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2w4bh9 | how countries like egypt and jordan can seek and destroy isis within days/hours after their countrymens' executions, and yet the us and other more powerful enemies of isis seem to have trouble locating them? | [
{
"answer": "Better cultural understanding, less regard for civilian casualties, likely a better human intelligence network in the region. \n\nWestern powers tend to rely a lot on signal intelligence and photographic intelligence, which doesn't work all that well when the targets are immersed in the local populations and not wearing uniforms.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Most of the time we have no problems finding who we are looking for. the problem is how to deploy troops to go resolve the problem. in a lot of cases we find them in a \"not so internationally friendly way\" so we have to create a story to allow us to engage the mission or wait until we have a story or a reason to be in that area. talking to them in some instances isn't as easy as it would seem because they may have informants within the ranks. Source: Former 96B",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The United States knows where major ISIS locations are but limit the air power campaign to areas where (at least hopefully) there won't be any civilian casualties.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The US is constantly conducting operations against them, it's just not always in the news. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Well, one thing to understand is that Jordan had already been participating in the air campaign against ISIS before their captive pilot was murdered. But up until that point, they were fairly quiet with the details. One of the things that changed is that Jordan became much more vocal about the sorties that they flew.\n\nSo part of the apparent surge in Jordan's air campaign is just that they started *saying* how many missions they were flying and what targets they were hitting. Though I would not be surprised if they also increased the number of missions.\n\nKeep in mind also that they're collaborating closely with the USA, who have the satellites and spy planes that provide a lot of the information about ISIS locations.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3659599",
"title": "Sudanese refugees in Egypt",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 224,
"text": "Egypt employs a \"shoot to stop\" policy against refugees attempting to continue to Israel. According to Human Rights Watch, over 50 refugees, including women and children, have been shot by Egyptian border guards since 2007.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48725664",
"title": "Timeline of ISIL-related events (2015)",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.:February 2015.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "BULLET::::- 16 February: Egypt retaliated against ISIL for the beheading of 21 Egyptian Christians by bombing ISIL camps, training sites, and weapons storage depots in neighbouring Libya. 50 ISIL militants in Derna were killed by the initial airstrikes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52019122",
"title": "Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)",
"section": "Section::::Humanitarian issues and human rights abuses.:ISIL abuses, abductions and atrocities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "An Iraqi intelligence source stated on 21 October that ISIL executed 284 men and boys abducted from Mosul for the purpose of using them as human shields. The civilians were shot and put in a mass grave. A United Nations official said the UN is \"gravely worried\" about the fate of 200 families from Somalia and 350 families from Najafia who were abducted Monday by ISIL, who could be used as human shields.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61028212",
"title": "Human rights abuses during the Battle of Mosul (2016–2017)",
"section": "Section::::Human rights abuses.:ISIL abuses, abductions and atrocities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 406,
"text": "An Iraqi intelligence source stated on 21 October that ISIL executed 284 men and boys abducted from Mosul for the purpose of using them as human shields. The civilians were shot and put in a mass grave. A United Nations official said the UN is \"gravely worried\" about the fate of 200 families from Somalia and 350 families from Najafia who were abducted Monday by ISIL, who could be used as human shields.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42975842",
"title": "Political prisoners in Syria",
"section": "Section::::2010s.:Abductions by opposition factions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 1246,
"text": "It is alleged that groups in opposition to the government in the Syrian Civil War also abduct and detain individuals arbitrarily. According to a brief released by Amnesty International in December 2013, the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham (ISIS), an opposition group controlling significant territory in northern Syria, is responsible for abductions and arbitrary detentions of citizens. AI states that those targeted by ISIS for abduction have included a \"wide range of individuals, including people suspected of committing ordinary crimes, such as theft or murder, and others accused of committing religiously prohibited acts, such as zina (sex out of wedlock) and alcohol consumption. As well, ISIS forces have targeted local people suspected of organizing protests and opposition to their rule, including community activists and members of local councils set up to provide services to residents following the withdrawal of Syrian government forces, other civil society and media activists, and commanders and members of rival armed groups, including those operating as part of the Free Syrian Army. ISIS is also alleged to have abducted foreign nationals, including journalists, staff of international organizations and religious figures.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "46252648",
"title": "Operation Shah Euphrates",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "On the night of 21–22 February 2015, a Turkish military convoy including tanks and other armored vehicles numbering about 100 entered Syria to evacuate the tomb's 40 guards and relocate the remains. One soldier died during the operation. The tomb complex was destroyed to prevent its use by ISIS.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55984193",
"title": "List of assassinations by the Assassins",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 420,
"text": "ُThe Assassins were a group of Ismaili Shia Muslims that, by capturing or building impregnable forts, established a \"state\" of their own inside the hostile territories of the Seljuq Empire of Persia, a Sunni Muslim government, and later in the Levant. Lacking a conventional army, in order to survive, they started using unconventional tactics such as assassination of prominent enemy figures and psychological warfare.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
badhr2 | In the movie Kingdom of Heaven, Saladin is depicted as having a chest full of ice in his tent in the middle of the desert. How would he have gotten ahold of ice and preserved it? | [
{
"answer": "This has been asked a few times before:\n\nlike [here ](_URL_1_) with an answer by /u/Eireika\n\nand [another one](_URL_0_) with a nested comment by /u/Valkine adding the the scene was probably a creative freedom, mixing a historical known ice gift from Saladin elsewhere into the movies setting.\n\ntl;dr: ice could be harvested and transported isolated with hay and sawdust and stored in specialized buildings and pits but conditions of practicality and cost apply.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14739080",
"title": "Dragon War",
"section": "Section::::Plot summary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1446,
"text": "The Boneless King captures Shimmer, Monkey, and Indigo. They manage to escape and attempt to retrieve Baldy's cauldron, in which Thorn's soul is now sealed. However the Boneless King turns the tables on them and traps them in a cavern beneath Egg Mountain where he was formerly imprisoned with the river poisoned and cavern sealed up. Indigo figures out that water is the exclusion to the barrier spell as the river can flow in, so transformed into ice versions of themselves, they are able to escape. Returning to the Boneless King's tomb disguised as soldiers, they find that he has finished his excavation and left. The three catch up to where the pack train is camped for the night, but are unable to bluff their way past the pickets and are forced to transform into horses. They discover that some of the guardsmen and horses have been poisoned from drinking the river water and that the pack train is transporting the stone soldiers that were found in the Boneless King's tomb. Still disguised, they accompany the pack train on its journey. On the way, mysterious gases emitted by the statues follow the pack train, arousing such resentment and fear from the population such that \"the countryside was almost ready to rise in rebellion\" by the time they reach the capital, Ramsgate. The pack train is nearly attacked by villagers at the capital's gates, but is saved by reinforcements. The statues are buried in a pit on the palace grounds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "42148737",
"title": "Anubis Shrine",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "The Anubis Shrine was part of the grave goods of Tutankhamun (18th Dynasty, New Kingdom). The tomb was discovered almost intact on 4 November 1922 in the Valley of the Kings in west Thebes by Howard Carter. Today the object, with the find number 261, is an exhibit at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, with the inventory number JE 61444.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17531258",
"title": "Ashen husk",
"section": "Section::::Physical Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "An ashen husk resembles a normal zombie or skeleton for the most part, except bone dry. So devoid of fluid they are brown and crumbling, and their flesh so desiccated that it appears nearly skeletal. Accompanying them wherever they go is a dry, sucking heat that makes the air waver, almost as though they bring with them the soul of the waterless desert.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28176667",
"title": "Gyantse Dzong",
"section": "Section::::British invasion, 1903–1904.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "The dead Tibetan defenders were \"lying in heaps,\" and it took a major effort using prisoners to drag all the bodies away. For several days the sappers were kept busy blowing up what remained of the defences at Gyantse, Tsechen and other places and finding hidden stores. Between Gyantse and Tsechen: \"Our way was strewn with corpses. The warriors from the Kham country, who formed a large part of the Tibetan army, were glorious in death, long-haired giants, lying as they fell with their crude weapons lying beside them, and usually with a peaceful, patient look on their faces.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "18037604",
"title": "Auja al-Hafir",
"section": "Section::::History.:Ottoman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "In the middle of January, 1915, a Turkish Army force of 20,000 entered Sinai by way of El Auja on an unsuccessful expedition against the Suez Canal. At this time most of the dressed stone was taken from the ancient buildings for building work in Gaza.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "5109584",
"title": "Solomon's Stables",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 535,
"text": "The underground space for the most part remained empty except during Crusader rule over Jerusalem. The Crusaders converted it into a stable for the cavalry. The rings for tethering horses can still be seen on some of the pillars. The structure has been called Solomon's Stables since the time of the Crusades as a historical composite: 'Solomon's' refers to the First Temple built on the site, while the 'stables' refers to the functional usage of the space by the Crusaders in the time of Baldwin II (King of Jerusalem 1118–1131 CE).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1524522",
"title": "Death of Manadel al-Jamadi",
"section": "Section::::Circumstances of death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 216,
"text": "Al-Jamadi came to be known by some Abu Ghraib personnel as \"The Iceman\" and \"Mr. Frosty.\" Others called him \"Bernie,\" a reference to the movie \"Weekend at Bernie's\" in which a dead body is treated as if still alive.\n",
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| null |
1524kz | How much autonomy did the Republics of the USSR have? | [
{
"answer": "I think as a follow up thought, how much does autonomy matter if you don't use it? When it got interesting in Eastern Europe (Prague Spring) things went badly for them as the Soviets brought the hammer down. You could be promised a great deal of autonomy, but in practice the threat of everything coming down on your head meant you had none.",
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"answer": "The Republics had varying degrees of autonomy. Never much. Citizens of the Republics had varying degrees of rights. Thus it was possible for the residents of some Republics to easily visit Moscow, while a citizen of Moscow might have trouble visiting the same Republic.",
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"answer": "When? It was a vastly different situation in 1922, 1935 and 1990. The USSR didn't exist as a single entity till 1922, and the Civil War had multiple theaters in the vast regions of the former Russian Empire. After 1922 and up to the beginning of WW2, there was a massive consolidation and centralization of power in Moscow. The 1922 Treaty of the Creation of USSR included Russia, Ukraine, Belorus and Transcaucasia (Armenia, Georgia, Azerbaijan) and other areas were absorbed later. \n\nThe various representatives of the republics had considerable power and influence in the central government in Moscow, but they couldn't unilaterally set policy (aside from local policy that didn't impact the overall state). The 5 Year Plan was dictated from Moscow and was the policy for the entire nation and all the republics complied. So, while there was definitely influence, there was no sovereignty. This obviously changed in the late 1980s when various movements to separate from the USSR began in every single republic. \n\nHere is an example - Eduard Shevardnadze was the First Secretary of the Georgian Communist Party (head of Georgia). He then became the equivalent of the Foreign Minister of the USSR. After the dissolution of the USSR, he became the Head of State in newly independent Georgia under various titles (eventually the President). \n\nNone of this applies to the satellite state in the Warsaw Pact. \n\n",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "7238969",
"title": "Soviet republic (system of government)",
"section": "Section::::Examples.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
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"text": "The first Soviet republics were short-lived communist revolutionary governments that were established in what had been the Russian Empire after the October Revolution and under its influence. These states included some such as the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic which won independence from Russia during the civil war period. Others such as the Ukrainian Soviet Republic and the Socialist Soviet Republic of Byelorussia later became union republics of the Soviet Union and are now independent states. Still others such as the Kuban Soviet Republic and the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic were absorbed into other polities and no longer formally exist under those names.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "26950",
"title": "Republics of the Soviet Union",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The Republics of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics or Union Republics () were the ethnically based proto-states of the Soviet Union. For most of its history, the USSR was a highly centralized state; the decentralization reforms during the era of \"Perestroika\" (\"Restructuring\") and \"Glasnost\" (\"Openness\") conducted by Mikhail Gorbachev are cited as one of the factors which led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "376732",
"title": "Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic",
"section": "Section::::Administrative divisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
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"text": "Legally, the Soviet Union and its fifteen union republics constituted a federal system, but the country was functionally a highly centralised state, with all major decision-making taking place at the Kremlin, the capital and seat of government of the country. The constituent republic were essentially unitary states, with lower levels of power being directly subordinate to higher ones. Throughout its 72-year existence, the administrative divisions of the Ukrainian SSR changed numerous times, often incorporating regional reorganisation and annexation on the part of Soviet authorities during World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "25391",
"title": "Russia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Soviet Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (called \"Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic\" at the time), together with the Ukrainian, Byelorussian, and Transcaucasian Soviet Socialist Republics, formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), or Soviet Union, on 30 December 1922. Out of the 15 republics that would make up the USSR, the largest in size and over half of the total USSR population was the Russian SFSR, which came to dominate the union for its entire 69-year history.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "645361",
"title": "Republics of Russia",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "The republics were established in early Soviet Russia. On 15 November 1917, Vladimir Lenin issued the Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia, giving Russia's minorities the right to self-determination. However, most of these new states would be re-conquered by the Soviets during the Russian Civil War. When the Soviet Union was formally created on 30 December 1922, the minorities of the country were relegated to Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics (ASSR), which had less power than the Republics of the Soviet Union. The early Soviet authorities nevertheless encouraged minorities to join the governments of their republics to represent themselves and de-Russify the country in a period known as korenizatsiya. This policy also affected ethnic Russians and was particularly enforced in ASSRs where indigenous people were already a minority in their own homeland, like the Buryat ASSR.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "13824438",
"title": "Soviet Army",
"section": "Section::::Cold War.:Dissolution of the Soviet Union.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
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"text": "On 8 December 1991, the presidents of Russia, Belarus, and Ukraine formally dissolved the USSR, and then constituted the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Soviet President Gorbachev resigned on 25 December 1991; the next day, the Supreme Soviet dissolved itself, officially dissolving the USSR on 26 December 1991. During the next 18 months, inter-republican political efforts to transform the Army of the Soviet Union into the CIS military failed; eventually, the forces stationed in the republics formally became the militaries of the respective republican governments.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "26779",
"title": "Soviet Union",
"section": "Section::::Administrative divisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 112,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Constitutionally, the USSR was a federation of constituent Union Republics, which were either unitary states, such as Ukraine or Byelorussia (SSRs), or federal states, such as Russia or Transcaucasia (SFSRs), all four being the founding republics who signed the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR in December 1922. In 1924, during the national delimitation in Central Asia, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan were formed from parts of the Russia's Turkestan ASSR and two Soviet dependencies, the Khorezm and Bukharan SSRs. In 1929, Tajikistan was split off from the Uzbekistan SSR. With the constitution of 1936, the Transcaucasian SFSR was dissolved, resulting in its constituent republics of Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan being elevated to Union Republics, while Kazakhstan and Kirghizia were split off from Russian SFSR, resulting in the same status. In August 1940, Moldavia was formed from parts of the Ukraine and Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (SSRs) were also admitted into the union which was not recognized by most of the international community and was considered an illegal occupation. Karelia was split off from Russia as a Union Republic in March 1940 and was reabsorbed in 1956. Between July 1956 and September 1991, there were 15 union republics (see map below).\n",
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| null |
2d18xi | why do we feel the urge to destroy things when we're angry? | [
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"answer": "I love part II of edit #3",
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},
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"answer": "Probably carries over from human social interactions, where hitting someone has a chance of them actually being more cooperative, vs you know hitting a computer, which does not understand violence.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I'm no scientist, but it is likely because when we were more solitary (not incredibly civilized), anger could be elicited by another human getting the better of us, in which case the desire for a fight and the adrenaline rush that often accompanies it would help us to get back on top. Nowadays it just gets us in jail, but our brains don't know that. ",
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"answer": "Violence has multiple reasons, most are based upon our ancestors. Since all things lead to sex, let's get that one out of the way. Destroying things and being violent in general is a display of sexual ability. This is where the brain goes when we get real real mad - primal. \n\nAlso consider animals and being that we are in fact such you have to realize it is a self defense mechanism. When we reach a certain threshold we no longer can contain ourselves as civilized and retreat to a primal state. When cornered, animals will naturally lash out in an attempt to repel their enemies. Sometimes this destructive nature is an attempt to keep everyone away while you calm down.",
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"answer": "It's the displacement defense mechanism. We take out our frustration on an inferior being/ object that we see as easy-to-defeat.",
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"answer": "If I had to guess its because you feel defeated, so in return violence allows you to feel in control by being able to destroy things. If you ain't outta control, you ain't in control.",
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"answer": "I break things unnecessarily all the time. I recognize it's immature, but it's ALWAYS in solidarity in the confides of my home. If anyone has advice with healthy \"just walk away\" practice, I would love to hear it. It's a wallet breaker, being an idiot and all. ",
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"answer": "Anger management therapist here. People usually get angry in response to feelings of vulnerability and disempowerment. Any situation where someone gets angry, they are also probably feeling something like hurt, insecure, disrespected, invalidated, betrayed, frustrated, threatened, the list goes on. Anger allows you to get some of that power back and direct those negative feelings outward on to someone/something else (e.g. destroying something). This often makes people feel better in the short term, even though there are typically long term consequences of acting aggressively. Also, when I say this can make people feel better, the anger and aggression is sometimes identified as relatively better than sitting with feelings of vulnerability and powerlessness. Emotions are subjective and there are tons of individual differences between people. This is a ELI5 thread. \n\nEdit: Added a couple words to more explicitly address OP's question about destroying objects and to clarify the perceived benefits of aggression versus sitting with powerlessness. \n\n",
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"answer": "Silverback gorillas do the same thing to assert dominance - thrash nearby branches, throw stuff. It's to show their rivals how strong they are. \n\nThe idea is that a sufficiently impressed rival will not even attempt a real confrontation, saving everyone involved the effort of recovery from injuries sustained fighting within the group. That energy then remains available for fighting with other gorilla groups or gathering food.\n\nThat's one reason such a response could have been an evolutionary advantage. I assume we inherited it from (EDIT: Our common ancestors that we share with) the apes. I assume it is also found in other animals.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "From an evolutionary point of view its because lashing out in times of anger was beneficial to our survival. It can be an irrational (though not always) reaction to stress, fear or anger but it makes us more likely to fend off attackers if there are any. ",
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},
{
"answer": "I think it's the aspect of releasing anger in a physical form. When I used to self-harm, the main reason was I'd be mad at someone or thing (myself, friends, the world) and I needed to take it out somehow. Not really destroying things like you asked, but some insight. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "**Anger Destruction:**\n\nIf it's just a moment of anger: Power. Destruction is the easier thing in this universe. Imagine the sheer efforts it would take to have coordinate, build, and staff a fully functional Starship Enterprise. On the other hand, it'd be pretty easy for any idiot to crash the thing into a rock. Destructive outbursts give the illusion of power, and cause you to influence things when you feel you feel completely overrun. Chaos even gives a sense of hope, that if the roll of the dice has betrayed you, maybe you can throw out the dice and cause something entirely novel to occur. It can help give hope to \"mix things up\" when all has turned against you.\n\n**Psychotic resentment destruction:**\n\nOn the other hand, closely tied to bullying, there's pathological rage and destructive tendencies that you see in abusers. That is caused by a resentful personality of extreme arrogance that wishes to engulf and take revenge on basically existing. They want to \"ruin it for everybody\". Lots of times folks confuse the latter for the former and like to \"forgive\" serial killers, war criminals, understand spree killers, sociopaths in high places, as only having been ignorant/angry/misunderstood and throwing a big tantrum. In reality, arrogant/resentful personalities from Hitler to your average abuser are insatiable, and must be given nothing. Nothing. They must be beaten with sticks and shown no sympathy so as to deflect all rancor back upon themselves. They must fall on their own sword, and any naiveté shown will be weaponized against somebody. These types are notorious for knowing what's right and shirking it anyway, and they only do this shit because they can and because you let them. While you let them, they laugh at you. When you stop them, they elongate their face at you and try to get sympathy so you'll look the other way and it'll start again. Ego is their ally, and if they can stroke yours through compliments or sympathy, it's all that much more of an exciting fetish for them to wound you or others by it later. That, or to put you through a trial by fire and prove that you're a big fat \"phony\" and that your good will is just ego. Part of their mission is a righteous crusade against \"phonies\", the other part is the sadistic destruction of \"this cruel world\". These people are extremely cowardly and very easy to rattle, and always delusional on some level of analysis.\n\nThat's the difference between anger destruction and psychotic resentment destruction.",
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"answer": "Imagine a man confronted by another man, or an animal. If he gets angry, his berserk attack might be crazy enough for him to win. Or, walking through a thicket, one might get frustrated and start ripping through plants and bulldozing through. Maybe he would get some scratches, but at least he is through the thicket. Of course, irrational decisions made when angry can lead to negative consequences, but we still have this in us so the good at least balances out the bad.",
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},
{
"answer": "Because my fucking bot lane needs a boot up their respective assholes, Jesus Fucking Feeder Christ.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "BECAUSE IT FEELS GOOD GODDAMNIT",
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},
{
"answer": "Here's an explanation I learned in an animal behavior course - it's called a redirected attack. Animals do it, just like us. Basically, when we get angry at another person, we have the urge to attack them in some way. But for a variety of reasons (including that attacks are energetically costly and that actual attacks can shatter social bonds) it's actually more adaptive to redirect the attack at some other object. Thus, if I get furious at you, I'll most likely slam my hand on the table or smash something instead of punching you in the jaw and smashing your skull. \n\nGulls have been observed to do this in territorial disputes. Instead of attacking each other, they usually will violently pull grass out of the ground in a manner similar to how they behave if in a physical confrontation.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Who is we? Thankfully rational thought never escapes me.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The.\n\nMedulla.\n\nOBLONGATA!\n\n\nseriously: someone pisses us off, we get angry, hurt them/kill them\n\nthey're never inclined, or can't do it again, sets a precedent with other people, don't piss off that guy\n\nbut civilization has developed tolerance, and thus we have a bunch of shitheels we should have weeded out of the human genome hundreds/thousands of years ago running things like government",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A psychologist might be able to answer this in /r/askscience",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Ever seen a Chimpanzee put on a dominance display? Looks exactly like an angry drunk uncle destroying his daughter's 3rd period art class sculpture during a drunken fit about the Chicago Bears longstanding Quarterback issues.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not a doctor, but I believe it has something to do with anger triggering our \"fight or flight\" mechanism. Some folks avoid the problem, some tackle it head-on, and some folks beat the shit out of things.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Testosterone for men = destruction.\n\nEstrogen for women = crying.\n\n\"It's Science\" - Anchorman",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I know I will sound like a weirdo, but there have been times in my life when my anger has been so extreme that I have chewed holes in my skin. Yes, it's been when I feel I have no control or escape from a situation (or person), but I know part of the reason is because I know I can't attack another person (no matter how infuriating they are). That rage has to have an outlet, & it isn't rational or patient. It's called blind rage for a reason. It would be better not to have it at all, but if you do, better to break an object than someone else's face. (And I just try to remove myself from any triggering situations, if possible.) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not everyone does. I certainlybdont and can't ever remember a time where violence or destruction was ever a response of mine to anger. I'm more of a plotter.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This might just be me, but when I get angry, and see others happy/content it makes me angry. Let's say a vase is just sitting on a table, all smug and happy, without a care in the world. I see that little fucker and I go off the wall. I smash his ass to kingdom come.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Just a guess, but I'm assuming that when us humans developed our emotions it was a looooong time ago. Caveman days, the only thing you would get mad at was either trying to kill you or steal your girl. No courts or law or loss of material possessions involved, kill or be killed. Or lose your girl. All about survival. At that time breaking stuff and fighting was the appropriate response to rage inducing stimuli. Just a guess.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I always presumed it was a sort of demonstration of power",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Counselor and trainer for therapeutic crisis management. \n\nA key thing to know is that as we get more emotional (especially anger or fear) our ability to access our more rational brain functions drastically decreases. So a normally none destructive person can lose the rational part that says \"Stop. This isn't helping\" \n\nSo people in the middle of a crisis episode can destroy property for a number of reasons- but it mostly is an expression of psychological pain. Maybe you want someone to help you or you want to show others that you are dangerous and to stay away (safety) or you want to gain control of a situation (autonomy) what drives the meaning is likely whatever need you are trying to meet in that moment. (Usually irrationally)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's your medulla oblongata",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It reaffirms one's feeling of efficacy when you've been slighted or feel you've been damaged in some way.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bescause anger is meant to make you destroy whatever made you angy (the bird that stole your berries, the rat that bit you, the bush that blocks your way). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Aggression has presumably evolved as it has some *survival value*. In our prehistoric past it has been an adaptive way of dealing with frustration. So firstly aggression is linked with a frustration of some sort which may also be linked to some perceived threat or danger. \n\nSecondly, through the process of civilisation we have learnt that we have to hold certain impulses in check. As such innate drives like aggression need to find substitute satisfactions. Expressing them to directly will be counter productive, so they are *displaced* onto other objects in the environment. \n\nThirdly, the withholding of aggression is unpleasurable, it leads to an increase in tension. The building up of this this seeks discharge. Linked to the above, if this can't be expressed directly it will find some *substitute object*. This object may also then symbolically stand in the place of the primary object of the aggressive impulse. \n\nLastly I would add that aggression also usually erupts when our ability to think fluidly and flexibly is compromised. Powerful impulses and affect states like aggression can compromise these higher cognitive functions. This puts us at risk of regression to more primitive modes of thought were meaning and intentions are represented by changes or alterations in the physical world. \n\nSo destroying objects in the environment is the expression of a natural instinctual drive (aggression), it provides a pleasurable release of damned up tension (it feels good), it is directed at a substitute object (via displacement) in order to minimise the consequences of direct expression (i.e. assaulting a person), and it is a more primitive form of thought that places action above words. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It is because your natural instinct is to hurt something, your brain keeps you from actually hurting a person, most of the time, and so you let it out on an object. \n\nWhy is your natural reaction to anger wanting to hurt something? Because that is how animals survive, in fact I would say that the only purpose of anger is to aid in our ability to fight, which is in essence an act of destruction.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Wow Reddit, your information amazes me.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I've always wondered why people did that. Never had that urge. Always thought it was funny. So you're upset, now you're upset with a broken game system and a broken wall. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I took a \"how to deescalate combative patients\" class as a nursing assistant and I remember the instructor saying that if someone is starting to get angry and starts hitting/smashing/throwing things, get out of there quick because that's a primal instinct we have to warn others that we're not afraid to hit them if they test us. That's probably why we feel the need to smash/destroy things when we get angry, it's effective nonverbal communication to tell others around us that we feel threatened and aren't afraid to fight. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Displacement: a psycho-social defense mechanism. When feeling angry, powerless, unable to retaliate due to several social reasons, we often look for other outlets to release pent up anger. The boss yells at husband, husband yells at wife, wife yells at son, and son kicks the dog.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This might be an uncommon explanation from a Buddhist. When we experience an unpleasent feeling arising in our mind, we urgently wish to escape this feeling. Usually we blame an object, person or situation for causing this feeling and our following response is to become angry, harbor the wish to destroy, or become defensive. If we learn to accept the negative feeling we are free to respond in a more passive or patient manner. Angers main wish is to destroy, it has no other purpose.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "About a year ago I observed a car flying by me doing probably 25 over the speed limit (~70 in a 45) so I honked as he zipped by. When I inevitably wound up near him at the next red light (funny how that works), he rolled down his window and screamed profanities for the entire light cycle -- which was one of the longer cycles in my city. Spittle was flying from his mouth and veins were bulging. My wife and I were in shock at how angry he was. I think he may have been on drugs. We just chuckled and shook our head at him and discussed how crazy he was being. Our body language seemed to make him more angry and he spit his gum at my car. As it rolled off the hood I told my wife, \"Damn him, he just spit gum on my 1994 Subaru Legacy luxury wagon!\" \n\nAs the light turned green and we drove off, I couldn't help but think of the poor souls who have been murdered in road rage incidents that started in a similar manner. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because fuck bot Vitaly and his 0.2 reaction time. Seriously Vitaly, shove that Awp up your fucking ass. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Take it easy with that \"we\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Simply put: it lets one in the midst of frustrating impotence to demonstrate their power to make \"something\" happen.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because less than 500 years ago all of our ancestors weren't living in a policed/\"civilized\" world. \n\nIt was more fight or flight. If you can't destroy whatever is going to destroy you, you're done. So in essence, you are a large bit of the result of the best man standing. \n\nAnger is only necessary for the righteous, in these instances. Though, written history is often subject to the hands of the rotten.\n\nRighteous will live on in the shadows.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "YOU'RE A FUCKING INANIMATE OBJECT! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because if I can't have nice things, then NOBODY ELSE CAN HAVE NICE THINGS.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The most rational and useful situation in which anger arises is when we are threatened by physical harm from another person. Many children, specially boys, are threatened by other children that way. Threats to be punched, have a toy taken, and punched if resisting, being pinched in the arms was used in previous times too. Today it is common for boys to be forced into submission, by being punched in the stomach, punched in the face and holden by the neck in an arm lock. If the child under attack is not overwhelmingly disadvantaged in size or strength, anger can be really useful in motivating strugle and retaliation against the agressor. It is during this period of male childhood that anger is the most appropriate rational and useful emotional response, and this is the emotional developmental context of many male adults of our society.\n\nIn some societies and even many places around developed countries, the physical violence continues well through teenage and young adult years. Anger and associated use of physical violence is still very useful and rational, arguably still determining positive social outcomes resulting in better reproductive successes, promoting better social standing and status, protecting siblings and mates, attracting potential mates.\n\nDuring all prehistory and all through history up to the last century, humans were frequently, repeatedly submited to situations like those of young males. And during all these milenia the most rational and useful emotional response must have been anger to retaliate with physical violence in many, even the majority of situations. The same way, during thse more violent times, both men and women with atuned anger responses to these situations of threat and loss must have had good results, protecting themselves, their siblings and better chances of mating and reproduction.\n\nAs you can see, because of better reproductive chances, people with a propensity to feel anger during situations of loss and threat could reproduce in greater numbers than people that experienced a simple fear and fled or people that simply felt sad and anguished.\n\nThe combination of individual propensity and childhood experiences can triger physical agitation and impulses to physically attack something. This happens when the person feel frustated, when they realize that they lost something or will lose it.\n\nIt can happen when people discover someone betrayed their trust, which threatens their social standing or social life, like a boyfriend that was cheated by his girlfriend, realises that he will never enjoy her company anymore, he won't ever be able to marry her or have children with her, and she may even know threatening secrets about him.\n\nDuring the state of anger, the brain might imediately trigger the physical attack responses that were reinforced during childhood, or by genetic inheritance. This sudden burst of physical activity also contains a target element, as was the case when physical response was useful, there was an aggressor present. But if no aggressor is present, the brain nonetheless targets something. It is a split second decision, but it is enough for the person to avoid attacking someone they love, or that is harmless or not connected to the situation. Usually the person targets an inanimate object, because any innapropriate damages done, he instinctively know, has few risks of damaging his social standing or cause severe responses from others.\n\nThis is why people feel urges to destroy things when they are angry. They are executing the cognitive steps that are important when anger would be useful and rational.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because Hulk smash",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't feel the urge to destroy things when I'm angry, then again I don't get angry a lot.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because. Hulk. Smash.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When one is angry, one is generating energy. When the anger / energy becomes too great, that one must release it. The one then unleashes this anger / energy towards the easiest target.\n\nIt's the same explanation as the one by /u/MrPaleontologist but couched in different terms.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because we were made in the image of god. And that's what he does. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For some, I'd say it has to do with control. \n\nMan lost for the 15th time at video game. Man angry because he can't control this outcome. Man smash thing to feel better and in control. \n\nI don't think everyone feels this, and others might have more or less of control on what makes them angry and how angry they get at it.\n\nThen there's the case of \"hurting\" things back. Stubbed your toe on the coffee table. The coffee table isn't a living thing, but kicking it back feels better because you got back at it. You showed that coffee table not to mess with you again!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I AM GROOT. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I mostly punch things that don't break...it does not help my hands but at least I don't break much! ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you're a psychopath you do. That shit ain't normal nigga",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In my (unofficial) behavioral model, aggression is the extroverted response to the invalidated excitatory impulse. In my model, inhibition and excitation are defined as the pursuit of consistency vs intensity, respectively, OR the pursuit of security vs new information.\n\nWhen our pursuit of new information is invalidated, such as when we're hunting for food and our prey swipes back, the pursuit of aforementioned prey is threatened. The extroverted response (where our locus of awareness is external OR on our environment) is aggression, OR to fight back. The introverted response (where our locus of awareness is internal OR on the self) is escape, OR the flight response.\n\nConversely, when our pursuit of security is invalidated, such as when our territory is threatened, our understanding of how the \"world works\" is challenged.\n\nThe introverted and extroverted responses to the invalidated pursuit of consistency are, respectively, denial vs offense. Much like the escape response, denial is an introverted response, the locus of awareness is on the self, and both impulses become increasingly ideal as the degree of anxiety increases. \n\nThis is because inhibition and excitation are inverse definitions of each other, and heavily interplay.\n\nThe same pattern can be observed for the offense impulse. Both offense and aggression perceive a subjective loss of control of their external environment, and the extroverted response to invalidated excitation actively aggresses in pursuit of unknown gains, while the extroverted response to invalidated inhibition will aggress in pursuit of maintaining their world view, be it territory, personal security, subjective understanding, etc. Both become increasingly hostile as the degree of anxiety increases. Both seek to regain this subjective loss of control.\n\nIt should be noted that, in my (unofficial) behavioral model, all the responses mentioned above are immediate (and to a degree, unconscious), but also form the basis for retrospective response behavior which defines social behavior, including pleasure and reward oriented impulses. And while the pursuit of new information may form the basis for the pursuit of reward, the pursuit of approval or to validate reward oriented expectations are dependant on social/environmental factors, the responses to which are dependant on an additional scale of subjective awareness. \n\nAs a reassuring side note, in my model creativity is defined as the introverted response to the validated excitatory impulse, and while it is immediate, it translates all the way up the behavioral tree fundamentally influencing social phenomenon like love, humor, and beauty.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The Chimp Paradox](_URL_0_) By Prof. Steve Peters explains this nicely. I've had the pleasure of working with him a few times, and he explains the animal-primitive tendencies that we still have in our brain today. It's truly a great read... recommended. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "While the top comment in this thread seems legit I don't feel like it answered the question for me. When I get really angry I feel an almost overwhelming urge to seriously destroy shit. I've broken a chair before and have very much wanted to break other things but held back (I felt bad about the chair). I am just curious why the feeling is directly about breaking shit. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I just curse when I'm angry, a couple mother fuckers and I'm right as rain. Unless you're a proper cunt then it's go fuck yourself city.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For me its when im angry and I cant control what's making me angry I feel the need to be in control or to feel powerful or I stay frustrated longer. It's not usually in the form of destroying things mostly the gym or hitting the heavy bag but there have been times where it was me punching a wall or a face. I've had my anger management under control for years now though.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because those things are stupid and we hate them.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "My friend was mad at his printer for not printing so he swung his leg at it and missed then tried again to make sure he would hit it",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's just one of those days when you don't wanna wake up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I just see a red mist, and I want to break shit, it's like a uncontrollable desire.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To put forth an alternative theory to the displacement explanation given in most of the other responses; there is a more strategic evolutionary pressure at play here:\n\nFrom a completely rational standpoint, using violence against people who have wronged you is largely pointless; the damage has been done and, unless your goal is to prevent the behavior from happening again, in which case it might be justified, causing harm to your opponent will really change nothing about the situation except that you have wasted energy, lost a potential ally, and possibly been killed or injured because your opponent was actually stronger than you.\n\nSo we avoid unnecessary confrontation by cultivating and spreading reputations. Consider the following parable about primitive humans:\n\n\nCronk: \"So I was thinking we should steal the deer that Grob just killed\"\n\nCraw: \"Nah, man. One of us could die! He would absolutely kill someone who stole his food\"\n\nCronk: \"Really? You've seen him do that?\"\n\nCraw: \"Of course not! No one has been stupid enough to try to steal from him!\"\n\nSo Grob's food is safe simply because he acts in a way which makes his potential rivals believe that he is dangerous regardless of whether he is or not. But Grob has a cousin Bob who is smart enough to know what Grob is doing.\n\nBob: \"So I heard that you were planning to steal Grob's deer?\"\n\nCronk: \"Sure, but we decided that it wasn't worth it. He would probably kill one of us.\"\n\nBob: \"Have you ever *seen* him kill someone who was stealing from him?\"\n\nCronk: \"Well, no. But you've heard the stories about him.\n\nBob: \"Look, I know for a fact that he has never killed someone. Plus, I'm his cousin.\"\n\n*Cronk is still unconvinced*\n\nBob: \"Grob is a smart guy. He is not going to risk getting in a fight and potentially losing or potentially killing a family member just to save a day's worth of food. If we challenge him he will know that he needs to give up and we will get the deer.\"\n\nCronk: \"Sure. I think that makes sense. Let's do it\"\n\n\nSo Cronk, Craw, and Bob go to Grob's camp.\n\n\nBob: \"We're here to take that deer. Sure, it looks delicious but is it really worth fighting over?\"\n\nGrob: \"You stupid motherfucker what the fuck do you think? I'm just going to stand here and let you take my food?\"\n\nBob: \"Sure, why not? It is the reasonable thing to do, right?\"\n\nGrob: \"You see this?\"\n\n*Grob starts destroying things around his own camp*\n\nGrob: \"This is what I do to things *that I like*. Do you unevolved pieces of shit really think that I give two mammoth shits what is a *reasonable* response to the situation?\"\n\nCronk: \"Bob, this guy is crazy.\"\n\nCraw: \"Bob, you're an asshole.\"\n\n*Craw and Cronk leave*\n\n*Bob has no idea why his plan failed but he runs away because Grob is one crazy motherfucker*\n\nGrob lost maybe a few clay pots and a very shiny handaxe but no one ever tries to steal from him again because everyone knows that he goes nuts when people cross him. You can not form a safe strategy against someone like that.\n\nGrob lives happily ever after and has about twenty children because the chicks dig a consistent provider of sustenance. \n\n\nSometimes it is a completely valid strategy to conspicuously show that you are unconcerned for your own well-being because that makes you far more dangerous than someone who is thinking rationally. It is a behavior seen throughout the animal kingdom. The only difference between us and them is that we, as a society, depend on laws and governments to stop things like theft so the instinct is let out on pillows while no one is watching; In places with little or no law enforcement presence (the early American west, crime-prone inner city neighborhoods, areas of South and Central America controlled by drug cartels etc. so-called \"cultures of honor\") you will still see behavior like this regularly to an extent that is is a common trope in media (Tuco from Breaking Bad comes to mind).\n\ntl;dr: The best way to win a game of chicken is to throw your steering wheel out the window while you opponent is watching.\n\nSource: Steven Pinker's The Better Angels of Our Nature; with significant liberties taken with delivery of concepts.\n\n\n\nEdit: Regarding the trope: this is why the *bad* in \"Good Cop, Bad Cop\" works. The criminal can normally assume that they are safe and that they know how cops will behave because they have to do things \"by the books\" but as soon as the bad cop smashes a coffee mug against the wall, they have to rethink that. Good cop: \"I can't control what he is going to do; he cares more about this case than about keeping his job. Just confess and he won't have to start biting off fingers\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Same reason we clap or shout when we feel joyful, it's reflex to excerpt excess energy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Anger is the fight mechanism of the flight or fight response. During episodes of anger, your body pretty well prepares you to deal with a violent survival situation. The other side of fight or flight is fear, which can be a multitude of different emotions like anxiety, dread, panic, etc.\n\nAnger and fear are the emotional results of a situation that an individual has lost control over. Fear is when we feel we cannot regain control of the situation and must flee and anger is when we feel we *can* gain control of that situation through force. That said, anger is about control.\n\nWhen you're angry and find you *can't* control a situation, all that pent up energy doesn't disappear and most people feel the overwhelming urge to exercise control. Destroying things is a violent display of anger that serves to intimidate. It's also a symptom of your brain lashing out for control. The destiny of that ceramic mug is in your hands and destroying it is an irrational display of your dominion and power, where the original conflict was not in your control.\n\n**tl;dr: It's a display of control, power, and intimidation, in place of dealing with a problem outside of your control.**",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "8084306",
