the dam's east abutment shorting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11291337",
"title": "SP1900 EMU",
"section": "Section::::Major incidents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "At 09:15 on February 14, 2007, a passenger train of West Rail SP1900 (D305/306) broke down when one of the transformers (numbered P306) mounted on the train roof exploded. It is suspected that the overheated transformer caused its insulating oil to vaporise, thus causing the explosion. In addition, the circuit breaker of the transformer apparently failed to cut the power supply to the transformer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37302421",
"title": "Kelanitissa Power Station",
"section": "Section::::Incidents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "BULLET::::- On at about 03:00, a fire erupted at the power station complex, damaging the main switchboard for the plant's power generation machinery. Power generation was ceased, but did not trigger any blackouts due to alternative sources being available at the time. Six employees of the power station who inhaled noxious fumes as a result of the fire were hospitalized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7366192",
"title": "Vasilikos Power Station",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 262,
"text": "The explosion that severely damaged the power station was heard up to away and is believed to have involved at least 2,000 tonnes of munitions. With the exception of the gas turbine, all other generators were damaged and remained offline for more than one year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2185939",
"title": "7 July 2005 London bombings",
"section": "Section::::Effects and response.:Initial reports.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 42,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 42,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "Initial reports suggested that a power surge on the Underground power grid had caused explosions in power circuits. This was later ruled out by power suppliers National Grid. Commentators suggested that the explanation had been made because of bomb damage to power lines along the tracks; the rapid series of power failures caused by the explosions (or power being ended by means of switches at the locations to permit evacuation) looked similar, from the point of view of a control room operator, to a cascading series of circuit breaker operations that would result from a major power surge. A couple of hours after the bombings, Home Secretary Charles Clarke confirmed the incidents were terrorist attacks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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]
| null |
6cqnyj | When PTSD was officially recognized as mental disorder by the American Psychiatric Association in 1980, were there a substantial amount of people that denied PTSD's existence/credibility? and why? | [
{
"answer": "The profession of clinical psychology in America actually came into being specifically because of soldiers suffering psychological distress as a result of their wartime experiences in World War II. In America during World War II, psychologists were seen as valuable by the U.S. military; of the ~4000 psychologists in a 1942 survey, about 25% were employed by the military. However, at this point, professional psychologists were either researchers or people who performed psychological testing or applied psychological principles in a broad sense. So, for example, a professional psychologist in the U.S. military might administer IQ tests or other suitability tests for the military, or might serve in advisory capacities on how to best increase the speed of production on factory lines (and so forth). Psychologists in 1942 weren't sitting in rooms with people talking about their problems. Instead, that was what psychiatrists - medical doctors specialising in mental illness - did.\n\nHowever, at the end of the war, there were 44,000 hospitalised veterans who were hospitalised for psychological reasons, presumably many of which had symptoms of what we'd now call post-traumatic stress disorder, though it wasn't called as such at the time. As a result - and because there just weren't enough psychiatrists to keep up with demand - in 1946, the VA set up clinical psychology training institutions at many major U.S. universities, who aimed to turn out graduates who could apply psychological theory to the art of therapy. \n\nIn general, the early clinical psychologists did not seem to spend much time arguing that their military psychiatric population had something like post-traumatic stress disorder which manifested differently in some people but was basically the same; a [very early 1946 paper by Abraham Luchins](_URL_0_), for example, trying out a group psychotherapy on his patients doesn't try to classify the disorder at all, or divide patients into different groups. That said, there's a ['War Bulletin' in a 1946 issue of the *Journal of Clinical Psychology*](_URL_1_) which lists a variety of different psychological conditions. In this war bulletin, the conditions that seem most like PTSD to me, judging by their descriptions, are divided into three conditions: 'transient personality reactions to acute or special stress', 'combat exhaustion', and 'acute situational maladjustment' (you can see the descriptions on the preview page on the link - they're obviously more general guides than the bullet point 'must have 6 or more'-style lists of the DSM-III from 1980). So clearly, at an institutional level in the U.S. military post World War II, there was an awareness that soldiers were being hospitalised for being unable to cope with the stress of their war experiences, and their re-integration into society. \n\nOne of the things to point out here, therefore, is that both psychologists and psychiatrists in the mid-20th century were generally unconcerned with diagnosis in the systematic way that we would now understand a diagnosis like PTSD. Instead, in general, there's much more focus on the cause of the symptoms rather than the broad pattern of symptoms. In American psychiatry this speaks to Freud's influence - he was less concerned with differentiating between anxiety and depression, and more concerned with the childhood issues that might be causing the symptoms. In clinical psychology, this likely spoke to the influence of behaviourism, an influential theory within psychology at the time, which argued that environmental stimuli played a large role in behaviour (and that, as a result, you could alter the environmental influences to alter the behaviour); clinical psychologists at this point, therefore, would in general focus more on the environmental stimuli connected to the upsetting emotional disturbances of soldiers, and less on the taxonomy of those disorders (PTSD treatment still does focus on identifying environmental stimuli that might be triggering flashbacks and the like).\n\nThe difference between 1946 and 1980 is that, within psychology, the influence of behaviourism waned, replaced by cognitivism (which argued that internal psychological modules that were often domain-specific played a large role in behaviour - cognitivism was much more inclined to seeing a *thing* called PTSD inside the mind than behaviourism was). Similarly, in psychiatry, the Freudian influence waned as psychiatrists became able to prescribe reasonably effective drugs for many disorders. Freudian ideas were replaced by more obviously medical ideas about psychiatric disorders being caused by, say, imbalances in brain chemicals like serotonin.\n\nThe DSM-III in 1980 - where post-traumatic stress disorder was first named as a specific disorder - was influential precisely because it reflected this new *medical* understanding amongst psychiatrists; it's fundamentally designed to look for constellations of symptoms that commonly occur together, so that psychiatrists can get a sense of what medications work best for what constellations of symptoms. It's safe to say that the disorders in the DSM-III do broadly reflect conventional wisdom amongst psychiatrists on what disorders were important to treat. These days, when new disorders are added to the DSM, it generally denotes awareness amongst psychiatrists that people are coming to them with distressing symptoms that do not neatly fit into existing categories.\n\nOf course, in an age where Freud's influence was waning but not entirely absent, not all psychiatrists were particularly happy about the medical slant of the DSM. Michael Trimble, writing a 1985 book chapter about the history of the PTSD concept, complains that 'post-traumatic neurosis' - which psychiatrists had been using previously to the DSM-III - is a perfectly fine term that the compilers of the DSM-III had avoided because it was too Freudian in its implications. Nonetheless, while Trimble grumbles about the DSM-III concept of PTSD somewhat, he ultimately thinks that the PTSD diagnosis is a good thing, because it means that there will be wider recognition that there are sometimes long delays between traumatic events and PTSD symptoms, and so sufferers will be more widely able to get treatment and insurance funding for that treatment - the DSM-III diagnosis at least seems very scientific and medical.\n\nThe question of how the wider culture reacted to psychological disorders in general is almost another topic on its own - but there was a slow increase in how sympathetic wider Anglophone culture was towards people with psychiatric disorders which started in the 1960s. The hippie movement famously flouted society's expectations, and seemed to enjoy the use of brain-altering chemicals and thus had a certain degree of sympathy for other people who also flouted society's expectations because of altered brain chemistry, such as schizophrenics. Similarly, people in the hippie movment like John Lennon of the Beatles played a role in the popularity of psychological fads like primal scream therapy. In the 1970s, the therapy session was a common trope in, say, Woody Allen movies, and of course the 1975 movie *One Flew Over The Cuckoo's Nest* (based on a book originally written in the 1960s by Ken Kesey, a prominent figure in the hippie movement) portrayed the inmates of a psychiatric hospital in a more flattering light than psychiatric nurses, at least. By the 1990s, you had an influential, popular band like Nirvana with songs called things like 'Lithium' and 'I Hate Myself And I Want To Die', and much of the alternative movement in rock music wrestled with mental illnesses like depression, addiction, and anxiety; Chris Cornell of Soundgarden sadly comes to mind here as just one example of a prominent rock star of the era who was open about suffering from depression.\n\nI've taken the broader context route here rather than the specific answer to your question, but if there was pushback against the DSM-III amongst the public, it largely wasn't particular to DSM-III, but instead was about the medicalisation of mental illness in general. After all, acceptance of mental illness was associated with the hippie movement, and the hippies were not popular in some quarters of American society. For some people, mental illness is fundamentally not medical, because it's a disorder of a fundamentally non-material soul; they instead might believe mental illness as being fundamentally a sign that the person needs to accept Jesus into their life. And for people with right-wing authoritarian personalities, for whom strength is an important marker of a person, mental illness is often considered shameful because it's indicative of fundamental weakness. There was talk in the 1970s of 'post-Vietnam syndrome', whereby PTSD seemed to sometimes have an onset delayed by years, which previously hadn't been discussed much. There was also some speculation that 'post-Vietnam syndrome' might be related to the ambivalent-at-best way that soldiers who fought in Vietnam were often treated, in comparison to returned soldiers from previous wars. This certainly would have been a current in popular culture as the concept of PTSD was debated and codified in the DSM-III in the late seventies.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3518068",
"title": "Complex post-traumatic stress disorder",
"section": "Section::::Diagnostics.:Differential diagnosis.:Post-traumatic stress disorder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 761,
"text": "Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) was included in the DSM-III (1980), mainly due to the relatively large numbers of American combat veterans of the Vietnam War who were seeking treatment for the lingering effects of combat stress. In the 1980s, various researchers and clinicians suggested that PTSD might also accurately describe the sequelae of such traumas as child sexual abuse and domestic abuse. However, it was soon suggested that PTSD failed to account for the cluster of symptoms that were often observed in cases of prolonged abuse, particularly that which was perpetrated against children by caregivers during multiple childhood and adolescent developmental stages. Such patients were often extremely difficult to treat with established methods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146072",
"title": "Stress (biology)",
"section": "Section::::History in research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "The psychiatric diagnosis \"post-traumatic stress disorder\" (\"PTSD\") was coined in the mid-1970s, in part through the efforts of anti-Vietnam War activists and the Vietnam Veterans Against the War, and Chaim F. Shatan. The condition was added to the \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" as \"posttraumatic stress disorder\" in 1980. PTSD was considered a severe and ongoing emotional reaction to an extreme psychological trauma, and as such often associated with soldiers, police officers, and other emergency personnel. The stressor may involve threat to life (or viewing the actual death of someone else), serious physical injury, or threat to physical or psychological integrity. In some cases, it can also be from profound psychological and emotional trauma, apart from any actual physical harm or threat. Often, however, the two are combined.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47677302",