"title": "Self-destructive behavior",
"section": "Section::::Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 363,
"text": "Self-destructive behavior is formed by a repetitive bad habit that is ultimately caused by a preadolescent event that makes them act out in such ways. These past events act as barriers that causes one to feel insecure about a specific situation or event. When this happens, it causes their emotions to be sporadic and they begin to take part in violent actions. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5900744",
"title": "Righteous indignation",
"section": "Section::::In the Bible.:Old Testament commentary.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "In James McCosh's book \"Motive Powers\", he notes that \"We may be angry and sin not; but this disposition may become sinful, and this in the highest degree. It is so when it is excessive, when it is rage, and makes us lose control of ourselves. It is so, and may become a vice, when it leads us to wish evil to those who have offended us. It is resentment when it prompts us to meet and repay evil by evil. It is vengeance when it impels us to crush those who have injured us. It is vindictiveness when it is seeking out ingeniously and laboriously means and instruments to give pain to those who have thwarted us. Already sin has entered.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "220802",
"title": "Cutting off the nose to spite the face",
"section": "Section::::Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "The expression has since become a blanket term for (often unwise) self-destructive actions motivated purely by anger or desire for revenge. For example, if a man was angered by his wife, he might burn down their house to punish her; however, burning down \"her\" house would also mean burning down \"his\", along with all of their possessions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36087839",
"title": "Varieties of criticism",
"section": "Section::::Destructive criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "However, in political and military contexts, destructive criticisms may be essential to save resources, or to save lives among one's own group. An idea in itself is not dangerous, but an idea proposed in a particular context can be very dangerous, so that people feel that it should be disarmed by mercilessly criticizing it. The ultimate destructive criticism occurs when people and property are physically destroyed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41915169",
"title": "I'm Not Angry!",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "\"I’m not angry!\" is the story of Navid, a starred and expelled university student who - while trying to provide the least requirements of a normal life -, tries not to get angry when he is faced with the immoralities prevalent in the society, and does all he can not to lose his love, Setareh.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8084306",
"title": "Self-destructive behavior",
"section": "Section::::Forms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "Self-destructive behavior may also manifest itself in an active attempt to drive away other people. For example, they may fear that they will \"mess up\" a relationship. Rather than deal with this fear, socially self-destructive individuals engage in annoying or alienating behavior, so that others will reject them first. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1840072",
"title": "Computer rage",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Psychological factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1386,
"text": "Research on emotion has shown that anger is often caused by interruptions of plans and expectations, especially through the violation of social norms. This sense of anger can be magnified when the individual does not understand why they are unable to meet their goal or task at hand or why there was a violation of social norms. Psychologists have argued that this is particularly relevant to computer rage, as computer users interact with computers in a similar manner that they interact with other people (for more information, see The Media Equation). Thus, when computers fail to function in the face of incoming deadlines or an important task to accomplish, users can feel betrayed by the computer in the same way they can feel betrayed by other people. Specifically, when users fail to understand why their computer will not work properly, often in the times they need it to the most, it can invoke a sense of hostility as it is interpreted as a breach of social norms or a personal attack. Consistent with this finding, perceived betrayal by the computer can also elicit other negative emotions. One survey of US adults reported that 10% of users who experience computer issues experienced feeling helplessness, and 4% reported feeling victimized. In the same survey, 7% adults ages 18–34 reported that they had cried over their computer problems within the previous six months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1m6d5h | Wednesday Week in History | Sept. 11 - Sept. 17 | [
{
"answer": "No love for the War of 1812?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I REJECT YOUR SUGGESTED HISTORICAL EVENTS AND SUBSTITUTE MY OWN. \n\n**September 17, 1787: Copyright clause was added to the Constitution.** \n\nThe clause is so very small: \n\n > The Congress shall have power to [...] promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries [...]\n\nAnd yet it has had so many far reaching effects on our arts and literature, or patent system, on every day at work for me in the archives, and near and dear to most of us, on the process of doing academic research. And its smallness has also made it ripe for lots and lots of interpretation that keeps lots of lawyers busy with things like interpreting Fair Use. (And my dad works in patent law, so thank you copyright clause for round-about paying my college tuition and allowing me to type this today!) \n\n****\n\nAnd as nobody posted Week in History last week, doing to too many exciting AMAs going on, I’m going to sneak in one I wanted to post for that week: \n\n**September 4, 1720: [*Angelica*](_URL_0_) premiered, Farinelli and Metastasio met** \n\nThis was Pietro Metastasio’s first public performance of his poetry in music, AND it was also the first public singing performance for a young castrato named Carlo Broschi. And not only was the performance a great success, those two immediately got along like a house on fire! A little bitty “Happy 293rd Anniversary” to mark the start of [a very special relationship of some sort between two of the most important men in of the baroque period.](_URL_1_) ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Wow, TIL that smallpox is a completely eradicated disease. Thanks for the list!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "On 11 September 1973, the Chilean coup d'état left democratically elected socialist President Salvador Allende dead, a military junta headed by General Augusto Pinochet in power, and thousands of Allende supporters, including famed *nueva canción* singer Víctor Jara, rounded up, tortured, and murdered.\n\nThe coup was a long time in the coming, and was orchestrated by the Chilean right, the CIA, the U.S. Department of State, and various multinational corporations, including copper mining companies like Anaconda, Kennecott, and Cerro Grande, and, perhaps most significantly, the ITT Corporation, a communications giant. The ITT Corporation cut Henry Kissinger a blank check, to be used to destabilize Allende, though it's unknown how much Kissinger took from them.\n\nSalvador Allende had stood for election several times before his victory in 1970, and was President of the Senate at the time of his election to the presidency. Allende headed the leftist *Unidad Popular* coalition. The two other political groups of note were the National Party and the Christian Democrats. Immediately after Allende's election, the CIA attempted a two-pronged plan to block him from assuming power. Phase I entailed bribing and threatening Chilean congressmen to get them to block Allende's election, while Phase II entailed CIA agents impersonating Department of Defense officials and threatening the Chilean military with a complete cutting-off of aid if they didn't violently stop Allende. Both plans failed, and Allende assumed office as planned.\n\nSalvador Allende's presidency was characterized by the nationalization of key industries, the collectivization of factories directly by workers, the expansion of labor rights, and the building of programs meant to radically decrease poverty and inequality. It was also characterized by a series of economic crises, provoked by U.S. President Nixon's program of trying to make the Chilean economy \"scream\" and an opposition trucker strike (funded by the ITT Corporation and the CIA). As Allende ran into more and more roadblocks, workers began collectivizing factories themselves. As the military acted independently, it went around harassing and repressing these factory workers.\n\nThe serious economic crises were meant to disillusion the Chilean people with Salvador Allende and the UP. However, the 1973 parliamentary elections showed a marked increase for the UP, from Allende's 36.63% of the Presidential vote in 1970 (in a three-way race) to 43.7% of the vote in the Chamber of Deputies, to the 29.2% of the Christian Democrats and the 21.7% of the National Party. The UP, as a coalition, consisted of several parties, most significantly the Socialist Party and Communist Party, under Allende's banner. The U.S. Department of State saw this as critical, warning that the UP would likely win the next presidential election as well; evidence that Allende needed to be stopped immediately.\n\nWhen the coup came, on 11 September 1973, the Chilean military began to shell the Presidential Palace. Allende was called upon to surrender, but he refused to do so. He ordered others to leave, and then gave his final speech, under fire, in which he remained defiant. His now famous ending, \"Long live Chile! Long live the people! Long live the workers!\" was the last the people would ever hear from their President. Allende was killed by a shot to the head in controversial circumstances. The official account (of the coup perpetrators) was that he shot himself in the head with an AK-47 he had been given by Fidel Castro. Many dispute this, saying that he was murdered, but the position of the current government of Chile is that he shot himself. In either case, he can be said to have been killed by the coup, I would say, as if he killed himself, it was only to avoid torture and murder at the hands of the military.\n\nThe coup enjoyed the support of the leaders of the National Party and the Christian Democrats, as well as their delegates and senators, though it was certainly not within any representative's electoral mandate to overthrow the democratically elected president. The coup, from its first moments, was accompanied by rounding up Allende supporters. Many were taken to the National Stadium, as well as other football stadiums and various military institutions, where they were imprisoned, beaten, tortured, and murdered in their thousands. Among these was Víctor Jara, Chile's most famous musician and noted Allende supporter, who sang for his fellow prisoners, even after his hands were broken, until he was tortured to death. What followed was a regime of complete repression of all socialists, communists, and other dissidents. Despite the initial support of the coup by the political elite, Pinochet dissolved the political parties and ruled as dictator.\n\nPinochet was eventually removed from office by national plebiscite, and a few years later ceased to be the head of the military. He took shelter in Britain, which protected him from international prosecution for crimes against humanity. While electoral democracy has returned to Chile, the scars certainly remain for many people, including PTSD for survivors of the torture and those who lived in fear of it every day for years. Much of the legacy of the coup remains unresolved, and the Chilean government prefers not to speak of it. The victory of the coup and dictatorship can be seen in the fact that the socialist movement in Chile was effectively destroyed, and remains smaller and in more disarray today, after so many years of repression.\n\n**Suggested Reading**\n\n* Harmer, Tanya. *Allende’s Chile & the Inter-American Cold War*. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2011.\n\n* Qureshi, Lubna. *Nixon, Kissinger, and Allende: U.S. Involvement in the 1973 Coup in Chile*. Lanham: Lexington Books, 2009. \n\n* [National Security Archive - Documents](_URL_0_) (Hit \"Latin America\")\n\n* [The Kissinger Cables](_URL_1_) (Search \"Chile\", \"Allende\", or \"Pinochet\")",
"provenance": null
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"answer": " > 1541: Conquistadora Inés de Suárez leads a Pyrrhic defense of Santiago, Chile against indigenous forces led by Michimalonco (who, in turn, attempted to liberate several captive chiefs held by the Spanish). \n\nDuring the attack her role was of mending wounds, bringing water, giving support to the defenders. But when all hope was lost, she thought that their only way to win was killing the captive chiefs and trowing their heads to the attackers to cause panic. This was rejected by most of the men, that seeing the hopeleness of the situation thought that keeping the chiefs alive was the only way to survive. \nShe went with her plan anyways, went to the house where the chiefs were imprisoned, and told the guards that they needed to kill the seven chiefs. One of the guards out of fear of the situation asked her, \"how shall I kill them?\" She said \"This way\" and grabbed her sword and beheaded the first one. She then proceeded to behead the other six with her own hands, and then told the guards that since they haven't done anything the least that they can do is to take the corpses out to the square so the attackers could see them.\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "September 16th, 1810. Mexico declares its independence. But not from Spain, but France! Priests Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and José María Morelos, along with a crowd of farmers and citizens, somehow said something that made everyone rise up against the Spaniards. I am being intentionally vague because this period (and much of Mexican history) is full of nationalistic myths and all that stuff. All that is known is that he was the one who started the movement.\n\nIt took 11 years and 11 days to achieve independence. A lot happened in that period. Hidalgo died, and Morelos took the lead from there, moving towards independence from *Spain*, not France, anymore.\n\nHow did Hidalgo die, you ask? Well, this war was full of plot twists. Spies, battles lost and won. Anyway, he was captured as he was on his way to the USA to buy weapons, thanks to a spy which told royalist forces about it. He was shot in Chihuahua, and beheaded. His head was taken to Guanajuato, and exhibited in public at the *Alhóndiga de Granaditas*, place of an important battle in the beginning stage of the war, in which the Mexican (then just creoles or mestizos, as Mexico did not exist!) people took the fort from the royalist forces after a siege.\n\nAfter his death, Morelos took over, but he was captured and killed in 1814. After this, other experienced military leaders, like Vicente Guerrero, continued the fight against the royalist forces. One of the royalist generals was Agustín de Iturbide, who fought against Guerrero for years, but decided to join him in 1920, after political troubles in Spain concerning Felipe VII and the Constitution of Cádiz.\n\nThis new army, called *Ejército Trigarante* (this means, loosely translated, \"Army of the three guarantees\") promised three things: the Roman Catholic religion ad the only one to be tolerated; independence from Spain; and union between the factions fighting for it. Afterwards, Agustín de Iturbide crowned himself \"Emperor of Mexico\" but he didn't last long, as he was exiled, and Guadalupe Victoria took charge as the first president of the Mexican Republic.\n\nThis is a huge day for Mexicans, more than 5 de mayo, which is not really celebrated AT ALL down here, and people drink a lot of tequila, and gather round in the city centers, in front of the municipal palace, where they recreate Hidalgo's disputed \"Grito de Dolores\", with the mayor (or Governor, or President, depending if it's a capital or not) leading the celebration.\n\nAlso, I get the day off for school!",
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"answer": "**Sept. 11**\n\n• In 1865, Wilford B. Hoggatt, who became the sixth Governor of the District of Alaska, was born in Indiana.\n\n• In 1958, poet Robert W. Service died in Monte Carlo at the age of 85.\n\n• In 1979, a patrol plane used by Rangers at the Wrangell-St. Elias National Monument was destroyed by fire. Arson was suspected.\n\n**Sept. 12**\n\n• In 1882, construction started on the first building on the campus of the Sheldon Jackson School in Sitka.\n\n• In 1900, a storm in Nome caused a million dollars in property losses along the waterfront.\n\n• In 1940, artist Sydney Laurence announced he was going to die. After a shave, haircut, and a negotiation of a painting deal, he admitted himself to the Anchorage Hospital and fulfilled his prediction.\n\n• In 1969, Valdez celebrated as the Alaska Maru arrived with the first shipment of trans-Alaska oil pipeline from Japan.\n\n**Sept. 13**\n\n• In 1905, fire destroyed 43 business buildings in Nome.\n\n• In 1906, the steamer Oregon wrecked at Cape Hinchenbrook, at the entrance to Prince William Sound; all 121 aboard were saved.\n\n• In 1913, concrete is poured for the first story of Juneau's first city hall. The Alaska Office Building now sits at that location.\n\n• In 1955, in a special election, Alaskans sent 55 delegates to a Constitutional Convention.\n\n• In 1979, Anchorage's teacher strike ended after a week when an acceptable negotiation plan was agreed to and signed by Judge Victor Carlson.\n\n**Sept. 14**\n\n• In 1834, Alfred P. Swineford, Alaska's second governor, was born in Ohio.\n\n• In 1871, a 32-ship whaling fleet from New England was abandoned at Wainwright Inlet when ice cut it off from open water. The 1,200 crew members used whale boats to reach safety at Icy Cape on the Chukchi Sea coast. No lives were lost.\n\n• In 1884, Alaska's first governor, John Kinkead, appointed by President Chester Arthur, arrived in Sitka to take up his duties. \n\n• The first meeting of the presbytery of Alaska was held in Wrangell.\n\n**Sept. 15**\n\n In 1885, Alfred P. Swineford took office as the second governor of the District of Alaska.\n\n• In 1913, Cordova residents formed the Alaska Good Roads Club with the goal of promoting a road from Fairbanks to Chitna.\n\n• In 1959, Everett Benson was convicted in Spokane, Wash. on five counts of grand larceny in connection with the financing of an Alaska mine venture.\n\n• In 1959, the Bureau of Land Management paid Alaska nearly $4.4 million as the state's share of oil and gas lease revenue on public lands in Alaska.\n\n• In 1986, the 5 billionth barrel of oil to travel down the trans-Alaska pipeline arrived in Valdez.\n\n**Sept. 16**\n\n• In 1901, Professor Leonard, the aeronaut, performed acrobatic feats on a horizontal bar suspended from a large balloon over the Bering Sea near Nome.\n\n• In 1925, the Southeast Alaska Fair opened in the Arctic Brotherhood Hall in Juneau.\n\n• In 1947, bidding was opened by the U.S. Forest Service on 1.5 billion cubic feet of timber in the Ketchikan area. This was part of a plan to establish five or six large paper mills in Alaska.\n\n• In 1974, the U.S. Army provided Kodiak with three emergency generators to give the Kodiak Electric Association a chance to repair broken equipment.\n\n**Sept. 17**\n\n• In 1868, the Alaska Commercial Company was incorporated in San Francisco, Calif.\n\n• In 1873, Thomas Riggs, Governor of the Territory of Alaska from 1918 to 1921, was born.\n\n• In 1934, fire swept through Nome, nearly destroying the town.\n\n• In 1946, a $6 million contract was signed to reconstruct the Alaska Railroad facilities in Seward that were damaged by the Good Friday earthquake. It was the largest single earthquake reconstruction contract.",
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "59486778",
"title": "Timeline of the Lyndon B. Johnson presidency (1967)",
"section": "Section::::August.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 358,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 358,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "BULLET::::- August 12 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3799, designating \"the period of November 5 through November 11, 1967, as American Education Week\" and calling \"upon the American people to celebrate the achievements of their educational system, and to dedicate themselves to making it still more responsive to our Nation's needs.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35028601",
"title": "Benjamin F. B. Hunter",
"section": "Section::::Naval service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "GIVEN under my hand at the City of Washington, this TENTH day of April in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and thirty nine and in the sixty third Year of the INDEPENDENCE OF THE UNITED STATES.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1064397",
"title": "Carter G. Woodson",
"section": "Section::::Black History Month.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "In 1926, Woodson pioneered the celebration of \"Negro History Week\", designated for the second week in February, to coincide with marking the birthdays of Abraham Lincoln and Frederick Douglass. The Black United Students and Black educators at Kent State University expanded this idea to include an entire month beginning on February 1, 1970. Beginning in 1976 every US president has designated February as Black History Month.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41322043",
"title": "Commemoration of the American Civil War",
"section": "Section::::Digital media.:Social media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 164,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 164,
"end_character": 503,
"text": "Commemoration for the Sesquicentennial of the American Civil War can be viewed through various social media sites like Instagram and Twitter through hashtags such as #CivilWar150, #CW150 and #CivilWar. The Sesquicentennial is the first anniversary of the American Civil War that has seen the use of social media technologies. This technology offers a unique insight of the public's perspective on the sesquicentennial by allowing each person the opportunity to voice his or her opinion in a free forum.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "56223894",
"title": "Commemoration of the American Revolution",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 621,
"text": "Commemoration of the American Revolution typifies the patriotic sentiment surrounding the American Revolution and the desire to preserve and honor the \"Spirit of '76\". As the founding story of the United States, it is covered in the schools, memorialized by a national holiday, and commemorated in innumerable monuments. Thus Independence Day (the \"Fourth of July\") is a major national holiday celebrated annually. Besides local sites such as Bunker Hill, one of the first national pilgrimages for memorial tourists was Mount Vernon, George Washington's estate, which attracted ten thousand visitors a year by the 1850s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1030599",
"title": "Black History Month",
"section": "Section::::History.:Negro History Week (1926).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 935,
"text": "The precursor to Black History Month was created in 1926 in the United States, when historian Carter G. Woodson and the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History announced the second week of February to be \"Negro History Week\". This week was chosen because it coincided with the birthday of Abraham Lincoln on February 12 and of Frederick Douglass on February 14, both of which dates black communities had celebrated together since the late 19th century. Negro History Week was the center of the equation. The thought-process behind the week was never recorded, but scholars acknowledge two reasons for its birth: recognition and importance. Woodson felt deeply that at least one week would allow for the general movement to become something annually celebrated. Also, after the ten year long haul to successfully complete his \"Journal of Negro History\", he realized the subject deserved to resonate with a greater audience.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "59486778",
"title": "Timeline of the Lyndon B. Johnson presidency (1967)",
"section": "Section::::January.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 222,
"text": "BULLET::::- January 6 – President Johnson signs Proclamation 3760, inviting Americans to participate in the observance of February 1967 as \"American History Month\" and partake in activities of recognition of the occasion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
j6uz8 | can someone explain aleph-null to me like i'm 5? | [
{
"answer": "First some vocabulary: if you have a collection of things in it, we call the number of things the \"cardinality\" of the collection.\n\nThis is fine if you only have finitely many things; the cardinality is just whatever number you have. But what if you have an infinite number of things? It turns out that infinity isn't a really well defined idea; there are different \"sizes\" of infinity. The smallest of these, we call Aleph-null. What is it? It's the infinity that you can count. If you can take all of your infinite things and mark them \"first, second, third\" and so on, then we say you have \"countably many\" of them and that the cardinality of your set is Aleph-null. For a first example, the counting numbers themselves. For a second example, the *even* counting numbers; call 2 the first, 4 the second, and so on. If you continue numbering them this way then eventually every even counting number would be given a position. Thus, even though there are \"more\" counting numbers than even counting numbers (twice as many, the evens and the odds), they are both sets with cardinality Aleph-null; this is one of the very weird things about infinity—if you have an infinite number of something and take away some, even an infinite amount, you might still have an infinite number left over.\n\nIt turns out that some collections (like the collection of all real numbers, which includes things like pi and the square root of 2) are *bigger* than Aleph-null; if you assigned every counting number to one of them—said \"this is the first, this is the second\" and so on, so that given any counting number you could identify the number in that position—there would still be some that you missed. In fact, there would be more of them without numbers assigned to them than there were *with* numbers assigned to them. The set has cardinality *greater* than Aleph-null.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "First some vocabulary: if you have a collection of things in it, we call the number of things the \"cardinality\" of the collection.\n\nThis is fine if you only have finitely many things; the cardinality is just whatever number you have. But what if you have an infinite number of things? It turns out that infinity isn't a really well defined idea; there are different \"sizes\" of infinity. The smallest of these, we call Aleph-null. What is it? It's the infinity that you can count. If you can take all of your infinite things and mark them \"first, second, third\" and so on, then we say you have \"countably many\" of them and that the cardinality of your set is Aleph-null. For a first example, the counting numbers themselves. For a second example, the *even* counting numbers; call 2 the first, 4 the second, and so on. If you continue numbering them this way then eventually every even counting number would be given a position. Thus, even though there are \"more\" counting numbers than even counting numbers (twice as many, the evens and the odds), they are both sets with cardinality Aleph-null; this is one of the very weird things about infinity—if you have an infinite number of something and take away some, even an infinite amount, you might still have an infinite number left over.\n\nIt turns out that some collections (like the collection of all real numbers, which includes things like pi and the square root of 2) are *bigger* than Aleph-null; if you assigned every counting number to one of them—said \"this is the first, this is the second\" and so on, so that given any counting number you could identify the number in that position—there would still be some that you missed. In fact, there would be more of them without numbers assigned to them than there were *with* numbers assigned to them. The set has cardinality *greater* than Aleph-null.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "650207",
"title": "Null morpheme",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "In morphology, a null morpheme or zero morpheme is a morpheme that has no phonetic form. In simpler terms, a null morpheme is an \"invisible\" affix. It is a concept useful for analysis, by contrasting null morphemes with alternatives that do have some phonetic realization. The null morpheme is represented as either the figure zero (\"0\") or the empty set symbol ∅. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "252329",
"title": "Sequent calculus",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Sequent calculus systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "The standard semantics of a sequent is an assertion that whenever \"every\" formula_24 is true, \"at least one\" formula_19 will also be true. Thus the empty sequent, having both cedents empty, is false. One way to express this is that a comma to the left of the turnstile should be thought of as an \"and\", and a comma to the right of the turnstile should be thought of as an (inclusive) \"or\". The sequents\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6516",
"title": "Cosmological argument",
"section": "Section::::Versions of the argument.:Metaphysical argument for the existence of God.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 488,
"text": "Scotus deals immediately with two objections he can see: first, that there cannot be a first, and second, that the argument falls apart when 1) is questioned. He states that infinite regress is impossible, because it provokes unanswerable questions, like, in modern English, \"What is infinity minus infinity?\" The second he states can be answered if the question is rephrased using modal logic, meaning that the first statement is instead \"It is possible that something can be produced.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "24220547",
"title": "Null allomorph",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "In morpheme-based morphology, the term null allomorph or zero allomorph is sometimes used to refer to some kind of null morpheme for which there are also contexts in which the underlying morpheme is manifested in the surface structure. It is therefore also an allomorph. The phenomenon itself is known as \"null allomorphy\", \"morphological blocking\" or \"total morpheme blocking\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "736713",
"title": "Disquisitiones Arithmeticae",
"section": "Section::::Scope.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "The \"Disquisitiones\" covers both elementary number theory and parts of the area of mathematics now called algebraic number theory. However, Gauss did not explicitly recognize the concept of a group, which is central to modern algebra, so he did not use this term. His own title for his subject was Higher Arithmetic. In his Preface to the \"Disquisitiones\", Gauss describes the scope of the book as follows:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "8601485",
"title": "Null (comics)",
"section": "Section::::Powers and abilities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 839,
"text": "Null is a mystic life-form created over the ages from the collective unconscious of the 500,000 members of the extinct S'Raphh race, and as such has an almost unlimited ability to manipulate the forces of magic. Null normally has no corporeal form, and usually takes the form of a multi-eyed, multi-tentacled cloud of an unknown purple gaseous substance. Its intelligence is immeasurable, and it has incredible stamina and durability. Null has the ability to manipulate the forces of magic for a wide variety of effects, including physical malleability, intangibility, levitation, inter-dimensional teleportation, restoration of spirits to the physical plane, reanimation and control of corpses, possession of the bodies of physical beings, telepathy, illusion-casting, and the ability to project powerful psychokinetic concussion blasts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1352428",
"title": "Modulo operation",
"section": "Section::::Remainder calculation for the modulo operation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "However, this still leaves a sign ambiguity if the remainder is nonzero: two possible choices for the remainder occur, one negative and the other positive, and two possible choices for the quotient occur. Usually, in number theory, the positive remainder is always chosen, but programming languages choose depending on the language and the signs of or . Standard Pascal and ALGOL 68 give a positive remainder (or 0) even for negative divisors, and some programming languages, such as C90, leave it to the implementation when either of or is negative. See the table for details. modulo 0 is undefined in most systems, although some do define it as .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
4injcf | why are domestic power outlets in the united states 120v? is there any story behind that convention? | [
{
"answer": "Basically, it's because old light bulbs sucked. America was quite a ways ahead of the rest of the world when it came to early electricity and was about to make good lightbulbs that ran at 120 volts. If it was upped to 240 (which is easier to transmit long distances), they would burn out pretty quickly.\n\nBy the time Europe got into building their electrical infrastructure, 240 volt bulbs were good enough that they could just use straight 240v. But by this time, America already had the standard of 120.\n\nSauce: _URL_0_\n\n\\* Japan is the only other country (edit: that I could think of at the time of original typing) that uses 120v electricity, but I don't know the story behind that.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28044140",
"title": "Central Electricity Regulatory Commission",
"section": "Section::::Relation with Other Power Sector Bodies (MoP,CEA, Appellate Tribunal).:SERC and CERC.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "CERC and State Electricity Regulatory Commission (SERC) are the two electricity regulators – one operating at the central level and the other at various state levels. CERC’s primary function was to regulate the tariffs of central generating stations as well as for all interstate generation, transmission and supply of power. Whereas SERC’s primary function was to determine bulk and retail tariffs to be charged to customers, regulate the operations of intrastate transmission, including those of the State Load Despatch Center (SLDC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1030512",
"title": "Commonwealth Edison",
"section": "Section::::History.:Deregulation and Divestiture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "By 1996, prevailing opinion on the utilities in the United States had changed. Rather than granting one company the exclusive right to generate, transmit and distribute electricity in a specific geographic area, and fixing the rates for that service as one package, it was commonly held that consumers would benefit from opening as much service as possible to competition on an open market. At the federal level, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission had issued Order 888, opening access to the national transmission grids. Subsequent orders established an open energy marketplace and set rules for participation in it. However, it was left to the individual states to determine the best way to give their electricity customers access to the grid and the benefits of an open market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2428152",
"title": "Regional transmission organization (North America)",
"section": "Section::::Regional transmission organizations (RTOs).:Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 649,
"text": "In the 1990s, as states and regions in the United States established wholesale competition for electricity, groups of utilities and their federal and state regulators began forming independent transmission operators that would ensure equal access to the power grid for non-utility firms, enhance the reliability of the transmission system and operate wholesale electricity markets. Today, seven of these grid operators, either independent system operators (ISOs) or RTOs, coordinate the power grid to ensure the reliable delivery of two-thirds of the electricity used in the United States to two-thirds of its population. Most are overseen by FERC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2428152",
"title": "Regional transmission organization (North America)",
"section": "Section::::Independent system operators (ISOs).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 540,
"text": "There are regions of the United States where ISOs do not exist and, subsequently, the utilities do not engage in wholesale power markets. The Pacific Northwest, and states east of California and west of the Dakotas, Nebraska, Kansas and Texas largely do not participate. The majority of Southeastern states also do not participate in wholesale markets. While these regions must conform to open access as mandated by FERC, the power exchanges between utilities is mostly facilitated through bilateral contracts and power purchase agreements\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "864168",
"title": "Mains electricity by country",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Mains electricity by country includes a list of countries and territories, with the plugs, voltages and frequencies they commonly use for providing electrical power to appliances, equipment, and lighting typically found in homes and offices. (For industrial machinery, see Industrial and multiphase power plugs and sockets.) Some countries have more than one voltage available. For example, in North America most sockets are attached to a 120 V supply, but there is a 240 V supply available for large appliances. Often different sockets are mandated for different voltage or current levels.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4255129",
"title": "2000 world oil market chronology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "BULLET::::- December 4: California utilities are forced to cut off electricity supplies to some \"interruptible\" customers due to a supply shortage. California has suffered shortages and high wholesale electricity prices since May 2000. The immediate shortage stems, in part, from a reduction in electricity imports from the Pacific Northwest as a result of cold weather in the area. Other problems include: gas supply problems, low availability of hydroelectric and nuclear generating capacity, and high power demand. (DJ)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24074449",
"title": "Electricity sector of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 675,
"text": "In 1996, there were 3,195 electric utilities in the United States, of which fewer than 1,000 were engaged in power generation. This leaves a large number of mostly smaller utilities engaged only in power distribution. There were also 65 power marketers. Of all utilities, 2,020 were publicly owned (including 10 Federal utilities), 932 were rural electric cooperatives, and 243 were investor-owned utilities. The electricity transmission network is controlled by Independent System Operators or Regional Transmission Organizations, which are not-for-profit organizations that are obliged to provide indiscriminate access to various suppliers in order to promote competition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
7yb15f | When did Norman England no longer associate with the French monarchy? | [
{
"answer": "So, basically, it depends on what you mean by \"associate.\"\n\nThe Kingdom of England was never considered part of the Kingdom of France or subordinate to it. English kings and property owners were not bound to the king of France under any kind of \"feudal\" ties. The Anglo-Norman, Angevin, and Plantagenet kings of England, however, were also major landowners *within* the Kingdom of France. Obviously William the Conqueror was the duke of Normandy, but his descendants acquired a vast swathe of western France through inheritance and marriage, becoming also the dukes of Aquitaine and Gascony and the counts of Anjou, Maine, Nantes, and Poitiers. The English kings (theoretically) owed fealty to the French kings for their French lands, but in practice a state resembling the Cold War prevailed throughout much of the second half of the 12th centuries. \n\nOn the lower level, during the 11th-12th centuries, almost all major English landowners were of Norman, Breton, Flemish, or French origin and owned property on both sides of the channel. Because they were subjects of both kings, they theoretically owed loyalty and service to both kings; in practice, these great men were out for their own ends and were more than willing to manipulate, quarrel with, scheme against, and sell out their kings when the situation called for it.\n\nThe English kings lost most of their French possessions in the first two decades of the 13th century. Following the death of Richard I, the French invaded and seized Normandy and Aquitaine. Anglo-Norman lords were faced with a choice: abandon their French property and keep their English, or the opposite. At the conclusion of the war, the English crown was left only with Gascony and a bit of Poitou, and the permanent connection to Normandy was severed. However, the English aristocracy would continue to speak Anglo-Norman (a dialect of old French) for at least another century.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "191383",
"title": "Anglophobia",
"section": "Section::::Outside the United Kingdom.:France.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 796,
"text": "After the Norman conquest in 1066, Anglo-Norman replaced English as the official language of England. However, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Plantagenet kings of England lost most of their possessions in France, began to consider England to be their primary domain, and turned to the English language. King Edward I, when issuing writs for summoning parliament in 1295, claimed that the King of France planned to invade England and extinguish the English language, \"a truly detestable plan which may God avert.\" In 1338, Philip VI of France authored the Ordinance of Normandy, which again called for the destruction and elimination of the English nation and language. The Hundred Years' War (1337–1453) between England and France changed societies on both sides of the Channel.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58834262",
"title": "Siege of Aiguillon",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 965,
"text": "Since the Norman Conquest of 1066, English monarchs had held titles and lands within France, the possession of which made them vassals of the kings of France. Over the centuries, English holdings in France had varied in size, but by 1337 only Gascony in south western France and Ponthieu in northern France were left. The independent minded Gascons had their own customs and claimed to have a separate language. They preferred their relationship with a distant English king who left them alone to one with a French king who would interfere in their affairs. Following a series of disagreements between Philip VI of France and Edward III of England, on 24 May 1337 Philip's Great Council in Paris agreed that the Duchy of Aquitaine, effectively Gascony, should be taken back into Philip's hands on the grounds that Edward was in breach of his obligations as a vassal. This marked the start of the Hundred Years' War, which was to last one hundred and sixteen years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4170535",
"title": "France–United Kingdom relations",
"section": "Section::::History.:Norman conquest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1226,
"text": "However, in the mid-eleventh century there was a dispute over the English throne, and the French-speaking Normans, who were of Viking stock, invaded England under their duke William the Conqueror and took over following the Battle of Hastings in 1066, and crowned themselves Kings of England. The Normans took control of the land and the political system. Feudal culture took root in England, and for the next 150 years England was generally considered of secondary importance to the dynasty's Continental territories, notably in Normandy and other western French provinces. The language of the aristocracy was French for several hundred years after the Norman Conquest. Many French words were adopted into the English language as a result. About one third of the English language is derived from or through various forms of French. The first Norman kings were also the Dukes of Normandy, so relations were somewhat complicated between the countries. Though they were dukes ostensibly under the king of France, their higher level of organisation in Normandy gave them more de facto power. In addition, they were kings of England in their own right; England was not officially a province of France, nor a province of Normandy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "969337",
"title": "England in the Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Government and society.:Identity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 1131,
"text": "The Normans and French who arrived after the conquest saw themselves as different from the English. They had close family and economic links to the Duchy of Normandy, spoke Norman French and had their own distinctive culture. For many years, to be English was to be associated with military failure and serfdom. During the 12th century, the divisions between the English and Normans began to dissolve as a result of intermarriage and cohabitation. By the end of the 12th century, and possibly as early as the 1150, contemporary commentators believed the two peoples to be blending, and the loss of the Duchy in 1204 reinforced this trend. The resulting society still prized wider French cultural values, however, and French remained the language of the court, business and international affairs, even if Parisians mocked the English for their poor pronunciation. By the 14th century, however, French was increasingly having to be formally taught, rather than being learnt naturally in the home, although the aristocracy would typically spend many years of their lives in France and remained entirely comfortable working in French.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48638163",
"title": "Courts of Guernsey",
"section": "Section::::Ancillary Notes.:Language.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 234,
"text": "After the Norman conquest of England in 1066, Norman French became the official language used at court and by the nobles. Guernsey's Royal Court and officials employed standard French from the Medieval period to the mid 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8234290",
"title": "Battle of Caen (1346)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 695,
"text": "Since the Norman Conquest of England in 1066, English monarchs had held titles and lands within France, the possession of which made them vassals of the kings of France. The status of the English king's French fiefs was a major source of conflict between the two monarchies throughout the Middle Ages. Following a series of disagreements between Philip VI of France () and Edward III of England (), on 24 May 1337 Philip's Great Council in Paris agreed that the Duchy of Aquitaine, effectively Gascony, should be taken back into Philip's hands on the grounds that Edward was in breach of his obligations as a vassal. This marked the start of the Hundred Years' War, which was to last 116 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15378755",
"title": "England in the High Middle Ages",