"title": "Post-traumatic stress disorder among athletes",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "PTSD became first evident due to those individuals who suffered extremely horrible experiences from war. Society noticed that those who took part in war, or had family members who took part in war, became distant from themselves and suffered terribly and found it very difficult to cope with the tragedies. Researchers took note of this and aimed to evaluate the situation and come to a conclusion with how to rehabilitate these victims, and while doing this they determined that these people had post-traumatic stress disorder.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "82974",
"title": "Posttraumatic stress disorder",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 149,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 149,
"end_character": 1056,
"text": "The correlations between combat and PTSD are undeniable; according to Stéphane Audoin-Rouzeau and Annette Becker, \"One-tenth of mobilized American men were hospitalized for mental disturbances between 1942 and 1945, and, after thirty-five days of uninterrupted combat, 98% of them manifested psychiatric disturbances in varying degrees.\" In fact, much of the available published research regarding PTSD is based on studies done on veterans of the war in Vietnam. A study based on personal letters from soldiers of the 18th-century Prussian Army concludes that combatants may have had PTSD. Aspects of PTSD in soldiers of ancient Assyria have been identified using written sources from 1300–600 BCE. These Assyrian soldiers would undergo a three-year rotation of combat before being allowed to return home, and were purported to have faced immense challenges in reconciling their past actions in war with their civilian lives. Connections between the actions of Viking berserkers and the hyperarousal of post-traumatic stress disorder have also been drawn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57688",
"title": "Anxiety disorder",
"section": "Section::::Classification.:Post-traumatic stress disorder.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) research began with Vietnam veterans, as well as natural and non natural disaster victims. Studies have found the degree of exposure to a disaster has been found to be the best predictor of PTSD.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54848905",
"title": "Jonathan Shepherd",
"section": "Section::::Psychological impact of violence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "Working with Jonathan Bisson, Shepherd, studied post-traumatic stress and concluded that there was evidence of traumatic stress disorder in around 30% of people injured in violence and that a diagnosis of PTSD could be predicted on the basis of patients' acute stress reactions identified by junior surgeons in the emergency department when patients first attend. They then carried out a randomised trial of cognitive behavioural therapy and discovered that this could prevent the onset of PTSD symptoms.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24401",
"title": "Psychology of torture",
"section": "Section::::Psychological effects of torture.:Victims with PTSD.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 639,
"text": "The development of the diagnosis of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) for American veterans of the Vietnam War can be understood as a political act which labeled the collective distress of a defeated USA as individual psychopathology. Proponents of this view, point to the de-politicization of the distress of torture survivors by describing their distress, disturbance, and profound sense of injustice in psychiatric terms. These are not only conceptual issues, because they may influence treatment outcomes. Recovery is associated with reconstruction of social and cultural networks, economic supports, and respect for human rights.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2ydy17 | Have we ever found a species which does no fit into the genetic "tree of life"? | [
{
"answer": "The short answer to this is no. \n\nAll living things (I am excluding viruses from this discussion) are composed of cells surrounded by a membrane. They also all use DNA to store the instructions necessary to create proteins. Given these similarities, scientists have concluded that all life on Earth shares a common ancestor. It is important to note that this does not preclude the possibility that life *originated* elsewhere however. \n\nSince all life must perform many of the same functions (DNA replication, protein synthesis, metabolism), there is a subset of genes that all currently known living organisms possess. One of the most well-described of these genes is is the ribosomal RNA (or rRNA) gene. Similarities in this gene are used to determine the \"relatedness\" of two species since parts of it are not under selective pressure and can mutate at a (somewhat) predictable rate.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "No. All species are assumed to have evolved here from common ancestors, anything that does not resemble life here would probably just be assumed to have ancestors which have not been discovered. You would need something completely strange to make the claim that it is not from this planet, like a species with a genetic structure without DNA or RNA. There are theories that life on Earth originated from extraterrestrial invasions, such as via asteroids, but all of this is largely theoretical and part of that theory is based on the fact we have not managed to create life from base elements in the laboratory with conditions similar to those present early in our planets history.\n\nIt's also worth mentioning that anything that arrived here would need to survive in similar habitats and would have similar systems to survive, meaning at first glance it would appear very similar to terrestrial species. For example, one reason everything uses oxygen is because early in our planets life, organisms known as cyanobacteria outcompeted other species of bacteria when they began producing oxygen, which was extremely toxic to most lifeforms. Now, we all love oxygen, because everything that did not quickly expired.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Nope. [But there's a new limb added now and again.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A universal common ancestor to all life on earth (Archaea, Bacteria, Eukarya) has been mathematically demonstrated as 10^2,860 times more probable than the closest competing theory (of 1,800 models tested), using genetic/protein sequence similarity.\n\nDouglas L. Theobald (2010) [\"A formal test of the theory of universal common ancestry\".](_URL_0_) *Nature*\n\nSo, no. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1937800",
"title": "Substitution model",
"section": "Section::::Time-reversible and stationary models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "When an analysis of real biological data is performed, there is generally no access to the sequences of ancestral species, only to the present-day species. However, when a model is time-reversible, which species was the ancestral species is irrelevant. Instead, the phylogenetic tree can be rooted using any of the species, re-rooted later based on new knowledge, or left unrooted. This is because there is no 'special' species, all species will eventually derive from one another with the same probability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5259",
"title": "Common descent",
"section": "Section::::Evidence.:Phylogenetic trees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "Another important piece of evidence is from detailed phylogenetic trees (i.e., \"genealogic trees\" of species) mapping out the proposed divisions and common ancestors of all living species. In 2010, Douglas L. Theobald published a statistical analysis of available genetic data, mapping them to phylogenetic trees, that gave \"strong quantitative support, by a formal test, for the unity of life.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33821697",
"title": "'The All-Species Living Tree' Project",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 352,
"text": "'The All-Species Living Tree' Project is a collaboration between various academic groups/institutes, such as ARB, SILVA rRNA database project, and LPSN, with the aim of assembling a database of 16S rRNA sequences of all validly published species of \"Bacteria\" and \"Archaea\". At one stage, 23S sequences were also collected, but this has since stopped.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45338775",
"title": "Reticulate evolution",
"section": "Section::::Models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 301,
"text": "According to Ford Doolittle, an evolutionary and molecular biologist: “Molecular phylogeneticists will have failed to find the “true tree,” not because their methods are inadequate or because they have chosen the wrong genes, but because the history of life cannot properly be represented as a tree”.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "682482",
"title": "Human",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 743,
"text": "By comparing the parts of the genome that are not under natural selection and which therefore accumulate mutations at a fairly steady rate, it is possible to reconstruct a genetic tree incorporating the entire human species since the last shared ancestor. Each time a certain mutation (SNP) appears in an individual and is passed on to his or her descendants, a haplogroup is formed including all of the descendants of the individual who will also carry that mutation. By comparing mitochondrial DNA, which is inherited only from the mother, geneticists have concluded that the last female common ancestor whose genetic marker is found in all modern humans, the so-called mitochondrial Eve, must have lived around 90,000 to 200,000 years ago.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "324233",
"title": "Wollemia",
"section": "Section::::Discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Fewer than a hundred trees are known to be growing wild, in three localities not far apart. It is very difficult to count individuals, as most trees are multistemmed and may have a connected root system. Genetic testing has revealed that all the specimens are genetically indistinguishable, suggesting that the species has been through a genetic bottleneck in which its population became so low (possibly just one or two individuals) that all genetic variability was lost.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "606000",
"title": "Papillomaviridae",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomy of papillomaviruses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1060,
"text": "Phylogenetic studies strongly suggest that PVs normally evolve together with their mammalian and bird host species, do not change host species, do not recombine, and have maintained their basic genomic organization for a period exceeding 100 million years. These sequence comparisons have laid the foundation for a PV taxonomy, which is now officially recognized by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. All PVs form the family \"Papillomaviridae\", which is distinct from the \"Polyomaviridae\" thus eliminating the term \"Papovaviridae\". Major branches of the phylogenetic tree of PVs are considered genera, which are identified by Greek letters. Minor branches are considered species and unite PV types that are genomically distinct without exhibiting known biological differences. This new taxonomic system does not affect the traditional identification and characterization of PV \"types\" and their independent isolates with minor genomic differences, referred to as \"subtypes\" and \"variants\", all of which are taxa below the level of \"species\". \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
91tnu4 | Does global warming on Earth affect the solar system at all? | [
{
"answer": "The Earth is part of the solar system.\n\nApart from that there is no relevant effect. The emission spectrum of the Earth shifts a tiny bit towards shorter wavelengths but that doesn't matter outside of Earth.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "34253810",
"title": "2012 in science",
"section": "Section::::Events, discoveries and inventions.:January.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 259,
"text": "BULLET::::- A NASA study reports that changes in solar activity cannot be responsible for the current period of global warming. The sun's total solar irradiance has in recent years dipped to the lowest levels recorded during the satellite era. (ScienceDaily)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13109",
"title": "Global warming controversy",
"section": "Section::::Scientific consensus.:Solar variation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 853,
"text": "Scientists opposing the mainstream scientific assessment of global warming express varied opinions concerning the cause of global warming. Some say only that it has not yet been ascertained whether humans are the primary cause of global warming; others attribute global warming to natural variation; ocean currents; increased solar activity or cosmic rays. The consensus position is that solar radiation may have increased by 0.12 W/m since 1750, compared to 1.6 W/m for the net anthropogenic forcing. The TAR said, \"The combined change in radiative forcing of the two major natural factors (solar variation and volcanic aerosols) is estimated to be negative for the past two, and possibly the past four, decades.\" The AR4 makes no direct assertions on the recent role of solar forcing, but the previous statement is consistent with the AR4's figure 4.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33903903",
"title": "Orbital effects on climate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "There are various solar/celestial effects that exist which have an effect on Earth's climate. These effects usually occur in cycles, and primarily include how Earth's obliquity, the eccentricity of Earth's orbit, and the precession of the equinoxes and solstices affect Earth's climate. In addition to these effects, there are also other factors that have an effect on Earth's climate. These other factors include how sun activity affects climate and how celestial phenomena, such as meteors, affect Earth's climate. Some of these factors aren't yet well understood, for instance the ice ages occur on 100,000 year cycles, and it's not completely understood why the various effects with this periodicity have such a strong effect on glaciation (see the 100,000-year problem).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51539520",
"title": "Environmental issues in the United Arab Emirates",
"section": "Section::::Climate change.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "The Earth's Climate is constantly changing throughout the existence of the planet earth. In the last years, human activities including air pollution and water pollution have introduced a new area of climate change, global warming. \"The current warming trend is of particular significance because most of it is very likely human-induced and proceeding at a rate that is unprecedented in the past 1,300 years.\" In other words, today's climate change differs from the normal climate development through its induction by human activities. The global warming of over 2 °C would begin to seriously threaten global living.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3201",
"title": "Attribution of recent climate change",
"section": "Section::::Solar activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 611,
"text": "The role of the sun in recent climate change has been looked at by climate scientists. Since 1978, output from the Sun has been measured by satellites significantly more accurately than was previously possible from the surface. These measurements indicate that the Sun's total solar irradiance has not increased since 1978, so the warming during the past 30 years cannot be directly attributed to an increase in total solar energy reaching the Earth (see graph above, left). In the three decades since 1978, the combination of solar and volcanic activity probably had a slight cooling influence on the climate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206555",
"title": "Solar cycle",
"section": "Section::::Effects.:Terrestrial.:Climate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "The current scientific consensus, most specifically that of the IPCC, is that solar variations only play a marginal role in driving global climate change, since the measured magnitude of recent solar variation is much smaller than the forcing due to greenhouse gases. Also, solar activity in the 2010s was not higher than in the 1950s (see above), whereas global warming had risen markedly. Otherwise, the level of understanding of solar impacts on weather is low.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5042951",
"title": "Global warming",
"section": "Section::::Physical drivers of recent climate change.:Minor forcings: the sun and ozone.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "As the Sun is Earth's primary energy source, changes in incoming sunlight directly affect the climate system. Solar irradiance has been measured directly by satellites and indirect measurements are available beginning in the early 1600s. There has been no upward trend in the amount of the Sun's energy reaching the Earth, so it cannot be responsible for the current warming. Physical climate models are also unable to reproduce the rapid warming observed in recent decades when taking into account only variations in solar output and volcanic activity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1h09dn | why won't flies and other insects react on sudden movements on the tv or computer monitors? | [
{
"answer": "I'm not sure about this, but I think flies and other insects move because of air moving around. As screens don't make air move, they ignore it.\nKind of relevant: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Flies react to even the slightest sudden air movement, so a moving picture won't startle them but your hand swatting at it will.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Put your eye up as close as you can to a TV screen while something is on. Looking at a single spot, you just see colors changing occasionally, you don't see any movement that close. On older screens, all you will see is Red, Green, and Blue pixels.\n\nAnother thought is that since flies are so small, time seems slower to them, so the colors changing will be even slower.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While not an insect, I've always found this really interesting. _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Jumping spiders will track a mouse cursor.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "/u/unidan \n\n/u/unidan \n\n/u/unidan \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They can not look directly down or directly behind them. Tested it multiple times with glass tables and mosquito-nets (still air movement here).\nThat's why you can catch them with your hand, coming fast from low behind. Classic Ninja-party-trick ;)\n\nEdit: \"only dots changing colors/contrast\" also has truth in it, but doesn't explain mosquito-nets.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They do react to sudden movements on computer monitors. I've caused a bug to fly off of my screen before by waving my cursor over the area that it was settled on, multiple multiple times.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A lot of this is unbacked speculation. Try /r/askscience ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Probably because the sudden movements are really subtle up close. All the pixels are still red, blue, and green....yellow if you have a sharp aquos. But they're just seeing glowy disco floors.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "46080",
"title": "Halteres",
"section": "Section::::Role in visual processing.:Head stabilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1088,
"text": "Insect eyes are unable to move independently of the head. In order for flies to stabilize their visual fields, they must adjust the position of their entire head. Sensory inputs detected by halteres not only determine the position of the body, but also, the position of the head, which can move independently from the body. Halteres are particularly useful for detecting fast perturbations during flight and only respond to angular velocities (speeds of rotation) above a certain threshold. When flies are focused on an object in front of them and their body is rotated, they are able to maintain their head position so that the object remains focused and upright. Hengstenberg (1988) found that in the roll direction of rotation, the flies' ability to maintain their head position in response to body motion was only observed at speeds above 50 degrees per second and their ability peaked at 1500 degrees per second. When halteres were removed at the bulb (to retain intact sensory organs at the base) the fly's ability to perceive roll movements at high angular velocities disappeared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22396342",
"title": "H1 neuron",
"section": "Section::::Phylogeny.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "Neurons sensitive to motion during flight are not specific to flies, and have been found in numerous nondipterous insect groups including Odonata, Lepidoptera, and Hymenoptera. As in flies, these neurons receive input from both eyes and are sensitive to optic flow rotations corresponding to movement of the flying insect’s body, suggesting motion sensitive neurons are an essential component of optomotor responses throughout the insect kingdom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "157898",
"title": "Eye",
"section": "Section::::Types.:Non-compound eyes.:Spherical lens eye.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "This fast response has led to suggestions that the ocelli of insects are used mainly in flight, because they can be used to detect sudden changes in which way is up (because light, especially UV light which is absorbed by vegetation, usually comes from above).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46080",
"title": "Halteres",
"section": "Section::::Role in visual processing.:Head stabilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 874,
"text": "Halteres and vision both play a role in stabilizing the head. Flies are also able to perform compensatory head movements to stabilize their vision without the use of their halteres. When the visual field is artificially rotated around a fly at slower angular velocities, head stabilization still occurs. Head stabilization outputs due to optical inputs alone are slower to respond, but also last longer than those due to haltere inputs. From this result it can be concluded that although halteres are required for detecting fast rotations, the visual system is adept by itself at sensing and correcting for slower body movements. Thus, the visual and mechanosensory (halteres) systems work together to stabilize the visual field of the animal: first, by quickly responding to fast changes (halteres), and second, by maintaining that response until it is corrected (vision).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11608397",
"title": "Hare Lift",
"section": "Section::::Plot.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Fed up with Bugs' flying, Sam orders Bugs to turn the controls over to him. Instead, Bugs breaks off the control column and tosses it out of the plane, causing the aircraft to descend. Afraid of crashing, Sam activates the robot pilot. The pilot comes out, assesses the situation, concludes it is hopeless, takes one of the two parachutes from the parachute locker, and jumps out of the plane itself.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1197818",
"title": "Bird strike",
"section": "Section::::Bug strikes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 86,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 86,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "In 2010 the Australian Civil Aviation Safety Authority (CASA) issued a warning to pilots about the potential dangers of flying through a locust swarm. CASA warned that the insects could cause loss of engine power and loss of visibility, and blocking of an aircraft's pitot tubes, causing inaccurate airspeed readings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29728037",
"title": "Body odour and sexual attraction",
"section": "Section::::In animals.:Insects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "Insects make use of two classes of pheromone signals; the pheromones that induce immediate or releaser effects (for example, aggression or mating behaviours) and those that elicit long-lasting or ‘primer’ effects, such as physiological and hormonal changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
51syon | why do wireless headphones produce a less quality sound than wired ones? | [
{
"answer": "Well to ELI5 (im sure someone will add a better technical information).....blue tooth technology used for wireless headphones simply transmits less information than wires. An analogy would be similar to comparing mp3 to cd quality audio.....mp3 simply has less of the information about the audio than CD which means something, somewhere is lost.....",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "191884",
"title": "Headphones",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1074,
"text": "Headphones are made in a range of different audio reproduction quality capabilities. Headsets designed for telephone use typically cannot reproduce sound with the high fidelity of expensive units designed for music listening by audiophiles. Headphones that use cables typically have either a 1/4 inch (6.35mm) or 1/8 inch (3.5mm) phone jack for plugging the headphones into the audio source. Some stereo earbuds are wireless, using Bluetooth connectivity to transmit the audio signal by radio waves from source devices like cellphones and digital players. Due to the spread of wireless devices in recent years headphones are increasingly used by people in public places such as sidewalks, grocery stores, and public transit. Headphones are also used by people in various professional contexts, such as audio engineers mixing sound for live concerts or sound recordings and DJs, who use headphones to cue up the next song without the audience hearing, aircraft pilots and call center employees. The latter two types of employees use headphones with an integrated microphone.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "145372",
"title": "Audiophile",
"section": "Section::::Audio playback components.:Headphones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 395,
"text": "Headphones are regularly used by audiophiles. These products can be remarkably expensive, some over $10,000, but in general are much cheaper than comparable speaker systems. They have the advantage of not requiring room treatment, and being usable without requiring others to listen at the same time. Newer canalphones can be driven by the less powerful outputs found on portable music players.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "191884",
"title": "Headphones",