"section": "Section::::Society.:Identity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 1274,
"text": "The Normans and French who arrived after the conquest saw themselves as different from the English. They had close family and economic links to the Duchy of Normandy, spoke Norman French and had their own distinctive culture. For many years, to be English was to be associated with military failure and serfdom. During the twelfth century, the divisions between the English and Normans began to dissolve as a result of intermarriage and cohabitation. By the end of the twelfth century, and possibly as early as the 1150s, contemporary commentators believed the two peoples to be blending, and the loss of the Duchy in 1204 reinforced this trend. The resulting society still prized wider French cultural values, however, and French remained the language of the court, business and international affairs, even if Parisians mocked the English for their poor pronunciation. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the English began to consider themselves superior to the Welsh, Scots and Bretons. The English perceived themselves as civilised, economically prosperous and properly Christian, while the Celtic fringe was considered lazy, barbarous and backward. Following the invasion of Ireland in the late twelfth century, similar feelings were expressed about the Irish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5bfp1u | Who was Mikhail Kalinin and how did he survive Stalin's purges as the Soviet head of state? | [
{
"answer": "Mikhail Kalinin certainly was something of an odd-duck in the Stalinist state apparatus. Despite the massive cult of personality surrounding the General Secretary, Kalinin was nominally the head of the Soviet state. His Old Bolshevik background was also atypical by the late 1930s as some of the more prominent veterans of the RSDLP died during the Purges. But in this regard Kalinin was not alone; Kagonovich, Voroshilov, and Mikoyan were also Old Bolsheviks and survived the Purges. These men were a part of what the historians Stephen Wheatcraft and Sheila Fitzpatrick have termed \"Team Stalin,\" a circle of Bolshevik veterans and managers that cut their teeth in the Lenin period and managed to ensconce themselves into Stalin's decision-making process. Rather than act as a tyrant, Stalin often preferred pushing a consensus among informal meetings in his offices and then delegating to his team to carry out the consensus he had forced. Although the Stalinist decision-making process was capricious and missteps could be fatal, it was not that much different from the type of collective leadership of the Lenin era where Lenin as the first among equals would bend decisions towards his own ends. Kalinin owed his survival both to the dynamics of Stalin's executive system and the role he played inside of it.\n\nFor the Team, Kalinin was a source of both stability and consensus-building among Stalin's servitors. Although Kalinin, like Voroshilov, had toyed with Bukharin's plan to oust Stalin as General Secretary in, both men backed out at the last minute. Since this abortive maneuverings in the mid-1920s, Kalinin became less active in internal political debates and his peasant-background meant he often dispensed folky wisdom in meetings rather than hard policy. Kalinin's own advanced age and sociability helped further endear him to members of the Team as a force that brought much needed social lubrication to a tense and informal situation. Kalinin emerged as something of a village peasant elder in these meetings, giving his assent (in practice meaningless in light of Stalin's power) that managed impart a homespun quality to these decisions. \n\nBut beyond the internal politics of the Team, Kalinin was also useful for the wider project of Soviet power. Not only did his titular head of the Soviet state deflect charges of an individualistic dictatorship, albeit imperfectly, but his age and peasant ways was a popular form of politics in the 1930s. After Stalin, Kalinin received the greatest volume of personal petitions from Soviet citizens. His persona as the \"all-union peasant elder\", carefully cultivated by both Kalinin and the Soviet state, meant that a good number of the peasantry saw him as a friendly voice in the corridors of Soviet power. This popularity was obviously of great utility for Stalin as it gave sanction to his various collectivization initiatives since the state's \"first peasant\" agreed with them. Additionally, Kalinin's role as the titular head of state allowed him to act in a ceremonial position for dignitaries in Moscow when Stalin was unable to meet with them His affability and age lent lent a degree of dignity to the Kremlin and Supreme Soviet, and masked the increasing cult of personality that Kalinin rubber-stamped. \n\nThis does not mean that Kalinin operated without any fear of Stalin in the 1930s. He had earned a public rebuke from the dictator during collectivization and the *Holodomor* for being too close to the peasantry in 1930. More dangerously, Beria had Kalinin's wife, Ekaterina Lorberg, arrested in the fall of 1938 on charges of anti-Soviet activity and received a 15 year Gulag sentence. Lorberg's arrest was likely a fishing expedition on Beria's part to gain ammunition against Kalinin, but Loberg had little in the way of a formal relationship with her husband. The couple had lived apart for years and whatever material Beria obtained remained in his files. \n\nKalinin remained as titular head of state through the Second World War. His age and eventual blindness further restricted his activities in this period, and it became obvious to many that he was nowhere near the levers of power. While he may have posed a threat to Stalin early on in the dictatorship, such a threat had rapidly decreased with Kalinin's own infirmities and level-headed recognition of Stalin's ascendancy. Other Old Bolsheviks like Bukharin were not so old as Kalinin and were thus were a threat that Stalin needed to eliminate or neutralize. \n\n*Sources*\n\nFitzpatrick, Sheila. *On Stalin's Team: The Years of Living Dangerously in Soviet Politics*. Princeton : Princeton University Press, 2015. \n\nGetty, J. Arch, and Oleg V. Naumov. *The Road to Terror: Stalin and the Self-Destruction of the Bolsheviks, 1932-1939*. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 1999. \n\nKhlevniuk, O. V., and Nora Seligman Favorov. *Master of the house: Stalin and his inner circle*. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009. \n\nWheatcroft, Stephen G. \"From Team-Stalin to degenerate tyranny.\" In *The Nature of Stalin’s Dictatorship*, pp. 79-107. Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2004.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28621",
"title": "Stalinism",
"section": "Section::::Stalinist policies.:Class-based violence, purges and deportations.:Purges and executions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "As head of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Stalin consolidated near-absolute power in the 1930s with a Great Purge of the party that claimed to expel \"opportunists\" and \"counter-revolutionary infiltrators\". Those targeted by the purge were often expelled from the party, though more severe measures ranged from banishment to the Gulag labor camps to execution after trials held by NKVD troikas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58440815",
"title": "Matvei Shkiryatov",
"section": "Section::::Party official.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 859,
"text": "In 1921, Vladimir Lenin ordered a purge of the communist party, to remove unsuitable individuals who had joined during the chaos of the civil war. Shkiryatov was transferred to the staff of the Central Control Commission (CCC) to assist. At first, he was rooting out drunkards, criminals and other undesirables, but soon progressed to purging those who opposed Stalin on political grounds, which became his life's work. He was a member of the Praesidium of the CCC, 1923–34, and secretary of the CCC 1923-24 and 1930-34. In 1927-34, he was also of a member of the board of Rabkrin. In 1934, the CCC was reorganised, and renamed the Party Control Commission. He was its secretary in 1934-39, its deputy chairman in 1939-52, and a member of its praesidium until his death in 1954. He was also a member of the Central Committee of the communist party from 1939.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "514843",
"title": "Kang Sheng",
"section": "Section::::Moscow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "Following the assassination of Sergei Kirov in December 1934, Joseph Stalin commenced his great purges of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Following this example, and with Wang Ming's support, Kang established in 1936 the Office for the Elimination of Counterrevolutionaries and worked closely with the Soviet secret police, the NKVD, in purging perhaps hundreds of Chinese then in Moscow. As Byron and Pack put it:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53345449",
"title": "Sergei Aleksandrovich Kudryavtsev",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Sergei Aleksandrovich Kudryavtsev (1903 – April 25, 1938) was a Ukrainian communist Soviet politician. He was born in Kharkiv. During the Great Purge, he was arrested on October 13, 1937 and later executed by firing squad. After the death of Joseph Stalin, he was rehabilitated in 1956.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "485005",
"title": "Agent provocateur",
"section": "Section::::By region.:Russia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "In the \"Trust Operation\" (1921–1926), the Soviet State Political Directorate (OGPU) set up a fake anti-Bolshevik underground organization, \"Monarchist Union of Central Russia\". The main success of this operation was luring Boris Savinkov and Sidney Reilly into the Soviet Union, where they were arrested and executed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53331858",
"title": "Nikolai Demchenko",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Nikolai Demchenko (21 May 1896 – 30 October 1937) was a Ukrainian communist Soviet politician. He was born in Kharkov Governorate. He received the Order of Lenin on 20 December 1935. During the Great Purge, he was arrested on 22 July 1937, sentenced to death by the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR on 29 October 1937 and executed by firing squad the next day. After the death of Joseph Stalin, he was rehabilitated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35807582",
"title": "June 1933",
"section": "Section::::June 1, 1933 (Thursday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Soviet Communist Party began a purge of party members whom General Secretary Joseph Stalin described as \"double-dealers masked as Bolsheviks\". Commissions in ten cities, including Moscow and Leningrad, screened one million members, and expelled one out of every six.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1hvh3b | Will the phytoestrogens in soy products make it more difficult for a male to gain muscle mass? | [
{
"answer": "No. It is my understanding that 'Phytoestrogens' are called that due to structural similarity to estrogen, but there is no evidence that they act similarly to hormones in animals. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Soy and phytoestrogens won't lower testosterone, but they do disrupt estrogen receptor activity. Males have estrogen receptors too, not just women, and side effects of higher estrogen levels in males can include gynecomastia.\n\nMore information here: _URL_0_\n\nTL;DR: avoiding soy due to phytoestrogens may be pragmatic, but not because it lowers testosterone, rather it's the effects on estrogen.\n\n[edit] Just wanted to add that the effects of soy consumption are generally overblown. Only individuals who are predisposed to gynecomastia or other complications need to be concerned, and even then only at rather large soy intakes consistently over time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11958237",
"title": "Semen quality",
"section": "Section::::Factors.:Chemicals.:Diet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 541,
"text": "BULLET::::- Soy products decrease sperm quality due to the high content of a type of phytoestrogen called isoflavones. Theoretically, this exposure to high levels of phytoestrogen in men may alter the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. A few studies on animals have shown that such a hormonal effect may be significant and decrease fertility. On the other hand, most studies have shown that isoflavone supplements have little to no effect on sperm concentration, count, or mobility, and cause no changes in testicular or ejaculate volume.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "912933",
"title": "Phytoestrogen",
"section": "Section::::Effects on humans.:Males.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 60,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 60,
"end_character": 865,
"text": "It is unclear if phytoestrogens have any effect on male sexuality, with conflicting results about the potential effects of isoflavones originating from soy. A 2010 meta-analysis of fifteen placebo-controlled studies said that \"neither soy foods nor isoflavone supplements alter measures of bioavailable testosterone concentrations in men.\" Some studies showed that isoflavone supplementation had no effect on sperm concentration, count, or motility, and had no effects on testicular or ejaculate volume. Sperm count decline and increasing rate of testicular cancers in the West may be linked to a higher presence of isoflavone phytoestrogens in the diet, but such a link has not been definitively proven. Furthermore, there is some evidence that phytoestrogens may affect male fertility, but \"further investigation is needed before a firm conclusion can be drawn\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35974450",
"title": "Cyproterone",
"section": "Section::::Pharmacology.:Pharmacodynamics.:Antiandrogenic activity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 832,
"text": "Due to its progonadotropic effects in males, unlike CPA, cyproterone has been found, in male rodents, to increase testicular weight, increase the total number of type A spermatogonia, increase the total number of Sertoli cells, hyperstimulate the Leydig cells, and to have almost no effect on spermatogenesis. Conversely, it has also been reported for male rodents that spermiogenesis is inhibited and that accessory sexual gland weights (e.g., prostate gland, seminal vesicles) and fertility were markedly reduced, although with rapid recovery from the changes upon cessation of treatment. In any case, the medication is said to not be an effective antispermatogenic agent, whereas CPA is effective. Also unlike CPA, due to its lack of progestogenic and antigonadotropic activity, cyproterone does not suppress ovulation in women.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23229820",
"title": "Miroestrol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "A comparative study of the estrogenic properties of phytoestrogens found that both deoxymiroestrol and miroestrol were comparable in activity \"in vitro\" to other known phytoestrogens such as coumestrol as 17β-oestradiol agonists. Because of their estrogenic activities, miroestrol, deoxymiroestrol, and other related compounds have been the targets of scientific research including total synthesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62784",
"title": "Soybean",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Food for human consumption.:Soy-based infant formula.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 145,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 145,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Some reviews have expressed the opinion that more research is needed to determine what effect the phytoestrogens in soybeans may have on infants. Diverse studies have concluded there are no adverse effects in human growth, development, or reproduction as a result of the consumption of soy-based infant formula. One of these studies, published in the \"Journal of Nutrition\", concludes that there are:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "62784",
"title": "Soybean",
"section": "Section::::Health risks.:Phytoestrogens.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 181,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 181,
"end_character": 440,
"text": "Soybeans contain isoflavones called genistein and daidzein, which are one source of phytoestrogens in the human diet. Because most naturally occurring phytoestrogens act as selective estrogen receptor modulators, or SERMs, which do not necessarily act as direct agonists of estrogen receptors, normal consumption of foods that contain these phytoestrogens should not provide sufficient amounts to elicit a physiological response in humans.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "52470704",
"title": "MK-0773",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 765,
"text": "MK-0773 shows tissue-selective androgenic effects \"in vivo\" in animals. It increases lean body mass with maximal anabolic effects that are approximately 80% of those of dihydrotestosterone (DHT). However, it had less than 5% of the effect of DHT on uterine weight, about 30 to 50% of the increase of sebaceous gland area induced by DHT, and increased the weight of the seminal vesicles by 12% of that of DHT at the highest dosage assessed. It had similarly reduced effects on the prostate gland. No significant increase in gene expression of six candidate genes of virilization was observed. As such, MK-0773 shows a profile of an anabolic SARM with limited effects on sebaceous glands and reproductive tissues in animals and a minimal propensity for virilization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
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| null |
3qnbcu | is the rothschilds networth an actual thing ? does this family actually control nearly all the wealth in the world? if not then why are they mentioned so much in online forums and blogs ? | [
{
"answer": "They are rich, but the wealth has shrunk and divided with each other. No 1 member of the family owns it all anymore.\n\nAs for the hate they often are tied into the conspiracies like the Rockefellers or other wealthy families from the Industrial Revolution. From Illuminati, New World Order, to Reptilian Aliens, the tinfoil hat wearers have pointed to them.",
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},
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"answer": "They are legitimately very rich and fairly influential, but nothing like the Wal-Mart heirs or other very wealthy families.\n\nThe origins of the stories about them come from an anti-Semitic text called \"The Protocols Of Zion\". Believed to be written by a conservative Russian Tsarist loyalists (the Tsars frequently tried to deflect social anger onto Jews instead of themselves), the text claims to be the minutes of the meeting of a Jewish cabal intent on world domination. \n\nDespite being proven to be a forgery, the Protocols are believed authentic by some neo-Nazis and by some conspiracy theorists (two groups that overlap a lot).\n\nNaming the Rothschilds specifically is a way to talk about Jewish bankers without being seen to directly talk about Jewish bankers.\n\nThe Rothschilds are bankers and as a result do some pretty horrible things, but they certainly don't have tentacles in every government or anything like that. Nor do they have any unusual influence among the Jewish community.",
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"answer": "I wish more people in ELi5 would take this seriously:\n\n > ELI5 isn't a guessing game; if you aren't confident in your explanation, please don't speculate.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Combines, the Rothschilds might be the richest family (depending on how far you want to draw the boundaries of \"family\"), but the wealth is distributed across many hundreds of heirs so you wont have a single household of 5 or so people owning it all.",
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},
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"answer": "[They have 21%](_URL_0_) of a £2.4Billion investment trust they set up. That's quite a lot of money, but it's not Bill Gates rich.\n\nI imagine they have other assets as well though.",
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},
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"answer": "I'll do my best to clarify a great deal about the Rothschild holdings. Yes, the Rothschild Net Worth is real. Conservatively, their Net Worth is in excess of $350 Billion across the entire family. For Comparison Sake, Sir Evelyn Robert Rothschild is worth $20 Billion. Mind you, this valuation is an off the cuff figure, based on a rough value of their land holdings, investments, banking business, bank holdings, non-banking assets such as their Vinyards (Chateau Lafeitt Rothschild and Chateau Mouton Rothschild), ownership of \"Non-Rothschild\" Trust Assets (If I recall, they have invested and have ownership stakes in other \"family\" trusts), their own Concordia BV holdings, and holdings that I haven't listed or considered. \n\nAlthough they are worth a lot of moeny, they do not control nearly all of the world's wealth. That is just a rumor. the reason they are mentioned so much is because it's easy to create conspiracy theories about a family who has known to keep themselves out of the public and values secrecy above all else. Plus, Wealth + Jews + Finance + Money = Instant conspiracy theory. \n\nHope that helps.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Total family wealth might be $300 to $400 billion, according to _URL_2_\n\nTotal world wealth might be $240 trillion, according to _URL_1_\n\nInteresting article: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12944918",
"title": "List of wealthiest historical figures",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "While the Rothschild family rose to the status of the wealthiest family of bankers in the 19th century, their wealth was distributed among a number of family members, preventing them from appearing among the wealthiest individuals. The richest among the Rothschilds was the head of its English branch—Nathan Mayer Rothschild—the richest person of his time. Bernstein and Swan in \"All the Money in the World\" (2008) mention the top three richest Americans ever—all tycoons of the Gilded Age—respectively: John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie and Cornelius Vanderbilt; Henry Ford was ranked only 12th.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "179855",
"title": "Rothschild family",
"section": "Section::::International high finance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "The name of Rothschild became synonymous with extravagance and great wealth; and, the family was renowned for its art collecting, for its palaces, as well as for its philanthropy. By the end of the century, the family owned, or had built, at the lowest estimates, over 41 palaces, of a scale and luxury perhaps unparalleled even by the richest royal families. The British Chancellor of the Exchequer Lloyd George claimed, in 1909, that Nathan, Lord Rothschild was the most powerful man in Britain.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "179855",
"title": "Rothschild family",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The Rothschild family () is a wealthy Jewish family descending from Mayer Amschel Rothschild (1744–1812), a court factor to the German Landgraves of Hesse-Kassel in the Free City of Frankfurt, Holy Roman Empire, who established his banking business in the 1760s. Unlike most previous court factors, Rothschild managed to bequeath his wealth and established an international banking family through his five sons, who established themselves in London, Paris, Frankfurt, Vienna, and Naples. The family was elevated to noble rank in the Holy Roman Empire and the United Kingdom.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "311946",
"title": "Old money",
"section": "Section::::Europe.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 1193,
"text": "The Rothschild family, as an example, established finance houses across Europe from the 18th century and was ennobled by the Habsburg Emperor and Queen Victoria. Throughout the 19th century, they controlled the largest fortune in the world, in today's terms many hundreds of billions. The family has, at least to some extent, maintained its wealth for over two centuries. The Rothschilds were not, however, considered \"old money\" by their British counterparts. In Britain, the term generally exclusively refers to the landed gentry, usually the aristocracy and nobility who traditionally live off the land inherited paternally. The British concept is analogous to good lineage and it is not uncommon to find someone with \"old money\" who is actually poor or insolvent. By 2001, however, those belonging to this category - the aristocratic landowners - are still part of the wealthiest list in the United Kingdom. For instance, the Duke of Westminster, by way of his Grosvenor estate, owns large swaths of properties in London that include 200 acres of Belgravia and 100 acres of Mayfair. There is also the case of Viscount Portman, who is the owner of 100 acres of land north of Oxford Street.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "179855",
"title": "Rothschild family",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "During the 19th century, the Rothschild family possessed the largest private fortune in the world, as well as in modern world history. The family's wealth was divided among various descendants, and today their interests cover a diverse range of fields, including financial services, real estate, mining, energy, mixed farming, winemaking and nonprofits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "179855",
"title": "Rothschild family",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
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"text": "Mayer Rothschild successfully kept the fortune in the family with carefully arranged marriages, often between first- or second-cousins (similar to royal intermarriage). By the late 19th century, however, almost all Rothschilds had started to marry outside the family, usually into the aristocracy or other financial dynasties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "179855",
"title": "Rothschild family",
"section": "Section::::Modern businesses, investments, and philanthropy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 458,
"text": "Since the late-19th century, the family has taken a low-key public profile, donating many famous estates, as well as vast quantities of art, to charity, and generally eschewing conspicuous displays of wealth. Today, Rothschild businesses are on a smaller scale than they were throughout the 19th century, although they encompass a diverse range of fields, including: real estate, financial services, mixed farming, energy, mining, winemaking and nonprofits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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}
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| null |
3ane4p | why is my laptop's time estimate of how much battery i have left always so incorrect? | [
{
"answer": "1. There isn't a way for your laptop to tell exactly how much power is left in the battery. It has to estimate it by measuring how much power the battery is outputting, but that's not always a nice neat line.\n\n2. There isn't any way for your laptop to know how much demand you're going to put on it. A laptop that's playing a high-graphics online game is using much more power than a laptop playing solitaire, and will therefore have much lower battery life.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Many reasons, one is it's constantly changing because you're constantly doing things on your computer. Opening new tabs, posting, doing anything on your computer uses more power than it just being idle. Videos and games use a lot of power. Everything on your computer will use varying amounts of power to do, so there are thousands of very small details to take into consideration so your computer just does it's best with the current information at hand.\n\nAlso, if it's a brand new battery it can take a while to adjust to calculate more accurate, and that only lasts so long because older batteries tend to be inaccurate too as they wear down. There are too many factors for a single extremely accurate answer, but that's some of the factors.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "53946166",
"title": "Surface Laptop",
"section": "Section::::Features.:Hardware.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 448,
"text": "The Surface Laptop is the 5th addition to Surface lineup, following the Surface Pro, Surface Hub, Surface Book, and the Surface Studio. Unlike the other products, the Surface Laptop is aimed toward students. Microsoft claims a 14.5-hour battery life when running Windows 10 S, but testing suggests that the battery can be depleted to 50% in just 2.5 hours. It comes in four colors: Platinum, Graphite Gold, Burgundy, and Cobalt Blue as advertised.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4521821",
"title": "Sinclair Oxford",
"section": "Section::::Models.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "The high power consumption of the calculators, which drew 40 mA while in operation, four times the recommended limit of the batteries, meant a short battery life. \"Computer Digest\" recommended using a much larger PP9 battery, but that meant losing the portability of the calculator.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "198584",
"title": "Laptop",
"section": "Section::::Hardware.:Battery and power supply.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "2016-era laptops use lithium ion batteries, with some thinner models using the flatter lithium polymer technology. These two technologies have largely replaced the older nickel metal-hydride batteries. Battery life is highly variable by model and workload and can range from one hour to nearly a day. A battery's performance gradually decreases over time; substantial reduction in capacity is typically evident after one to three years of regular use, depending on the charging and discharging pattern and the design of the battery. Innovations in laptops and batteries have seen situations in which the battery can provide up to 24 hours of continued operation, assuming average power consumption levels. An example is the HP EliteBook 6930p when used with its ultra-capacity battery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "19990354",
"title": "Features new to Windows 7",
"section": "Section::::Power management.:Battery notification messages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "Unlike previous versions of Windows, Windows 7 is able to report when a laptop battery is in need of a replacement. The operating system works with design capabilities present in modern laptop batteries to report this information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3607718",
"title": "Microsoft Gadgets",
"section": "Section::::Device gadgets and Windows Sideshow.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
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"text": "The display can be updated with a number of different kinds of information, such as contacts, maps, calendar, and email. This can then be consulted while the mobile PC is otherwise powered down. Since the underlying platform is so power-efficient, it can run for hundreds of hours without draining a notebook battery, while still providing always-on access to data and multimedia content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "198584",
"title": "Laptop",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with desktops.:Disadvantages.:Durability.:Battery life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 134,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 134,
"end_character": 770,
"text": "Battery life is limited because the capacity drops with time, eventually requiring replacement after as little as a year. A new battery typically stores enough energy to run the laptop for three to five hours, depending on usage, configuration, and power management settings. Yet, as it ages, the battery's energy storage will dissipate progressively until it lasts only a few minutes. The battery is often easily replaceable and a higher capacity model may be obtained for longer charging and discharging time. Some laptops (specifically ultrabooks) do not have the usual removable battery and have to be brought to the service center of its manufacturer or a third-party laptop service center to have its battery replaced. Replacement batteries can also be expensive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3677824",
"title": "MacBook Pro",
"section": "Section::::Fourth generation (Touch Bar and USB-C).:Battery life.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 767,
"text": "The battery life of the new models also received mixed reception, with outlets reporting inconsistent battery life and inaccurate estimates of time remaining on battery by the operating system. Apple addressed the latter by hiding the display of estimated battery time remaining entirely in a macOS update. \"Consumer Reports\" did not initially recommend the 2016 MacBook Pro models, citing inconsistent and unpredictable battery life in its lab testing (which involves the consecutive loading of multiple websites). However, Apple and \"Consumer Reports\" found that the results had been affected by a bug caused by disabling caching in Safari's developer tools. \"Consumer Reports\" performed the tests again with a patched macOS, and retracted its original assessment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
5fnen9 | When did Latin and Old French stop being mutually intelligible? | [
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"answer": "At the third Council of Tours, the priests were ordered to preach in vulgar Latin, as the common folk could no longer understand formal Latin. This was in 813 CE. While it may still have been Latin in name, this language would likely have been significantly different from the VL at the fall of the Western Roman Empire.\n\nVulgar Latin, particularly in outlying regions of the former Roman Empire tended to be influenced by the local languages, as is usual. For instance, the formal Latin *equus* for horse was replaced by *caballus*, a word originating in the Gaulish tongue.\n\nThe other major factor that would have changed in the intervening centuries between the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the Council of Tours is pronunciation. Old French in particular was guilty of significant vowel breaking - where a monopthong is broken into a dipthong or further e.g. the Latin short /e/ in *mel*, became /ie/ *miel*, or honey. Of the original dozen or so vowel sounds found in Latin, all were changed.\n\nMost significantly, vulgar Latin, and subsequently Old French placed more emphasis on stressed syllables, which tended to shift pronunciation and resulted in the now standard dropping of final letters when pronouncing French words. This shift lowered the morpheme:word ratio of OF/VL due to the end-conjugation of many Latin words. This meant that OF/VL relied significantly more on context that did formal Latin.\n\nFrom all this we have a date of certainty (813 CE), but indications exist that the loss of mutual intelligibility could have occurred significantly earlier, as language undergoes speciation in much the same way that living organisms do, on a continuum.\n\nEDIT: You might consider posting this same question over in /r/linguistics for a more in-depth response.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "944942",
"title": "Languages of Algeria",
"section": "Section::::Formerly spoken languages.:Latin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Latin (which later developed into the brief-existent, little-known African Romance language) was the language of the Roman occupation; it became widely spoken in the coastal towns, and Augustine attests that in his day it was gaining ground over Punic. However, it gave way to Arabic and Berber after the Umayyads' conquest, leaving only a few loanwords in those two languages.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "10597",
"title": "French language",
"section": "Section::::History.:Modern French.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 71,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 71,
"end_character": 515,
"text": "During the 17th century, French replaced Latin as the most important language of diplomacy and international relations (lingua franca). It retained this role until approximately the middle of the 20th century, when it was replaced by English as the United States became the dominant global power following the Second World War. Stanley Meisler of the \"Los Angeles Times\" said that the fact that the Treaty of Versailles was written in English as well as French was the \"first diplomatic blow\" against the language.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "20597079",
"title": "Hispania",
"section": "Section::::Languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Latin was the official language of Hispania during the Rome's more than 600 years of rule, and by the empire's end in Hispania around 460 AD, all the original Iberian languages, except the ancestor of modern Basque, were extinct. Even after the fall of Rome and the invasion of the Germanic Visigoths and Suebi, Latin was spoken by nearly all of the population, but in its common form known as Vulgar Latin, and the regional changes which led to the modern Iberian Romance languages had already begun.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21983",
"title": "New Latin",
"section": "Section::::History.:Decline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 510,
"text": "Likewise, in the early 18th century, French replaced Latin as a diplomatic language, due to the commanding presence in Europe of the France of Louis XIV. At the same time, some (like King Frederick William I of Prussia) were dismissing Latin as a useless accomplishment, unfit for a man of practical affairs. The last international treaty to be written in Latin was the Treaty of Vienna in 1738; after the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–48) international diplomacy was conducted predominantly in French.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "17798093",
"title": "Traditional English pronunciation of Latin",
"section": "Section::::History.:Stage II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 303,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 303,
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"text": "Latin spoken in the context of Gallo-Romance and French from approximately the 6th to the 11th-12th centuries. During this period, Latin became a primarily written language, separated from the ordinary spoken language of the people. While it escaped many of the changes of pronunciation and grammar of Gallo-Romance, it did share a few of the changes of the spoken language. This was for the most part a period of stability.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "881273",
"title": "Esperanto etymology",
"section": "Section::::Source languages.:Romance and Germanic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 263,
"text": "and German, the modern languages most widely learned in schools around the world at the time Esperanto was devised. The result was that about two-thirds of this original vocabulary is Romance, and about one-third Germanic, including a pair of roots from Swedish:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "4478036",
"title": "History of French",
"section": "Section::::Internal history.:Vowels.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "The Vulgar Latin underlying French and most other Romance languages had seven vowels in stressed syllables (, similar to the vowels of American English \"khat pet pate peat caught coat coot\" respectively), and five in unstressed syllables (). Portuguese and Italian largely preserve this system, while Spanish has innovated only in converting to and to , resulting in a simple five-vowel system . In French, however, numerous sound changes resulted in a system with 12-14 oral vowels and 3-4 nasal vowels (see French phonology).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
3mbj8h | shouldn't things like the "law of gravity" or the "laws of thermodynamics" correctly be called "theories" instead? | [
{
"answer": "The scientific laws are generally just observations, not theories. The law of gravity doesnt explain gravity, it just describes it - whereas the theory of general relativity provides a model for how gravity works within the bounds of spacetime",
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{
"answer": "Theories and laws are very different things. Laws are not \"above\" theories.\n\nThere are lots of different ways of explaining this, but here's one: a law is a mathematical statement that will always hold true in defined conditions, whereas a theory is a synthesis of a large number of observations which explains why something is the way it is.\n\nSo the \"law of gravity\" is F=(G*M*m)/r^2. A theory of gravity would be general relativity.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "814513",
"title": "Theoretical definition",
"section": "Section::::In different fields.:Sciences.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "The term scientific theory is reserved for concepts that are widely accepted. A scientific law often refers to regularities that can be expressed by a mathematical statement. However, there is no consensus about the distinction between these terms. Every scientific concept must have an operational definition, however the operational definition can use both direct observations and latent variables.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "661244",
"title": "Erik Verlinde",
"section": "Section::::Major contributions.:Entropic gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 320,
"text": "In 2009, Verlinde showed that the laws of gravity may be derived by assuming a form of the holographic principle and the laws of thermodynamics. This may imply that gravity is not a true fundamental force of nature (like e.g. electromagnetism), but instead is a consequence of the universe striving to maximize entropy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244629",
"title": "Scientific law",
"section": "Section::::Properties.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "The term \"scientific law\" is traditionally associated with the natural sciences, though the social sciences also contain laws. For example, Zipf's law is a law in the social sciences which is based on mathematical statistics. In these cases, laws may describe general trends or expected behaviors rather than being absolutes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4159728",
"title": "Criticism of atheism",
"section": "Section::::Atheism and science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 992,
"text": "Physicist Paul Davies of Arizona State University has written that the very notion of physical law is a theological one in the first place: \"Isaac Newton first got the idea of absolute, universal, perfect, immutable laws from the Christian doctrine that God created the world and ordered it in a rational way\". John Lennox has argued that science itself sits more comfortably with theism than with atheism and \"as a scientist I would say... where did modern science come from? It didn't come from atheism... modern science arose in the 16th and 17th centuries in Western Europe, and of course people ask why did it happen there and then, and the general consensus which is often called Merton's Thesis is, to quote CS Lewis who formulated it better than anybody I know... 'Men became scientific. Why? Because they expected law in nature, and they expected law in nature because they believed in a lawgiver.' In other words, it was belief in God that was the motor that drove modern science\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2871407",
"title": "Positivism",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Antecedents.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 411,
"text": "The consideration that laws in physics may not be absolute but relative, and, if so, this might be more true of social sciences, was stated, in different terms, by G. B. Vico in 1725. Vico, in contrast to the positivist movement, asserted the superiority of the science of the human mind (the humanities, in other words), on the grounds that natural sciences tell us nothing about the inward aspects of things.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "495152",
"title": "Hard determinism",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 896,
"text": "Unlike \"law fundamentalists\", some philosophers are \"law pluralists\": they question what it means to have a law of physics. One example is the \"Best Standards Analysis\", which says that the laws are only useful ways to summarize all past events, rather than there being metaphysically \"pushy\" entities (this route still brings one into conflict with the idea of free will). Some law pluralists further believe there are simply no laws of physics. The mathematical universe hypothesis suggests that there are other universes in which the laws of physics and fundamental constants are different. Andreas Albrecht of Imperial College in London called it a \"provocative\" solution to one of the central problems facing physics. Although he \"wouldn't dare\" go so far as to say he believes it, he noted that \"it's actually quite difficult to construct a theory where everything we see is all there is\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "151577",
"title": "Causality (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Causality in physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Causality in this context should not be confused with Newton's second law, which is related to the conservation of momentum, and is a consequence of the spatial homogeneity of physical laws. The word causality in this context means that all effects must have specific causes. As discussed below, this is a principle that is violated in some theories of modern physics.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
d2xhy0 | the difference between plasma and the ‘other’ states | [
{
"answer": "Unlike gases, plasmas are made up of atoms in which some or all of the electrons have been stripped away, leaving positively charged nuclei, called ions, roam freely.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Solid, gas, and liquid are taught as the states of matter simply because those are the only states of matter that you're ever likely to experience. Plasma is sometimes included because it's easy to demonstrate (e.g. neon lights) and it fits easily into the same continuum as solid - > liquid - > gas. \n\nThere are *dozens* more states of matter, but they're either so esoteric that they're difficult to explain in a basic science class, or so exotic that most people will never encounter them, or both.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25916521",
"title": "Plasma (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Properties and parameters.:Comparison of plasma and gas phases.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 351,
"text": "Plasma is often called the \"fourth state of matter\" after solid, liquids and gases, despite plasma typically being an ionized gas. It is distinct from these and other lower-energy states of matter. Although it is closely related to the gas phase in that it also has no definite form or volume, it differs in a number of ways, including the following:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "61580",
"title": "Electrical resistivity and conductivity",
"section": "Section::::Causes of conductivity.:Plasma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 57,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 57,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "Plasma is often called the \"fourth state of matter\" after solid, liquids and gases. It is distinct from these and other lower-energy states of matter. Although it is closely related to the gas phase in that it also has no definite form or volume, it differs in a number of ways, including the following:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25916521",
"title": "Plasma (physics)",
"section": "Section::::Properties and parameters.:Definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "Plasma is a state of matter in which an ionized gaseous substance becomes highly electrically conductive to the point that long-range electric and magnetic fields dominate the behaviour of the matter. The plasma state can be contrasted with the other states: solid, liquid, and gas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25916521",
"title": "Plasma (physics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 616,
"text": "Plasma and ionized gases have properties and display behaviours unlike those of the other states, and the transition between them is mostly a matter of nomenclature and subject to interpretation. Based on the surrounding environmental temperature and density, partially ionized or fully ionized forms of plasma may be produced. Neon signs and lightning are examples of partially ionized plasma. The Earth's ionosphere is a plasma and the magnetosphere contains plasma in the Earth's surrounding space environment. The interior of the Sun is an example of fully ionized plasma, along with the solar corona and stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18446530",
"title": "Microplasma",
"section": "Section::::What is a microplasma?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1170,
"text": "There are 4 states of matter: solid, liquid, gas, and plasma. Plasmas make up more than 99% of the visible universe. In general, when energy is applied to a gas, internal electrons of gas molecules (atoms) are excited and move up to higher energy levels. If the energy applied is high enough, outermost electron(s) can even be stripped off the molecules (atoms), forming ions. Electrons, molecules (atoms), excited species and ions form a soup of species which involves many interactions between species and demonstrate collective behavior under the influence of external electric and magnetic fields. Light always accompanies plasmas: as the excited species relax and move to lower energy levels, energy is released in the form of light. Microplasma is a subdivision of plasma in which the dimensions of the plasma can range between tens, hundreds, or even thousands of micrometers in size. The majority of microplasmas that are employed in commercial applications are cold plasmas. In a cold plasma, electrons have much higher energy than the accompanying ions and neutrals. Microplasmas are typically generated at elevated pressure to atmospheric pressure or higher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37461",
"title": "State of matter",
"section": "Section::::The four fundamental states.:Plasma.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "The plasma state is often misunderstood, and although not freely existing under normal conditions on Earth, it is quite commonly generated by either lightning, electric sparks, fluorescent lights, neon lights or in plasma televisions. The Sun's corona, some types of flame, and stars are all examples of illuminated matter in the plasma state.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6207",
"title": "Electric current",
"section": "Section::::Conduction mechanisms in various media.:Gases and plasmas.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 61,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 61,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Plasma is the state of matter where some of the electrons in a gas are stripped or \"ionized\" from their molecules or atoms. A plasma can be formed by high temperature, or by application of a high electric or alternating magnetic field as noted above. Due to their lower mass, the electrons in a plasma accelerate more quickly in response to an electric field than the heavier positive ions, and hence carry the bulk of the current. The free ions recombine to create new chemical compounds (for example, breaking atmospheric oxygen into single oxygen [O → 2O], which then recombine creating ozone [O]).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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| null |
1asrzd | How long would it take a quantum computer (theoretically) to make as many computations as has been made in the entire history of computers? | [
{
"answer": "From what I understand, quantum computers aren't really comparable to existing computers. They aren't a billion times faster than our existing computers, I believe they may even be slower at making traditional calculations.\n\nThe reason quantum computers are special is because they can do specific kinds of calculations extremely well. They trivialize certain types of computation (such as decryption) that our existing computers have a really hard time with. \n\nSo to answer your question, probably an insane amount of time because they aren't especially fast.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Quantum computers aren't magical. They cannot perform arbitrary computations faster than classical computers can. They can solve *certain* problems faster (for example, [brute-force search](_URL_0_)). You might have gotten the wrong impression from pop science articles that claim that quantum computers somehow perform billions of simultaneous computations, etc., which is very misleading.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "25220",
"title": "Quantum computing",
"section": "Section::::Developments.:Timeline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 451,
"text": "In September 2012, Australian researchers at the University of New South Wales said the world's first quantum computer was just 5 to 10 years away, after announcing a global breakthrough enabling the manufacture of its memory building blocks. A research team led by Australian engineers created the first working qubit based on a single atom in silicon, invoking the same technological platform that forms the building blocks of modern-day computers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "632489",
"title": "Quantum algorithm",
"section": "Section::::BQP-complete problems.:Quantum simulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 999,
"text": "The idea that quantum computers might be more powerful than classical computers originated in Richard Feynman's observation that classical computers seem to require exponential time to simulate many-particle quantum systems. Since then, the idea that quantum computers can simulate quantum physical processes exponentially faster than classical computers has been greatly fleshed out and elaborated. Efficient (that is, polynomial-time) quantum algorithms have been developed for simulating both Bosonic and Fermionic systems and in particular, the simulation of chemical reactions beyond the capabilities of current classical supercomputers requires only a few hundred qubits. Quantum computers can also efficiently simulate topological quantum field theories. In addition to its intrinsic interest, this result has led to efficient quantum algorithms for estimating quantum topological invariants such as Jones and HOMFLY polynomials, and the Turaev-Viro invariant of three-dimensional manifolds.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "264051",
"title": "History of computing hardware (1960s–present)",
"section": "Section::::Third generation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 201,
"text": "By 1971, the Illiac IV supercomputer was the fastest computer in the world, using about a quarter-million small-scale ECL logic gate integrated circuits to make up sixty-four parallel data processors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30115086",
"title": "Quantum machine",
"section": "Section::::The first quantum machine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "The first quantum machine was created on August 4, 2009 by Aaron D. O'Connell while pursuing his Ph.D. under the direction of Andrew N. Cleland and John M. Martinis at the University of California, Santa Barbara. O'Connell and his colleagues coupled together a mechanical resonator, similar to a tiny springboard, and a qubit, a device that can be in a superposition of two quantum states at the same time. They were able to make the resonator vibrate a small amount and a large amount simultaneously—an effect which would be impossible in classical physics. The mechanical resonator was just large enough to see with the naked eye—about as long as the width of a human hair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25220",
"title": "Quantum computing",
"section": "Section::::Developments.:Timeline.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "In 1994, Peter Shor, at AT&T's Bell Labs, discovered an important quantum algorithm, which allows a quantum computer to factor large integers exponentially much faster than the best known classical algorithm. Shor's algorithm can theoretically break many of the Public-key cryptography systems in use today, sparking a tremendous interest in quantum computers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37153",
"title": "Supercomputer",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 536,
"text": "The CDC 6600, designed by Seymour Cray, was finished in 1964 and marked the transition from germanium to silicon transistors. Silicon transistors could run faster and the overheating problem was solved by introducing refrigeration to the supercomputer design. Thus the CDC6600 became the fastest computer in the world. Given that the 6600 outperformed all the other contemporary computers by about 10 times, it was dubbed a \"supercomputer\" and defined the supercomputing market, when one hundred computers were sold at $8 million each.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47163396",
"title": "Robert J. Schoelkopf",
"section": "Section::::Research.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "In 2007, a team of scientists led by Schoelkopf and Steven Girvin made a major breakthrough in quantum computing when it engineered a superconducting communication \"bus\" to store and transfer information between distant quantum bits, or qubits, on a chip. Their work is the first step to making the fundamentals of quantum computing useful. In 2009, their team demonstrated the first electronic quantum processor which could perform a quantum computation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
}
]
| null |
64m6tm | How were lances used before the invention of stirrups? | [
{
"answer": "I'm not sure that your assumption is entirely correct (remember, the impact when hitting someone will come from in front): older books I've read, like Oman, tend to believe this, state that the development of the stirrup essentially lead to feudalism, and put a lot more significance on pictures like [this](_URL_0_) one from the Psalter of St Gall, with his stirrups and couched lance, than they probably deserve (for one thing, he's only transporting the lance). That idea is disputed now (and by the 'experimental archeology' types, fwtw) but I'll mainly just point out how pre-stirrup people depicted lance use (mostly visually, which of course has its problems, such as artists not usually being warriors). The most common pose by far is an overarm blow, which is also shown on the [Bayeux tapestry](_URL_9_) alongside couched lances. There's a certain amount of ambiguity in the tapestry, as it also shows spears being [thrown](_URL_8_), so it's not certain which is being represented, but there are [other](_URL_3_) works where the pose is clearly meant to depict an impact with the enemy. This pose is very old, and can be seen all the way back to [Assyrian](_URL_5_) art. The other common pose is underarm, with the hand at about the hip, as seen in the well-known [Alexander mosaic](_URL_2_) ([here](_URL_1_)'s a pot showing the same thing).\n\nThere was also a kind of very large lance used in antiquity, originating in the steppes before spreading to Persia, and then Europe. It was called the kontos by the Greeks ('oar' or 'barge-pole'), and it was used like one, two-handed, as seen in [this](_URL_4_) relief. This sounds rather precarious, however [Persian](_URL_7_) art [shows](_URL_10_) quite considerable impacts, which are backed up by written sources, such as Plutarch's [claim](_URL_6_) that the Parthian spear often had the impetus to pierce two men at once.\n\nFinally, the (probably) 4th century novel 'Aethiopica' by Heliodorus describes the heavily armoured Persian cavalry attaching their lances directly to the horse, so that they only have to aim it, with the impact taken by their horse. Given that this is the only place this idea shows up, I don't find it particularly plausible.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1390149",
"title": "Medieval technology",
"section": "Section::::Military technologies.:Cavalry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 153,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 153,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Stirrups were invented by steppe nomads in what is today Mongolia and northern China in the 4th century. They were introduced in Byzantium in the 6th century and in the Carolingian Empire in the 8th. They allowed a mounted knight to wield a sword and strike from a distance leading to a great advantage for mounted cavalry.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48774",
"title": "Lance",
"section": "Section::::History of use.:Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 942,
"text": "The best known usage of military lances was that of the full-gallop closed-ranks charge of a group of knights with underarm-couched lances, against lines of infantry, archery regiments, defensive embankments, and opposition cavalry. Two variants on the couched lance charge developed, the French method, \"en haie\", with lancers in a double line and the German method, with lancers drawn up in a deeper formation which was often wedge-shaped. It is commonly believed that this became the dominant European cavalry tactic in the 11th century after the development of the cantled saddle and stirrups (the Great Stirrup Controversy), and of rowel spurs (which enabled better control of the mount). Cavalry thus outfitted and deployed had a tremendous collective force in their charge, and could shatter most contemporary infantry lines. Recent evidence has suggested, however, that the lance charge was effective without the benefit of stirrups.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "48774",
"title": "Lance",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1021,
"text": "The lance is a pole weapon designed to be used by a mounted warrior or cavalry soldier (lancer). During the periods of classical and medieval warfare, it evolved into being the leading weapon in cavalry charges, and was unsuited for throwing or for repeated thrusting, unlike similar weapons of the javelin/pike family typically used by infantry. Lances were often equipped with a vamplate – a small circular plate to prevent the hand sliding up the shaft upon impact. Though best known as a military and sporting weapon carried by European knights, the use of lances was widespread throughout Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa wherever suitable mounts were available. As a secondary weapon, lancers of the medieval period also bore swords, axes, hammers, or maces for hand-to-hand combat, since the lance was often a one-use-per-engagement weapon; assuming the lance survived the initial impact intact, it was (depending on the lance) usually too long, heavy and slow to be effective against opponents in a melee.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7783929",
"title": "Horses in warfare",
"section": "Section::::Technological innovations.:Riding equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 1078,
"text": "An invention that made cavalry particularly effective was the stirrup. A toe loop that held the big toe was used in India possibly as early as 500 BC, and later a single stirrup was used as a mounting aid. The first set of paired stirrups appeared in China about 322 AD during the Jin Dynasty. Following the invention of paired stirrups, which allowed a rider greater leverage with weapons, as well as both increased stability and mobility while mounted, nomadic groups such as the Mongols adopted this technology and developed a decisive military advantage. By the 7th century, due primarily to invaders from Central Asia, stirrup technology spread from Asia to Europe. The Avar invaders are viewed as primarily responsible for spreading the use of the stirrup into central Europe. However, while stirrups were known in Europe in the 8th century, pictorial and literary references to their use date only from the 9th century. Widespread use in Northern Europe, including England, is credited to the Vikings, who spread the stirrup in the 9th and 10th centuries to those areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48774",
"title": "Lance",
"section": "Section::::History of use.:18th and 19th century revival.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "The mounted lancer experienced a renaissance in the 18th and especially in the 19th century. This followed on the demise of the pike and of body armor during the 17th century, with the reintroduction of lances coming from Poland and Hungary. In both countries formations of lance-armed cavalry had been retained when they disappeared elsewhere in Europe. Lancers became especially prevalent during and after the Napoleonic Wars: a period when almost all the major European powers reintroduced the lance into their respective cavalry arsenals. Formations of uhlans and later other types of cavalry used 2-3 m (6.5-10 ft) lances as their main weapons. The lance was usually employed in initial charges in close formation, with sabers being used in the melee that followed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "48774",
"title": "Lance",
"section": "Section::::History of use.:Middle Ages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 806,
"text": "In Europe, a jousting lance was a variation of the knight's lance which was modified from its original war design. In jousting, the lance tips would usually be blunt, often spread out like a cup or furniture foot, to provide a wider impact surface designed to unseat the opposing rider without spearing him through. The centre of the shaft of such lances could be designed to be hollow, in order for it to break on impact, as a further safeguard against impalement. They were often at least 4m long, and had hand guards built into the lance, often tapering for a considerable portion of the weapon's length. These are the versions that can most often be seen at medieval reenactment festivals. In war, lances were much more like stout spears, long and balanced for one-handed use, and with sharpened tips.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239976",
"title": "Stirrup",
"section": "Section::::History.:Japan.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 330,
"text": "Stirrups (\"abumi\") were used in Japan as early as the 5th century. They were flat bottomed rings of metal-covered wood, similar to European stirrups. The earliest known examples were excavated from tombs. Cup-shaped stirrups (\"tsuba abumi\") that enclosed the front half of the rider's foot eventually replaced the earlier design.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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]
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]
| null |
3eo8rj | given the emphasis placed on the separation of the three pillars of the american government, how can the president grant pardons? is this not the executive messing with the judiciary? | [
{
"answer": "If all that was said was \"Congress makes laws; President enforces laws; Judges interpret laws,\" then maybe. But the President has the explicit power in the Constitution to pardon people. You might think that invades the province of the judiciary, but it's granted authority so no one has a real issue with it.",
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"answer": "I thought the emphasis wasn't on separation but rather checks and balances so that each branch will help ensure the other ones do their job",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "It's built on checks and balances, not separation. Each branch can limit the other branches so no one branch is all powerful. \n\nCongress passes laws. The President can veto but Congress can override. The Supreme Court can overturn laws passed by Congress. See how everyone can check (or limit) the other branches? \n\nPardons are one of the checks the Executive branch has over the courts. A perfectly legal law passed by Congress and upheld by the Court can still be nullified in some cases by the President. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "31647",
"title": "Article Two of the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Section 1: President and vice president.:Clause 1: Executive Power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 727,
"text": "Notwithstanding their executive power, the president cannot make treaties or appointments without the advice and consent of the Senate. Likewise, the president's pardon power is limited to offenses against the United States (federal crimes) and does not extend to impeachments or violations of state law. As treaties are by U.S. law official agreements with foreign governments recognized as such only after Senate ratification, the president obviously cannot make treaties unilaterally. However, the president does determine and decide U.S. foreign policy, and can enter into non-binding discussions and give conditional approval to agreements reached with foreign governments subject to Senate ratification at a future date.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "24113",
"title": "President of the United States",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "Article II of the Constitution establishes the executive branch of the federal government. It vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The power includes the execution and enforcement of federal law, alongside the responsibility of appointing federal executive, diplomatic, regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with foreign powers with the advice and consent of the Senate. The president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves, and to convene and adjourn either or both houses of Congress under extraordinary circumstances. The president directs the foreign and domestic policies of the United States, and takes an active role in promoting his policy priorities to members of Congress. In addition, as part of the system of checks and balances, of the Constitution gives the president the power to sign or veto federal legislation. The power of the presidency has grown substantially since its formation, as has the power of the federal government as a whole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2653890",
"title": "Federalist No. 67",
"section": "Section::::Hamilton's arguments.:Executive Branch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 821,
"text": "To refute the notion that the executive branch would become a monarchy, allowing the President to put a person in any office, Hamilton wrote, \"To nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of United States whose appointments are not in the Constitution otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law.\" What this statement means is that the President of the United States can only nominate members as ambassadors, public ministries and consuls, Supreme Court judges and any other member that is not directly named in the Constitution currently or that will be named in the future without first consulting the Senate and then getting the Senate's approval of his nomination.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "738686",
"title": "Separation of powers under the United States Constitution",
"section": "Section::::Checks and balances.:Executive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "The president, as noted above, appoints judges with the Senate's advice and consent. He also has the power to issue pardons and reprieves. Such pardons are not subject to confirmation by either the House of Representatives or the Senate, or even to acceptance by the recipient. The President is not mandated to carry out the orders of the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court does not have any enforcement power; the enforcement power lies solely with the executive branch. Thus, the executive branch can place a check on the Supreme Court through refusal to execute the orders of the court. For example, in \"Worcester v. Georgia\", President Jackson refused to execute the orders of the Supreme Court.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "357182",
"title": "Guadalupe Victoria",
"section": "Section::::Supreme Executive Power.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 542,
"text": "The Supreme Executive Power was commissioned to direct the former provinces, now Free States, to create the Federal Republic and also to call elections for a new constituent congress. The Executive had to overcome a series of political difficulties, such as the case of the Central American provinces that chose not to join Mexican Federation, and the provinces of Oaxaca, Yucatán, Jalisco and Zacatecas that declared themselves free and sovereign states. They also faced a conspiracy of supporters of Iturbide and an anti-Spanish rebellion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "58603393",
"title": "Supreme executive organ (Austria)",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Article 19.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 475,
"text": "Article 19 of the Federal Constitutional Law, the backbone of the constitution, empowers the National Council to enact incompatibility provisions that bar presidents, ministers, and members of provincial governments from holding positions in the private sector during their time in office. In its first sentence, Article 19 states that \"the supreme executive organs are the president, the ministers and state secretaries, and the members of the provincial governments\" (\"\").\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "3103340",
"title": "Unitary executive theory",
"section": "Section::::Judicial decisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "In the 1926 case of \"Myers v. United States\", the United States Supreme Court decided that the President has the exclusive power to remove executive branch officials, and does not need the approval of the Senate or any other legislative body. The Court also wrote:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
3d2wi5 | what do large corporation do with billions of dollars in revenue after expenses? do they spend it all on assets or can they get a bank account like people? | [
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"answer": "All of the above. After paying out expenses. And stockholders fees. And bonuses to management. They will invest in research and development. Donate to causes, mainly for tax write-off. Funnel money into politics through lobbyists, for power and control. They will buy smaller business, and newer technology and inventions so they can do hold the patents and collect money on that. Invest in upgrading and expanding properties that they own. And invest in accounts that will earn them money, and while they search for new acquisitions.",
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"answer": "They could use a bank to store their money but most publicly listed companies( they are on the stock exchange) tend to have to answer to their shareholders and thus will invest their excess profits into \"profitable\" investments, pay the interest the owe the bank due to loans and pass the rest along as dividends for their shareholders. ( to keep them happy)\n\nIf they are not publicly listed( not likely a big corporation), then their funds will be free to do as they like based on their board of directors.\n\nMost corporations ( other than financial institutions) will tend to invest their financial resources in other projects( for growth and for profits) instead of letting them sit in a bank( which only provides interest on the principal)",
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"answer": "Well...\n\nIn a publicly held corporation, like the ones you are thinking of when you hear the word \"corporation\", after expenses some is set aside by the board of directors for future investments, expansion and that sort of thing, and the rest of it is sent to the share holders (the owners) in the form of a check. This is called a dividend.\n\nMost publicly traded companies sell 51% of their stock publicly, the minimum required by law, and the rest is owned by various investors, founders, board members, employees if they have stock options set up for them, and that sort of thing.\n\nThe public stock is the stock sold on the stock market.\n\nSo each share holder gets a percentage of the profits based on what percent of the company they own in stock.",
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"answer": "Large corporations will have a full time treasurer (and perhaps an entire treasury department) that manages their cash and non-business assets.\n\nDifferent companies have different philosophies on how to manage their treasuries. Some are very conservative and invest mostly in bank accounts and government bonds (which are safer than bank accounts, because FDIC insurance on bank accounts is limited to $250,000), while others run basically internal hedge funds.",
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"title": "ŽIA valda",
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"text": "The majority of company's income comes from management fees, dividends and revenue from part sales of businesses. To this day assets after loans owned by the company both directly and through its affiliates, related or associated companies are valued at nearly 120 million euros.\n",
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"title": "General Motors",
"section": "Section::::Corporate governance.:Financial results.\n",
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"text": "The company has reported annual profits since 2010. It can carry forward previous losses to reduce tax liability on future earnings. It earned $4.7 billion in 2010. The \"Wall Street Journal\" estimated the tax break, including credits for costs related to pensions and other expenses, can be worth as much as $45 billion over the next 20 years.\n",
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"title": "PCTCT",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"text": "A company's taxable total profits are derived from a company's profit as shown in the profit and loss account in its accounts, with the addition of any disallowed expenditure, and the deduction of any expenditure that is allowed for tax purposes but that has not been deducted in the profit and loss account.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "247120",
"title": "Revenue",
"section": "Section::::Business revenue.\n",
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"text": "Money income from activities that is ordinary for a particular corporation, company, partnership, or sole-proprietorship. For some businesses, such as manufacturing or grocery, most revenue is from the sale of goods. Service businesses such as law firms and barber shops receive most of their revenue from rendering services. Lending businesses such as car rentals and banks receive most of their revenue from fees and interest generated by lending assets to other organizations or individuals.\n",
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"title": "Management accounting",
"section": "Section::::Role within a corporation.\n",
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"text": "In corporations that derive much of their profits from the information economy, such as banks, publishing houses, telecommunications companies and defence contractors, IT costs are a significant source of uncontrollable spending, which in size is often the greatest corporate cost after total compensation costs and property related costs. A function of management accounting in such organizations is to work closely with the IT department to provide IT cost transparency.\n",
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"title": "Recovery of loans",
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"text": "Interest earned is the income for the corporation, this should payments, the entire expenses and plough back requirement therefore, recovery of money is one of the major source of funds for the corporation. The health of the corporation is judged by the extent of recovery that it can affect. All source of funds carry cost, if the cost of borrowings is higher, it reduces the margin profit, further the profit are subject to payment of income tax as per applicable laws. The corporation also is bound by minimum dividend obligation irrespective, whether it makes profit or not out of the post tax and post dividend income. The memos are retained in the corporation by way of reserves. Plough back of funds into system is emerging as one of the very important sources of funds in the total resource mix, if the corporation has to retain sufficient money for the business operations; it has to generate more income. More income obviously improving the recovery. Therefore, systematic follow-up recovery of loan plays a significant role in our operations. In fact, is not exaggeration of the state that effective recovery of loans is the backbone\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "899096",
"title": "Retained earnings",
"section": "Section::::Tax implications.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
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"text": "A company is normally subject to a company tax on the net income of the company in a financial year. The amount added to retained earnings is generally the after tax net income. In most cases in most jurisdictions no tax is payable on the accumulated earnings retained by a company. However, this creates a potential for tax avoidance, because the corporate tax rate is usually lower than the higher marginal rates for some individual taxpayers. Higher income taxpayers could \"park\" income inside a private company instead of being paid out as a dividend and then taxed at the individual rates. To remove this tax benefit, some jurisdictions impose an \"undistributed profits tax\" on retained earnings of private companies, usually at the highest individual marginal tax rate.\n",
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| null |
7eq094 | how is it possible that isp's can see what your up to online? i thought https encrypted your traffic so it can't be read? | [
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"answer": "Sorta.\n\nThe ISP is your mailman. They need to get packages to where they need to go, Reddit for example is sending you a package containing this reply. You pay the mailman monthly for a rate at which they send packages from you and to you. \n\nHTTPS encrypts the package’s contents, however the ISP’s responsibility is still to move the package from A to B, and therefore needs to know what these A and B are. Therefore the postage address cannot be encrypted, and your ISP can track who you are exchanging packages with, be it Reddit or YouTube or Netflix.\n\nSo your ISP can’t actually see what you are viewing on Reddit, YouTube, or Netflix, but they can see which sites you are accessing.",
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"answer": "HTTPS is not a perfect solution. It prevents them from seeing what messages are exchanged but not from seeing who exchanges those messages.\n\nThey can see that you are on reddit but not which subedits you are viewing for example.\n\nThere are additional things they can see. For example some researches a while back for example showed that you could still recognize which movies a person was watching despite them being transmitted via https. The transmission itself was encrypted, but observers could still see the size of the packets transmitted and match those with what they new about the movies in netflix's library.\n\nSo https is good for not having the entire world see your password when you transmit it, but if you don't want your ISP to know that you are visiting _URL_0_ they won't help you at all and in some special cases they might in theory learn much more about your browsing habits than you would want them to.",
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"answer": "It sort of does. Your ISP cannot read HTTPS data you send or receive (for the most part)\n\nBut when you send data, they can see where it's destined for. When you receive data, they can see where it came from. So they can generally tell which websites you visited. But they can't tell what you *did* on those sites.\n\nThere are a couple of ways they can *sometimes* snoop on your HTTPS traffic however.\n\nIf you install one of their certificates, they can potentially act as a man in the middle, reading everything you send and receive. But that requires you to manually install this certificate. It can't be done silently just by visiting a website. Alternatively, if the website has a non-HTTPS landing page, they can potentially manipulate that so that you are never forwarded to the HTTPS version.\n\nBut yeah, assuming your PC isn't compromised, and the *entire* site runs HTTPS, then the ISP can only tell where data packets are going and coming from, not what's in them.",
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"answer": "I was actually looking into this the other day after my internet was slowed the day after I made a huge download. Turns out it was unrelated. However I found some interesting info about how service providers can determine your online activities without actually seeing the queries of your URLs.\n\nFor example, when you're streaming a video, there is a specific bandwidth usage pattern that is easily distinguishable from downloads and stuff. \n\n[Here](_URL_0_) is a diagram representing streaming network traffic pattern.\n\nWhen a video is buffering, it's pre-loading part of the video so that it can be viewed without any hiccups. Normally videos will give around 15 seconds of buffer time. When the video comes too close to the non-buffered part of the video (the rest of the video) the bandwidth will be used once again to buffer the next 15 or so seconds of the video. This results in a choppy, zipper-like bandwidth usage pattern. (See the hyperlinked article for a diagram). \n\nWhile service providers might not necessarily be able to see what you are viewing exactly, by combination of the general address of the website, and the bandwidth pattern. They can usually make a pretty good guess as to what you're up to. And with all the data they are collecting at the same time, it's only becoming easier.\n\nEdit: replaced link to article to simply just a link to the diagram",
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"answer": "I want to point out that my isp actually will perform man in the middle attacks to send copyright notices. I was torrenting one night and my browser wouldnt connect to https reddit. After a few seconds i got redirected to a 'copyright violations are bad, click here to restore your internet' page. Realistically, i should be able to charge them under the CFAA for that. I couldnt believe they would stoop to MITM for copyright.....",
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"answer": "They know the IP address you’re sending/receiving information from, not the content. Quite literally just like properly addressed mail through the post office.",
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"answer": "How does this change on a vpn? ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "This is the best link I have ever seen. \n_URL_0_\n\nBasically, when you send information, like others have said, it gets put into a package, like a box. As the box goes from device to device, each device can add a box and put a sticker label on it. Some devices open the outer box package to read the label on inner boxes. Kinda like how you can recognize a home depot box, these labels and boxes are recognizable. And because it's all electronic, it's easy to build a software that can open and read those quickly and do all sorts of analytics. The very inside package might not get opened, but there's a lot of info you can gather to make very educated and statistically proven guesses in the worst case scenario, and when you compare it directly to other known packages from non encrypted sessions, it becomes a matching game. ",
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"answer": "They can see the volume. If you go to Pornhub for example and watch a video, you are going to pull down data from the video yeah it is encrypted, yeah it is streaming. If the video is exactly 14,586,304 bytes how many possible videos on the site are exactly 14,586,304 bytes? Even streaming wise with enough sample data you can peg what they are streaming. Go to a download site, same thing. I can't tell what you downloaded but I can see how much you downloaded. How many possible files on the site match the size? The ads are a different connection and unless a website has a substantial random amount of data on each page, it's easy to gauge what you are looking at. You can never get 100% but you can say \"Out of 6 million videos there is a 98% chance he watch video A, 87% chance it was Video B, and 76% chance it was video C.",
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"answer": "I've always thought of the post card anology. In http You exchange information with a web site in post cards. Everyone who handles your post card can read it. \n\nWith https it's like using an envelope. They still know the address but not the content. \n\nThe main thing to remember is that the website address is still visible. ~~So even if your communication is encrypted going to _URL_0_ tell the ISP a lot~~ with https only _URL_1_ is visible thanks to /u/ChoilSport for pointing that out",
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"answer": "Your ISP doesn't know what you ordered from Amazon, just that you got a package from Amazon. This becomes an issue when you order a package from _URL_0_, and there is little doubt as to what you're ordering. ",
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"answer": "If someone moves your data for you, they get to read it. It's the same issue with Tor. No outsider can read it, but it is possible for outsiders, if they're creative enough, to become insiders.\n\nThere's a small scene in Mr. Robot that talks about this briefly. I think it's actually in the pilot.",
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"answer": "They can’t see inside the HTTP session, but can inspect the entire TCP/IP packet. So, they don’t even know the host name in the HTTP header (_URL_0_), but they can see the source and destination IP addresses. The mailman analogy works.",
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"answer": "Even if it's encrypted, they can still see the type of traffic (like P2P) and the amount downloaded/ uploaded. ",
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"answer": "In order to actually GET to the website, you need it's IP address. \nIn order to do this, you send out requests for the exact IP address in DNS queries. These go over the line unencrypted by default. \n\nYou can watch them pass by with Wireshark.",
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"answer": "Assuming you do some homework first and make an effort to ask a well-informed question, you could also try /r/networking. There are plenty of ISP network techs and others with in-depth knowledge there who can tell you exactly in which ways your ISP can track your every move online. \n\nOf course, most of those methods would be illegal under net neutrality rules.",
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"answer": "So my friend who owns my ISP knows what kind of porn I watch?",
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"answer": "Related: On March 28, 2017 congress passed legislation (bill: H. Res 230) that legally allows your ISP to track, store and sell your internet surfing history to ANYBODY who pays them money. This legislation was also passed basically \"under the radar\" just like they are trying to do with Net Neutrality. The bill was passed because 50 Republicans voted for it. On average a Republican received $368,648 from the telecom industry during their careers [_URL_0_].",
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"answer": "I work at an ISP and we can’t really see what you’re doing. We can see where packets are being sent, what time they’re being sent and who sent them, but that’s it. ",
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"answer": "Generally speaking, they cant see what the contents are, just where you're going and who is sending traffic to you.\n\nHowever, there's a somewhat new tech, where basically \n(putting this in very simple terms, no one jump on my shit)\n your secure connection is formed with the ISP instead of the site you're going to, who reads it, and then forms a separate secure connection with where you're going, and forwards it under that connection. Generally speaking, this is something that's done for internal traffic to/from a private network...like say the navy's internal network. Usually this causes you to get a notification from your browser saying that the connection is insecure because these sorts of things are checked for, which is one of the reasons it's important to pay attention to if you have a valid, secure connection.\n\nobviously, as far as I'm aware, this isn't standard practice. at least not yet...\n\ni think I explained that correctly :p ",
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"answer": "Traditional http has no encryption, this means that as it passes through intermediary devices such as your ISP's router, the contents of everything can be intercepted or modified. \n\nTo protect the confidentiality and integrity of web traffic, most modern websites use HTTPS which is traditional http wrapped with encryption. HTTPS traffic is opaque as it travels through routers, but there is still some info the ISP can see. \n\nWhen you request a website, you use a protocol known as DNS. This works like a phone directory and is needed to translate the domain name (e.g. _URL_0_) into an internet address (e.g. 151.101.65.140). These DNS queries are sent unencrypted and therefore run the risk of both eavesdropping and tampering. \n\nLastly, even with HTTPS itself, there are ways of breaking it, without getting overly technical, it's to do with something known as certificate authorities. Some employees and school networks have software that 'fakes' an https connection but really intercepts it midway through.\n\nAlso, in addition to looking at the contents of your data, your isp still has to route your traffic, so by virtue of that, they will need to know the destination addresses of all your traffic so they can route it. ",
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"wikipedia_id": "1228060",
"title": "Internet privacy",
"section": "Section::::Risks to Internet privacy.:Internet service providers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
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"text": "An ISP cannot know the contents of properly-encrypted data passing between its consumers and the Internet. For encrypting web traffic, https has become the most popular and best-supported standard. Even if users encrypt the data, the ISP still knows the IP addresses of the sender and of the recipient. (However, see the IP addresses section for workarounds.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "13586",
"title": "HTTPS",
"section": "Section::::Technical.:Network layers.\n",
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"text": "HTTPS encrypts all message contents, including the HTTP headers and the request/response data. With the exception of the possible CCA cryptographic attack described in the limitations section below, an attacker should only be able to discover that a connection is taking place between the two parties and their domain names and IP addresses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "16588401",
"title": "Web-based SSH",
"section": "Section::::Important issues.\n",
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"text": "BULLET::::- \"Security\": It is important to make sure that HTTPS is used when communicating with the web application server. Otherwise all data being sent would be readable by use of simple packet sniffers which could reveal sensitive information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "3418152",
"title": "Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "Web browsers typically use HTTP to communicate with web servers, sending and receiving information without encrypting it. For sensitive transactions, such as Internet e-commerce or online access to financial accounts, the browser and server must encrypt this information.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "5068415",
"title": "HTTP cookie",
"section": "Section::::Cookie theft and session hijacking.:Network eavesdropping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 140,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 352,
"text": "This issue can be resolved by securing the communication between the user's computer and the server by employing Transport Layer Security (HTTPS protocol) to encrypt the connection. A server can specify the codice_4 flag while setting a cookie, which will cause the browser to send the cookie only over an encrypted channel, such as an TLS connection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "31201241",
"title": "Torrent poisoning",
"section": "Section::::Barriers to torrent poisoning.:Countermeasures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 273,
"text": "BULLET::::- Public or Private tracker websites have selectively switched over to using HTTPS for the distribution of their web text and image content. By using HTTPS for the website content (versus tracker communications) many poisoning techniques are rendered impossible.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "4299490",
"title": "Opportunistic encryption",
"section": "Section::::Websites.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
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"text": "For encrypting WWW/HTTP connections, HTTPS is typically used, which requires strict encryption and has significant administrative costs, both in terms of initial setup and continued maintenance costs for the website operator. Most browsers verify the webserver's identity to make sure that an SSL certificate is signed by a trusted certificate authority and has not expired, usually requiring the website operator to manually change the certificate every one or two years. The easiest way to enable some sort of opportunistic website encryption is by using self-signed certificates, but this causes browsers to display a warning each time the website is visited unless the user manually marks the website's certificate as trusted. Because unencrypted websites do not currently display any such warnings, the use of self-signed certificates is not well received.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
53lp4z | why does anybody in this day and age like the royal family? what good have they managed? | [
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"answer": "An Australian here, they have, at the very least, provided a degree of stability for our head of state. The last Republican push here wanted the parliament, not the people, to select the head of state in a future republic - frightening.\n\nMy view - I'm completely ambivalent about them as people, they are intrinsically no better or worse than anyone else. I favour the system remaining in place here because the cost to change something that isn't broken is outrageous, all the Royal < insert thing here > (i.e. RCMP becoming CMP) would have to go, just the change in letterheads and signage alone would run to hundreds of millions, if not billions, of dollars and not advance our society one iota.",
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"answer": "This is going to be mostly an opinionated thread; but there are three possible explanations:\n\n1) They aren't- Taking this from the \"Ask British people\" threads that pop up, attitudes from even the Brits range from 'they suck' to 'who cares'. \n\n2) They're figureheads for a strong nation- A lot of people respect Heads of States: they're your nations public face for the world. The Queen may not have a whole lot of actual power but she represents a nation that was once arguably the strongest in the world.\n\nAnd this next caveat is important: Britain has been replaced in the \"Evil Empire\" light by Russia and the U.S. Enough time has passed since they were the predominant superpower that people still respect them for their might but forget a lot of the bad they did in that span of time. \n\n3) It's romantic- Not in a bad way; but a lot of us grow up on fantasy stories about Knights and Kings and Queens. A lot of movies even use England as backdrop for these stories so there's a positive correlation there. \n\nAgain, your mileage may vary in this thread and each individual person will have a different answer, but I hope that clears some things up. ",
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"answer": "Well, the king is a costly institution of the nations finances. It costs a lot to have a royal house.\n\nWhile the royal family has a high upkeep, it's not the people per see that cost a lot.\n\nThe cost is more about being an ambassador of the nation, a gentle face to send out in the world to promote friendship, peace and industrial contracts.\n\nIf it was some random guy who just went to school and proves to the right elected official that he was good at talking to people, it would be a lot of difference compared to if it's a random guy who proved to the elected official that he is good at talking to people who also happen to be the grandson of someone who is mentioned hundreds of times in the history books. The royal family has a stronger bond to their nation than any other official. They are descendants of the Guy who *formed* the nation centuries ago, so they must be important.\n\nIt's a mind trick, no matter if you like it or not, that works pretty well. \n\nI'm the first to admit that the royal family is a costly beast, and that is usually why the royal families are questioned domestically; they get paid a lot. And I really mean *a lot* without doing what people consider to be a real job. But the truth is that someone has to do what they do, how they do it is one of the good ways to do it.",
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"title": "Royal Households of the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
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"text": "The Royal Households of the United Kingdom are the collective departments which support members of the British royal family. Many members of the Royal Family who undertake public duties have separate households. They vary considerably in size, from the large Royal Household which supports the Sovereign to the household of the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge and the Duke and Duchess of Sussex, with fewer than ten members. The lesser households are funded from the Civil List annuities, paid to their respective royal employers for their public duties, and all reimbursed to HM Treasury by the Queen.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "50942975",
"title": "Patrick de Suarez d'Aulan",
"section": "Section::::Family Known For.\n",
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"text": "The family has many links to royal and aristocratic families across Europe as well as other powerful leading families within Europe. The family is considered to be one of the most historically important, old, and powerful aristocratic families in Europe. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "12780987",
"title": "Jean de Suarez d'Aulan",
"section": "Section::::Family Known For.\n",
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"text": "The family has many links to royal and aristocratic families across Europe as well as other powerful leading families within Europe. The family is considered as one of the most historically important, old, and powerful aristocratic families in Europe. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "1770350",
"title": "Family traditions",
"section": "Section::::Classic examples of family traditions.\n",
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"end_character": 822,