"section": "Section::::Electrical characteristics.:Impedance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Historically, many headphones had relatively high impedance, often over 500 ohms so they could operate well with high-impedance tube amplifiers. In contrast, modern transistor amplifiers can have very low output impedance, enabling lower-impedance headphones. Unfortunately, this means that older audio amplifiers or stereos often produce poor-quality output on some modern, low-impedance headphones. In this case, an external headphone amplifier may be beneficial.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16315655",
"title": "Wireless speaker",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 479,
"text": "Wireless speakers receive considerable criticism from high-end audiophiles because of the potential for RF interference with other signal sources, like cordless phones, as well as for the relatively low sound quality some models deliver. Despite the criticism, wireless speakers have gained popularity with consumers and a growing number of models are actively marketed. Specifically, small and portable wireless Bluetooth speaker models have become very popular with consumers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "102676",
"title": "Binaural recording",
"section": "Section::::Known issues.:Timbral issues related to headphones.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 1151,
"text": "Ideal listening conditions will most likely be experienced with headphones designed and calibrated to give an as flat frequency response as possible in order to reduce colouration of the audio the user is listening to. In most circumstances this has not seemed enough of a problem for end-users to make an investment into headphones that will allow them to hear audio exactly how the creator of the content intended, and will instead continue to use bundled headphones, or in some cases make investments into headphones endorsed and branded by certain artists. As previously discussed, there are issues of timbral effects present while using BRIR and HRTF data to create spatially improved audio, techniques used by Chris Pike and BBC R&D. The results experienced timbral issues and therefore this method may not yet be a successful way of creating spatially enhanced audio for headphones, but these timbral issues are also experienced with headphone choice. \"[Are timbral issues brought about by the use of BRIR and HRFT data] any worse than the difference between some cheap headphones that you get with an mp3 player versus some nice Sennhesiers\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2288590",
"title": "Crystal earpiece",
"section": "Section::::Application.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Crystal earpieces are usually monaural devices with very low sound fidelity, but high sensitivity and impedance. Their peak use was probably with 1960s era transistor radios and hearing aids. They are not used with modern portable media players due to unacceptable sound quality. The main causes of poor performance with these earpieces are low diaphragm excursion, nonlinearity, in-band resonance and the very short horn shape of the earpiece casing. The resulting sound is very tinny and lacking in bass. Modern headphones use electromagnetic drivers that work similarly to speakers, with moving coils or moving iron cores in a magnetic field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2193225",
"title": "Headphone amplifier",
"section": "Section::::Consumer models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1131,
"text": "Consumer headphone amplifiers are commercially available separate devices, sold to a niche audiophile market of hi-fi enthusiasts. These devices allow for higher possible volumes and superior current capacity compared to the smaller, less expensive headphone amplifiers that are used in most audio players. In the case of the extremely high-end electrostatic headphones, such as the Stax SR-007, a specialized electrostatic headphone amplifier or transformer step-up box and power amplifier is required to use the headphones, as only a dedicated electrostatic headphone amplifier or transformer can provide the voltage levels necessary to drive the headphones. Most headphone amplifiers provide power between 10 mW and 2 W depending on the specific headphone being used and the design of the amplifier. Certain high power designs can provide up to 6W of power into low impedance loads, although the benefit of such power output with headphones is unclear, as the few orthodynamic headphones that have sufficiently low sensitivities to function with such power levels will reach dangerously high volume levels with such amplifiers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
12yv58 | Are all solar systems formed within nebulae? | [
{
"answer": "The largest stars (O and B type) form inside H II regions. Well, this might be the wrong way to think about it. It's the largest stars that actually *create* H II regions. Here's how it goes:\n\n1. Big cloud of (mostly) neutral hydrogen molecules\n\n2. Gravitational collapse\n\n3a. If the gas gets dense enough, the cloud core collapses into a big star, O or B type, that sends out high energy, highly ionizing photons that ionize the hydrogen in a region around the star, thus creating an H II region. Probably, not many planets form around these stars since the solar winds from the stars are extremely strong.\n\n3b. If the gas doesn't get very dense at the center, this process takes a little longer and we get a smaller (solar-type) star. Probably, these are the kinds of stars around which planets have time to form. \n\nHope this helps!",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2178570",
"title": "Cosmic dust",
"section": "Section::::Some \"dusty\" clouds in the universe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "The Solar System has its own interplanetary dust cloud, as do extrasolar systems. There are different types of nebulae with different physical causes and processes: diffuse nebula, infrared (IR) reflection nebula, supernova remnant, molecular cloud, HII regions, photodissociation regions, and dark nebula.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21664",
"title": "Nebula",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "There are a variety of formation mechanisms for the different types of nebulae. Some nebulae form from gas that is already in the interstellar medium while others are produced by stars. Examples of the former case are giant molecular clouds, the coldest, densest phase of interstellar gas, which can form by the cooling and condensation of more diffuse gas. Examples of the latter case are planetary nebulae formed from material shed by a star in late stages of its stellar evolution.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21664",
"title": "Nebula",
"section": "Section::::Types of nebulae.:Planetary nebulae.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 914,
"text": "Planetary nebulae are the remnants of the final stages of stellar evolution for lower-mass stars. Evolved asymptotic giant branch stars expel their outer layers outwards due to strong stellar winds, thus forming gaseous shells, while leaving behind the star's core in the form of a white dwarf. The hot white dwarf illuminates the expelled gases producing emission nebulae with spectra similar to those of emission nebulae found in star formation regions. Technically they are H II regions, because most hydrogen are ionized, but are denser and more compact than nebulae found in star formation regions. Planetary nebulae were given their name by the first astronomical observers who were initially unable to distinguish them from planets, and who tended to confuse them with planets, which were of more interest to them. Our Sun is expected to spawn a planetary nebula about 12 billion years after its formation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21664",
"title": "Nebula",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Nebulae are often star-forming regions, such as in the \"Pillars of Creation\" in the Eagle Nebula. In these regions the formations of gas, dust, and other materials \"clump\" together to form denser regions, which attract further matter, and eventually will become dense enough to form stars. The remaining material is then believed to form planets and other planetary system objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27919881",
"title": "Little Ghost Nebula",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 582,
"text": "Round and planet-shaped, the nebula is also relatively faint. Planetary nebulae are not related to planets at all, but instead are created at the end of a sun-like star's life as its outer layers expand into space while the star's core shrinks to become a white dwarf. The transformed white dwarf star, seen near the center, radiates strongly at ultraviolet wavelengths and powers the expanding nebula's glow. The nebula's main ring structure is about a light-year across and the glow from ionized oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen atoms are colored blue, green, and red respectively.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39674",
"title": "Planetary nebula",
"section": "Section::::Role in galactic enrichment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Planetary nebulae may play a very important role in galactic evolution. Newly born stars consist almost entirely of hydrogen and helium, but as stars evolve through the asymptotic giant branch phase, they create heavier elements via nuclear fusion which are eventually expelled by strong stellar winds. Planetary nebulae usually contain larger proportions of elements such as carbon, nitrogen and oxygen, and these are recycled into the interstellar medium via these powerful winds. In turn, planetary nebulae greatly enrich the Milky Way and their nebulae with these heavier elements – collectively known by astronomers as \"metals\" and specifically referred to by the metallicity parameter \"Z\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21664",
"title": "Nebula",
"section": "Section::::Formation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Still other nebulae form as planetary nebulae. This is the final stage of a low-mass star's life, like Earth's Sun. Stars with a mass up to 8–10 solar masses evolve into red giants and slowly lose their outer layers during pulsations in their atmospheres. When a star has lost enough material, its temperature increases and the ultraviolet radiation it emits can ionize the surrounding nebula that it has thrown off. Our Sun will produce a planetary nebula and its core will remain behind in the form of a white dwarf.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
3sekb6 | why are the republican/democrat debates called debates? there's hardly any debating going on. | [
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"answer": "They're mostly called debates to lend some gravitas to the situation.\n\nWhat they are these days, however, is joint press conferences.\n\nIt would be nice to have actual debates, but that would require politicians who are willing and able to think on their feet, and argue in defense of a position, rather than requiring an army of writers to create pre-prepared statements for them to memorize.\n\nThere aren't many who are willing or able to do that.",
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"answer": "Once we get down to two candidates, the debates will become actual debates. You're right though, for now there's more masturbating than debating going on",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8147257",
"title": "Electoral geography",
"section": "Section::::World electoral geographies.:United States.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "Debate has been common in recent elections in regards to the election of the President of the United States via the electoral college. The debate stems from the fact that the electoral college is a malapportioned body., and thus provides for a scenario whereby a candidate may win the election via the electoral college without carry a plurality of the popular vote.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "45083635",
"title": "2016 Republican Party presidential debates and forums",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "The twelve Republican presidential debates, and the nine forums, were a series of political debates held between the candidates for the Republican Party's nomination for the 2016 United States presidential election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "337689",
"title": "Debate",
"section": "Section::::Competitive debating.:Forms of competitive debating.:Public debating.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 85,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 85,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "Public debate may mean simply debating by the public, or in public. The term is also used for a particular formal style of debate in a competitive or educational context. Two teams of two compete through six rounds of argument, giving persuasive speeches on a particular topic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "13232130",
"title": "Public debate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Public debate may mean simply debating by the public, or in public. The term is also used for a particular formal style of debate in a competitive or educational context. Two teams of two compete through six rounds of argument, giving persuasive speeches on a particular topic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "222069",
"title": "United States presidential debates",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "During presidential elections in the United States, it has become customary for the main candidates (almost always the candidates of the two largest parties, currently the Democratic Party and the Republican Party) to engage in a debate. The topics discussed in the debate are often the most controversial issues of the time, and arguably elections have been nearly decided by these debates (e.g., Nixon vs. Kennedy). Candidate debates are not constitutionally mandated, but it is now considered a \"de facto\" election process. The debates are targeted mainly at undecided voters; those who tend not to be partial to any political ideology or party.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52829367",