"text": "One of the classic examples of family traditions of the modern era is the family traditions of the present royal family of Great Britain. One of such family traditions enjoin upon male members of the present British royal family to serve in the armed forces. A BBC report has announced on 12 June 2003 that “Prince Harry’s decision to join the Army means he will follow a long family tradition of serving the military.” Before him, his uncle, Prince Andrew, had joined the Navy in 1979. Prince Harry’s other uncle, Prince Edward had joined the Royal Marines as a second lieutenant in 1983. Prince Harry’s father, the Prince of Wales, was appointed in 1969 as colonel-in-chief of the Royal Regiment of Wales. Harry’s grandfather, the Duke of Edinburgh, had joined the Navy in 1939, and had also served in the World War II.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1839520",
"title": "Lubomirski",
"section": "Section::::Division.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "The family, originally small in number, grew considerably, which led to divisions of material wealth but enhanced political influence, due to having the support of more people in the Sejms, in the Senate, or at the royal court. Members of the family were able to count on the support of their relatives in political or court activities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1581682",
"title": "Elderly care",
"section": "Section::::Improving mobility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 64,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 64,
"end_character": 385,
"text": "Family members are one of the most important careproviders in the life of an elderly. In fact, the majority of caregivers for the elderly are often members of their own family, most often a daughter or a granddaughter. Family and friends can provide a home (i.e. have elderly relatives live with them), help with money and meet social needs by visiting, taking them out on trips, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1720888",
"title": "Recruitment in the British Army",
"section": "Section::::18th and 19th centuries.:Officers and royalty.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 793,
"text": "The Royal Family traditionally had its members serve in the Armed Forces, usually with the Royal Navy though many have served with the Army. This occasionally warped operations in the field, for example at the Battle of Tel el-Kebir, where Wolseley was forced to leave an entire brigade of Guards in reserve to avoid harm coming to Queen Victoria's third son, the Duke of Connaught. The tradition has continued into the 21st century, with Prince Harry and Prince William both joining the Army as officers. However, Royals are no longer deliberately kept out of harm's way; Prince Harry saw active service in Afghanistan until the publicity posed a threat to the troops serving with him, while Prince Andrew served as a front-line helicopter pilot with the Royal Navy during the Falklands War.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
4ayq7q | what is happening in brazil, with all these big rallies taking place? | [
{
"answer": "tldr, ex-President is involved in a giant corruption investigation and was just appointed the Chief of Staff by the current President in an attempt to shield him from prosecutions (in Brazil, ministers are to be judged by the Supreme Court, which comprise mostly of people picked by the acting party), thus the huge protests\n\nEdit: fixed stuff in brackets",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "39675267",
"title": "2013 protests in Brazil",
"section": "Section::::Timeline.:June 21 to 23.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Protests across Brazil have drawn millions to the streets in a wave of rolling fury that became the biggest demonstrations in decades. A young man was killed in Ribeirão Preto during the protest when a driver ploughed through a peaceful demonstration, also injuring 11 other people. President Dilma Rousseff addressed the nation, recognizing the demands of the protesters and calling a meeting of state governors and mayors of key cities to discuss the requests of the population and propose solutions to solve the issues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "53656691",
"title": "2017 Paraguayan crisis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 847,
"text": "On 31 March 2017, a series of protests began in Paraguay, during which demonstrators set fire to the Congress building. The demonstrations occurred in response to a constitutional amendment that would permit President Horacio Cartes to run for re-election, a move described by the opposition as \"a coup\". One protester was killed in Paraguay's capital, Asunción, after being hit by a shotgun blast by police. Several protesters, politicians and journalists, as well as police, were reported injured, including one lower-house deputy who had to undergo surgery after being injured by rubber bullets. On 17 April, President Cartes announced that he was resigning from any possible candidacy for a second presidential term. On 26 April, the Chamber of Deputies of Paraguay rejected the proposed constitutional amendment for presidential re-election.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39675267",
"title": "2013 protests in Brazil",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "The demonstrations were initially organized to protest against increases in bus, train, and metro ticket prices in some Brazilian cities, but grew to include other issues such as the high corruption in the government and police brutality used against some demonstrators. By mid-June, the movement had grown to become Brazil's largest since the 1992 protests against former President Fernando Collor de Mello.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41872505",
"title": "2014 unrest in Bosnia and Herzegovina",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 609,
"text": "The 2014 unrest in Bosnia and Herzegovina was a series of demonstrations and riots that began in the northern town of Tuzla on 4 February 2014, but quickly spread to multiple cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, including Sarajevo, Zenica, Mostar, Jajce, and Brčko, among others, for social reasons and with the aim of overthrowing the government. The riots were the most violent scenes the country had seen since the end of the Bosnian War in 1995. The rioting largely took place in the entity of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the same level of unrest or activism did not occur in Republika Srpska.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31270593",
"title": "Protests against the 2011 military intervention in Libya",
"section": "Section::::March 2011.:Brazil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 705,
"text": "According to an article by Fabíola Ortiz on March 25 on the online magazine \"Upside Down World\", two small protests were organized in Brazil against the decision for military intervention in Libya. On March 18, during the visit of Barack Obama to Brazil, a protest of about 200 people from social movements, the Workers' Party, the Brazilian Communist Party and the Democratic Labour Party was held in Rio de Janeiro. The demonstration was peaceful until it reached the U.S. consulate, when two molotov cocktails were thrown (injuring the building's security guard). The Military Police reacted by firing rubber bullets into the gathering, hurting a Rádio CBN reporter. Fourteen protestors were arrested.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "338778",
"title": "List of riots",
"section": "Section::::21st century.:2010s.:2014.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 780,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 780,
"end_character": 302,
"text": "BULLET::::- 2014 – 2014 unrest in Bosnia and Herzegovina The 2014 unrest in Bosnia and Herzegovina is a series of demonstrations and riots that began in the northern town of Tuzla on February 4, 2014, but quickly spread to multiple cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, including Sarajevo, Zenica, Mostar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33381607",
"title": "Occupy movement",
"section": "Section::::Protests.:Brazil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 537,
"text": "The 2013 protests in Brazil (also known as the V for Vinegar Movement,[5] Salad Revolt, Vinegar Revolt, Come to the street and Brazilian Spring) are ongoing public demonstrations in several Brazilian cities, initiated mainly by the Movimento Passe Livre (Free Fare Movement), a local entity that advocates for free public transportation. The most recent movement being \"Ocupe Estelita\" in Recife, Pernambuco which is focused on the demolition of an historical part of the city to make way for high-priced housing and leisure facilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
7f6uhg | How mixable are different types of plastic? Like PET and HDPE? | [
{
"answer": "Some polymers have an affinity for each other and mix well. Polycarbonate, some styrene copolymers, and PET Mix well. This is driven by the chemical structure. Think that some are more polar, water like and others are less polar or oil like. \n\n\nHowever most polymers by themselves are typically not mixable. When mixed they form a blend that has poor adhesion and thus poor strength. it only takes a small amount of incompatible polymer in a mixture to make the material useless. Which is why it is important to have clean recycle streams. \n\nThe outcome of a good mixture is to get desirable properties of both materials in a single material. For example high temp stiffness with rubber impact resistance. \n\nTo make them mixable the two polymers are typically reacted to together to form a copolymer that acts as a soap allowing them to mix. ABS ( LEGO plastic) is a mixture of polybutadiene (rubber) and Styrene-acrylonitrile copolymers. The rubber provides break resistance while the styrene copolymers provide stiffness. \n\nSuper tough nylon ( weed whacker string) is a mixture of nylon with ethylene-propylene rubbers that contain an acid group that reacts with the nylon’s amino group to form the copolymer. \n\nThere is a whole industry that tries to figure this out. \n\n\n\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28638",
"title": "List of synthetic polymers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "Some familiar household synthetic polymers include: Nylons in textiles and fabrics, Teflon in non-stick pans, Bakelite for electrical switches, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) in pipes, etc. The common PET bottles are made of a synthetic polymer, polyethylene terephthalate. The plastic kits and covers are mostly made of synthetic polymers like polythene and tires are manufactured from Buna rubbers. However, due to the environmental issues created by these synthetic polymers which are mostly non-biodegradable and often synthesized from petroleum, alternatives like bioplastics are also being considered. They are however expensive when compared to the synthetic polymers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13777213",
"title": "Polybutylene adipate terephthalate",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 771,
"text": "Production of plastics for use in the industrial sector around the world makes up a very large market. PET (polyethylene terephthalate) is one of the dominant plastics within this market. It is commonly used for bottles because it makes a rigid container that is very lightweight. However, because of the stability of PET, it is also highly resistant to biodegradation, posing a significant environmental problem because of the amount of PET produced, sold, used and thrown away on a daily basis. An estimated 30% of the world production of PET goes into making these plastic bottles and only from 15% to 35% ends up being recycled; the rest usually end up in a landfill. This has stimulated research into polymers that function comparably to PET, but are biodegradable.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "292941",
"title": "Polyethylene terephthalate",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 484,
"text": "The majority of the world's PET production is for synthetic fibres (in excess of 60%), with bottle production accounting for about 30% of global demand. In the context of textile applications, PET is referred to by its common name, polyester, whereas the acronym \"PET\" is generally used in relation to packaging. Polyester makes up about 18% of world polymer production and is the fourth-most-produced polymer after polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "868594",
"title": "Pallet",
"section": "Section::::Pallet construction.:Materials.:Plastic.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "Plastic pallets are produced and used widely in the U.S. and Europe, spurred by the adoption of the ISPM 15. A full comparison of wood vs plastic can be made by a life cycle analysis. Plastic pallets can cost 10 times as much as hardwood pallets and even more expensive compared to cheap expendable softwood pallets. RFID chips can be molded into the pallets to monitor locations and track inventory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8212",
"title": "Disc golf",
"section": "Section::::Disc types.:Plastics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 1033,
"text": "There are a variety of different discs, each with a specific plastic made with them. Plastics such as DX, J-Pro, Pro-D, X-Line, D-line, retro, and R-Pro from Innova discs, latitude 64, discmania, and Discraft are some of the less durable plastics, but good for beginners due to their lower prices, compared to the higher end plastics. Plastics such as Champion, Titanium, FLX, GStar, Gold Line, Tournament Plastic, Fuzion and Star plastics, which are the best offered from the same companies, offering the best quality, durability and flight compared to the other types available. There are also plastics that provide additional functionality, specifically glow in the dark plastic and plastic that allows the disc to float in water. Most companies also offer a line of plastic that is much lighter than the maximum throwing weight (normally filled with air bubbles) which is conducive to beginners or players with less arm speed. Players might prefer bright colored discs to contrast most green flora and recover their disc easier.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "922636",
"title": "PET bottle recycling",
"section": "Section::::Usage of PET.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "PET is used as a raw material for making packaging materials such as bottles and containers for packaging a wide range of food products and other consumer goods. Examples include soft drinks, alcoholic beverages, detergents, cosmetics, pharmaceutical products and edible oils. PET is one of the most common consumer plastics used. Polyethylene terephthalate can also be used as the main material in making water-resistant paper.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "753475",
"title": "Plasticizer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 907,
"text": "Plasticizers (UK: plasticisers) or dispersants are additives that increase the plasticity or decrease the viscosity of a material. These are the substances which are added in order to alter their physical properties. These are either liquids with low volatility or solids. They decrease the attraction between polymer chains to make them more flexible. Over the last 60 years more than 30,000 different substances have been evaluated for their plasticizing properties. Of these, only a small number – approximately 50 – are today in commercial use. The dominant applications are for plastics, especially polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The properties of other materials may also be modified when blended with plasticizers including concrete, clays, and related products. According to 2014 data, the total global market for plasticizers was 8.4 million metric tonnes including 1.3 million metric tonnes in Europe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5xm5ed | what force is stronger than electromagnetism, if any, and what makes it stronger? | [
{
"answer": "Gravity is stronger. It is stronger because it is inexorable. There is both positive and negative electric and magnetic fields that can cancel each other out. There is no way to cancel gravity. The proof is black holes. There is no electromagnetic equivalent.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The nuclear strong force is the strongest of the four fundamental forces. This is the force that holds quarks together inside protons and neutrons, and protons and neutrons together inside atomic nuclei. However, it has an extremely small range, and drops off to almost non existent levels over only the distance of a single proton. \n\nIn terms of *why* it's stronger, there's no fundamental physical reason for this that we're aware of. The strengths of the four forces are just physical constants of this Universe, and could quite easily have been different. It's just the way the proverbial cookie crumbled in the case of our Universe. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are four fundamental forces in [the standard model of particles](_URL_0_): \n\n* Gravity\n\n* Electromagnetism\n\n* the Weak nuclear force \n\n* the Strong nuclear force\n\nThe strong nuclear force is responsible for holding protons and neutrons together in atomic nuclei against the electromagnetic repulsion of the protons. \nAt the right scales, the strong force is much stronger than electromagnetic repulsion. This is a good thing, because atomic nuclei wouldn't be stable otherwise. \n\nHowever, outside the nucleus the strong nuclear force declines ~~exponentially~~ rapidly with distance, which is why we don't notice it directly in our everyday lives. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The only fundamental force stronger than the electromagnetic is the strong nuclear force. It's the attraction between nucleons (protons and neutrons). It needs be stronger because nuclei need to be held together (if electromagnetic was stronger, the protons would repel each other and the nucleus would just \"fly apart\"). This is also there are increasingly more neutrons than protons as you go along the periodic table. However, the range of the strong nuclear force is only as large as the nucleus of an atom, whereas the electromagnetic force has an infinite range.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "368328",
"title": "Electrostatics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 275,
"text": "Even though electrostatically induced forces seem to be rather weak, some electrostatic forces such as the one between an electron and a proton, that together make up a hydrogen atom, is about 36 orders of magnitude stronger than the gravitational force acting between them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "357353",
"title": "Large Hadron Collider",
"section": "Section::::Purpose.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "BULLET::::- It is already known that electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force are different manifestations of a single force called the electroweak force. The LHC may clarify whether the electroweak force and the strong nuclear force are similarly just different manifestations of one universal unified force, as predicted by various Grand Unification Theories.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9550",
"title": "Electricity",
"section": "Section::::Concepts.:Electric charge.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 698,
"text": "The force acts on the charged particles themselves, hence charge has a tendency to spread itself as evenly as possible over a conducting surface. The magnitude of the electromagnetic force, whether attractive or repulsive, is given by Coulomb's law, which relates the force to the product of the charges and has an inverse-square relation to the distance between them. The electromagnetic force is very strong, second only in strength to the strong interaction, but unlike that force it operates over all distances. In comparison with the much weaker gravitational force, the electromagnetic force pushing two electrons apart is 10 times that of the gravitational attraction pulling them together.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27984",
"title": "Strong interaction",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 915,
"text": "In particle physics, the strong interaction is the mechanism responsible for the strong nuclear force (also called the strong force, nuclear strong force, or colour force), and is one of the four known fundamental interactions, with the others being electromagnetism, the weak interaction, and gravitation. At the range of 10 m (1 femtometer), the strong force is approximately 137 times as strong as electromagnetism, a million times as strong as the weak interaction, and 10 (100 undecillion) times as strong as gravitation. The strong nuclear force holds most ordinary matter together because it confines quarks into hadron particles such as the proton and neutron. In addition, the strong force binds neutrons and protons to create atomic nuclei. Most of the mass of a common proton or neutron is the result of the strong force field energy; the individual quarks provide only about 1% of the mass of a proton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10890",
"title": "Fundamental interaction",
"section": "Section::::The interactions.:Electroweak interaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "Electromagnetism and weak interaction appear to be very different at everyday low energies. They can be modelled using two different theories. However, above unification energy, on the order of 100 GeV, they would merge into a single electroweak force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10890",
"title": "Fundamental interaction",
"section": "Section::::The interactions.:Gravity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Even though electromagnetism is far stronger than gravitation, electrostatic attraction is not relevant for large celestial bodies, such as planets, stars, and galaxies, simply because such bodies contain equal numbers of protons and electrons and so have a net electric charge of zero. Nothing \"cancels\" gravity, since it is only attractive, unlike electric forces which can be attractive or repulsive. On the other hand, all objects having mass are subject to the gravitational force, which only attracts. Therefore, only gravitation matters on the large-scale structure of the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11274",
"title": "Elementary particle",
"section": "Section::::Standard Model.:Fundamental bosons.:Higgs boson.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 1417,
"text": "Although the weak and electromagnetic forces appear quite different to us at everyday energies, the two forces are theorized to unify as a single electroweak force at high energies. This prediction was clearly confirmed by measurements of cross-sections for high-energy electron-proton scattering at the HERA collider at DESY. The differences at low energies is a consequence of the high masses of the \"W\" and \"Z\" bosons, which in turn are a consequence of the Higgs mechanism. Through the process of spontaneous symmetry breaking, the Higgs selects a special direction in electroweak space that causes three electroweak particles to become very heavy (the weak bosons) and one to remain with an undefined rest mass as it is always in motion (the photon). On 4 July 2012, after many years of experimentally searching for evidence of its existence, the Higgs boson was announced to have been observed at CERN's Large Hadron Collider. Peter Higgs who first posited the existence of the Higgs boson was present at the announcement. The Higgs boson is believed to have a mass of approximately 125 GeV. The statistical significance of this discovery was reported as 5-sigma, which implies a certainty of roughly 99.99994%. In particle physics, this is the level of significance required to officially label experimental observations as a discovery. Research into the properties of the newly discovered particle continues.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
444bdq | What would happen if the superheated material inside a fusion reactor was exposed? | [
{
"answer": "Essentially the same as with any superheated material breaking out of containment. The reactor and surrounding structure might be damaged or destroyed. The amount of damage will depend on the size of the reactor and the materials used. Depending on the type of fusion taking place, there may be free neutrons flying around that can be a source of radioactivity, but these neutrons won't travel far.\n\nOnce the containment is breached, the fusion plasma will lose its energy and pressure extremely rapidly. And with temperature and pressure falling, the fusion reaction will stop. Unlike many fission reactors, a fusion reactor will not have a chain reaction taking place.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not much, actually. There is so little hydrogen fuel in the reactor, its essentially a moderate vacuum chamber, compared to atmospheric pressure. If you put a hole in the side of the chamber, air will rush in, cool and dilute the hot plasma, and quench any reactions going on within milliseconds. The net result will be something like a scaled up version of breaking a neon bulb.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "162498",
"title": "Nuclear meltdown",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 841,
"text": "Once the fuel elements of a reactor begin to melt, the fuel cladding has been breached, and the nuclear fuel (such as uranium, plutonium, or thorium) and fission products (such as caesium-137, krypton-85, or iodine-131) within the fuel elements can leach out into the coolant. Subsequent failures can permit these radioisotopes to breach further layers of containment. Superheated steam and hot metal inside the core can lead to fuel-coolant interactions, hydrogen explosions, or water hammer, any of which could destroy parts of the containment. A meltdown is considered very serious because of the potential for radioactive materials to breach all containment and escape (or be released) into the environment, resulting in radioactive contamination and fallout, and potentially leading to radiation poisoning of people and animals nearby.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38070727",
"title": "Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (Unit 1 Reactor)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "In the intense heat and pressure of the melting reactors, a reaction between the nuclear fuel metal cladding and the remaining water surrounding them produced explosive hydrogen gas. As workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors, several hydrogen-air chemical explosions occurred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38378047",
"title": "Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (Unit 3 Reactor)",
"section": "Section::::2011 tsunami and aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "In the intense heat and pressure of the melting reactors, a reaction between the nuclear fuel metal cladding and the remaining water surrounding them produced explosive hydrogen gas. As workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors, several hydrogen-air chemical explosions occurred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38378139",
"title": "Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster casualties",
"section": "Section::::Summary of events.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "In the intense heat and pressure of the melting reactors, a reaction between the nuclear fuel metal cladding and the remaining water surrounding them produced explosive hydrogen gas. As workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors, several hydrogen-air chemical explosions occurred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38378316",
"title": "Accident rating of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "In the intense heat and pressure of the melting reactors, a reaction between the nuclear fuel metal cladding and the remaining water surrounding them produced explosive hydrogen gas. As workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors, several hydrogen-air chemical explosions occurred. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38378258",
"title": "Investigations into the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster",
"section": "Section::::Introduction.:A process overview of the accident.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 291,
"text": "In the intense heat and pressure of the melting reactors, a reaction between the nuclear fuel metal cladding and the remaining water surrounding them produced explosive hydrogen gas. As workers struggled to cool and shut down the reactors, several hydrogen-air chemical explosions occurred.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31439",
"title": "Tokamak",
"section": "Section::::Tokamak design.:Advanced tokamaks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Another problem seen in all fusion designs is the heat load that the plasma places on the wall of the confinement vessel. There are materials that can handle this load, but they are generally undesirable and expensive heavy metals. When such materials are sputtered in collisions with hot ions, their atoms mix with the fuel and rapidly cool it. A solution used on most tokamak designs is the \"limiter\", a small ring of light metal that projected into the chamber so that the plasma would hit it before hitting the walls. This eroded the limiter and caused its atoms to mix with the fuel, but these lighter materials cause less disruption than the wall materials.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
8sdmbi | how can humans instinctively know what angles to launch something make it go the farthest? | [
{
"answer": "They learn it. From age 0 on you throw stuff around and observe the physics of the world. That is why people who don't throw things (like balls) as a kid suck at throwing and aiming. So it is not an instinct, it is more of a skill.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's actually not instinct, it is learned. If you look at little children trying to throw things, they're terrible. But we learn through repetition. Think how many times as person has thrown something (especially an athletic person!) by the age of, say, 16.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37750468",
"title": "Target angle",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 591,
"text": "Target angle is the relative bearing of the observing station from the vehicle being observed. It may be used to compute point-of-aim for a fire-control problem when vehicle range and speed can be estimated from other information. Target angle may be best explained from the example of a submarine preparing to launch a straight-run (non-homing) torpedo at a moving target ship. Since the torpedo travels relatively slowly, the torpedo course must be set not toward the target, but toward where the target will be when the torpedo reaches it. Target angle is used to estimate target course.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33299340",
"title": "Underwater searches",
"section": "Section::::Diver searches.:Search patterns controlled by compass directions.:Spiral box search.:Procedure.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "The technique is to start at the estimated position of the target, at a distance above the bottom to provide the best view, and to swim in a cardinal direction a distance roughly equal to or slightly greater than the visibility range. The estimate of distance is commonly by kick counts, so using a whole number of kicks is necessary, and preferably a number which can be mentally accumulated by the diver. Call this distance n kicks, where n is usually 2, 4, 5, 10 or 20 as these are easy numbers to multiply mentally. The direction of turn may be clockwise or anticlockwise as best suits the search.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "382754",
"title": "Chain Home",
"section": "Section::::Description.:Fruit machine.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 119,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 119,
"end_character": 685,
"text": "Plotting the angle of the target was a simple process of taking the gonio reading and setting a rotating straightedge to that value. The problem was determining where along that straightedge the target lay; the radar measured the slant range straight-line distance to the target, not the distance over the ground. That distance was affected by the target's altitude, which had to be determined by taking the somewhat time-consuming altitude measurements. Additionally, that altitude was affected by the range, due to the curvature of the Earth, as well as any imperfections in the local environment, which caused the lobes to have different measurements depending on the target angle.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2457836",
"title": "Aiming point",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "The earliest form of aiming point was a pair of aiming posts for each gun, almost in line with one another when viewed through the gun's sight, and placed about 50 meters from the gun. There were at least two ways of using these, but the simplest is to aim the sight midway between them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1543320",
"title": "Counter-battery radar",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "The basic technique is to track a projectile for sufficient time to record a segment of the trajectory. This is usually done automatically, but some early and not so early radars required the operator to manually track the projectile. Once a trajectory segment is captured it can then be processed to determine its point of origin on the ground. Before digital terrain databases this involved manual iteration with a paper map to check the altitude at the coordinates, change the location altitude and recompute the coordinates until a satisfactory location was found.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2457836",
"title": "Aiming point",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "In some special circumstances, such as when only one round or salvo was going to be fired (e.g. by nuclear artillery or a multiple rocket launcher), a director or aiming circle about 100 meters away could be used as an aiming point.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1853618",
"title": "Fascine",
"section": "Section::::Developments since World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "A launch technique was developed: approach the target gap at speed, line up onto alignment/ launch markers, drive over first marker then brake sharply at second marked point and fire the explosive bolts holding the travel hawsers so that the fascine, through inertia, rolled off the directly into the middle of the gap. When in position, they travel over it to level the road surface for other vehicles to cross. This whole process would take less than 1 minute, essential for an assault crossing possibly under fire.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
7ruj29 | What does the coronation of Charlemagne as Roman Emperor suggest about attitudes towards the Roman Empire at the time? | [
{
"answer": "I partly answered your question [here](_URL_0_), although admittedly that answer focuses mostly on England in the period. Nonetheless, the answer isn't *radically* different in that early medieval political aspirations hinged on *Romanitas* less as an immediate continuation of Rome, but as a valid successor through the continuation of the facets of Rome which had been worthy of admiration.\n\nIt was well known that Rome had failed and there was no way for Charlemagne to claim that he was simply the *next* Roman Emperor, but there was tremendous prestige in resurrecting Rome, reforging the empire and being the *new* Roman Emperor. It's worth mentioning, of course, that Charlemagne crowning himself as Emperor was not taken well by the Byzantines, who had been maintaining the Roman Empire perfectly well all this time without him, thank you very much.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "74213",
"title": "Irene of Athens",
"section": "Section::::Carolingian Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 646,
"text": "Charlemagne was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III on Christmas Day, 800. The clergy and nobles attending the ceremony proclaimed Charlemagne as \"Augustus\". In support of Charlemagne's coronation, some argued that the Imperial position was actually vacant, deeming a woman unfit to be Emperor. However, Charlemagne made no claim to the Eastern Roman Empire. Whether he actually desired a coronation at all, remains controversial – his biographer Einhard related that Charlemagne had been surprised by the Pope – but the Eastern Empire felt its role as the sole Roman Empire threatened and began to emphasize its superiority and its Roman identity. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22290735",
"title": "Legacy of the Roman Empire",
"section": "Section::::Imperial idea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "The coronation of Charlemagne as \"Roman\" emperor by Pope Leo III in the year 800 was a deprived act of legitimate juridical profile: only the Roman emperor of the East (called \"Byzantine\" later by the Enlightenment in the eighteenth century) would be crowned a peer of him in the western part, which is why Constantinople was always suspicious of that act.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50853",
"title": "Holy Roman Emperor",
"section": "Section::::Title.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "For this reason, Charlemagne, the King of the Franks and King of Italy, was crowned Emperor of the Romans (\"Imperator Romanorum\") by Pope Leo III, as the successor of Constantine VI as Roman Emperor under the concept of \"translatio imperii\". The Eastern Empire eventually relented to recognizing Charlemagne and his successors as emperors, but as \"Frankish\" and \"German emperors\", at no point referring to them as Roman, a label they reserved for themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5314",
"title": "Charlemagne",
"section": "Section::::Imperium.:Coronation.:Debate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 104,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 104,
"end_character": 321,
"text": "With Charlemagne's coronation, therefore, \"the Roman Empire remained, so far as either of them [Charlemagne and Leo] were concerned, one and indivisible, with Charles as its Emperor\", though there can have been \"little doubt that the coronation, with all that it implied, would be furiously contested in Constantinople\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23803",
"title": "Pope Leo III",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Significance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 286,
"text": "The reasons for the coronation of Charlemagne, the involvement beforehand of the Frankish court, and the relationship to the Eastern Roman Empire are matters of debate among historians. An effective administrator of the papal territories, Leo contributed to the beautification of Rome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23324680",
"title": "History of the Catholic Church in Germany",
"section": "Section::::Catholicism as the official religion of the Holy Roman Empire.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 1001,
"text": "Charlemagne, crowned Roman Emperor in 800 AD, is sometimes considered as a forerunner of the Holy Roman Empire. Most historians today reject this view, arguing that the Holy Roman Empire had different antecedents and a different constitution, and the Holy Roman Emperor had a different status and role than Charlemagne and his successors. After the collapse of Charlemagne's empire, the Imperial crown was initially disputed among the Carolingian rulers of Western Francia (France) and Eastern Francia (Germany), with first the western king (Charles the Bald) and then the eastern (Charles the Fat) attaining the prize. However, after the death of Charles the Fat in 888, the empire broke asunder, never to be restored. According to Regino of Prüm, each part of the realm elected a \"kinglet\" from its own \"bowels\". After the death of Charles the Fat, those who were crowned Emperors by the Pope controlled only territories in Italy. The last of such Emperors was Berengar I of Italy, who died in 924.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "303481",
"title": "Francia",
"section": "Section::::History.:Carolingian empire, 751–840.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1200,
"text": "On Christmas Day, 800, Pope Leo III crowned Charles as \"Emperor of the Romans\" in Rome in a ceremony presented as a surprise (Charlemagne did not wish to be indebted to the bishop of Rome), a further papal move in the series of symbolic gestures that had been defining the mutual roles of papal \"auctoritas\" and imperial \"potestas.\" Though Charlemagne preferred the title \"Emperor, king of the Franks and Lombards\", the ceremony formally acknowledged the ruler of the Franks as the Roman Emperor, triggering disputes with the Byzantine Empire, which had maintained the title since the division of the Roman Empire into East and West. The pope's right to proclaim successors was based on the Donation of Constantine, a forged Roman imperial decree. After an initial protest at the usurpation, the Byzantine Emperor Michael I Rhangabes acknowledged in 812 Charlemagne as co-emperor, according to some. According to others, Michael I reopened negotiations with the Franks in 812 and recognized Charlemagne as \"basileus\" (emperor), but not as emperor of the Romans. The coronation gave permanent legitimacy to Carolingian primacy among the Franks. The Ottonians later resurrected this connection in 962.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
eaz2n2 | if the cold temperatures of frozen food prevent them from going off, why do frozen foods not last forever? can bacteria suddenly survive at colder temperatures after a food has been frozen for a certain length of time? | [
{
"answer": "Most of the relevant microorganisms aren't killed by the cold; if they were, food could be sealed in plastic, frozen, then allowed to thaw and it wouldn't rot until opened. They're simply alive but much, much less active. That being said, there are other reasons foods go bad. Some chemicals, including vitamins, break down over time even without microorganisms.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even though it is frozen that doesn't mean that the food is static. The food will slowly dehydrate and with that it loses its taste and becomes inedible. The cells in the food also get damaged after long period of being frozen, which cause it to lose flavour",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Air is extremely dry in the freezer. Your food will eventually mummify. Also oxygen in the atmosphere will cause the fats and oils to become rancid.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Freezing food does not actually prevent food from expiring. It’s more like it slows it waaaaay down. Prolonging the inevitable, so to speak. \nAs the temperature lowers, the food goes bad slower. But it never STOPS going bad.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "292032",
"title": "Food storage",
"section": "Section::::Domestic food storage.:Food storage safety.:Freezers and thawing food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Food frozen at 0 °F and below is preserved indefinitely. However, the quality of the food will deteriorate if it is frozen over a lengthy period. The United States Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Service publishes a chart showing the suggested freezer storage time for common foods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "Section::::Effectiveness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 579,
"text": "Freezing is an effective form of food preservation because the pathogens that cause food spoilage are killed or do not grow very rapidly at reduced temperatures. The process is less effective in food preservation than are thermal techniques, such as boiling, because pathogens are more likely to be able to survive cold temperatures rather than hot temperatures. One of the problems surrounding the use of freezing as a method of food preservation is the danger that pathogens deactivated (but not killed) by the process will once again become active when the frozen food thaws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35490713",
"title": "Physical factors affecting microbial life",
"section": "Section::::Low temperatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "Freezing food to preserve its quality has been used since time immemorial. Freezing temperatures curb the spoiling effect of microorganisms in food, but can also preserve some pathogens unharmed for long periods of time. Freezing kills some microorganisms by physical trauma, others are sublethally injured by freezing, and may recover to become infectious.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "198824",
"title": "Freezing",
"section": "Section::::Food preservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 229,
"text": "Freezing is a common method of food preservation that slows both food decay and the growth of micro-organisms. Besides the effect of lower temperatures on reaction rates, freezing makes water less available for bacterial growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "292032",
"title": "Food storage",
"section": "Section::::Domestic food storage.:Food storage safety.:Freezers and thawing food.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "Throw out foods that have been warmer than for more than 2 hours. If there is any doubt at all about the length of time the food has been defrosted at room temperature, it should be thrown out. Freezing does not destroy microbes present in food. Freezing at 0 °F does inactivate microbes (bacteria, yeasts and molds). However, once food has been thawed, these microbes can again become active. Microbes in thawed food can multiply to levels that can lead to foodborne illness. Thawed food should be handled according to the same guidelines as perishable fresh food.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "Section::::Preservatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Frozen products do not require any added preservatives because microorganisms do not grow when the temperature of the food is below , which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "339605",
"title": "Frozen food",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Freezing food preserves it from the time it is prepared to the time it is eaten. Since early times, farmers, fishermen, and trappers have preserved grains and produce in unheated buildings during the winter season. Freezing food slows down decomposition by turning residual moisture into ice, inhibiting the growth of most bacterial species. In the food commodity industry, there are two processes: mechanical and cryogenic (or flash freezing). The freezing kinetics is important to preserve the food quality and texture. Quicker freezing generates smaller ice crystals and maintains cellular structure. Cryogenic freezing is the quickest freezing technology available due to the ultra low liquid nitrogen temperature .\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
395klj | how did iraq go from having the best army in the arab world, to being unable to maintain it's sovereignty? | [
{
"answer": "You may have noticed George Bush lied to the American people to get the US involved in a stupid and un-winnable war with no exit strategy. As a result the most powerful army in the world destroyed the most powerful army in the Arab world. He left them with no resources and no ability to govern themselves and then we pulled out making them likely to be invaded and controlled by a terror state. Another amazing plan courtesy of incredibly stupid US foreign policy. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "49551009",
"title": "Iraqi chemical attacks against Iran",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 902,
"text": "After the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, Iraq decided to improve all aspects of its army. Iraqi General Ra'ad al-Hamdani stated that, in spite of careful analysis of the 1973 Arab–Israeli War, no clear progress in the Iraqi Army was achieved by the Ba'ath Party. In comparison to their Israeli counterparts, the Iraqi Army was faced with a significant deficit in technological expertise. In 1979, due to Saddam Hussein's policies as well as those of leading Ba'ath Party officials and senior military officers, the Iraqi Army underwent increasing politicization. There was a saying at the time, \"better a good Ba'athist than a good soldier\". During the early months of the Iran–Iraq War, Iraq attained successes because of Ba'ath Party interference and its attempts to improve the Iraqi Army, but the essential problem was that the military leaders did not have a clear strategy or operational aim for a war. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34276",
"title": "Yom Kippur War",
"section": "Section::::Post-ceasefire.:Response in Egypt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 284,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 284,
"end_character": 554,
"text": "For the Arab states (and Egypt in particular), Arab successes during the war healed the psychological trauma of their defeat in the Six-Day War, allowing them to negotiate with the Israelis as equals. Because of the later setbacks in the war (which saw Israel gain a large salient on African soil and even more territory on the Syrian front), some believe that the war helped convince many in the Arab world that Israel could not be defeated militarily, thereby strengthening peace movements and delaying the Arab ambition of destroying Israel by force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "40418439",
"title": "Presidency of Hafez al-Assad",
"section": "Section::::Foreign policy.:Region.:Iraq.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 734,
"text": "Even though Iraq was ruled by another branch of the Ba'ath Party, Assad's relations with Saddam Hussein were extremely strained, mainly because of Assad's support for Iran during the Iraq-Iran war, which Saddam was unable to forgive.However, Saddam had despatched Iraqi army tanks to Damascus in order to prevent the Israeli Defence Forces from taking control of the city. This entry of the Iraq, then considered the leading Arab nation both economically as well as militarily, into Syria marks the first and, to date, only time in Syrian history where a foreign Arab army has entered its land. Assad had supported Iran in the war, and Iran found another ally in the Kurds in Iraq, who assisted Iran's offensive at the northern Iraq.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29490",
"title": "Saddam Hussein",
"section": "Section::::Foreign affairs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 559,
"text": "Because Saddam Hussein rarely left Iraq, Tariq Aziz, one of Saddam's aides, traveled abroad extensively and represented Iraq at many diplomatic meetings. In foreign affairs, Saddam sought to have Iraq play a leading role in the Middle East. Iraq signed an aid pact with the Soviet Union in 1972, and arms were sent along with several thousand advisers. However, the 1978 crackdown on Iraqi Communists and a shift of trade toward the West strained Iraqi relations with the Soviet Union; Iraq then took on a more Western orientation until the Gulf War in 1991.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4627429",
"title": "Iraqi Armed Forces",
"section": "Section::::History.:Persian Gulf War and lead up to the U.S. invasion (1991–2003).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Saddam Hussein had also poured massive resources into regime protection agencies, like the Republican Guard (Iraq), that later took on a battlefield role. Losses during the Persian Gulf War from the United States-led coalition resulted in the reduction of Iraq's ground forces to 23 divisions and the air force to less than 300 aircraft. The Iraqi Popular Army was also disbanded. Military and economic sanctions prevented Iraq from rebuilding its military power. What rebuilding was done was concentrated on the Republican Guard and the new Special Republican Guard, created after the war ended. Iraq maintained a standing military of about 375,000 troops. Among the components of the military was the Directorate of General Military Intelligence.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "39528305",
"title": "3rd Armored Division (Jordan)",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 581,
"text": "Kenneth Pollack, a U.S. military analyst, wrote in c.2002 that 'from 1948 to 1956, the Arab Legion was far superior to any of the other Arab militaries. In battle, it generally gave as good as it got, and the Israelis considered it their most dangerous adversary. However, after 1956, the Jordanian capabilities began to decline. In 1967 they performed worse than in 1948, although the exceptional performance of the 40th Armoured Brigade and a number of Israeli mistakes helped disguise the deterioration somewhat. Thereafter Jordanian capabilities continued to gradually erode.'\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14672",
"title": "Foreign relations of Iraq",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 802,
"text": "Since 1980, the foreign relations of Iraq were influenced by a number of controversial decisions by the Saddam Hussein administration. Hussein had good relations with the Soviet Union and a number of western countries such as France and Germany, who provided him with advanced weapons systems. He also developed a tenuous relation with the United States, who supported him during the Iran–Iraq War. However, the Invasion of Kuwait that triggered the Gulf War brutally changed Iraq's relations with the Arab World and the West. Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria and others were among the countries that supported Kuwait in the UN coalition. After the Hussein administration was toppled by the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the governments that succeeded it have now tried to establish relations with various nations.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
vdv7r | My understanding is that both Sodium and Chlorine by themselves are dangerous (explodes in water and is toxic, respectively). If that is true, why is dissolved sodium chloride (salt) perfectly safe? Why don't the dissolved ions have the same properties as sodium and chloride separately? | [
{
"answer": "The form of chlorine which is dangers is [chlorine gas, (Cl2)](_URL_0_) which has very different properties from the [chloride ion. (Cl-)](_URL_1_)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The nuclei don't matter in chemistry. Only the structure of the electrons. \n\nSodium and chloride ions have totally different electronic structures than neutral sodium and chlorine atoms, and subsequently behave totally differently.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Those properties of the neutral atoms (explosions and such) are dependent on the electronic structures, specifically how full the outer electron shells are. In sodium, the outer electron shell can hold 2 electrons but only has 1. In order get to only full shells, sodium can either gain one electron or get rid of one. \nWhen in contact with water, sodium has the ability to get rid of that extra electron. The electron leaves sodium and reacts with the water to produce oxygen, hydrogen and energy. Hydrogen is flammable, so the energy causes it to catch fire. \nElemental chlorine on the other hand wants one more electron, so its reactivity is based on that. \nThe ions have already reached their lowest energy states by getting to full electron shells, therefore they don't have the same high energy processes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "209959",
"title": "Sodium hypochlorite",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "While sodium hypochlorite is non-toxic, its corrosive properties, common availability, and reaction products make it a significant safety risk. In particular, mixing liquid bleach with other cleaning products, such as acids or ammonia, may produce toxic fumes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "3122489",
"title": "Sodium-cooled fast reactor",
"section": "Section::::Sodium as a coolant.:Disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
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"text": "A disadvantage of sodium is its chemical reactivity, which requires special precautions to prevent and suppress fires. If sodium comes into contact with water it reacts to produce sodium hydroxide and hydrogen, and the hydrogen burns when in contact with air. This was the case at the Monju Nuclear Power Plant in a 1995 accident. In addition, neutrons cause it to become radioactive; however, activated sodium has a half-life of only 15 hours.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1906074",
"title": "Sodium chlorite",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "Sodium chlorite, like many oxidizing agents, should be protected from inadvertent contamination by organic materials to avoid the formation of an explosive mixture. The chemical is stable in pure form and does not explode on percussive impact, unless organic contaminants are present, such as on a greasy hammer striking the chemical on an anvil. It also easily ignites by friction if combined with a reducing agent like powdered sugar, sulphur or red phosphorus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "26826",
"title": "Sodium",
"section": "Section::::Safety and precautions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 1404,
"text": "Sodium forms flammable hydrogen and caustic sodium hydroxide on contact with water; ingestion and contact with moisture on skin, eyes or mucous membranes can cause severe burns. Sodium spontaneously explodes in the presence of water due to the formation of hydrogen (highly explosive) and sodium hydroxide (which dissolves in the water, liberating more surface). However, sodium exposed to air and ignited or reaching autoignition (reported to occur when a molten pool of sodium reaches about 290 °C) displays a relatively mild fire. In the case of massive (non-molten) pieces of sodium, the reaction with oxygen eventually becomes slow due to formation of a protective layer. Fire extinguishers based on water accelerate sodium fires; those based on carbon dioxide and bromochlorodifluoromethane should not be used on sodium fire. Metal fires are Class D, but not all Class D extinguishers are workable with sodium. An effective extinguishing agent for sodium fires is Met-L-X. Other effective agents include Lith-X, which has graphite powder and an organophosphate flame retardant, and dry sand. Sodium fires are prevented in nuclear reactors by isolating sodium from oxygen by surrounding sodium pipes with inert gas. Pool-type sodium fires are prevented using different design measures called catch pan systems. They collect leaking sodium into a leak-recovery tank where it is isolated from oxygen.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52778",
"title": "Sodium cyanide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Sodium cyanide is an inorganic compound with the formula NaCN. It is a white, water-soluble solid. Cyanide has a high affinity for metals, which leads to the high toxicity of this salt. Its main application, in gold mining, also exploits its high reactivity toward metals. It is a moderately strong base. When treated with acid, it forms the toxic gas hydrogen cyanide:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1397202",
"title": "Sodium chlorate",
"section": "Section::::Formulations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Sodium chlorate comes in dust, spray and granule formulations. There is a risk of fire and explosion in dry mixtures with other substances, especially organic materials, and other herbicides, sulfur, phosphorus, powdered metals, and strong acids. In particular, when mixed with sugar, it has explosive properties. If accidentally mixed with one of these substances it should not be stored in dwellings.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4213750",
"title": "Salt water chlorination",
"section": "Section::::Benefits and disadvantages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 726,
"text": "Sodium bromide can be used instead of sodium chloride, which produces a bromine pool. The benefits and downsides are the same as those of a salt system. It is not necessary to use a chloride-based acid to balance the pH. Also, bromine is only effective as a sanitizer, not as an oxidizer, leaving a need for adding a \"shock\" such as hydrogen peroxide or any chlorine-based shock to burn off inorganic waste and free up combined bromines. This extra step is not needed in a sodium chloride system, as chlorine is effective as both a sanitizer and an oxidizer. A user would only need to \"super chlorinate\" or increase chlorine production of the cell occasionally. That would normally be once a week or after heavy bather loads.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
6fv5sr | according to the bible, how did jesus's death save humanity? | [
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"answer": "The Jewish religion was based around the idea of sacrifice: if you did something wrong, you had to pay for it. You would take a sacrifice to the temple -- depending on how much you had and what you had done wrong, this might be some grain, or perhaps a couple of birds, or something bigger like a lamb or an ox. The idea was that you had to make amends.\n\nIf the sacrifice you brought was a live animal, it was slaughtered. In those days, people believed that the life of an animal was contained in its blood (not surprising, given that if you bleed a lot you can die), so it was the blood that somehow made everything work and got you forgiveness from God.\n\nSacrifices were made on other occasions, too. One of the most important was the festival of Passover, when Jews would slaughter and eat lambs. This goes back to the story of the Exodus, when the Israelites escaped slavery in Egypt: according to the legend, God sent the Angel of Death to kill all the Egyptians' first-born sons, but the Israelites smeared the blood of slaughted lambs on their doorposts so the angel would spare them.\n\nFast-forward to the time of Jesus. According to the Bible, he said some nasty things about the religious authorities, saying that they were exploiting ordinary people. He suggested that there was no need to make sacrifices: God would forgive you anyway. The religious authorities didn't like that, so plotted to have him killed. Of the four Gospels, two of them say he died the day after the Passover, and one (John) says he died at the very moment the Passover lambs were being slaughtered. \n\nA bit later, St. Paul joined the movement Jesus had started, and developed a theory about Jesus's death and why it was necessary. Blood, he said, was necessary for the forgiveness of sins. Jesus was the ultimate sacrifice: as he was \"the son of God\" (however you interpret that phrase), his blood was enough to grant forgiveness for us all. There was no need to bring any sacrifices to the temple, and no need to convert to Judaism.\n\nIt seems a bit weird to us now, but that's because we're not used to a sacrificial cult. It was really St Paul's attempt to give Jesus's death some kind of symbolic meaning.",
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"answer": "ELI5:\n\nImagine you're in a courtroom, and you're guilty of a crime. You owe an exorbitant fine, and you can't pay it.\n\nThen a man comes along and offers to pay it for you. This is the only man with enough money to pay that fine, and he pays it in your place, satisfying the legal requirement.\n\nThat's what Jesus did.\n\nEvery human who sins is guilty, and (according to the bible), deserves death. One of us cannot take on the death sentence for another, as we all have our own death sentence. In other words, I can't die for your sins because I have to die for mine.\n\nJesus is the only human who never sinned, being God in human flesh. Since He had no sin, he could take the place of others. He willingly was tortured and killed, and God placed our sins on Him. His physical death paid the 'fine' for us, freeing us from court and from everlasting death.\n\nJesus was a perfect scapegoat, without any spot or blemish, and by accepting him and respecting his wishes for what he did, we are saved by his payment.\n\nTL;DR A perfect man died, so that he could pay for the sins of imperfect men. Read Romans 1-6 for the full explanation, as well as how to take advantage of the payment.\n\n***\n\nEdit: I am glad to see the interest, and thanks for the gold and the discussion! A lot of questions that people have are legitimate, and I'm glad to see that some other people helped out while I was sleeping. Since this is the very simple ELI5 version, I left a lot of the details and the whys out of my explanation.\n\nSince the thread is locked, feel free to PM me or one of the others in this thread. I promise, I will respond with civility, and no question is a bad one.\n\nSecond edit: I've read the comments, and oh I wish I could respond! Circumcision, God's motives, justice, scapegoats, the possibility of being saved without Jesus, Spiritual death vs. Physical, etc. I'd be happy to answer any questions I can! And hopefully in as simple of terms as I can.",
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"answer": "To those arguing that it did not change life on Earth, I propose that it did, at least culturally speaking. Christianity is one of the top two religions in the world. An individual may not believe in the tenets of a particular religion (or even if there is or is not a God), but you can't deny the fact that it changed the world culturally. ",
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"answer": "Basically his death works in this order/logic:\n\n\nStep 0 - The original sin was the act of eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. Since Adam and Eve ate the fruit, they corrupted their blood, and hence their bloodline is corrupted by the 'sin' too. \n\nStep 1 - All children of Adam and Eve are sinners. No exceptions. (Biblical explanation for the original sin/crime is the eating of the forbidden fruit of knowledge of good and evil.)\n\n\nStep 2 - By Biblical principles, the only way to atone for sin is with an actual pure blood sacrifice that was not tainted by the specific sin. \n\n\nStep 3 - Animal blood sacrifices are temporary, and it's not a long-term solution. \n\n\nStep 4 - A long-term blood sacrifice that works has to be one of a pure human/being/god from the same bloodline, who is undefiled by the original sin (eating the forbidden fruit). \n\n\nStep 5 - Hence Jesus's blood works, for all humans. (Jesus is from Adam and Eve's bloodline, by Mary.)\n\n__Note -1:__The bible does not mention how women gave birth prior to eating the fruit, or how reproduction happened prior to that. Jesus's virgin birth may have something to do with that. \n\nStep 6 - So you have to tell God that Jesus is your stand-in; Christians call it 'accepting Jesus as your saviour'. \n\n\nStep 7 - If you owe someone your life, your life becomes their property, hence the 'lord' part. \n\nStep 8 - Worship is originally the act of talking to and beseeching ancestors and ancient heroes for good will, good fortune, blessings, etc. Given step 7, step 8 is natural. \n\n\n__Basic Explanation -__ Christians believe earth is currently 'lorded' over by Satan, and that humans a.k.a. children of Adam and Eve are not from earth to begin with, but have been exiled here. \nSo, the point of the sacrifice is to cancel out the exile. As long as they sacrifice goats on earth, they get to have God's favour and protection. But returning back home, to heaven, will require a proper pure blood sacrifice, from the same gene pool.\n\n__Note -2__ :The term 'sin' may not mean what we think it means; the defiling of a bloodline, and the need for a blood sacrifice of the same bloodline that is not 'corrupted' by the 'sin' to be released to purify the bloodline, coupled with Jesus's later statements indicating one has to 'eat his body and drink his blood', the phrase 'washed by the blood of Jesus', through symbolism seem to indicate either a pagan ritual, or an actual 'bloodline-altering' process via blood. Alternatively, this could be a cannibal cult's grooming rituals. \n\n__Old Story To Explain The Need For The Blood Sacrifice In The First Place:__\n\nGod made everything and everyone, including man and angels, and Satan who was originally an angel responsible for the sunrise and sunset. Then Satan decided he was not cool with man; but God was partial to humans over angels. (Later texts say he was not cool with some other angels as well. There is also a mention of pride resulting in his downfall; just the mention.The actual act that resulted in his banishment is not described anywhere in current biblical texts.) So Satan was banished from heaven. (It's called the fall; angels are referred to as stars, mildly interesting.)He was able to go anywhere but heaven. (There were exceptions and he was allowed to meet with God in heaven.)\n\nHeaven had two special trees, among the regular ones; the tree of life and the tree of knowledge of good and evil. Humans were/are not allowed to eat of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. \n\nAnd the penalty for disobeying God, by eating the forbidden fruit of the tree of knowledge of good and evil, is a pure blood sacrifice, from the same bloodline.\n\nBy an unknown method, Satan came to heaven, where Adam and Eve were, (no further explanation is provided), he made Eve eat a fruit forbidden by God. And thusly since Adam is her mate, he also eats the fruit. Both are temporarily banished to earth until a pure blood sacrifice is available to pay the price for disobedience. In the meantime, the goat sacrifices stay as a symbol/gesture of the coming pure blood sacrifice. (Like interest payments until the main big principal sum is paid.)\n\nThere is a possibility it was not about disobedience, but about that specific tree. Humankind is not atoning for many sins, but for the one 'original' sin of eating the forbidden fruit (of the knowledge of good and evil). \n\nChristians argue that the eating as well as the act of disobedience count as the original sin. Other interesting biblical documentations include that eating the fruit resulted in painful reproduction, painfully harsh farming pursuits, and the food pyramid/chain. Basically all forms of reproduction and progeny creation were affected. [Weird coincidence - we share up to 99.9% of our genome with a weirdly large total count of species on this planet.]\n\n(It is possible that the original story involved the fruit giving mankind and other species destructable bodies, as death was one of the side effects.)\n\nI hope this explains most of it. \n\n__Further Notes:__\nThe council of Nicea, among other religious councils, as well as cases of multiple errors in memory on the parts of early historians who used word of mouth to pass on the story, may have altered text from the first five books as well, so there is that to consider. Otherwise, this religion has the concept of a virgin sacrifice, for either a solar eclipse, or if the fruit is symbolic of death, then more death may bring people back to life or hold off new deaths. It does follow some pagan rituals from other ancient religions, given that pure sacrifices are necessary to appease the God's set conditions. \n\nIt is also possible that the forbidden fruit had a part to play in the birth of Cain and Seth, and Abel (Adam and Eve's three children) did not leave children behind; if one were to consider information scientifically, given that the humans from a long time back may not have understood what the 'forbidden fruit' was or may have used the phrase to refer to something else entirely, and the term is just a symbolic name. And another noteworthy point is that some theologians argue that the fruit may have given man theoretical and working knowledge of good AND evil. So maybe the 'forbidden fruit' granted something. \n\n\nAnother piece of information mentioned, is the presence of a 'spirit people', humans without souls, who Cain supposedly mates with. [Current Christian theology holds that humans have bodies, souls and spirits, with the soul being what has functional use of the knowledge of good and evil.]\n\n__TL;DR:__(1) As far as Christian Biblical texts go, Earth is an exile ground for mankind, whose real home is heaven. Earth is like a prison/quarantine. So bummer, Earth. (2)Jesus is a pure bloodline sacrifice from Adam and Eve's gene pool, and that kind of a sacrifice appeased God into letting humans get back to heaven after they die, I.e. minus their bodies that hold corrupted blood. Their blood was corrupted by eating a forbidden fruit. (3) There might be a weird Faustian deal running between God and Satan concerning mankind. Not sure why. \n\n__Edit:__\n\nPlease do not downvote just because you don't like facts, or because you are Christian. (That's petty, and it doesn't chance facts.) \n\n\nThis is a creation tale from around the same time as the Sumerian and early Aztec (and mesoamerican) religions, as well as Japanese ones. So animal and human sacrifices, gods that seem like actual aliens conducting weird-ass science experiments, and a habit to personify light and darkness, solar eclipses, and death is to be expected. They believed during those times that death was an evil god, and that sacrifices were needed to ward off death. These were *chinese whispers* from over 6000~8000+ years before their civilisations that were passed on by word of mouth. There may have been much bigger story with more information. \n\nWe need to take the timeline into account.\n\n",
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"answer": "While all Christians agree that the sacrifice of Christ saves us from sin and death, we don't agree on *how* that happens. There are several [theories of atonement](_URL_0_) on exactly how this works. The good news is, you don't have to understand how something works in order to experience its efficacy (after all, I don't know how my car works but it still gets me where I am going). The evidence that it *does* work is in the resurrection of Christ. The resurrection is how we know that his death was, in fact, special and works to save people from sin and death. EDIT: I say this as Christian, which means that I believe that the resurrection happened. If you are not a Christian, you would clearly have a different point of view on this.",
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"answer": "So these answers aren't the whole story as far as I can tell. There are different \"atonement theories\" that answer this question in different ways. I'm sure someone is going to tell me no, there's only one way, but I feel like regardless of your personal beliefs OP deserves to know there are many ways to think about this:\n\n1. The one I saw most in this thread, (substitutiary atonement) - humans are bad, Jesus is good, we deserve to die, Jesus takes our place and we're forgiven. \n2. \"Moral Exemplar\" - Jesus teaches us how to be the best people we can be by being a moral example. Why did he have to die? To show us how our sinful society naturally kills the innocent. He makes the earth better by the example he sets. \n3. \"Christus Victor\" - In the grand battle between God and evil, evil holds humans as slaves. Jesus steps in and by dying and rising defeats evil and opens eternal life.\n4. Eastern Christians have complex beliefs about how God became human (Jesus) to sanctify every stage of human life. He had to die because death is a part of life. ",
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"answer": "The change was the concept of immortality. That death is not the end. The immortal Creator becoming mortal man to suffer death and live again is a demonstration of the immortality of love. There is no greater love than laying down one's life for another person.\n\nThe Gospel of John indicates Jesus did not come into the world to condemn. Only to teach love and free humanity of the fear of death. If you cannot accept this knowledge then your only condemnation is to fear that this life is all there is. \nThis is how I as a Christian see this and I don't believe anyone is going to hell. Hell is for the living who grieve the permanent loss of their own life and the lives of loved ones.\nJesus taught the greatest commandment is to love.\n",
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"answer": "Same way sacrificing sheep or goats was used to atone for sins. But Jesus was basically a super goat since he was perfect and god-made-flesh.",
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"answer": "Here's a video (that I think is great) that explains the concepts of sacrifice and atonement in the Bible (specifically the Old Testament) that helps explain what Jesus did: _URL_0_\n\nIt also answers the question of why Christians don't perform animal sacrifice when the ancient Israelites did (which was something I had wondered for a long time).",
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"answer": "“So Christ has now become the High Priest over all the good things that have come. He has entered that greater, more perfect Tabernacle in heaven, which was not made by human hands and is not part of this created world. With his own blood—not the blood of goats and calves—he entered the Most Holy Place once for all time and secured our redemption forever. Under the old system, the blood of goats and bulls and the ashes of a heifer could cleanse people’s bodies from ceremonial impurity. Just think how much more the blood of Christ will purify our consciences from sinful deeds so that we can worship the living God. For by the power of the eternal Spirit, Christ offered himself to God as a perfect sacrifice for our sins. That is why he is the one who mediates a new covenant between God and people, so that all who are called can receive the eternal inheritance God has promised them. For Christ died to set them free from the penalty of the sins they had committed under that first covenant. Now when someone leaves a will, it is necessary to prove that the person who made it is dead. The will goes into effect only after the person’s death. While the person who made it is still alive, the will cannot be put into effect. That is why even the first covenant was put into effect with the blood of an animal. For after Moses had read each of God’s commandments to all the people, he took the blood of calves and goats, along with water, and sprinkled both the book of God’s law and all the people, using hyssop branches and scarlet wool. Then he said, “This blood confirms the covenant God has made with you.” And in the same way, he sprinkled blood on the Tabernacle and on everything used for worship. In fact, according to the law of Moses, nearly everything was purified with blood. For without the shedding of blood, there is no forgiveness. That is why the Tabernacle and everything in it, which were copies of things in heaven, had to be purified by the blood of animals. But the real things in heaven had to be purified with far better sacrifices than the blood of animals. For Christ did not enter into a holy place made with human hands, which was only a copy of the true one in heaven. He entered into heaven itself to appear now before God on our behalf. And he did not enter heaven to offer himself again and again, like the high priest here on earth who enters the Most Holy Place year after year with the blood of an animal. If that had been necessary, Christ would have had to die again and again, ever since the world began. But now, once for all time, he has appeared at the end of the age to remove sin by his own death as a sacrifice. And just as each person is destined to die once and after that comes judgment, so also Christ was offered once for all time as a sacrifice to take away the sins of many people. He will come again, not to deal with our sins, but to bring salvation to all who are eagerly waiting for him.”\nHebrews 9:11-28 \n\nRight now I'm studying the book of Hebrews and you said you want a biblical explanation of why Jesus had to come and die for us and why it matters. I don't mean to just answer you by saying go read the Bible but the book of Hebrews lays everything out so well and plainly and as studied and long time believer it is still impacting my faith as I am going through it again!",
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"answer": "God's plan is for his children (us) to live on earth, learning and improving through mortal experience, and then to return to him with perfect resurrected bodies.\n\nHowever, two barriers stand in the way. (1) While on earth everyone sins, making us unclean. No unclean thing can dwell in the presence of God and God can not look upon sin with the least degree of allowance. This adheres to the eternal principle of Justice. Sin has unavoidable consequences. (2) All humans have mortal bodies that are subject to death, preventing us from returning to God.\n\nTo overcome these two barriers Jesus Christ offered himself as a sacrifice, in what Christians call the Atonement. He alone had the ability to perform this Atonement because he was the literal Son of God and he lived a sinless life. Through his Atonement he paid the price for all of mankind sins, satisfying the demands of Justice. Additionally, the final stage of the Atonement was his resurrection, which broke the bands of death for all of God's children, meaning that at a future day, all of God's children will be resurrected and recieve a perfect immortal body. Resurrection is a free gift for everyone. However, only those who accept and follow Christ will recieve a forgiveness of their sins, and these are they who shall return to live with God.",
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"answer": "From the beginning of the Bible, in the book of Genesis, and throughout the entire Old Testament, there were prophecies about someone who would come and save men from evil. Basically, it all started when Adam, the first man who God created, decided to sin against God by doing something that was explicitly forbidden, in his case, eating from a fruit tree in the Garden of Eden after he was told not to eat from it. From that point on, mankind has been cursed with a sinful nature, or in other words, the constant temptation to do bad things instead of good things. Because of how holy God is, there were rules upon rules of different sacrifices that had to be made in order for God's people, the Israelites, to be able to stand in God's presence. Even then, the Israelites failed time and time again to do as God had commanded, even to the point of worshiping other gods and forsaking the one true God. God even allowed their main city, Jerusalem, to be completely captured and for all of the Jews, which is another name for the Israelites, to be sent away for many, many years. \n\n2,000 years ago, Jesus came to fulfill the prophecies that would save mankind from the sinful nature. Just as the Israelites had to follow strict rules for making sacrifices to be in God's presence, Jesus also had to meet the criteria to fulfill the prophecies - most importantly, that he live a sinless life and die by hanging on the cross. By living a sinless life, he also left an example for us to follow in how we should live our own lives, which he summed up in two sentences - \"love the Lord your God with all your heart\" and \"love your neighbor as yourself\". When he died on the cross, God made him the judge of all mankind. Jesus said that anyone who believes in him will receive mercy and forgiveness for their sins, and anyone who rejects him will face the wrath of God for their sins. \n\nJesus's death changes life on Earth because each person who follows Jesus must repent of his or her sins, which means that he or she admits the wrong things that have been done and tries to do right things from then on. Because Christians try to do good and not evil, there is a lot less evil in the world. More importantly, Jesus changed what happens to us in eternity. Just as the Israelites had to sacrifice animals to be able to live in God's presence, the savior of mankind had to die in order for mankind to enter into heaven. There was no other way. Even Jesus asked, before going to the cross, \"God, if there is another way, then please don't make me do this. But it's not up to me, if it is Your will, then I will do it.\"",
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"answer": "Jesus allegedly performed miracles to improve people's lives on Earth. Jesus' greatest miracle and His purpose in coming to earth was to suffer a torturous and humiliating death in the place of mankind whom He loved. In doing this the apostles believed Jesus saved mankind from damnation, which is supposedly a perfect dystopian afterlife which was the fate of all mankind who did not recognize Jesus' divinity and receive His teachings.\n\nThis is all fantastic embellishment by the apostles, theologians, and the Church. The real fact here is that there was a real man named Jesus who believed so much in the potential goodness of people, and so thoroughly identified with both the humility of men and the excellence of good will that he transcended the most extreme hardship and inspired billions of people to believe, too.\n\nA caveat: I'm an atheist with a great appreciation for Jesus. I think it's a distraction and an insult to associate the supernatural and the imaginary with the legacy of one of History's finest, most loving humans, whether he pretended at magical powers or not.",
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"answer": "Hey everyone.\n\nGreat question.\n\nThe questions is asking according to the Bible, and I do not see to many responses answering in that form.\n\nThere are multiple texts which seem to indicate different reasons why Jesus had to die to save humanity. But to answer the question, we must first discuss what we needed saved from. The answer can be found in Genesis 3 where Adam and Eve disobey God. This event is teased out by St. Athanasius in his book \"On the Incarnation\" where he shows that in Genesis, God said if you eat of this tree, you will surely die. \n\nI would add this to the top comment. The top comment focuses on \"forensic\" righteousness. Or a righteousness viewed in light of the law/ a legal decree of God. This Biblical position, which complements a forensic righteousness, is called recapitulation. Humanity was under the headship of Adam, the fallen man. \n\nRomans 5:12-21 discusses this, along with any passage that talks of humanity now being under Christ. in summary, Romans says, \" For if because of one man's trespass, death reigned through that one man, much more will those who receive the abundance of grace and the free gift of righteousness reign in life through the one man Jesus Christ. Therefore as one trespass led to condemnation for all men, so one act of righteousness leads to justification and life for all men. For as by one man's disobedience the many were made sinners, so by the one man's obedience the many will be made righteous.\" (quoting vs 17-29).\n\nThese views are not exclusive. I hold to both a forensic and recapitulation view. \n\nAnother view which I do not see represented here and has a lot of biblical traction is the idea of Ransom. If you have ever read/watched the Lion the Witch and the Wardrobe by C. S. Lewis, then you saw a ransom theory. That God had to \"buy\" us back from the devil who owns us. This is close to the forensic view, but puts more of an weigh on the cosmic battle between God and the Devil. Biblically, Jesus says it in Mark 10: 45 \"the son of man has come to give his life as a ransom for many.\"\n\nI gotta run, but hope this is helpful! Lots of great reasons. Sorry I was not able to address the change on earth aspect or the why did he have to die. Each of these perspectives would nuance the reason differently, but all are pretty cool!",
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"answer": "My understanding is that basically, access to Heaven was not possible and Jesus' death, resurrection, and ascension into Heaven was necessary to make that possible. \n\nSo, everyone from before Jesus' birth who weren't exactly damned but still descended into death, or hell, needed to be able to hear the word of God. Jesus' death and subsequent three days among the dead made it possible for that to happen. (_URL_2_) It also was a sacrifice to pay for the sins of others as other comments in here have said. (_URL_0_)\n\nThe Resurrection then gets humanity back into God's grace. (_URL_3_) Finally, the Ascension to His throne, establishing His kingdom for all of humanity, opens the gates of heaven for all to enter. (_URL_1_)",
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"answer": "If you are interested in an ELI30, graduate-level answer, you could do worse than to check out the writings of Rene Girard, especially *Violence and the Sacred*, and *Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World*. \n\nIn his later life he became somewhat of a catholic apologist, although a kind of heretical one, which succeeded in pissing off a lot of people. But he started his career with a fairly scientific/analytical approach towards trying to understand why some myths \"took\", while others did not. I.e., why did thousands or millions of people fight and die for this or that idea, and not for this other one. \n\nAt the core of his theories is a hypothesis that human societies require an enemy and scapegoat, and periodic sacrifice. I.e., that human organizations are held together by unification against external threat, and by someone to blame for whatever is wrong. He presents no small amount of evidence in support of this theory, from all kinds of primitive and early-historical societies, and ties it into his larger theories of mimetic desire, which gets a lot more complicated. \n\nSkipping over a lot of stuff, Girard theorized that the Christ-myth was unique in making the scapegoat/enemy also the deity, and thereby *exposing* the mechanism of outward enemy as unifying force, and allowing for new, more sophisticated social structures that did not require opposition, conquest, or war against external tribes, cultures, or supernatural forces. \n\nTo grossly over-simplify, Girard saw \"primitive\" religions as those which imagined vengeful, jealous, capricious gods, who demanded subservience and sacrifice, like a supernatural \"boss\" or \"big man\". Judaism, uniquely among ancient religions, in his view, had a deity which required not just prescriptive behaviors and sacrifices, but also recognized nuances of intention and desires. The Jewish God not only forbade taking another man's wife, he forbade even thinking about or desiring it. \n\nIn Gerard's system, societies always need a sacrificial scapegoat. If they cannot find an external one, they will find an internal one. This mechanism enforces tribalism and small networks. The theory is that the Christ-myth exposes the need to scapegoat, and provides a universal scapegoat, and negates the need for constant supply of new sacrificial victims, by making the deity himself the universal victim. \n\nWe all killed God, we are all the enemy of God, and yet he forgives us, and dies for us whenever we sin. The barbarian at the gates is ourselves, and we cannot defeat the enemy except by being better. ",
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"answer": "Because for some reason God decided to punish a finite crime with an infinite punishment, so the only person who could pay the debt of the sinner would be God himself. So he made himself into a human and killed himself. The Bible is some whacky stuff. ",
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"answer": "Atonement theology permeates Christianity pretty thoroughly, but Celtic Christianity has questioned this. They find the idea that a little baby is born sinful to be contrary to the notion that we are created in the image of God, which they take to mean that we all have some of God's nature within us. We then cover this up over time, or we nurture it and let it grow.\n\nCeltic Christians descended from the school of the apostle John, but the majority of the Christian church is connected more to the apostle Peter - in the 5th century, I believe it was, the school of Peter won out and became predominant, There was actually a public debate that lasted days, IIRC. As I understand it, the view of the school of John would say that God forgives us because God loves us. To say that there needed to be a sacrifice to allow this would not make sense to a Celtic Christian. Jesus died because his love was so great that he would not stop loving the unloveable, and this was a threat to those who want to define who is loveable and who is not.\n\nIMHO, this is worth looking into for those interested. When I first encountered this, I considered that there has been a 1500 year long error about the fundamental nature of God's love.",
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"answer": "This is a tough ELI5, because it's a complicated answer, but let me try.\n\nGod is perfect, and we are not. Just like darkness cannot exist in the presence of a light source, our broken nature cannot exist in the presence of a perfect God. Our brokenness results in death.\n\nThat's the bad news. The good news is that God loves us and doesn't want us to be separated from him. In the Old Testament, this grace was shown through the sacrifice of animals. Animals are innocent, and it's cruel to kill an innocent animal, right? That was the harsh reminder for us humans that breaking our promise with God (to walk in what He has for us) results in death. But killing animals doesn't really solve anything...\n\nFast forward a bunch of years. There's still this looming problem of unpayable debt, because we're still messing up, and we should still be eternally separated from God (death). God decides to deal with it once and for all. So, instead of using innocent animals, He comes himself as an innocent man - the only one there ever was and ever will be. Our promise to God was broken, and instead of us paying it, He came and by dying, said, \"It's okay, I've got this. Know how bad your situation is. Look at the death it causes, but I will experience it so you don't have to. Just turn to *me* now and stop doing things *your* way.\" This death covers all screw-ups past, present, and future because he is **perfect**.\n\nHe had to die because the Bible says that the wages of sin is death. Literally, when we mess up, that screw-up pays us with death. God fixes that by gifting us eternal life. It changes life on Earth because now we can walk in *that* truth. No more atoning for our mistakes every time and wallowing that we aren't doing enough good things. Now, we just submit to God, ask Him to be in charge of our lives because we *can't* do it on our own. He has already paid the price meant for us so we don't have to work for it, just submit to it! It's so good!\n\nI hope that helps!!",
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"answer": "In the beginning when god created man he created him with an immortal body and placed him in paradise, and made him king of his domain. Man was without corruption or sin. But man was corrupted by vanity, and this first sin is known as original sin for which the consequence of was suffering and death. This sin separated man from god, because no corruption can be in the presence of god. But god had the foresight to see the fall of man even before he created them, and had a plan for the salvation of man. This is why he made them male and female so that a man and woman could procreate in marriage and remain holy before god, and god gave to man the Law, which was the path to righteousness, If a man followed the law he could be spared from eternal punishment, but this did not allow man to be saved (he could not enjoy the full presence of god upon death because nothing unholy can be in the presence of god). Much like the debtors prisons of old, if one can not pay the debt of sin then one has to remain in prison until another can pay for him. The only one who could pay the debt of man was god. So god became man and suffered and died. Like Adam he was tempted by the devil (a sin of vanity) but remained uncorrupted. So then, when he willingly laid down his life and died, he satisfied the debt for man, because he owed nothing but he accepted the punishment that all mankind has to suffer. A mans death alone can't pay the debt of sin but Jesus' death does, so while we still have to die it doesn't mean we have to be separated from god for eternity. Now, Jesus' death satisfies the debt of sin that first corrupted man which led to death. However, each man is still subjected to temptation and can choose corruption (sin) over holiness, so can incur personal debt for which he has to pay for. It is for this reason that man must still die. So god, through Jesus establish from the Law the sacraments (this is how Jesus fulfills the Law), from which man can receive sanctification and return to holiness any time he needs to in order to die like Jesus, free of sin so that he can enjoy the full presence of god upon death.",
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"answer": "It doesn't make sense to me. Jesus symbolically took on all the sin of mankind, died for and went to hell for a few days. Jesus, god & the holy spirit are one though so his godhood, power and immortality were never in doubt. Making his death meaningless because he lost nothing. The details depend on what denomination of Christianity you prefer though.",
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"answer": "Anselm's \"Why God became Man\"\n\n1. Human beings owe everything to God, even in a \"perfect state\"\n\n2. Human beings sin, causing a need to make reparations with God.\n\n3. Because human beings already owe everything to God, they are incapable of saving themselves.\n\n4. However, if a man came along who was perfect and sinless and offered Himself up as a sacrifice, that could work...\n\n5. so long as that man is also God, being infinite and capable of atoning for the sins of all mankind. Man needs to be saved by a man, and that man must also be God.\n\nVery simplified...",
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"answer": "A lot of responses so far are predicating on original sin, unpayable debts, etc.\n\nI was always taught a much simpler story, which I think passes the smell test a lot more easily.\n\nJesus's death did not exactly save humanity, but rather allowed for individuals to be saved. Up until his death, all souls were plunged into eternal darkness (hell) where they suffered pure torment (satan). But Jesus was the first to effectively resist this torment, likely due to his being a godman and all. He meditated in darkness for 3 days and found peace within it, thereby shattering the hitherto unbreakable torment that all other human souls had found.\n\nThe peace that he found within, and the consequent shattering of this old reality, actually woke him back up from death. And he was able to remember this revelation, and in his remaining time, he preached evermoreso of salvation from the dark torment. From that point on, souls were able to escape the darkness, given that they had sufficient moral strength to do so. This is also the foundation of free will, but that is another mystery.\n\nTL;DR: Jesus broke through the darkness and allowed future souls to follow in his way.\n\nEdit: Lol, I just made up mumbo jumbo and used big words out of context, and apparently my comment fit right in.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Its got its problems, but forensic justification is the easiest. Jesus is both God and man. By sinning, humans had rejected God, but in their state of disfigurement, they could not fix things with God. Only He could restore the relationship, as he was fully God. But the penalty of sin still needed to be paid. So God took on flesh so that he could pay that penalty.\n",
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"answer": "Johnny cheated on his homework, and the teacher was going to paddle him (or since they don't paddle in schools anymore, he was going to get detention). Straight laced Billy tells the teacher, \"Paddle (or detain) me instead.\" As long as Johnny agrees to the deal, Billy takes the punishment for him, and Johnny has a clean slate.\n\nJohnny is us; Billy is Jesus.",
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"answer": "In the Old Testament there was the Everlasting Covenant where heavenly bonds held all of the creation together. This was established in the Old Testament in the time of Abraham. Abraham tithed to the high priest Melchizedek, a title for the King of Peace. The Davidic King tradition saw the high priest operate in the temple as a Melchizedek priest. One day of the year, on the Day of Atonement, the high priest would enter the Holy of Holies. The Holy of Holies was the innermost room of the temple and symbolized heaven. He wore the name of the Lord on his forehead; he acted \"as\" the Lord. On that day, the high priest offered an atoning sacrifice not only for him but for all of Israel. This was to atone for sin and transgression that sullied the creation. He was anointed and declared to be begotten of God. He emerged from the Holy of Holies. The sins of the world were piled upon the scapegoat which was run out into the wilderness. Sin was purged, the bonds of creation were renewed, the Everlasting Covenant restored.\n\nJesus was declared to be the Davidic King. One of his titles was Prince of Peace. Another title was the Only Begotten Son of God. The Book of Hebrews spells out the meaning of his sacrifice was that he did not act \"as\" the Lord, the Melchizedek High Priest, he \"was\" the Lord, the Melchizedek High Priest. His actions are eternal and everlasting. His sacrifice, death, and resurrection were explicitly placed in the temple tradition of the Day of Atonement.\n\nWhy did he die? The fall of Adam and Eve resulted in their dismissal from the presence of God in the Garden of Eden. They were sent out to the fallen (aka mortal) world where they would die. Not only them, but all life. Jesus died and then overcame that death by ascending to heaven and being resurrected. He was made glorious like God the Father. This is what is meant by him being the Only Begotten. To beget is to make one like yourself from your loins. His death is important because we, mankind, die. The promise is that we will be joint-heirs with Christ. That he died and rose shows that we, too, can rise after our inevitable death.\n\nOther traditions differ on the point of Jesus's death. Islam teaches that Jesus ascended to heaven and that he will return, but it also teaches that he did not die. It is heresy to say Jesus was the Only Begotten Son. Jesus does not have power over death which is an ultimate power, the power to overcome the fallen, mortal state of creation. Jesus is a prophet in Islam, not the Lord.",
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"answer": "This is how I talk about it. (I'm a Lutheran pastor.) \n\nThe basic problem of creation, and particularly for rational creatures (only humans, as far as I know) is that we have a broken relationship with our creator. Rather than trusting God who creates and establishes us and desires to give us every good gift (what we call \"faith\"), we see God as an enemy and insist on establishing and making a way ourselves (what we call \"sin\"). There are lots of ways that people do this, but generally it comes down to establishing some set of laws/rules for people to follow and insisting that those who follow them are good/successful/saved and those who don't are evil/failures/damned. These rules vary widely (ten commandments, sharia, making money, thinking freely, follow your bliss, to name just a few examples) but the basic theme is that we use some standard to determine who's in and out and to establish ourselves as good/righteous before God or a higher power or society or even ourselves. \n\nIn order to break this broken relationship of sin, God the creator came to us in a form we could relate to directly, a man named Jesus. This man, God in the flesh, taught that the law wasn't there to be used by us to elevate ourselves at our own expense, but instead was meant to show us what real love of God and our neighbors looked like and to convince us of our unworthiness and inability to do it on our own. Jesus forgave all sorts of people who were clearly sinners, and this made people who thought they were righteous angry. Finally, we humans couldn't take it anymore, for this God-man was destroying our way to (supposedly) prove ourselves to be good and right before God, so we rejected him and tried to silence this God in the flesh, killing him and putting him in a tomb and even sealing the tomb with a stone. This murder of God is the worst sin possible, and even today our natural tendency of insisting on justifying ourselves at the expense of others reveal us to be guilty of it. \n\nIf that's where the story ended, then it would be a tragic story of our rejection of a loving God who gave himself into our hands so that we could know God as our loving creator. But it doesn't end there, because even our worst sin and best attempts at keeping a saving God away from us weren't successful. Even the humiliating execution of death on a cross and burial in a sealed tomb weren't enough to keep this God at bay, and three days later Jesus was raised from the dead and returned. This is the key moment now, for if he had returned to avenge himself of our sin, it would be death and damnation for us. Instead he comes not with vengeance, but forgiveness. He comes to his betrayers, his murderers, even me and you and says \"I forgive you, you are mine.\" He has taken the very worst we can throw at him, every sin and humiliation we could put him through, and still he insists on forgiveness rather than vengeance. \n\nWhen you trust in this promise that Jesus makes to you: \"I forgive you.\" then you now relate to God your creator in faith, and your sin is overcome. On the other hand, when you refuse to trust this promise and instead insist on earning your own forgiveness, or rejecting the notion that you need forgiveness altogether, then you remain in the condition of sin, relating to God as an enemy. \n\nRegardless of your response, the promise remains here for you, and God will keep speaking it to you through different people and different ways so that you can trust it and hold it close and let yourself be defined by it. This trust doesn't seem like much from the outside, but it changes absolutely everything when you live in it. \n\nTl;dr: Jesus is God's love letter to you. His death shows how far he'll go to be with you whom he loves. His resurrection shows that not even death will separate you from the God who loves you. ",