"title": "Republican Party presidential debates",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Since 1980, the Republican Party of the United States has held debates between candidates for the Republican nomination in presidential elections during the primary election season. Unlike debates between party-nominated candidates, which have been organized by the bi-partisan Commission on Presidential Debates since 1988, debates between candidates for party nomination are organized by mass media outlets.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10918329",
"title": "2008 Republican Party presidential debates and forums",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "The 2008 Republican Presidential Debates were political debates before the 2008 Republican Primaries. The first was May 3, 2007, at the Ronald Reagan Presidential Library in California. Other debates have taken place in New Hampshire, South Carolina, and Florida. They were generally broadcast by television networks.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
ei21fz | Adult adoption seems to have been very common by the late Roman Republic; was this a political development, driven by social forces, or interpersonal ones (or something else)? Was it particular to the aristocratic class or common in general? Do we know how it developed? | [
{
"answer": "On his 62nd birthday, the emperor Hadrian - tormented by an illness that had crippled him and left him subject to bouts of murderous rage - convened a council of advisers at his bedside. Painfully shifting his dropsy-stiffened limbs, he delivered a short address about his succession plans. The historian Cassius Dio (who wrote nearly a century later) gives this version:\n\n\"I, my friends, have not been permitted by nature to have a son, but you have made it possible by legal enactment. Now there is this difference between the two methods — that a begotten son turns out to be whatever sort of person Heaven pleases, whereas one that is adopted a man takes to himself as the result of a deliberate selection. Thus by the process of nature a maimed and witless child is often given to a parent, but by process of selection one of sound body and sound mind is certain to be chosen. For this reason I formerly selected Lucius before all others...But since Heaven has bereft us of them, I have found as emperor for you in his place the man whom I now give you, one who is noble, mild, tractable, prudent, neither young enough to do anything reckless nor old enough to neglect aught, one who has been brought up according to the laws and one who has exercised authority in accordance with our traditions, so that he is not ignorant of any matters pertaining to the imperial office, but could handle them all effectively...\" (69.20)\n\nThus Hadrian announced his plans to adopt the man we know as Antoninus Pius, who would succeed him a few months later.\n\nRoman adoption might best be conceptualized as an oligarchic society's response to demographic realities. Thanks largely to cripplingly high rates of child mortality, many Roman families failed to produce a male heir. Adoption allowed a childless man to perpetuate his family- a concern to all classes, but most pressing and visible among the aristocracy. There were two legal forms of adoption - one for those who had previously paterfamilias of their own family, another for those who had been under the paternal power of another - but the upshot in each case was to make one man the legal son of another.\n\nLegal adoption seems to have developed fairly early - probably by the fourth century BCE. It was certainly well-established by the middle Republic, when the general and statesman Aemilius Paulus negotiated the adoption of two of his sons into prominent families:\n\n\"So then Aemilius, having divorced Papiria, took another wife; and when she had borne him two sons he kept these at home, but the sons of his former wife he introduced into the greatest houses and the most illustrious families, the elder into that of Fabius Maximus, who was five times consul, while the younger was adopted by the son of Scipio Africanus, his cousin, who gave him the name of Scipio.\" (Plut., *Aem*. 5.5)\n\nThe institution of adoption was famously abused / creatively applied by Cicero's nemesis Clodius, who had himself adopted into a plebeian family to make him eligible for the tribunate. We also hear more and more about testamentary adoptions (posthumous adoptions by will) in the late Republic, which (unlike the two legal forms of adoption) entailed only taking the name of one's new \"father,\" not formally joining his family. The most famous instance of this is of course the future Augustus' adoption by his great-uncle Julius Caesar. Adoption continued to evolve in the imperial era, when women were allowed to adopt for the first time. It also became, as we have seen, a principle of imperial succession - though no emperor ever passed over his natural son in favor of an adopted one.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "38534",
"title": "Adoption",
"section": "Section::::History.:Antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "Markedly different from the modern period, ancient adoption practices put emphasis on the political and economic interests of the adopter, providing a legal tool that strengthened political ties between wealthy families and created male heirs to manage estates. The use of adoption by the aristocracy is well documented; many of Rome's emperors were adopted sons. Adrogation was a kind of Roman adoption which required the adrogator to be at least 60 years old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "343816",
"title": "Adoption in ancient Rome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "In ancient Rome, adoption of boys was a fairly common procedure, particularly in the upper senatorial class. The need for a male heir and the expense of raising children and the Roman inheritance rules (\"Lex Falcidia\") strictly demanding legitimes were strong incentives to have at least one son, but not too many children. Adoption, the obvious solution, also served to cement ties between families, thus fostering and reinforcing alliances. Adoption of girls, however, was much less common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "3008867",
"title": "Nerva–Antonine dynasty",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"end_character": 1151,
"text": "The importance of official adoption in Roman society has often been considered as a conscious repudiation of the principle of dynastic inheritance and has been deemed one of the factors of the period's prosperity. However, this was not a new practice. It was common for patrician families to adopt, and Roman emperors had adopted heirs in the past: the Emperor Augustus had adopted Tiberius and the Emperor Claudius had adopted Nero. Julius Caesar, dictator perpetuo and considered to be instrumental in the transition from Republic to Empire, adopted Gaius Octavius, who would become Augustus, Rome's first emperor. Moreover, there was a family connection as Trajan adopted his first cousin once removed and great-nephew by marriage Hadrian, and Hadrian made his half-nephew by marriage and heir Antoninus Pius adopt both Hadrian's second cousin three times removed and half-great-nephew by marriage Marcus Aurelius, also Antoninus' nephew by marriage, and the son of his original planned successor, Lucius Verus. The naming by Marcus Aurelius of his son Commodus was considered to be an unfortunate choice and the beginning of the Empire's decline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48125",
"title": "Roman naming conventions",
"section": "Section::::\"Tria nomina\".:Cognomen.:Agnomen.:Adoptive cognomina.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 864,
"text": "Adoption was a common and formal process in Roman culture. Its chief purpose had nothing to do with providing homes for children; it was about ensuring the continuity of family lines that might otherwise become extinct. In early Rome, this was especially important for the patricians, who enjoyed tremendous status and privilege compared with the plebeians. Because few families were admitted to the patriciate after the expulsion of the kings, while the number of plebeians continually grew, the patricians continually struggled to preserve their wealth and influence. A man who had no sons to inherit his property and preserve his family name would adopt one of the younger sons from another family. In time, as the plebeians also acquired wealth and gained access to the offices of the Roman state, they too came to participate in the Roman system of adoption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26130884",
"title": "Glossary of ancient Roman religion",
"section": "Section::::Glossary.:S.:sacra gentilicia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 369,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 369,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "Roman practices of adoption, including so-called \"testamentary adoption\" when an adult heir was declared in a will, were aimed at perpetuating the \"sacra gentilicia\" as well as preserving the family name and property. A person adopted into another family usually renounced the \"sacra\" of his birth (see \"detestatio sacrorum\") in order to devote himself to those of his new family.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48497195",
"title": "Family in ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Children.:Adoption.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Since the mortality rate of children in Ancient Rome was so high, many parents needed to adopt. This was also common if parents were unable to have children. Adoption normally occurred because of the need to have heirs to continue the family name. Most often a nephew or a grandson was adopted if the couple itself did not have a son. This was particularly prominent among the Roman emperors. Julius Caesar, for example, adopted his grandnephew Gaius Octavius (later known as Emperor Augustus) because he had no sons to succeed him. In some instances, masters would free their slave in order to officially adopt him into the family. By doing so, the slave could take on the family name and become an heir.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "343816",
"title": "Adoption in ancient Rome",
"section": "Section::::Practice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "In Roman law, the power to give children in adoption was one of the recognised powers of the \"paterfamilias\". The adopted boy would usually be the oldest, the one with proven health and abilities. Adoption was an expensive agreement for the childless family and quality had to be ensured. Adoption was agreed between families by the mother giving the boy they wanted to adopt (for the most part) equal status, often political allies and/or with blood connections. A plebeian adopted by a patrician would become a patrician, and vice versa; however, at least in Republican times, this required the consent of the Senate (famously in the case of Publius Clodius Pulcher). \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
1o5hag | Is gravity the strongest at the surface of the earth? | [
{
"answer": "That would be true if the Earth was a sphere of uniform density, but since the core is much denser than the mantle and crust, gravity peaks at the barrier between the mantle and the outer core. [Graphs for comparison.](_URL_0_)\n\nYou can think of this as the amount of less dense \"stuff\" that the mantle/crust adds doesn't compensate for the extra distance away from the very dense core.",
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"answer": "The basic model you would see in most intro classes (see xenneract's graph, the constant density line) would peak at the surface of the planet. \n\nWhy? Inside a spherical shell of constant density, the net force of gravity on a body is zero. If we treat a solid sphere as a bunch of concentric shells, the only mass that contributes to gravity is the mass from shells between the object and the center of mass. Doing the math (mass goes as density\\*volume= rho\\*4/3\\*pi\\*r^(3), force goes as G\\*mass\\*mass/r^(2) =bunch of constants\\*r), inside the planet, the force increases linearly with distance. Outside the planet, the mass is now set, and decreases as 1/r^(2). **Important Notes:** The mass above you *in this model* doesn't pull you back up. For constant density shells (which we're pretending the Earth is), there is no net force from the material above you, because you're *inside* those shells. There is less mass below you, which does decrease the force you'd experience.\n\nIn reality, there's a huge assumption in that model that's nowhere near true: the material in the Earth is constant in density. If density increases linearly as we go away from the center of the Earth, rho goes like a\\*r+b, so mass goes as a'\\*r^(4)+b'\\*r^(3), and the force would go like a''\\*r^(2)+b''\\*r. If density decreases linearly as we go away from the center of the Earth, the leading coefficients (a, a', and a'') are all negative, and you get the linear density line on xenneract's graph. The latter case (decreasing density) is closer to reality. The most realistic model has different densities for different layers of the planet, based on various geophysical measurements (the density impacts propagation of seismic waves, so geologists have developed detailed models of the inner workings of the density of Earth), and lead to the PREM line in the graph.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4387132",