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"answer": "The problem with Christianity is their belief in original sin. That you will carry the sin for someone elses bad deeds. They have to make wild stories to get out of this logical fallacy. Hence dying on the cross to forgive sins of other people. ",
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{
"answer": "I've thought of it this way - being a history nerd -. \n\nThere is a king who is absolutely perfect and just and wise. He rules his land with a righteous hand. Even so several of the noble lords decide to rebel and create an allegiance with an enemy king, because they don't really like the rules in their kingdom and the other king promises to let them do whatever they want. \n\nThe good king of course finds out about their plot and while they all deserve to die, the king decides to forgive them and makes them repent and pay a fine. \n\nA year later the nobles are again rebelling because they want more power. Again they are allowed to repent and pay a fine. The king is forgiving indeed. \nHowever, this keeps happening. The rebels won't stop rebelling and the king simply can't have such disloyal subjects in his inner circle. His most trusted must be perfect and honest and righteous like him. \n\nThe only way this can be solved is by the rebels being beheaded for their disloyalty. However, the king loves his subjects despite their failures abs he wants to keep them out of the clutches of his enemy king. Because the Good king knows that he will treat them badly. But he also recognizes that they will continue to rebel after they pay their fine. The time for soft measures is over and per the laws treachery is answered with beheading...\n\nNow the king has a son. This Prince is also perfect, has always lived a perfect life next to his father the king and in his good nature he has pity on the rebels who have clearly lost their way.\n\nThe king says with a heavy heart : the rebels must be beheaded in atonement. The Prince offers to die for them, his life for that of his subject. This seems completely unexpected and outlandish, but the Prince is serious and The king decides to accept this bargain because now a blameless and completely selfless person is offering to die for the rebellious nobels. \n\nThe prince goes down to the scaffolding and gets beheaded publicly. \n\nThe king with tears in his eyes says, all you who will accept the sacrifice my son has made for you, you will be allowed to reside in my kingdom. All you have to do is accept the gift the prince offered. If you do not accept his sacrifice you must leave this land and you will be banished from my kingdom. \n\nAnd so the nobels who accept the Prince as their savior were allowed to stay. Even as they continued to make mistakes, they were able to look to the scaffolding were their prince was killed for them and their hearts softened. Slowly they started to desire to repair their relationship with the king, and they were allowed back into his inner circle. \n\n\n\n\n\nOK.. Not a perfect representation but I feel like it sort-of gets the point across. Hope that helps. ",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "364322",
"title": "Jesus in Christianity",
"section": "Section::::Core teachings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 342,
"text": "Christians predominantly profess that through Jesus' life, death, and resurrection, he restored humanity's communion with God with the blood of the New Covenant. His death on a cross is understood as a redemptive sacrifice: the source of humanity's salvation and the atonement for sin which had entered human history through the sin of Adam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4392492",
"title": "Paschal mystery",
"section": "Section::::Theological reflection.:The Crucifixion and Descent of Jesus to the Dead.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 371,
"text": "Jesus sacrificed his life by freely accepting death on the cross and being put in a tomb. In experiencing death and overcoming it in resurrection, Christ assures us that we will have life everlasting with God as we too, through Christ's accomplishment as our representative, will triumph over death and pass into eternal life with the resurrection of the glorified body.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3181120",
"title": "Missional living",
"section": "Section::::A missional (missionary) perspective.:Cross.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 548,
"text": "Jesus Christ said that He came to earth to seek and to save that which was lost (Luke 19:10). He accomplished salvation through the cross. By dying on the cross, He paid the penalty for sin and satisfied God’s wrath. According to Scripture, without the cross, there is no salvation, no forgiveness, and no hope; because of the cross, there is eternal life. The mission and message of Jesus surround the cross. “For the word of the cross is to those who are perishing foolishness, but to us who are being saved it is the power of God” (1 Cor 1:18).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48764147",
"title": "1 Peter 3",
"section": "Section::::Christological grounding (3:18–22).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 233,
"text": "Jesus really died in his humanity when being 'put to death in the flesh', so 'made alive in the spirit' does not mean that a \"part\" of Christ survived death, but that 'God raised Christ to a new life in the divine realm' (cf. ; ; ).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5139911",
"title": "Entering heaven alive",
"section": "Section::::Christianity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 298,
"text": "Most Christians believe Jesus did initially die, but was then resurrected from the dead by God, before being raised bodily to heaven to sit at the Right Hand of God with a promise to someday return to earth. The minority views that Jesus did not die are known as the swoon hypothesis and Docetism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24140",
"title": "Paul the Apostle",
"section": "Section::::Views.:Understanding of Jesus Christ.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 606,
"text": "In Paul's view, \"Jesus’ death was not a defeat but was for the believers’ benefit,\" a sacrifice which substitutes for the lifes of others, and frees them from the bondage of sin. Believers participate in Christ's death and resurrection by their baptism. The resurrection of Jesus was of primary importance to Paul, bringing the promise of salvation to believers. Paul taught that, when Christ returned, those who had died believing in Christ as the saviour of mankind would be brought back to life, while those still alive would be \"caught up in the clouds together with them to meet the Lord in the air\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7482",
"title": "Christian mythology",
"section": "Section::::Mythical themes and types.:Transference of evil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 688,
"text": "According to the orthodox Christian view, Jesus saved humanity from final death and damnation by dying for them. Most Christians believe that Christ's sacrifice supernaturally reversed death's power over humanity, proved when he was resurrected, and abolished the power of sin on humanity. According to Paul, \"if the many died by the trespass of the one man, how much more did God's grace and the gift that came by the grace of the one man, Jesus Christ, overflow to the many\" (Romans 5:15). For many Christians, atonement doctrine leads naturally into the eschatological narratives of Christian people rising from the dead and living again, or immediately entering heaven to join Jesus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
25x54k | Why is spit bubbly like soap bubbles? | [
{
"answer": "Saliva has a lot of proteins in it, proteins can increase surface tension and lead to stronger bubbles like the lipids in soap.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "478666",
"title": "Antibubble",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 523,
"text": "Just as soap bubbles, with air inside and air outside, have negative buoyancy and tend to sink towards the ground, so antibubbles, with water inside and air outside have positive buoyancy and tend to rise towards the water surface. But again, just as soap bubbles can be filled with a lighter gas to give them positive buoyancy, so antibubbles can be filled with a heavier liquid to give them negative buoyancy. Using a drinking straw to drop droplets of sugar solution onto soapy water will produce antibubbles that sink.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "113302",
"title": "Surface tension",
"section": "Section::::Effects of surface tension.:Surfactants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "BULLET::::- Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass. Bubbles in pure water are unstable. The addition of surfactants, however, can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles (see Marangoni effect). Note that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of water by a factor of three or more.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "370648",
"title": "Soap bubble",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "A soap bubble is an extremely thin film of soapy water enclosing air that forms a hollow sphere with an iridescent surface. Soap bubbles usually last for only a few seconds before bursting, either on their own or on contact with another object. They are often used for children's enjoyment, but they are also used in artistic performances. Assembling several bubbles results in foam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3163190",
"title": "Zubbles",
"section": "Section::::Process.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 529,
"text": "In a normal soap bubble, surfactants reduce the surface tension of the water and allow the bubble to form. To create a colored bubble, dye molecules must bond to the surfactants. Each dye molecule in \"Zubbles\" is a structure known as a lactone ring. When the ring is closed, the molecule absorbs all visible light except for the color of the bubble. However, subjecting the lactone ring to air, water, or pressure causes the ring to open. This changes the molecule's structure to a straight chain which absorbs no visible light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "370648",
"title": "Soap bubble",
"section": "Section::::Recreation.:Colored bubbles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 610,
"text": "A bubble is made of transparent water enclosing transparent air. However the soap film is as thin as the visible light wavelength, resulting in interferences. This creates iridescence which, together with the bubble's spherical shape and fragility, contributes to its magical effect on children and adults alike. Each colour is the result of varying thicknesses of soap bubble film. Tom Noddy (who featured in the second episode of Marcus du Sautoy's \"The Code\") gave the analogy of looking at a contour map of the bubbles' surface. However, it has become a challenge to produce artificially coloured bubbles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "901260",
"title": "Close-packing of equal spheres",
"section": "Section::::Filling the remaining space.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 465,
"text": "Spherical bubbles in soapy water in a fcc or hcp arrangement, when the water in the gaps between the bubbles drains out, also approach the rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb or trapezo-rhombic dodecahedral honeycomb. However, such fcc or hcp foams of very small liquid content are unstable, as they do not satisfy Plateau's laws. The Kelvin foam and the Weaire–Phelan foam are more stable, having smaller interfacial energy in the limit of a very small liquid content.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3163190",
"title": "Zubbles",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 218,
"text": "Zubbles is a commercial name for colored soap bubbles. Zubbles claim to fame is that they are the first colored soap bubbles that do not leave stains. Instead they fade away with exposure to air, pressure, and water. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
cfy8a0 | it just hit me that there are no longer any wild cows. how/when did this happen? | [
{
"answer": "Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs. As time went on, the aurochs were hunted, saw their available habitat shrink greatly, and contracted diseases from domesticated cattle. The last one died in the 17th century.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There are 4 species of wild cattle still existing. ( Subfamily Bovinea Subtribe Bovina) \n\nGaur,\nKouprey,\nWild Yak,\nBanteng (does have a domestic version called the Bali)\n\nThere are also herds of feral cattle through out the world. That is formerly domesticated cattle that have reverted to wild status. \n\nBison are a related species (subtribe bison bison bison) and do create fertile offspring when crossed with Bovinea (see beefalo)\n\nCape Bison have a huge wild population",
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"answer": "I don’t know how much this fits into your question or interest, but there is a group of cattle in Northumberland that is “wild” and hasn’t changed genetically since the medieval period. _URL_0_",
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"answer": "On a side note, are there any wild chickens?",
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"answer": "Animals need certain traits to be able to be domesticated. They need to be relatively docile, (not aggressive or violent, like Zebras, surprisingly) they need to be able to eat things that we don't like to eat, like grass, hay, scraps and bones for dogs, etc, and they need to be useful in a relatively short period of time, so we can breed the next generation and pick traits as well as put them to work or eat them in a short amount of time. Elephants, for example, can be tamed and can be very useful, but they take 15 years to reach maturity (not to mention are highly intelligent and miserable in captivity). There are a few other behavioral needs, but these are the big, big ones. There is some more info here: _URL_0_\n\nOnce we have domesticated large species, the wild versions of the same species have less value to us. They compete with our livestock for space and food, are generally more aggressive and pose some risk of harm if approached, and still represent a source of food for hunting purposes. As others have said, disease partly contributed, but a wild cow to most humans is either a cow that has yet to be caught and be introduced to their herd, or is a steak waiting to be caught if the disposition is disagreeable to domesticating. \n\nWith domestication of livestock humans became so much more successful, and we competed against a dwindling number of wild versions of our domesticated livestock for the same space and food. I would put my money on the domesticated animals there every day of the week. This didn't happen with cats because house cats, and even domesticated dogs, don't compete with the space requirements and from the same food sources as wolves and the Big Cats, even though their diets demand similar make-up, a housecat just isn't competition for a tiger, nor is a dog eating scraps around a man-made fire much competition to wolves hunting a moose. This is why some animals have species that domesticated well and can still exist in the wild. Additionally, we recognize some of the other intrinsic values of those predators: they are major linchpins in the food chain and they are beautiful creatures we like to admire for their own majesty. \n\nThere are probably other things I haven't mentioned, but this hopefully was another angle you hadn't seen yet!",
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"answer": "When climbing the Grand Tetons one year, we camped the night before in an elk reserved. Awakened in the night by a small herd of feral, badass cattle (about a dozen). ‘Oh, Look. Cows. Cute.’ Guide told us those ‘cute’ cows would kick our asses if we got too close. They were snorting and pawing the ground - all the while staring at us. Who knew?",
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"answer": "Wow! Thanks guys! This has been very informative! I was driving past a dairy farm with the classic black and white cows hanging out eating, and thought of how crazy it would be if they were not captive. And how I've never seen this particular type of cattle without human supervision before.",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4331120",
"title": "Winter of 1886–1887",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
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"text": "The loss of livestock was not discovered until spring, when many cattle carcasses were spread across the fields and washed down streams. The few remaining cattle were in poor health, emaciated and suffering from frostbite. This resulted in the cattle being sold for much less, in some cases leading to bankruptcy.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "238097",
"title": "Warfarin",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "In the early 1920s, there was an outbreak of a previously unrecognized cattle disease in the northern United States and Canada. Cattle were haemorrhaging after minor procedures and on some occasions, spontaneously. For example, 21 out of 22 cows died after dehorning and 12 out of 25 bulls died after castration. All of these animals had bled to death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "57416",
"title": "Przewalski's horse",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "The native population declined in the 20th century due to a combination of factors, with the wild population in Mongolia dying out in the 1960s. The last herd was sighted in 1967, and the last individual horse in 1969. Expeditions after this failed to locate any horses, and the species had been designated \"extinct in the wild\" for over 30 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32037740",
"title": "Pryor Mountain mustang",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 1093,
"text": "By 1968, the wild herd were concentrated mostly on BLM lands owing to previous roundups and construction of boundary fences. That year, the BLM again stated its intention to remove the herds, this time with the possibility of returning a small number (either 15 or 35) to the range. In response to the new announcement, the Pryor Mountain Wild Horse Association (PMWHA) was formed with the goal of preventing the roundup, and began working in concert with larger organizations such as the International Society for the Protection of Animals. The BLM argued that the horses were being removed because they were likely to starve, as they had overgrazed their environment, while the PMWHA argued the degradation of the range was not due to the horses and that in fact they were in no danger of starving. The organization further charged that the BLM was acting at the behest of other state and federal organizations who wished to see the horses removed, rather than acting in line with public opinion. The PMWHA was also concerned with the effect that the penning would have on the feral horses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "513012",
"title": "Swona",
"section": "Section::::Wildlife.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 895,
"text": "When the population departed they left a herd of beef cattle - 8 cows and 1 bull (Shorthorn - Aberdeen-Angus cross). Five generations later, in 2004, the herd which had turned feral was still going strong, and is now classified as a new breed in the \"World Dictionary of Livestock Breeds\". It then consisted of ten bulls, four cows, and two calves. Two calves are born each spring, although not all live to maturity. The herd gets no additional feed, although it is checked by a vet each year. The animals are self-selecting for hardiness, easy calving, and low-maintenance, feeding off the grass and seaweed. Having been separated from the mainland for so long, they are completely disease-free, and have reverted to wild behaviour. Because of this, DNA samples have been taken, from the ears of some of the cattle that died. In the summer the main herd is usually in the centre of the island.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32029829",
"title": "Pryor Mountains Wild Horse Range",
"section": "Section::::Establishing the range.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 804,
"text": "In 1900, there were two to five million feral horses in the United States. However, their numbers were in steep decline as domestic cattle and sheep competed with them for resources. After the mid-1930s, their numbers fell even more drastically due to intervention by the U.S. government. The United States Forest Service and the U.S. Grazing Service (the predecessor to the Bureau of Land Management (BLM)) began to remove feral horses from federal land. The two agencies were concerned that there were too many horses on the land, which led to overgrazing and significant soil erosion. Ranchers wanted the feral horses removed because they were grazing on land ranchers wanted to use for their own livestock. Hunters were worried that as horses degraded range land, hunting species would also suffer. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20198359",
"title": "Virus-Serum-Toxin Act",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 805,
"text": "After the first case of mad cow disease that was discovered, two more cases emerged. In 2005, the second instance was found in a cow in Texas, and the third was found in 2006 in a cow from Alabama. In 2012, this issue still remains a controversy. On April 24, 2012, the Department of Agriculture discovered a dairy cow in central California with mad cow disease. The USDA's chief veterinary officer, John Clifford, stated that the cow's meat did not enter the food supply. In addition to this, the carcass will be destroyed. The infected cow was found due to random sampling and is considered the fourth cow in the U.S. to be infected with BSE. This has caused the controversy to arise once again and speculation on whether the VSTA regulates testing for BSE in cows is still a hot topic to be discussed.\n",
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| null |
mans1 | work, power, and energy (physics) and their differences | [
{
"answer": "Work - When a **force** moves an **object**, **energy is transferred** and **work is done**. Work is measured in Joules. Whenever something moves, something else is providing some sort of **effort** to move it. The thing providing the effort needs some sort of **energy** (food, fuel, electricity etc.). It then does work by moving the object, and in doing so transfers the energy it receives as fuel into other forms. The formula for working out work is *work done = force x distance*.\n\nPower - Power is the **rate** of doing work, i.e. how much per second. A powerful machine doesn't necessarily exert a strong force (it usually does though), a powerful machine is one which transfers a lot of energy in a short space of time. It is measured in Watts, which are 1 J/s. So, for example, if a bunch of hooligans drag a tractor tyre 5m over the ground in 10 seconds, and they pull with a force of 340 Newtons. You would do 340 x 5, or force x distance. This works out at them having done 1700J of **work**. Now, since it took them 10 seconds, we do1700/10, which gives 170 Watts, which is how much **power** they had.\n\nEnergy - energy can be defined as (according to Wikipedia) \" the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems\".\n\nI hope this helps. Not quite ELI5, more like ELI15, sorry 'bout that. ",
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"answer": "Work - When a **force** moves an **object**, **energy is transferred** and **work is done**. Work is measured in Joules. Whenever something moves, something else is providing some sort of **effort** to move it. The thing providing the effort needs some sort of **energy** (food, fuel, electricity etc.). It then does work by moving the object, and in doing so transfers the energy it receives as fuel into other forms. The formula for working out work is *work done = force x distance*.\n\nPower - Power is the **rate** of doing work, i.e. how much per second. A powerful machine doesn't necessarily exert a strong force (it usually does though), a powerful machine is one which transfers a lot of energy in a short space of time. It is measured in Watts, which are 1 J/s. So, for example, if a bunch of hooligans drag a tractor tyre 5m over the ground in 10 seconds, and they pull with a force of 340 Newtons. You would do 340 x 5, or force x distance. This works out at them having done 1700J of **work**. Now, since it took them 10 seconds, we do1700/10, which gives 170 Watts, which is how much **power** they had.\n\nEnergy - energy can be defined as (according to Wikipedia) \" the ability a physical system has to do work on other physical systems\".\n\nI hope this helps. Not quite ELI5, more like ELI15, sorry 'bout that. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "24236",
"title": "Power (physics)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "As a physical concept, power requires both a change in the physical system and a specified time in which the change occurs. This is distinct from the concept of work, which is only measured in terms of a net change in the state of the physical system. The same amount of work is done when carrying a load up a flight of stairs whether the person carrying it walks or runs, but more power is needed for running because the work is done in a shorter amount of time. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1841288",
"title": "Outline of energy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Energy – in physics, this is an indirectly observed quantity often understood as the ability of a physical system to do work on other physical systems. Since work is defined as a force acting through a distance (a length of space), energy is always equivalent to the ability to exert force (a pull or a push) against an object that is moving along a definite path of certain length.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "24236",
"title": "Power (physics)",
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"text": "In physics, power is the rate of doing work or of transferring heat, i.e. the amount of energy transferred or converted per unit time. Having no direction, it is a scalar quantity. In the International System of Units, the unit of power is the joule per second (J/s), known as the watt in honour of James Watt, the eighteenth-century developer of the condenser steam engine. Another common and traditional measure is horsepower (comparing to the power of a horse). Being the rate of work, the equation for power can be written:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "39221",
"title": "Thermodynamic free energy",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Meaning of \"free\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1691,
"text": "The basic definition of \"energy\" is a measure of a body's (in thermodynamics, the system's) ability to cause change. For example, when a person pushes a heavy box a few meters forward, that person exerts mechanical energy, also known as work, on the box over a distance of a few meters forward. The mathematical definition of this form of energy is the product of the force exerted on the object and the distance by which the box moved (Work=Force x Distance). Because the person changed the stationary position of the box, that person exerted energy on that box. The work exerted can also be called \"useful energy\". Because energy was converted from one form into the intended purpose, i.e. mechanical utilisation. For the case of the person pushing the box, the energy in the form of internal (or potential) energy obtained through metabolism was converted into work in order to push the box. This energy conversion, however, was not straight-forward. In other words, while some internal energy went into pushing the box, some was diverted away (lost) in the form of heat (transferred thermal energy). For a reversible process, heat is the product of the absolute temperature \"T\" and the change in entropy \"S\" of a body (entropy is a measure of disorder in a system). The difference between the change in internal energy, which is ΔU, and the energy lost in the form of heat is what is called the \"useful energy\" of the body, or the work of the body performed on an object. In thermodynamics, this is what is known as \"free energy\". In other words, free energy is a measure of work (useful energy) a system can perform at constant temperature. Mathematically, free energy is expressed as:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "39265457",
"title": "Passive sign convention",
"section": "Section::::Explanation.:Active and passive components.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "In electrical engineering, power represents the rate of electrical energy flowing into or out of a given component or control volume. Power is a signed quantity; negative power just represents power flowing in the opposite direction from positive power. From the standpoint of power flow, electrical components in a circuit can be divided into two types: \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "859234",
"title": "Mechanical energy",
"section": "Section::::General.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 232,
"text": "Energy is a scalar quantity and the mechanical energy of a system is the sum of the potential energy (which is measured by the position of the parts of the system) and the kinetic energy (which is also called the energy of motion):\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "9649",
"title": "Energy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "In physics, energy is the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order to perform work on, or to heat, the object. Energy is a conserved quantity; the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be converted in form, but not created or destroyed. The SI unit of energy is the joule, which is the energy transferred to an object by the work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton.\n",
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| null |
63ef3e | In light of the recent growth of sightings of Tasmanian Tigers and possibility of a species coming back from what we thought was extinction... Has this happened with any other species in the last ~500 years? | [
{
"answer": "Black footed ferrets from the US and Canada were declared extinct in 1979 due to farmers poisoning prairie dogs, their food supply. Lo and behold, a farmer's dog brought home a dead one 2 years later and they became endangered instead!",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I read a few years back about the Lord Howe walking stick. \n\nHere's the article: _URL_0_\n\nEdit: I didn't notice that the link I provided was also mentioned in an earlier comment. The other name for this insect is the Tree Lobster. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Yes, this happens quite often, although you will hear more news about animals like tigers since they are more popular. There is also the issue of deciding when to declare an animal extinct. Many birds are elusive and haven't been sighted in years. From a quick search here are some animals thought to be extinct but rediscovered:\n\n* Yangtze River dolphin _URL_0_\n\n* \"Tree lobster\" _URL_2_\n\n* imperial woodpecker _URL_1_\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Not necessarily a 'rebound' but just a cryptic species.\n\n[Coelacanths](_URL_0_) were thought to be extinct since the Cretaceous period. They're a really cool ancient lobe-finned fish species and are relatives to the ancestors of land animals (tetrapods). We had fossils, drawings, all these things, based on the notion that they were an extinct species of fish.\n\nThen in 1938 a South African fisherman caught one!\n\nNow we have been able to find them in the wild; here is a cool [video](_URL_1_)",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "[*Metasequoia glyptostroboides* (Dawn Redwood)](_URL_0_) was only known by fossils until a stand was discovered in the 1800s in China. \n\nThen there's the [coelacanth](_URL_1_) which is probably the most famous example.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "The ivory billed woodpecker, thought extinct in the 1940's. Industrial deforestation destroyed the native habitat. \nIt was spotted in Arkansas decades later, in different habitat. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nAlso: Sufjan Stevens gets too little credit as a songwriter and performer. ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "There are many examples of this type of rediscovery, called a [Lazarus taxon](_URL_1_). One of the most famous examples was the [coelacanth](_URL_0_), which was thought to have gone extinct 65 million years ago until one was caught off the coast of South Africa in 1938.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It has happened to a few species of trout right here in america very recently. The greenback cutthroat trout, the state fish of colorado, was thought to be extinct for 20 years until it was rediscovered in 1957. It has now been stocked into varioud backcountry streams and lakes and is no longer in immediate danger of extinction.\n\nSimilar story with the lahontan cutthroat trout from Utah. People were so certain that it was extinct that they began to stock their old waterways with nonnative cutthroats. It was also rediscovered in some tiny backcountry stream and has only just recently been restocked into various waterways.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "I live in New Zealand and there was something similar with one of our native flightless birds, the Takahe. \n\nI don't know if it was ever declared extinct or just assumed, but they found a few and now they're just endangered. :) ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "My coworker was just telling me about the New Guinea wild dog that was just recently confirmed in the wild after having thought to be extinct.\n\nHere's a messy link, sorry I'm on mobile: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Yes! It has happened with even a common pet gecko now: correlophus ciliatus, or the crested gecko. It is endemic to New Caledonia, an island off the coast of Australia, and was discovered in 1866. Shortly after its discovery it was assumed extinct in the late 1800's; however, after a hurricane in 1994 they were rediscovered on the southern Isle of Pines. It was (is?) part of the Lazarus taxon and they are one of the most commonly kept pet lizards today. \n\nEDIT I am neither a biologist nor a herpetologist and can only speak to what I do know. Crested geckos are currently under evaluation by the IUCN and may either be declared threatened or nearing extinction due to both habitat loss and predation by introduced species. Upon their rediscovery in 1994, 200 specimens were collected by Allen Repashy, Frank Fast, and Philippe De Vosjoli and bred in USA. A few other related species (correlophus sarasinorum and mniarogekko chahoua) were also collected. All three of these species have been irresponsibly bred without tracking lineage and now any chain pet store has crested geckos. Any reptile expo will have hybrids of crested gecko x c. sarasinorum or m. chahoua. \n\nWork with their genetics is not being done. I am sure they are inbred to hell and back, but deleterious effects are rarely seen (with the exception of polydactyly, but again - their genetics are not being studied and thus polydactyly cannot be chalked up to being inbred). \n\nI am very curious about what the future for this species holds. They are not being bred and released into the wild; as far as I know, conservation efforts are not being made. They are bred for the pet trade. Time will only tell. ",
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"answer": "Back in the 70s some fishermen in the indian ocean discovered that coelecanths, a species of lungfish thought to be extinct for millions of years(we have fossilized versions of them) were still hanging out near the bottom of the sea. A living fossil!\nEdit: As u/HappinyOnSteroids pointed out, coelecanths are related to lungfish, but not a subspecies. ",
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"answer": "I've been reading a book called The Search for Lost Frogs. Loads of the worlds herpetologists banded together and went looking for a list of frogs that haven't been seen in over 50 years and had been declared extinct. They found seven of the hundred they were looking for. The story of the Hula Painted Frog was one of the best stories I've ever read and totaly astonishing that it still exists. \n \nFrogs are though more likely that mammals to be rediscovered. They live in tricky places sometimes, they hide, they won't trigger camera traps so you have to view them firsthand - often at night and also people probably have seen them but not known they were anything special - frogs aren't well known amongst the general public. ",
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"answer": "I'm going to address your edit because no-one else has so far:\n\nFirstly, most of these cases aren't the result of a species 'rebounding' so much as being rediscovered, either by chance or by extensive searching. The population is probably still tiny. The question then becomes how to help it to recover and prevent it actually becoming extinct. In that case, yes eliminating the original threats is a vital first step. Unfortunately that step is not always easy - for example, the [Ivory-billed woodpecker](_URL_0_) is probably extinct, primarily due to habitat destruction. It's prefered habitat is old forest (as it depends on dead trees for food and nesting). As such, it is very difficult to simply recreate habitat - mature woodland takes literally hundreds of years to develop.\n\nIn many cases, we would want to carry out further interventions to help speed up the population's recovery, as well as insuring against disasters. This often means captive breeding programmes, as well as translocations to create new populations in other places. One good example of this is the [Mauritius kestrel](_URL_8_) which was brought back from the brink of only 4 individuals in 1974. However, many other species have benefitted from similar programmes (e.g. [these](_URL_2_) run by ZSL).\n\nIn terms of biological implications, the most obvious one is the risk posed by loss of genetic diversity, especially if a once large population rapidly dropped to a very low one and remained low for several generations. An example of this is the [Chatham ISland Black Robin](_URL_3_) (paywall - [this](_URL_5_) page has fewer details but is free) which has recovered from a single breeding pair. Unfortunately, there is strong evidence for genetic problems which resulted in eggs not successfully hatching due to poor parental behaviour. In this case, there's not much that can be done other than intensive care for the species and hope that evolution acts in time. In other cases, isolated populations with low genetic diversity can have their diversity boosted by introducing individuals from other, more diverse populations - an example of this is the [Florida panther](_URL_4_).\n\nThere can also be more subtle effects. In particular, many species interact with the rest of their ecosystem. If a population becomes so small as to be functionally extinct (i.e. too few individuals to impact the ecosystem) then the ecosystem can change in such a way to become less suitable. A hypothetical example would be an insect that feeds on and pollinates a specific plant. If the insect population declines, then the plant no longer gets pollinated and also declines. Then, it becomes difficult for the insect to recover as it no longer has any food. There are many examples of [ecosystem engineers](_URL_7_) which this could apply to. A real example (albeit in a slightly different context) was the [introduction of giant tortoises](_URL_1_) to Ile aux Aigrettes to replace the native species of giant tortoise which had become extinct.\n\nOn a completely different vein, rediscovery of an extinct species can have important legal considerations. Many countries have legislation to protect rare and endangered species, but this doesn't apply to extinct species. If it is confirmed that a species is, in fact, not extinct, then suddenly all those laws become applicable. [This recent rediscovery](_URL_6_) of a night parrot mentions that mining development is likely to be restricted as a result.",
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"answer": "Evolutionary biologist here. Don't see many people responding to the second part, so I'll give it a go: \n > \"What are the biological implications when a species that we thought was extinct, rebounds it's population? Is it just limited to things like focusing on changing what caused their extinction in the first place, like eradicating the rats in the 'tree lobster' article?\" \n\nThere are many potential side-effects of drastically decreasing population sizes to the point of near extinction, and none of them are very encouraging. The most common/pertinent are the implications from a **population bottleneck** (genetic drift). Essentially, when population sizes are reduced drastically, the genetic diversity that was found in the species before-hand is eliminated, leaving only a small fraction of what there was before. This can lead to a bevy of mishaps, some of the more notable being increased species vulnerability to disease, and random deleterious mutations spreading through the population more easily.\n\nCurrently, cheetahs are exhibiting severe side-effects from repeated population bottlenecks; their genetic diversity is so low that skin grafts from one animal to a separate one are not rejected by the recipient. You can find lots of interesting information about cheetah genetic diversity. Also, there was a thread not too long ago in which a similar question was asked about the last remaining Wooly Mammoth populations on earth. The link to that thread (in which I gave a similar answer) is [here](_URL_0_).\n\n*EDIT:*\nBecause I don't think I fully got to the heart of what OP was asking. As far as management issues are concerned (I have also worked and continue to work in the field of conservation genetics) typically a particular species has an increased amount of funding allocated to studying its ecology and reproductive habits (if it's one of the lucky ones to receive funding). From that point on, the species is listed as vulnerable/threatened in some way and active management is taken to ensure the survival of that species. For example, if it's found out that a particular invasive competitor is very detrimental to the persistence of a species, we go out of our way to ensure that is less of a problem (if possible). Once the species reaches what is deemed an acceptable and 'stable' population size (or if the money runs out), it is usually still monitored, albeit less frequently, for many years after to assess the success of the strategies employed. Also I work mostly with plants in this area so it may be different for you animal people.\n",
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"answer": "There have been thylacine sightings? Why have I not been informed?! Me and my girl consider ourselves the foremost expert on extinct oceanic fauna. \n\n\n\nPlease, would someone tell me more about these 'sightings'? \n\n\n\nI need to book some flights. ",
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"answer": "_URL_0_\n\nThe Ivory billed woodpecker is a weird one. It was thought to be completely extinct. Now some university and wildlife researchers say they've spotted them. However no undisputed evidence exist. \n\nA concern is that the remaining population might effectively be \"the living dead\" in that there are so few that they can't possibly breed to ever recover their numbers and they'll completely die off. ",
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"answer": "In addition to what others have already said, there are certain species dubbed \"Lazarus taxa,\" which were thought to be extinct, but were found to actually still be alive. This is usually due to a species being cryptic, elusive, or very hard to detect. Lazarus taxa can refer to fossil records (e.g. the coelacanth, already mentioned in this thread), or ecological accounts of species (e.g. Bermuda petrel, thought to have went extinct 300 years ago and then rediscovered in 1951).\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThere is a pretty big list in the wiki article, interesting read.",
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"answer": "I can tell you I'm personally seeing this happen in New England. Growing up it was *rare* to see a hawk or any other bird of prey.\n\nWithin the past 3-5 years I have seen a crazy boom of these big birds. Falcons, hawks, eagles...in NEW ENGLAND. I see them every single day without fail. Multiple times a week I see a Falcon perched on the light poles watching traffic in the highway (apparently something they are known to do). Its awesome to see this sort of rebound for these species. \n\nI'm pretty sure I see eagles on a daily basis, that or hawks, its hard to tell sometimes.\n\nsome sources:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nAnd that's it because I can't find any articles on hawks or falcons without being bombarded with sports team news.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "It happens somewhat frequently actually as the \"extinct\" classification doesn't actually mean 0 of the animal left. It means there are extremely low numbers of known species usually around 100 or so. A few species that were classified as extinct have re-emerged usually with the help of human intervention to get passed even being endangered ",
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},
{
"answer": "Follow up question: Would a species dipping in number of individuals to near-extinction (previously considered extinct) levels not be devastating to its genetic diversity? If so, how would this affect its chances for a complete comeback?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Not a huge rebound, but I was rewatching Planet Earth last night. In the first episode (premiered 2006), they mention the Amur Leopard, in eastern Russia. At the time, there were only 40 known surviving leopard in the wild. \n\nAs of 2016, there's now 57 known, wild leopard. \n\nStill very, very endangered -- but that's nearly 50% resurgence! \n\nEdit: leopard not tiger. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The [ivory-billed woodpecker](_URL_0_) was once thought to be extinct, but since then there have been alleged sightings (though no concrete confirmation they're still around). Beautiful painting [here](_URL_1_) by the late Larry Chandler.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "The coelacanth was thought to be dead since the Cretaceous period before being spotted off the coast of Africa in 1938. The Indonesian variety of the species was also thought to be extinct before being rediscovered in 1987",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[The Bermuda Petrel](_URL_0_), a.k.a. cahow was thought to be extinct for 330 years until 18 nesting pairs were discovered clinging to survival on a rock off the coast of Bermuda in 1960. Through conservation efforts, that population has been increased to 115 nesting pairs.\n\nEdit:I don't know of any other \"Lazarus species\" that have had an absence as long as the cahow. Most are thought extinct from fossil records (coelacanth) or have been recent disappearances followed by rediscoveries (tree lobster). The Cahow is unique in that it was right there where it should be in very close proximity to people and nobody noticed for 330 years.",
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{
"answer": "Interestingly enough, I took a trip to Cairns Australia a couple years back for study abroad... One night out I had snapped a photo of what looked like a dog at first but after editing the shot with some brightness and b & w, it looks more like a cat. \n\nDoes anyone know what kind of large wild cats are present in or around that area? I'll post the picture when I'm home from work, however it looks a bit different from the Tasmanian Tiger considering it's coat resembles more of a leopard. \n\nEDIT: here's a link of the picture \n\n_URL_0_\n\n\nLet me know your thoughts! I'm curious. \n\n",