"title": "Gravity of Earth",
"section": "Section::::Variation in magnitude.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Gravity on the Earth's surface varies by around 0.7%, from 9.7639 m/s on the Nevado Huascarán mountain in Peru to 9.8337 m/s at the surface of the Arctic Ocean. In large cities, it ranges from 9.7760 in Kuala Lumpur, Mexico City, and Singapore to 9.825 in Oslo and Helsinki.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "176244",
"title": "Geoid",
"section": "Section::::Simplified example.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "The gravitational field of the earth is neither perfect nor uniform. A flattened ellipsoid is typically used as the idealized earth, but even if the earth were perfectly spherical, the strength of gravity would not be the same everywhere, because density (and therefore mass) varies throughout the planet. This is due to magma distributions, mountain ranges, deep sea trenches, and so on.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9228",
"title": "Earth",
"section": "Section::::Physical characteristics.:Gravitational field.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 67,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 67,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "The gravity of Earth is the acceleration that is imparted to objects due to the distribution of mass within the Earth. Near the Earth's surface, gravitational acceleration is approximately . Local differences in topography, geology, and deeper tectonic structure cause local and broad, regional differences in the Earth's gravitational field, known as gravity anomalies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8599335",
"title": "Gravitational biology",
"section": "Section::::Gravity and life on Earth.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The force of gravity on the surface of the Earth, normally denoted \"g\", has remained constant in both direction and magnitude since the formation of the planet. As a result, both plant and animal life have evolved to rely upon and cope with it in various ways.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "664655",
"title": "Gal (unit)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 552,
"text": "The acceleration due to Earth’s gravity (see \"standard gravity\") at its surface is 976 to 983 Gal, the variation being due mainly to differences in latitude and elevation. Mountains and masses of lesser density within the Earth's crust typically cause variations in gravitational acceleration of tens to hundreds of milligals (mGal). The gravity gradient (variation with height) above Earth's surface is about 3.1 µGal per centimeter of height (), resulting in a maximal difference of about 2 Gal (0.02 m/s) from the top of Mount Everest to sea level.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "13793754",
"title": "Geophysical MASINT",
"section": "Section::::Gravitimetric MASINT.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 201,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 201,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "Gravity is a function of mass. While the average value of Earth's surface gravity is approximately 9.8 meters per second squared, given sufficiently sensitive instrumentation, it is possible to detect local variations in gravity from the different densities of natural materials: the value of gravity will be greater on top of a granite monolith than over a sand beach. Again with sufficiently sensitive instrumentation, it should be possible to detect gravitational differences between solid rock, and rock excavated for a hidden facility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "38579",
"title": "Gravity",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "Gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental interactions of physics, approximately 10 times weaker than the strong interaction, 10 times weaker than the electromagnetic force and 10 times weaker than the weak interaction. As a consequence, it has no significant influence at the level of subatomic particles. In contrast, it is the dominant interaction at the macroscopic scale, and is the cause of the formation, shape and trajectory (orbit) of astronomical bodies. For example, gravity causes the Earth and the other planets to orbit the Sun, it also causes the Moon to orbit the Earth, and causes the formation of tides, the formation and evolution of the Solar System, stars and galaxies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
5y15ts | why does nintendo create "artificial demand" | [
{
"answer": "Creating a huge production capacity and only using it for a short period of time is financially costly. Nintendo knows most people will be willing to wait a few weeks if they have to. So there is an incentive to not build a massive temporary capacity. \n\nWe saw this with the Wii, switch, and NesClassic. ",
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"answer": "There is no evidence they have **ACTUALLY** created fake shortages, this story pops up with virtually every console launch (I remember it for the Playstation 2) but the economics behind it don't work.\n\nNintendo would not make more money by having people fight over a limited set of existing devices. You're right, it only benefits scalpers.\n\nThey simply make devices that sometimes get really popular and have a hard time manufacturing enough to meet demand. Remember, Nintendo has to *spend the money first* to build the devices before it can sell them and make it back. It's hard to convince the Ninty finance guys \"yeah let's build ten billion of them\" until they can prove there's a demand for ten billion.\n\n",
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"answer": "they do not create an artificial demand, They consistently underestimate demand. \n\nIf it was artificial they would be sat on a pile of products refusing to ship them because reasons. \n\nThe issue Nintendo has is they simply do not manufacture enough, becasue they are terrible at estimating actual demand and seemingly prefer to estimate very low demand to protect themselves encase they screw something up. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "23981890",
"title": "List of Nintendo development teams",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 519,
"text": "Nintendo is one of the world's biggest video game development companies, having created several successful franchises. Because of its storied history, the developer employs a methodical system of software and hardware development that is mainly centralized within its offices in Kyoto and Tokyo, in cooperation with its division Nintendo of America in Redmond, Washington. The company also owns several worldwide subsidiaries and funds partner affiliates that contribute technology and software for the Nintendo brand.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56333950",
"title": "Nintendo Labo",
"section": "Section::::Development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 693,
"text": "The concept of Labo came from Nintendo when they asked their employees to come up with ways that the Switch's Joy-Con could be used; out of many potential ideas, the idea of building cardboard toys around the controllers held promise. According to Shinya Takahashi, the use of cardboard as part of playthings is common among Japanese children, and as they started prototyping ideas, they found the \"trial and error\" process of putting together the cardboard toys was \"extremely fun\". As the Labo concept was developed, they found it fit well within Nintendo's overall philosophy on innovating new ways to have fun, and had potential to introduce the Switch to more than just game enthusiasts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "35075282",
"title": "Industrial Toys",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 259,
"text": "Industrial Toys is an American developer/publisher of mobile games headquartered in Pasadena, California. It produces mobile games for core gamers and released its first title, Midnight Star, in early 2015. In July 2018, Electronic Arts acquired the company.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1483696",
"title": "Nintendo Software Technology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 642,
"text": "Nintendo Software Technology (or NST) is an American video game developer. NST was created by Nintendo as a first-party developer to create games for the North American market, though their games have also been released in other territories such as Europe and Japan. Although the development team is based in North America, there is a traditional Nintendo and Japanese-centric design applied to the development of the software. Co-founders Scott Tsumura and Claude Comair retired in 2002 and 2006, respectively. NST is currently headed by Shigeki Yamashiro, and is located inside of Nintendo of America's headquarters in Redmond, Washington.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "3119944",
"title": "SOTA Toys",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "SOTA Toys, or State Of The Art Toys, is a developer, manufacturer, and wholesaler of collectibles based on licensed properties from companies such as Capcom and Universal. Since the year 2000, they have created and manufactured numerous licensed products based on the characters from popular movies, TV shows, hit video games, and literary works, as well as legendary musicians and pop stars. Aside from being a developer and manufacturer, SOTA Toys also serves as fabricator and prototyper for the motion picture, toys/collectibles, and video game industry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "55979108",
"title": "Nintendo mobile games",
"section": "Section::::History.:2015–present.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 753,
"text": "Nintendo has a large stock of valuable IP characters and has developed many games. We cannot, however, simply port our existing games and IP to smart-device applications. A lot of thought is going into what kind of games for smart devices will further our business and how we can continue to foster good relationships with our existing dedicated video game platform business. Among the various ideas, a primary concern is enabling our consumers to play on not only smart devices, but also our dedicated video game systems. We want to build up the smart-device business as a core pillar of Nintendoʼs various businesses, but we have not yet reached that level. Nintendo is not at a stage where we can consider becoming a smart-device platform developer.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35930679",
"title": "Nintendo marketing",
"section": "Section::::Product campaigns.:Virtual Boy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 433,
"text": "Nintendo extensively advertised the Virtual Boy, and claimed to have spent US$25 million on early promotional activities. Advertising promoted the system as a paradigm shift from past consoles; some pieces used cavemen to indicate a historical evolution, while others utilized psychedelic imagery. Nintendo portrayed the system as a type of virtual reality, as its name indicates; it was to be more than just another gaming console.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
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| null |
2cdbe3 | How would a Medieval castle's garrison (say, 1300's) work? How would one join it and how many would be employed at peace? | [
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"answer": "Most castles did not have \"garrisons\" per se. The average castle in Europe was the home of a knight. The \"garrison\" would be the knight, any of his family (sons or brothers) who still lived at home and were of fighting age, and his servants and retainers (cooks, grooms, falconer, huntsman, etc.) who could be armed in case of need. In times of danger, the villagers would take refuge in the castle and would be armed with the weapons stored there.\n\nLarger royal castles or fortress castles, or the castles of great nobles might have had a garrison in peace time. Even so, these garrisons were often surprisingly small.\n\nFor example, here are some of the garrisons for important castles guarding the Welsh Marches in about 1160 (a little earlier than the period you are looking for).\n\nThe Pipe roll entries show that Oswestry Castle had a garrison of one knight, two porters and two watchmen between 1160 and 1165 (William Fitz Alan was the lord of the castle, but he was a young child and was a ward of the king. The King appointed Guy Lestrange to administer the Fitz Alan lands, and this is the garrison which Lestrange paid for as shown in his accounts of his guardianship).\n\nThe two other Fitz Alan Welsh border castles of Clun and Ruthin seem to have had the same peacetime garrison of 5 men.\n\nThe Welsh border castles of Shrewsbury and Bridgnorth, seem to have had even smaller garrisons. Shrewsbury was a royal castle, but about 12 miles from the Welsh border and shielded by intervening castles such as Oswestry. It had a garrison of one porter and one watchman. Bridgnorth, another royal castle, slightly further from the border had a garrison of one permanent year round porter.\n\nIn time of danger or war, the troops in these castles would be increased. In the summer of 1165 Henry II used Oswestry Castle as his base for a campaign against Owain Gwynedd (an unsuccessful campaign), and during this summer 200 soldiers were stationed at Oswestry and Knockyn Castles.\n\nAgain, in 1166-67, the border was troubled and 40 soldiers were paid for at Oswestry Castle for two years. For 158 days of one of these years another 60 soldiers, paid for by the local barons, not the King, were also stationed at Oswestry Castle. By 1168, the soldiers at Oswestry castle were reduced to 20 and that garrison seems to have remained until 1174.\n\nSource: \n\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "49557",
"title": "Castle",
"section": "Section::::Warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 108,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 108,
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"text": "As a static structure, castles could often be avoided. Their immediate area of influence was about and their weapons had a short range even early in the age of artillery. However, leaving an enemy behind would allow them to interfere with communications and make raids. Garrisons were expensive and as a result often small unless the castle was important. Cost also meant that in peacetime garrisons were smaller, and small castles were manned by perhaps a couple of watchmen and gate-guards. Even in war, garrisons were not necessarily large as too many people in a defending force would strain supplies and impair the castle's ability to withstand a long siege. In 1403, a force of 37 archers successfully defended Caernarfon Castle against two assaults by Owain Glyndŵr's allies during a long siege, demonstrating that a small force could be effective.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "3918713",
"title": "Castle-guard",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Castle-guard was an arrangement under the feudal system, by which the duty of finding knights to guard royal castles was imposed on certain manors, knight's fees or baronies. The greater barons provided for the guard of their castles by exacting a similar duty from their sub-enfeoffed knights. The obligation was commuted very early for a fixed money payment, a form of scutage known as \"castle-guard rent\", which lasted into modern times. Castle-guard was a common form of feudal tenure, almost ubiquitous, on the Isle of Wight where all manors were held from the Lord of the Isle of Wight, seated at Carisbrook Castle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "49557",
"title": "Castle",
"section": "Section::::Warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 109,
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"end_paragraph_id": 109,
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"text": "Early on, manning a castle was a feudal duty of vassals to their magnates, and magnates to their kings, however this was later replaced with paid forces. A garrison was usually commanded by a constable whose peacetime role would have been looking after the castle in the owner's absence. Under him would have been knights who by benefit of their military training would have acted as a type of officer class. Below them were archers and bowmen, whose role was to prevent the enemy reaching the walls as can be seen by the positioning of arrowslits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "29576013",
"title": "Regenstein Castle",
"section": "Section::::Prussian fort.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
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"text": "From 1671 the medieval castle was expanded into a fortress by the Prussians, who were the last users of its military function. The original castle occupies only a small part of the greater fortification. In 1677 the fort became a garrison. The length of its outer perimeter was extended in 1742 to 1,200 metres. Even under the French, to whom the fortress had to be handed over on 12 September 1757, it was extended structurally. The Prussians captured it five months later (12 February 1758) and rendered the position unusable. The powder magazine, which was located near the top was blown up. Of the fortress only the casemate, those facilities carved out of the rock and the (now restored) gateway remain. A characteristic of the fortress is the large number of cavernous rooms in the natural rock (one now houses an exhibition of archaeological finds from the castle site). Even the stables were hewn out of the rock. After 1758, the pastures and forests of the Regenstein went to the Prussian \"Amt\" of Westerhausen. From 1815 to 1945, following the reign of Westphalia (1807-1813, Canton Halberstadt Land), Regenstein became the smallest Prussian exclave and belonged to the district of Halberstadt. Today it is part of the town of Blankenburg.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "28837",
"title": "Siege tower",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Siege towers were used to get troops over an enemy curtain wall. When a siege tower was near a wall, it would drop a gangplank between it and the wall. Troops could then rush onto the walls and into the castle or city.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "8355194",
"title": "Château de Gisors",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
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"text": "A second keep, cylindrical in shape, called the Prisoner's Tower (\"tour du prisonnier\"), was added to the outer wall of the castle at the start of the 13th century, following the French conquest of Normandy. Further reinforcement was added during the Hundred Years' War. In the 16th century, earthen ramparts were built.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "20503",
"title": "Medieval warfare",
"section": "Section::::Fortifications.:Siege warfare.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 525,
"text": "In the Medieval period besieging armies used a wide variety of siege engines including: scaling ladders; battering rams; siege towers and various types of catapults such as the mangonel, onager, ballista, and trebuchet. Siege techniques also included mining in which tunnels were dug under a section of the wall and then rapidly collapsed to destabilize the wall's foundation. Another technique was to bore into the enemy walls, however this was not nearly as effective as other methods due to the thickness of castle walls.\n",
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"meta": null
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| null |
48v6q9 | how come songs/music these days have so many writers yet they only last 3 minutes tops? | [
{
"answer": "most hits or really catchy tunes are right around there. there are exceptions but hell look at Beatles songs. ",
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},
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"answer": "3 minutes is the standard pop song length. Now why are there so many writers? The answer is usually \"samples\". Here's one of my favourite examples: The Kanye West song \"Stronger\", which samples Daft Punk's \"Harder Better Faster Stronger\" which in turn sampled Edwin Birdsong's \"Cola Bottle Baby\" resulting in Kanye's song being credited to West, Bangalter, De Homem- Cristo, and Birdsong. If you see more than three writing credits, it's a safe bet at least some of these people did nothing more than record a song that got sampled in the new song.",
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"answer": "A song any more than 3 minutes will likely be edited down for radio play. If you look at deeper tracks on an album, some of them will be a bit longer. With this in mind, writers, in order for people to hear all of their work as intended on the radio instead of chopped up for time, likely write their songs so they can be heard in full on the radio.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Sometimes one of the writers was responsible for changing one or two words in the original lyrics. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Getting a writer credit isn't that big of deal. If you're in the room and you say, \" Hey, maybe you should say \"purple pajamas\" there. And the main guy goes, \"hey I love that\" you're a writer.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "12212983",
"title": "Scott Miller (pop musician)",
"section": "Section::::Writing.:\"Music: What Happened?\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
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"text": "For each year, Miller wrote about ten or more of his favorite songs, providing analytical insights and placing the songs in context in the musical world of their era. Miller had kept annual countdown lists of his favorite records throughout his life, and his personal project of compiling those lists onto CDs evolved into a formal endeavor to explain what made those songs noteworthy, for what was then the last 50 years of recorded music. The writing process started in 2006, when Miller took a hiatus from music making after the release of \"What If It Works?\". Portions of the book were serially published in draft form on Miller's official web site, where Miller responded to fan requests by writing about one year at a time, in random order.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "19766849",
"title": "Of Great and Mortal Men: 43 Songs for 43 U.S. Presidencies",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "This project initially came about as part of \"February Album Writing Month,\" a website that challenges songwriters to write 14 songs in 28 days. The three songwriters wrote and recorded rough demos of the first 42 songs in February 2006 (leaving only George W. Bush for later). \"It was an amazing challenge to get that many songs written, even split three ways,\" notes Kiefer. \"Blasting the first four or five is easy and then you’ve used up all the ideas that have been floating around and have to come up with new ones. And you have to come up with those new ideas right now.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7081361",
"title": "Modern (album)",
"section": "Section::::Background and recording.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 1108,
"text": "Pete Shelley wrote eight of the songs, whilst Steve Diggle wrote the remaining five songs. When interviewed by \"Ear Candy Mag\", Pete Shelley said that, compared to writing songs in the 1970s, there was more ways of writing songs for \"Modern\" but \"then again there's more distractions.\" He said \"I think because a lot of the songs we did as the Buzzcocks were all written five minutes before going into the studio. So, its easier when you start writing songs. You haven't got any songs that you know you are trying to write like that. So, you don't have that subconscious fear of coming up with the same song twice. It's a little bit harder than that, trying to make sure that you don't re-write the same songs ad nauseam.\" When asked if his writing style was different than Diggle's, he said \"well, I tend to wait until the last minute before I write songs, where Steve likes to finish them all and have them all ready. I'm notoriously bad... all right you have to do the world tour tomorrow! So I just stay up all night writing the lyrics. If it was me, I'd wait until the day of release before finishing.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "8173187",
"title": "Lin Xi",
"section": "Section::::Songwriting career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "He has written over 2500 song lyrics. He is well known for composing lyrics very quickly. On TVB's show \"Be My Guest\", he admitted that his fastest record for writing the complete lyrics to a song is 45 minutes. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29213591",
"title": "Red Barked Tree",
"section": "Section::::Writing and recording.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "Newman had written some songs for the album: \"My method of writing songs, which I hadn't used for 30 years, is to write them on acoustic guitar. They take an average of five minutes each. If it's not written in five minutes, it's not going to get written. I'd sit on the couch, play a bit, if I had some words from Graham, jam 'em in, record it to my iPhone, then I'd present a bunch of songs to Rob and Graham. Rob said [derisively], 'It sounds like the '70s' and Graham said, 'I hate acoustic guitar,' so I knew we were onto a winner. That's so classic Wire.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "262937",
"title": "Joseph Tabrar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "During his 60-year songwriting career, Tabrar wrote thousands of songs, many of them written to order; he is known to have written 7,200 songs, but claimed to have written more than twice that number.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31040283",
"title": "Melly Goeslaw",
"section": "Section::::Songwriting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 441,
"text": "Goeslaw has noted that her most popular songs are generally those which are written quickly, citing the award-winning \"Menghitung Hari\" (\"Counting the Days\"), which was written in four days, as an example. She has noted that she abandons songs which leave her with a writer's block, as even when they are finished they are not well received. Her husband does the arrangement, sometimes meaning that songs are put on hold because he is busy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
33tiu4 | Looking for a couple of good books for two exams I have coming up. British society 1900-1950 ish | [
{
"answer": "I'd recommend Peter Clarke's *Hope and Glory* (2nd ed, 2004) as a good overview of social, political and economic history of Britain during the 20th century. Based on your interest in sufferage and the impact of the Great War, Id also recommend Nicoletta Gullace's *The Blood of Our Sons* (2002) which looks at how the war impacted the relationship between gender and citizenship. \n\nThat said, as a teacher myself, if this is for an exam I'd recommend focusing first and foremost on the readings assigned for the class. That's the material that you will be directly graded on. ",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "853813",
"title": "Tropic of Cancer (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Critical reception.:Appearances in lists of best books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "BULLET::::- In July 1998, students of the Radcliffe Publishing Course, at the request of the Modern Library editorial board, compiled their own list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century, and the book was ranked 84th.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "55919657",
"title": "Books in the United Kingdom",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The history of the book in the United Kingdom has been studied from a variety of cultural, economic, political, and social angles. The learned Bibliographical Society first met in 1892. In recent years influential scholars include Frederic Sutherland Ferguson, Philip Gaskell, Ronald Brunlees McKerrow, and Alfred W. Pollard.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "15233922",
"title": "Theophilus C. Callicot",
"section": "Section::::Sources.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 341,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"A Critical Dictionary of English Literature, and British and American Authors, Living and Deceased, from the Earliest Accounts to the Middle of the Nineteenth Century: Containing Thirty Thousand Biographies and Literary Notices, with Forty Indexes of Subjects\" compiled by Samuel Austin Allibone (page 148; Trübner & Co., 1859)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
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"wikipedia_id": "472534",
"title": "Brockhaus Enzyklopädie",
"section": "Section::::History.:Full print editions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 236,
"text": "Thirteen editions were issued during the 19th century. The articles, often very brief, were considered excellent and trustworthy, especially on German subjects, gave references to the best books, and included biographies of living men.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3685678",
"title": "Richard Altick",
"section": "Section::::Works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1244,
"text": "Published that same year, his study, \"The English Common Reader\" (1957), showcased what his research methods could achieve. It brought together information about what sorts of books, magazines, newspapers, and ephemera ordinary Britons were reading during the first age of industrialized publishing, and presented it in a clear and thoughtful way. In his subsequent books, curiosity led him to explore a wide variety of subjects, most but not all Victorian, ranging from literary biography to the literary contexts of paintings to London panoramas to sensational murders. Among these, \"The Shows of London\" (1978), a study of public entertainments from 1600 to 1862, stands out as a major feat of research. The slender book, \"Victorian People and Ideas\" (1980), remains one of the best introductions to the period for undergraduates and general readers. \"Writers, Readers, and Occasions\" (1989) brought together essays he had published in various journals over the years. The concluding essay in that volume, \"'Tis Forty Years Since,\" offers a retrospective on the evolution of scholarly interest in the Victorians in the twentieth century, from the perspective of a \"scholar adventurer\" who had played a major role in fostering that interest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2205799",
"title": "Ninety-nine Novels",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 392,
"text": "Ninety-Nine Novels: The Best in English since 1939 — A Personal Choice is an essay by British writer Anthony Burgess, published by Allison & Busby in 1984. It covers a 44-year span between 1939 and 1983. Burgess was a prolific reader, in his early career reviewing more than 350 novels in just over two years for the \"Yorkshire Post\". In the course of his career he wrote over thirty novels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "16196682",
"title": "Kay Cornelius",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "Kay Oldham Cornelius (14 January 1933 – 23 January 2017) was a published author with more than a dozen novels to her credit. She also wrote test units for the PSAT and College Board specialized-subject achievement tests, as well as reviewing the Board's English literature examination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
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| null |
22fqrx | Why does physics assume the existence of elementary particles? | [
{
"answer": " > If so, then smashing / destroying say a quark would do what? If there are no other particles of which the quark is composed then what happens to the quark? Does E=MC2 come into the equation and nothing but energy remains?\n\nIt makes other particles. Physicists use Feynman diagrams to describe these kinds of interactions; [here's some pictures.](_URL_0_)\n\nThe energy is conserved by making other particles. \n\nFor an easy example, [this image shows how an electron and a positron (the antimatter counterpart to an electron) will annihilate and produce two photons.](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Physics does not *assume* the existence of elementary particles. Rather, we construct models, see if they work, and it turns out that models that predict the existence of elementary particles work very well.\n\nWhen you smash particles together, you are not breaking them apart. You are taking them and all their energy -- including the energy present in their mass via E=mc^(2) -- and making it possible for that energy to re-form into new entities.\n\nWe refer to some objects as matter and some as force carriers because of the way we happen to think about different entities and their interactions, but that is not necessary.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "It might help to stop and think for a while about what the phrase \"elementary particle\" even means.\n\nTo me (and, AFAIK, most real physicists), it means \"a particle that is not itself a collection of smaller particles.\"\n\nThis seems a reasonable definition. It also raises the question \"ok, then what is an elementary particle made of?\"\n\nThat's the question that gets us into fields. The idea that *all of space* is filled with various fields, which are basically just different ways that energy can be stored. A \"particle\", then, is just what you get when there is energy stored in certain ways in certain fields.\n\nFor example, take the electron. It is an excitation (a localized bundle of energy) in the all-pervasive electron field. Higgs boson? Yup. An excitation of the Higgs field.\n\nThese fields do other things besides, but *when* there are little knots of energy in them, those are elementary particles.\n\nAnd as others have said, physicists don't *assume* the existence of these things. Rather, the existence of elementary particles (and their associated fields) is a *model* of reality. That model may or may not be correct. Who knows. All we can say right now is that the predictions the \"standard model\" makes turn out to be extraordinarily accurate. \n\nThe math of the standard model says that when you smash this particle into that particle at such-and-such energy, you'll get the following results, with certain probabilities. And when we try it, that is indeed what we measure coming out of the particle colliders, to a whole lot of decimal places.\n\nAnd this happens time and time again, for many, many (many) different experiments. After a while, even though everybody remembers that the standard model is in fact just a model, we start to talk about it as though it's real. Because it has withstood so much experimental validation without breaking, we start to have high confidence that this model is actually true.",
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"answer": "I think the conceptual problem you're running into with elementary particles is that you're thinking of them as concrete, pre-existing things that physics and the Standard Model were put together to describe. I think a better point of view would be to consider the elementary particles a useful tool to describe the physics at a very small scale, but not a more philosophically significant concept than a [quasiparticle](_URL_0_) like (for example) a sound wave. Physics uses the language of particles because it is convenient and conceptually familiar, but there's no reason *a priori* to believe that elementary particles are actual objects. They could be described just as well as disturbances in a field, or wells in a curved surface, or attractors in a phase plane. \n \nThat said - if you were to split or otherwise disturb one of these elementary particles, it would tend to return (eventually) to a stable state, whatever that may be. It's entirely possible that this already happens under some experimental conditions, but it happens so quickly and is so difficult to measure that our instruments can't detect these events. Ultimately, physical theory is based on observation - it is a set of rules, applied by human minds, to understand the interactions observed in the universe. So if there's never been such a splitting interaction observed, theory won't need to accommodate it (nor should it) since the objective of physics is not to exhaust every possibility with speculation, but to concisely explain as many observable phenomena as possible. \n \nTo summarize: \n \n1. Particles are an abstraction used to formulate a useful theory about subatomic interaction - not a concrete, ontologically fundamental entity. \n \n2. Until something smaller than an elementary particle is observed, there's no need (or supporting data) to develop a theory for something smaller. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "11274",
"title": "Elementary particle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Around 1980, an elementary particle's status as indeed elementary—an \"ultimate constituent\" of substance—was mostly discarded for a more practical outlook, embodied in particle physics' Standard Model, what's known as science's most experimentally successful theory. Many elaborations upon and theories beyond the Standard Model, including the popular supersymmetry, double the number of elementary particles by hypothesizing that each known particle associates with a \"shadow\" partner far more massive, although all such superpartners remain undiscovered. Meanwhile, an elementary boson mediating gravitation—the graviton—remains hypothetical.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "24497705",
"title": "Elementary theory",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In mathematical logic, an elementary theory is one that involves axioms using only finitary first-order logic, without reference to set theory or using any axioms which have consistency strength equal to set theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "596405",
"title": "Collider",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "In particle physics one gains knowledge about elementary particles by accelerating particles to very high kinetic energy and letting them impact on other particles. For sufficiently high energy, a reaction occurs that transforms the particles into other particles. Detecting these products gives insight into the physics involved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "385334",
"title": "List of particles",
"section": "Section::::Elementary particles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 628,
"text": "Elementary particles are particles with no measurable internal structure; that is, it is unknown whether they are composed of other particles. They are the fundamental objects of quantum field theory. Many families and sub-families of elementary particles exist. Elementary particles are classified according to their spin. Fermions have half-integer spin while bosons have integer spin. All the particles of the Standard Model have been experimentally observed, recently including the Higgs boson in 2012. Many other hypothetical elementary particles, such as the graviton, have been proposed, but not observed experimentally.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1266589",
"title": "Point particle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 658,
"text": "In quantum mechanics, the concept of a point particle is complicated by the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, because even an elementary particle, with no internal structure, occupies a nonzero volume. For example, the atomic orbit of an electron in the hydrogen atom occupies a volume of ~10 m. There is nevertheless a distinction between elementary particles such as electrons or quarks, which have no known internal structure, versus composite particles such as protons, which do have internal structure: A proton is made of three quarks. Elementary particles are sometimes called \"point particles\", but this is in a different sense than discussed above.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11274",
"title": "Elementary particle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a with no sub structure, thus not composed of other particles. Particles currently thought to be elementary include the fundamental fermions (quarks, leptons, antiquarks, and antileptons), which generally are \"matter particles\" and \"antimatter particles\", as well as the fundamental bosons (gauge bosons and the Higgs boson), which generally are \"force particles\" that mediate interactions among fermions. A particle containing two or more elementary particles is a \"composite particle\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22939",
"title": "Physics",
"section": "Section::::Research.:Research fields.:Nuclear and particle physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Particle physics is the study of the elementary constituents of matter and energy and the interactions between them. In addition, particle physicists design and develop the high-energy accelerators, detectors, and computer programs necessary for this research. The field is also called \"high-energy physics\" because many elementary particles do not occur naturally but are created only during high-energy collisions of other particles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
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