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"answer": "I had one living in our backyard about 2 years ago. I even called the local conservation office and they didn't seem to care. We verified that it was indeed a black footed ferret. I'm sure that they just did not believe us. We live in an urban setting and I was feeding an outside cat at the time. I think it was eating the cat food but it stayed around for several months. We saw it quite often.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This will be a bit off the topic of rebounding species and it's biological implications, however this brinhs up more of a philosophical implication. There's a film, currently avaliable on Netflix, called \"The Hunter\". It's about finding the tasmanian tiger and deals with more philosophical and social impacts of its possible existence and the ideas of an once thought to be extinct species possibly being alive. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Even in Australia it's happened. [Night Parrots](_URL_0_) were believed to have become extinct, but they've been sighted (and photographed) in recent times. There's now quite a bit of conservation work going on with them.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "There is no possibility of the Tasmanian Tiger making a comeback in the wild. It's gone. As in, absolutely, verifiably gone. Tasmania is tiny. In the last thirty years, we've logged over half the existing forest from the island. Forest was the primary habitat of the tiger. In all those years of logging, of workers being in the forest exactly where the tiger lived, destroying its habitat, we never found a single tiger, or a carcass, nor any trace of a tiger. They are gone. There have been no photographs, no evidence, no video (despite the proliferation of smartphones), and no sound recordings. If there were tigers there, we would have seen one by now. It is inconceivable that they could avoid us for that long. The only logical conclusion is that they are extinct. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "New Guinea Highland Wild Dogs have just recently been found when they were thought to be extinct for 50 years, with a viable population.\n \n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This has been the case for a few birds in New Zealand. The storm petrel was thought to me extinct for 150 years. I heard this radio podcast the other day. [catching birds with flashlights ](_URL_0_) ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Here's one that might be interesting to you. The (native) Irish red squirrel was being pushed out due to a mass influx of Grey squirrel (from the bastard British, don'tchaknow:-)) The Grey squirrel is a larger animal, better at one-on-ones with the poor ould red lad. So anyway, those red squirrels were on the way out, evolutionarily speaking. Lo and behold some bright spark decided we didn't have enough (once thriving) pinemartins in Ireland, so they reintroduced them to the countryside. Well this gave the little red squirrel his fighting chance. You see, the pinemartins favourite snack is squirrel and he'll catch the easiest one, naturally. But those big grey bastard squirrels aren't as nimble, so they're being caught in greater numbers than the red guys. Apparently the red squirrel can climb out onto branches that the pinemartin can't go on, but the grey squirrel can't, resulting in him being caught! But anyway, where was I?",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Coelacanths were supposed to have died out with the dinosaurs, but were found off the Comoros in the 1930's-ish. They hailed from the Devonian Period. \n\nThe Ivory Billed Woodpecker has been seen in the marshlands of Mississippi and Louisiana. allegedly. It looks tonnes like the Pileated Woodpecker, though so it might be misidentification :(\n",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "A species that made a rebound from extinction that I haven't seen posted is the Bermuda petrel which was thought extinct for 330 years until eighteen nesting pairs were discovered in 1951 and it is now the national bird of Bermuda.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "yup several times.\n\nMy favorites.\n\nPithovirus - thought dead for 30,000 years - found in an ice core was merely asleep. No effect too primitive. It now spends it's days in labs with humans infecting amoebas with them. \n\nCoelacanth - thought dead for 66 million years - rare fish - Human disturbance of area to look for them is the main effect. \n\nWollemi Pine - thought dead for 200 million years - found in an isolated valley in Australia. revived through human intervention. Effect? new garden tree for warm regions and a valley is now under Australian military protection.\n\nSpecial mention\n\nAncient Yeast cells - Dormant for 45 million years entombed in Amber - used to make beer.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "[At some point, humans were reduced to a small number (speculated to be from 40-1000 individuals), which is one reason why human beings cannot inbreed much without causing serious problems.](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "The Patriots football team...Ok in all seriousness I would say the Californian Condor. They are not out of the woods yet, but they went from being declared extinct in the wild in 1987 with 27 birds in captivity to now having a population of over 400 birds. I think they'll have a healthy population before the end of the century, since DDT is no longer used.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Sorry if this (and it probably has) been posted before, but mountain lions have recently been caught on a few trail cams in Tennessee. There have also been eyewitness sightings in North Carolina. The catamount has been thought to have been extinct for decades.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Bit late to the party, and it's not an animal species but the [Wollemi Pine](_URL_0_) is a good example of finding a species thought to be extinct. \n\nIt was only known from Fossil records and thought to be extinct for nearly 200 million years, until 1994, when a National Park ranger was out hiking and managed to come across some.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Tasmanian tigers are gone, the only sightings are of wild dogs mis identified. There are sampled kept but we won't ever see another one again. Humans are like a virus, every continent they settled the animal population decreases. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The [Nene](_URL_0_ is a goose native to Hawaii that was flourishing in the late 1700s but went down to a total population of 30 by 1952 due to some floods and introduction of predators. The main concern was that even if they could bring the population back up, there would be hardly any variation (aka lots of inbreeding). Somehow scientists brought the population back up into the thousands and they're doing ok now. My biology teacher showed us a good documentary on the Nene, but I can't find it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Anatolian leopard (aka Pars) thought to be extinct since 70s. However since 2000 there have been sighting and studies proved there are at least some living in leopards in the wild. Only leopards in Anatolia.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3261029",
"title": "Australian folklore",
"section": "Section::::Animals and creatures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 239,
"text": "BULLET::::- Tasmanian tiger – Despite the widely held view that the thylacine (or Tasmanian tiger) became extinct during the 1930s, accounts of alleged sightings in eastern Victoria and parts of Tasmania have persisted to the present day.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3615283",
"title": "Eastern quoll",
"section": "Section::::Conservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "The eastern quoll likely became extinct on mainland Australia due to disease and predation by introduced predators (red fox and feral cat). The lack of foxes in Tasmania likely has contributed to the survival of the species there; however, unseasonal weather events and predation by feral cats are thought to have contributed to a possible recent decline in the Tasmanian population. The species is currently classified as Endangered by the IUCN.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31546066",
"title": "Ecology of Tasmania",
"section": "Section::::Fauna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 462,
"text": "The island of Tasmania was home to the thylacine, a marsupial which resembled a wild dog. Known colloquially as the Tasmanian tiger for the distinctive striping across its back, it became extinct in mainland Australia about 4,000 years ago because of competition by the introduced dingo. Owing to persecution by farmers, government-funded bounty hunters and, in the final years, collectors for overseas museums, it appears to have been exterminated in Tasmania.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13568382",
"title": "Extinct (2001 TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Episodes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 902,
"text": "Perhaps the saddest extinction of all, this depressing episode tells the story of how one gunshot in Wilfrid Batty's gun not only ended the life of one of the last Tasmanian tigers but sounded the death knell for the entire species. The program covers basic anatomy of the marsupial and shows it hunting in the wild. It also shows actual footage of the animal in zoos. It is explained that the tiger's disappearance was due to the bounty system, in which the government paid everyone who killed a Tasmanian tiger 1 pound. When it was realized that the animal was becoming extinct, there was a rush to catch every last one and put them in zoos. Most zoo specimens died by the 1930s. The last tiger ever seen was \"Ben\", in Hobart Zoo. There were two final twists to this tale: \"Ben\" wasn't a male thylacine and, when she died in September 1936, \"Ben\" had endured her last 59 days as a protected species.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18619071",
"title": "Aru flying fox",
"section": "Section::::Conservation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "This species is possibly extinct. In 2017, a statistical model assessed the extinction probability of 23 mammal species that have been missing since the 19th century. The Aru flying fox was one of the five species that the model determined was almost certainly extinct. There has not been a confirmed sighting of this species since 1877.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49417",
"title": "Extinction",
"section": "Section::::Definition.:Lazarus taxa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 485,
"text": "Far more recent possible or presumed extinctions of species which may turn out still to exist include the thylacine, or Tasmanian tiger (\"Thylacinus cynocephalus\"), the last known example of which died in Hobart Zoo in Tasmania in 1936; the Japanese wolf (\"Canis lupus hodophilax\"), last sighted over 100 years ago; the ivory-billed woodpecker (\"Campephilus principalis\"), last sighted for certain in 1944; and the slender-billed curlew (\"Numenius tenuirostris\"), not seen since 2007.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29944",
"title": "Tasmania",
"section": "Section::::Geography.:Ecology.:Fauna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 63,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 63,
"end_character": 1027,
"text": "The island of Tasmania was home to the thylacine, a marsupial which resembled a fossa or some say a wild dog. Known colloquially as the Tasmanian tiger for the distinctive striping across its back, it became extinct in mainland Australia much earlier because of competition by the dingo, introduced in prehistoric times. Owing to persecution by farmers, government-funded bounty hunters and, in the final years, collectors for overseas museums, it appears to have been exterminated in Tasmania. The Tasmanian devil became the largest carnivorous marsupial in the world following the extinction of the thylacine in 1936, and is now found in the wild only in Tasmania. Tasmania was one of the last regions of Australia to be introduced to domesticated dogs. Dogs were brought from Britain in 1803 for hunting kangaroos and emus. This introduction completely transformed Aboriginal society, as it helped them to successfully compete with European hunters, and was more important than the introduction of guns for the Aboriginals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
34tl5k | Why galaxies have shape at all? (speed of light, correlation light scale, causality) | [
{
"answer": "Changes must not be faster than the speed of light, but existing fields are not changes. Gravity for example is traveling at the speed of light. By your thought, the sun shouldn't be capable to pull on earth, because it is so far away. But actually, the gravitational field already exists and we are moving in it, so there is no contradiction. \n\nIf the sun's mass was to disappear all of a sudden, the information would then propagate through space at the speed of light and reach us about 8 minutes later. The earth would be shot into space, because there is no force holding us at our place. \n\nAnd it is the same for light. Truely, information can only travel at the speed of light. But the thing is, we don't see things in realtime but i a distorted way because of that. That doesn't matter much though, because the actual change is so insignificant even over galactic scales that we can't really tell a difference. \n\nThe stars in our galaxy are moving at about 250 km/s. If you have two reference star at two opposite points of the milky way (100,000 ly diameter) their actual position would differ only about 3 lightyears from their seen position, or a tiny fraction of a degree not even visible to the unaided eye. The appearance is maintained by \"too insignificant changes\". \n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11439",
"title": "Faster-than-light",
"section": "Section::::Superluminal travel of non-information.:Universal expansion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "There are many galaxies visible in telescopes with red shift numbers of 1.4 or higher. All of these are currently traveling away from us at speeds greater than the speed of light. Because the Hubble parameter is decreasing with time, there can actually be cases where a galaxy that is receding from us faster than light does manage to emit a signal which reaches us eventually.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "206919",
"title": "Seyfert galaxy",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 2067,
"text": "The majority of active galaxies are very distant and show large Doppler shifts. This suggests that active galaxies occurred in the early Universe and, due to cosmic inflation, are receding away from the Milky Way at very high speeds. Quasars are the furthest active galaxies, some of them being observed at distances 12 billion light years away. Seyfert galaxies are much closer than quasars. Because light has a finite speed, looking across large distances in the Universe is equivalent to looking back in time. Therefore, the observation of active galactic nuclei at large distances and their scarcity in the nearby Universe suggests that they were much more common in the early Universe, implying that active galactic nuclei could be early stages of galactic evolution. This leads to the question about what would be the local (modern-day) counterparts of AGNs found at large redshifts. It has been proposed that NLSy1s could be the small redshift counterparts of quasars found at large redshifts (z4). The two have many similar properties, for example: high metallicities or similar pattern of emission lines (strong Fe [II], weak O [III]). Some observations suggest that AGN emission from the nucleus is not spherically symmetric and that the nucleus often shows axial symmetry, with radiation escaping in a conical region. Based on these observations, models have been devised to explain the different classes of AGNs as due to their different orientations with respect to the observational line of sight. Such models are called unified models. Unified models explain the difference between Seyfert I and Seyfert II galaxies as being the result of Seyfert II galaxies being surrounded by obscuring toruses which prevent telescopes from seeing the broad line region. Quasars and blazars can be fit quite easily in this model. The main problem of such an unification scheme is trying to explain why some AGN are radio loud while others are radio quiet. It has been suggested that these differences may be due to differences in the spin of the central black hole.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28736",
"title": "Speed of light",
"section": "Section::::Faster-than-light observations and experiments.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "In models of the expanding universe, the farther galaxies are from each other, the faster they drift apart. This receding is not due to motion \"through\" space, but rather to the expansion of space itself. For example, galaxies far away from Earth appear to be moving away from the Earth with a speed proportional to their distances. Beyond a boundary called the Hubble sphere, the rate at which their distance from Earth increases becomes greater than the speed of light.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12558",
"title": "Galaxy",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Galaxies are categorized according to their visual morphology as elliptical, spiral, or irregular. Many galaxies are thought to have supermassive black holes at their centers. The Milky Way's central black hole, known as Sagittarius A*, has a mass four million times greater than the Sun. As of March 2016, GN-z11 is the oldest and most distant observed galaxy with a comoving distance of 32 billion light-years from Earth, and observed as it existed just 400 million years after the Big Bang.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "251399",
"title": "Observable universe",
"section": "Section::::Large-scale structure.:Observations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 663,
"text": "Caution is required in describing structures on a cosmic scale because things are often different from how they appear. Gravitational lensing (bending of light by gravitation) can make an image appear to originate in a different direction from its real source. This is caused when foreground objects (such as galaxies) curve surrounding spacetime (as predicted by general relativity), and deflect passing light rays. Rather usefully, strong gravitational lensing can sometimes magnify distant galaxies, making them easier to detect. Weak lensing (gravitational shear) by the intervening universe in general also subtly changes the observed large-scale structure.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42975",
"title": "Hubble's law",
"section": "Section::::Interpretation.:Observability of parameters.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 246,
"text": "For relatively nearby galaxies (redshift \"z\" much less than unity), \"v\" and \"D\" will not have changed much, and \"v\" can be estimated using the formula formula_18 where \"c\" is the speed of light. This gives the empirical relation found by Hubble.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "183083",
"title": "Galaxy rotation curve",
"section": "Section::::Halo density profiles.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 470,
"text": "Since observations of galaxy rotation do not match the distribution expected from application of Kepler's laws, they do not match the distribution of luminous matter. This implies that spiral galaxies contain large amounts of dark matter or, in alternative, the existence of exotic physics in action on galactic scales. The additional invisible component becomes progressively more conspicuous in each galaxy at outer radii and among galaxies in the less luminous ones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
n16qa | the difference between milk pasteurization in europe and america that lets european milk last so much longer and without refrigeration. | [
{
"answer": "First off, let's understand why food or drink spoils. in our world, there are microscopic living things everywhere. We call them *microbes*. Bacteria and molds are the kind we're usually worried about when it comes to food, because they're usually what make it spoil. They eat the food and grow in it. We can't eat the food after that happens too much, because eating too much of those microbes will make us sick.\n\nThis is why we put food in the fridge. When it's colder, most microbes grow much more slowly. So it takes a lot longer for whatever microbes are in there to grow enough to make us sick.\n\nAnother way to make food last longer before it spoils is *pasteurization*. The way you pasteurize something is by heating it up to a certain temperature, keeping it at that temperature for a certain amount of time, and then cooling it back down. The idea here is that the heat kills off some of the microbes. Note that I didn't say it kills *all* of them -- this isn't the same thing as sterilization -- but it kills enough of them that it makes a difference.\n\nAnd, by the way, remember that pasteurization doesn't matter as much after the food has been opened, because then other microbes get in it. That's why you can keep food in its container in the fridge for, say, three weeks, but then you have to finish it within one week after you open it.\n\nAlright. Now, the thing is, there are different ways to pasteurize. You can use a higher temperature for less time, or a lower temperature for a longer time. Depending on how you do it, you can kill more or less of the microbes. The tradeoff is how much work it is to do it and how much it changes how the food tastes or looks, since heat changes proteins and vitamins and sugars and stuff.\n\nMost milk in the United States is pasteurized using a technique called *high temperature short time pasteurization*, or HTST. The milk is held at about 160 degrees for about 30 seconds. This is pretty good -- after that, the milk will last a few weeks in a fridge before it starts to spoil.\n\nIn Europe, though, most milk is pasteurized using a technique called *ultra-high temperature pasteurization*, or UHT. It gets way hotter -- 280 degrees -- but it only keeps the milk that hot for just 2 seconds. UHT kills so many microbes that you can keep the milk unrefrigerated for many months.\n\nThe tradeoff is that the taste and smell and mouthfeel, and even the vitamin content, of UHT milk isn't quite as good as HTST milk. Neither is as good as fresh unpasteurized milk though.\n\nAnd, of course, you could kill all the microbes by actually boiling the milk instead of just pasteurizing it, which would make it last a super-long time, but boiling changes milk's proteins so much that it could curdle.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "First off, let's understand why food or drink spoils. in our world, there are microscopic living things everywhere. We call them *microbes*. Bacteria and molds are the kind we're usually worried about when it comes to food, because they're usually what make it spoil. They eat the food and grow in it. We can't eat the food after that happens too much, because eating too much of those microbes will make us sick.\n\nThis is why we put food in the fridge. When it's colder, most microbes grow much more slowly. So it takes a lot longer for whatever microbes are in there to grow enough to make us sick.\n\nAnother way to make food last longer before it spoils is *pasteurization*. The way you pasteurize something is by heating it up to a certain temperature, keeping it at that temperature for a certain amount of time, and then cooling it back down. The idea here is that the heat kills off some of the microbes. Note that I didn't say it kills *all* of them -- this isn't the same thing as sterilization -- but it kills enough of them that it makes a difference.\n\nAnd, by the way, remember that pasteurization doesn't matter as much after the food has been opened, because then other microbes get in it. That's why you can keep food in its container in the fridge for, say, three weeks, but then you have to finish it within one week after you open it.\n\nAlright. Now, the thing is, there are different ways to pasteurize. You can use a higher temperature for less time, or a lower temperature for a longer time. Depending on how you do it, you can kill more or less of the microbes. The tradeoff is how much work it is to do it and how much it changes how the food tastes or looks, since heat changes proteins and vitamins and sugars and stuff.\n\nMost milk in the United States is pasteurized using a technique called *high temperature short time pasteurization*, or HTST. The milk is held at about 160 degrees for about 30 seconds. This is pretty good -- after that, the milk will last a few weeks in a fridge before it starts to spoil.\n\nIn Europe, though, most milk is pasteurized using a technique called *ultra-high temperature pasteurization*, or UHT. It gets way hotter -- 280 degrees -- but it only keeps the milk that hot for just 2 seconds. UHT kills so many microbes that you can keep the milk unrefrigerated for many months.\n\nThe tradeoff is that the taste and smell and mouthfeel, and even the vitamin content, of UHT milk isn't quite as good as HTST milk. Neither is as good as fresh unpasteurized milk though.\n\nAnd, of course, you could kill all the microbes by actually boiling the milk instead of just pasteurizing it, which would make it last a super-long time, but boiling changes milk's proteins so much that it could curdle.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23311",
"title": "Pasteurization",
"section": "Section::::History.:Milk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 998,
"text": "Developed countries adopted milk pasteurization to prevent such disease and loss of life, and as a result milk is now considered a safer food. A traditional form of pasteurization by scalding and straining of cream to increase the keeping qualities of butter was practiced in Great Britain in the 18th century and was introduced to Boston in the British Colonies by 1773, although it was not widely practiced in the United States for the next 20 years. Pasteurization of milk was suggested by Franz von Soxhlet in 1886. In the early 20th century, Milton Joseph Rosenau established the standards – i.e. low-temperature, slow heating at for 20 minutes – for the pasteurization of milk while at the United States Marine Hospital Service, notably in his publication of \"The Milk Question\" (1912). States in the U.S. soon began enacting mandatory dairy pasteurization laws, with the first in 1947, and in 1973 the U.S. federal government required pasteurization of milk used in any interstate commerce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10834",
"title": "Food preservation",
"section": "Section::::Modern industrial techniques.:Pasteurization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 48,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 48,
"end_character": 497,
"text": "Pasteurization is a process for preservation of liquid food. It was originally applied to combat the souring of young local wines. Today, the process is mainly applied to dairy products. In this method, milk is heated at about for 15–30 seconds to kill the bacteria present in it and cooling it quickly to to prevent the remaining bacteria from growing. The milk is then stored in sterilized bottles or pouches in cold places. This method was invented by Louis Pasteur, a French chemist, in 1862.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Processing.:Pasteurization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 553,
"text": "Pasteurization is used to kill harmful pathogenic bacteria by heating the milk for a short time and then immediately cooling it. Types of pasteurized milk include full cream, reduced fat, skim milk, calcium enriched, flavored, and UHT. The standard high temperature short time (HTST) process of 72 °C for 15 seconds completely kills pathogenic bacteria in milk, rendering it safe to drink for up to three weeks if continually refrigerated. Dairies print best before dates on each container, after which stores remove any unsold milk from their shelves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23311",
"title": "Pasteurization",
"section": "Section::::History.:Milk.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 474,
"text": "The shelf life of refrigerated pasteurized milk is greater than that of raw milk. For example, high-temperature, short-time (HTST) pasteurized milk typically has a refrigerated shelf life of two to three weeks, whereas ultra-pasteurized milk can last much longer, sometimes two to three months. When ultra-heat treatment (UHT) is combined with sterile handling and container technology (such as aseptic packaging), it can even be stored non-refrigerated for up to 9 months.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10341263",
"title": "United States raw milk debate",
"section": "Section::::Pasteurization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 877,
"text": "Pasteurization is widely accepted to improve the safety of milk products by reducing the exposure to pathogens. Opponents of pasteurization argue that unpasteurized milk has benefits associated with superior taste, nutritional qualities and certain health benefits over pasteurized milk. While pasteurization of milk kills off bacterial pathogens, other bacteria species with possible health benefits are also destroyed. Pasteurization of cow's milk destroys any potential pathogens and increases the shelf life. During pasteurization, however, these lactic acid bacteria are mostly destroyed. A 2009 systematic review of the food safety of unpasteurized milk concluded that science-based data to substantiate claims of health benefits \"are lacking or do not exist\" and the risks associated with disease outbreaks as a result of raw milk consumption are \"considerably higher\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7984",
"title": "Drink",
"section": "Section::::Production.:Pasteurisation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 453,
"text": "Pasteurisation is the process of heating a liquid for a period of time at a specified temperature, then immediately cooling. The process reduces the growth of microorganisms within the liquid, thereby increasing the time before spoilage. It is primarily used on milk, which prior to pasteurisation is commonly infected with pathogenic bacteria and therefore is more likely than any other part of the common diet in the developed world to cause illness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19714",
"title": "Milk",
"section": "Section::::Varieties and brands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 158,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 158,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "Milk preserved by the UHT process does not need to be refrigerated before opening and has a much longer shelf life (six months) than milk in ordinary packaging. It is typically sold unrefrigerated in the UK, U.S., Europe, Latin America, and Australia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
cbm3zl | What's the hottest and coldest temperatures insects can survive in? | [
{
"answer": "Because of their ability to withstand desiccation (removal of moisture) insects can recover from extreme temperature events. Including being submerged in liquid helium. \n\nFrom a cursory look, it appears +/- 55 C is the general range of temperatures.\n\nReferences/further reading: [Cold](_URL_1_) and [Hot](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Are there insects living in cold climates? Yes, although they may not expose themselves to the coldest extremes of those places in space or time. For example, the [Antarctic midge](_URL_1_) - the largest fully terrestrial animal in Antarctica - lives in some pretty cold places, but it can't actually survive above ground during the coldest part of winter: instead it burrows underground to escape the worst cold. But it can still survive *temporary* freezing down to -10° C (14° F). That's not anywhere near the record, though. Surviving -20 °C (-4° F) is pretty common for the butterflies I work with (in Sweden). There's at least one beetle species in Alaska that can survive down to -70° C (-94° F). ([Source here](_URL_0_)).\n\nMind you, that's assuming the insect in question is in the right stage of its life cycle - specifically, in its winter resting state, when cold defenses are cranked up and nothing much at all happens in the body. In polar climates, most actual biological activity - eating, mating, growing - occurs during the brief summer. Winter is for hiding somewhere and sleeping. There are a few insects, such as [snow fleas](_URL_3_), that will actively forage on top of the snow - but temperatures in that microhabitat will be closer to the freezing point (0° C / 32° F), so nothing very extreme. (Still impressive, though!)\n\nDo insects favor hotter climates? Well, to a certain extent it's a question of local adaptation. Certainly most of the insect species you find in polar regions wouldn't thrive if you moved them to the equator. (Conversely, some tropical species are so adapted to warmth that they can't survive at all at temperatures colder than 17° C / 62° F.) But it's true that there are way more species of insects near the equator (there are more species of *everything* near the equator). As was pointed out by another commenter, around 50° C (122° F) appears to be the maximum that any insect can tolerate for much time - but that's also pretty close to how hot it (currently!) gets anywhere. Even the hottest places on Earth (e.g. Death Valley) have insects living there.\n\nIt's not an even game, though. Even though polar species are better adapted to cold and tropical species are better adapted to warmth, tropical species live closer to their upper tolerance maxima than species closer to the poles. That is, it's already *almost as hot* in the tropics as the average species that live there can handle. The weird consequence of this is that even though the biggest changes in temperature we expect from global warming are near the poles, the biggest threat to insects may be at the equator - because even a small change in temperature there may knock out species that are already living near the limits of what they can deal with. [Here's a paper discussing this idea](_URL_2_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12269001",
"title": "Insect physiology",
"section": "Section::::Nervous system.:Sensory organs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 365,
"text": "A number of insects have temperature and humidity sensors and insects being small, cool more quickly than larger animals. Insects are generally considered cold-blooded or ectothermic, their body temperature rising and falling with the environment. However, flying insects raise their body temperature through the action of flight, above environmental temperatures.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "594990",
"title": "Psychrophile",
"section": "Section::::Biology.:Taxonomic range.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "Among the psychrophile insects, the Grylloblattidae or icebugs, found on mountaintops, have optimal temperatures between 1-4 °C. The wingless midge (Chironomidae) \"Belgica antarctica\" can tolerate salt, being frozen and strong ultraviolet, and has the smallest known genome of any insect. The small genome, of 99 million base pairs, is thought to be adaptive to extreme environments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "56304633",
"title": "Conservation and restoration of wooden artifacts",
"section": "Section::::Preventive Conservation.:Pest Eradication.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 79,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 79,
"end_character": 343,
"text": "BULLET::::- Temperature-based treatment- Since insects need specific temperatures to thrive, placing objects in a freezer that is -25 to -30 degrees Celsius for three days will kill off any remaining insects. Alternatively, placing objects in a space that is heated to 50 degrees Celius for an hour will also kill all stages of insect growth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12633703",
"title": "Hibernaculum (zoology)",
"section": "Section::::Insects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 1266,
"text": "Insects range in their size, structure, and general appearance but most use hibernacula. All insects are primarily exothermic. For this reason, extremely cold temperatures, such as those experienced in the winter season, outside of tropical locations, cause their metabolic systems to shut down; long exposure may lead to death. Insects survive colder winters through the process of overwintering, which occurs at all stages of development and may include migration or hibernation for different insects, the latter of which must be done in hibernacula. Insects that do not migrate must halt their growth to avoid freezing to death, in a process called diapause. Insects prepare to overwinter through a variety of mechanisms, such as using anti-freeze proteins or cryoprotectants in freeze-avoidant insects, like soybean aphids. Cryoprotectants are toxic, with high concentrations only tolerated at low temperatures. Thus, hibernacula are used to avoid sporadic warming and the risk of death due high concentrations of cryoprotectants at warmer temperatures. Freeze-tolerant insects, like second-generation corn-borers, can survive being frozen and therefore, undergo inoculative freezing. Hibernacula range in size and structure depending on the insects using them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23366462",
"title": "Insect",
"section": "Section::::Reproduction and development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 78,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 78,
"end_character": 332,
"text": "Insect life-histories show adaptations to withstand cold and dry conditions. Some temperate region insects are capable of activity during winter, while some others migrate to a warmer climate or go into a state of torpor. Still other insects have evolved mechanisms of diapause that allow eggs or pupae to survive these conditions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57621",
"title": "Dragonfly",
"section": "Section::::Distribution and diversity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "Some dragonflies, including libellulids and aeshnids, live in desert pools, for example in the Mojave Desert, where they are active in shade temperatures between 18 and 45 °C (64.4 to 113 °F); these insects were able to survive body temperatures above the thermal death point of insects of the same species in cooler places.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42742734",
"title": "Welfare of farmed insects",
"section": "Section::::Welfare considerations for rearing.:Temperature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 223,
"text": "Insects are poikilothermic, but maintaining an adequate temperature range remains important. For example, mealworms thrive best when living close together, but this can lead to overheating if temperature is not controlled.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
4hmk3s | why are local positions like coroner, surveyor, recorder, etc elected by the people, and why should the average person care about them? | [
{
"answer": "The theory is that these people's findings have (or used to have) a direct impact on tax collection, so the people should have a say in who gets the job to prevent abuse of power.\n\n > Electing a coroner is a holdover from British Common Law, where the coroner’s job was to determine how and when people had died in order to collect taxes.\n\n[source](_URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "A coroner in particular makes important judgments that have dramatic legal consequences (i.e. Was this person murdered and therefore there should be a legal investigation? Or this person has been missing for five years, should we presume them dead and distribute their assets?). So in a culture that believes in direct democracy and that judges should be welected representatives of the people, it makes sense to extend that to coroners.\n\nThis is similarly true for surveyors as they make official determinations concerning property and city boundaries etc.\n\nA recorder I'm less sure about... that seems far more procedural but I suppose the consequences of their decisions are far reaching.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Very few countries have this system. The US is the only one that springs to mind. Yes, indeed, these posts should be filled by suitably qualified people. This does not mean that electing them is necessarily bad.\n\nIt's largely because in bygone days, with poor communications, it worked. Now, it's established and no one is interested in changing things.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Jacksonian\" democracy is famous for electing everyone even the dog catcher. The theory being anyone could hold most any political office. Take the public money, and move on for another newcomer. \n\nThe counter argument is that every job requires a special knowledge which has to be acquired by experience or training.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "160793",
"title": "Civil service",
"section": "Section::::By country.:Brazil.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 377,
"text": "Career civil servants (not temporary workers or politicians) are hired only externally on the basis of entrance examinations (). It usually consists of a written test; some posts may require physical tests (such as policemen), or oral tests (such as professors, judges, prosecutors and attorneys). The rank according to the examination score is used for filling the vacancies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22160050",
"title": "Chartered surveyors in the United Kingdom",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 494,
"text": "Chartered surveyors in the core of the profession may offer mortgage valuations, homebuyer's survey and valuations, full building surveys, building surveyors' services, quantity surveying, land surveying, auctioneering, estate management and other forms of survey- and building-related advice. It is not usual for any individual member to have expertise in all areas, and hence partnerships or companies are established to create practices able to offer a wider spectrum of surveying services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12639696",
"title": "Chartered Surveyor",
"section": "Section::::United Kingdom.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 502,
"text": "Chartered surveyors in the core of the profession may offer mortgage valuations, homebuyer's survey and valuations, full building surveys, building surveyors' services, quantity surveying, land surveying, auctioneering, estate management and other forms of survey- and building-related advice. It is not usual for any individual member to have expertise in all areas, and hence partnerships or companies are established to create general practices able to offer a wider spectrum of surveying services.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16112266",
"title": "Peace Commissioner",
"section": "Section::::Appointment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 828,
"text": "There is no qualifying examination, but appointees are required to be of good character and they are usually well established in the local community. People convicted of serious offences are considered unsuitable. Civil servants are usually only appointed where the performance of their official duties requires an appointment (i.e. ex-officio). Solicitors, people employed in legal offices, and members of the clergy are, as a matter of practice, not appointed because their occupation may cause a conflict of interest when exercising the duties of a peace commissioner. The fact that an applicant or nominee may be suitable for appointment does not, in itself, provide any entitlement to appointment as a peace commissioner because other factors, such as the need for appointments in particular areas, are taken into account.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53123",
"title": "Unitary authority",
"section": "Section::::United Kingdom.:England.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 338,
"text": "For many years the description of the number of tiers in UK local government arrangements has routinely ignored any current or previous bodies at the lowest level of authorities elected by the voters within their area such as parish (in England and Wales) or community councils; such bodies do not exist or have not existed in all areas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14316834",
"title": "Government of Virginia",
"section": "Section::::Local government.:Officers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 986,
"text": "Local government consists of city and county officers, as well as people who are known as constitutional officers. The positions of these constitutional officers are provided for by the Virginia Constitution. Article 7, Section 4 of the Virginia constitution provides, \"There shall be elected by the qualified voters of each county and city a treasurer, a sheriff, an attorney for the Commonwealth, a clerk, who shall be clerk of the court in the office of which deeds are recorded, and a commissioner of revenue.\" The local constitutional offices are not appointed by the city or county. The Judges of the Circuit Court, the General District Court and the Juvenile and Domestic Relations District Court are appointed by the State legislature. The constitutional officers have salaries set by the state through its compensation board, although the locality may supplement the salaries. This structure allows those officers a measure of independence within the local government setting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58313",
"title": "List of counties in Wisconsin",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 686,
"text": "Each county has a county seat, often a populous or centrally located community, where the county's governmental offices are located. Some of the services provided by the county include: law enforcement, circuit courts, social services, vital records and deed registration, road maintenance, and snow removal. County officials include sheriffs, district attorneys, clerks, treasurers, coroners, surveyors, registers of deeds, and clerks of circuit court; these officers are elected for four-year terms. In most counties, elected coroners have been replaced by appointed medical examiners. State law permits counties to appoint a registered land surveyor in place of electing a surveyor.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2rdyd4 | why cant we cure genetic diseases with genetic engineering? | [
{
"answer": "That's like saying \"why can't we solve engineering problems with engineering?\"\n\nIt's one thing to spot and identify a problem, but a whole different thing to find ways to understand it, solve it, get the tools you need at the precision you need.\n\nFor all things medical you also need extensive studies to rule out (or reign in) side effects, find ways to make treatments somewhat affordable and easy to administer and so on.\n\nScience / knowledge isn't the end of problem solving. It's the start.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12383",
"title": "Genetic engineering",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Genetic engineering could potentially fix severe genetic disorders in humans by replacing the defective gene with a functioning one. It is an important tool in research that allows the function of specific genes to be studied. Drugs, vaccines and other products have been harvested from organisms engineered to produce them. Crops have been developed that aid food security by increasing yield, nutritional value and tolerance to environmental stresses.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8406655",
"title": "Introduction to genetics",
"section": "Section::::Genetic engineering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "The kind of technology used in genetic engineering is also being developed to treat people with genetic disorders in an experimental medical technique called gene therapy. However, here the new gene is put in after the person has grown up and become ill, so any new gene is not inherited by their children. Gene therapy works by trying to replace the allele that causes the disease with an allele that works properly.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12383",
"title": "Genetic engineering",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "Genetic engineering has been applied in numerous fields including research, medicine, industrial biotechnology and agriculture. In research GMOs are used to study gene function and expression through loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression experiments. By knocking out genes responsible for certain conditions it is possible to create animal model organisms of human diseases. As well as producing hormones, vaccines and other drugs genetic engineering has the potential to cure genetic diseases through gene therapy. The same techniques that are used to produce drugs can also have industrial applications such as producing enzymes for laundry detergent, cheeses and other products.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27007275",
"title": "Eugenics in the United States",
"section": "Section::::History.:Eugenics After World War II.:Genetic engineering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 549,
"text": "Proponents of genetic engineering cite its ability to cure and prevent life-threatening diseases. Genetic engineering began in the 1970s when scientists began to clone and engineer genes. From this, scientists were able to create human insulin, the first-ever genetically-engineered drug. Because of this development, over the years scientists were able to create new drugs to treat devastating diseases. For example, in the early 1990s, a group of scientists were able to use a gene-drug to treat severe combined immunodeficiency in a young girl. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7230444",
"title": "Bioconservatism",
"section": "Section::::Philosophical arguments for bioconservatism.:Michael Sandel's arguments.:Humility.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "I do not think the main problem with enhancement and genetic engineering is that they undermine effort and erode human agency. The deeper danger is that they represent a kind of hyperagency—a Promethean aspiration to remake nature, including human nature, to serve our purposes and satisfy our desires\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12891",
"title": "Gene therapy",
"section": "Section::::Speculative uses.:Human genetic engineering.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 718,
"text": "Genetic engineering could be used to cure diseases, but also to change physical appearance, metabolism, and even improve physical capabilities and mental faculties such as memory and intelligence. Ethical claims about germline engineering include beliefs that every fetus has a right to remain genetically unmodified, that parents hold the right to genetically modify their offspring, and that every child has the right to be born free of preventable diseases. For parents, genetic engineering could be seen as another child enhancement technique to add to diet, exercise, education, training, cosmetics, and plastic surgery. Another theorist claims that moral concerns limit but do not prohibit germline engineering.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14572649",
"title": "Double Helix (novel)",
"section": "Section::::Themes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "For some people, the biggest issue with genetic engineering is whether or not to seek out nd act on knowledge about genetic flaws. Double Helix attempts to explore the life saving and life destroying aspects of genetic engineering. The book proposes that, while Eli’s life was saved by avoiding the Huntington’s disease gene, his concept of life and self were destroyed when he found out he was genetically engineered to be a certain way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2njcw3 | why are emergency services' two way radio systems so fuzzy and unclear? shouldn't emergency services have crisp audio more than anyone else? | [
{
"answer": "They use big long radio waves that can go through almost anything. That has the drawback that that frequency has a lot of minor interference and distortion on it. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Police officer here. The simple answer is that you get used to it. You talk on the radio so much, you learn what words sound like through distortion. It's almost like a second language.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "To make the channels use less bandwith, so more channels can be fit in a given spectrum, and therefore more users.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Depending on the system it usually isn't \"fuzzy.\" Ours sometimes have a digital distortion but never fuzzy.\n\nThe reason why the scanners/apps have distortions like static is likely due to their distance, how/with what they're monitoring, what their scan settings are, etc.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "i cant understand one thing when that radio goes off. it sounds gibberish but the officer will reply back with a copy that or something...i guess takes getting used to. i would sit there and ask them to repeat it 10 times lol",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In Europe we all use the tetra digital based radios. My radio is crystal clear, can be used as a phone and is totally encrypted so cannot be intercepted.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "634183",
"title": "Radio spectrum",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Land mobile bands.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Police radio and other public safety services such as fire departments and ambulances are generally found in the VHF and UHF parts of the spectrum. Trunking systems are often used to make most efficient use of the limited number of frequencies available. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9959853",
"title": "Emergency radio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 256,
"text": "Emergency radios are generally designed to cover the standard AM and FM broadcasting bands, and weather radio in countries that provide that service. Basic shortwave radio coverage (for situations where local radio is out or not available) is less-common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3230649",
"title": "Emergency vehicle equipment",
"section": "Section::::Communications devices.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 464,
"text": "BULLET::::- portable two-way radios, which transmit and receive on the same frequencies as the built in two-way radios, but are less powerful. Emergency workers can take these radios with them when they exit the vehicle. There are also systems (frequently referred to as mobile extenders or mobile repeaters) that allow the portable radios to be relayed through the vehicle's more powerful two way radio. Some emergency services encrypt their radio transmissions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9959853",
"title": "Emergency radio",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 434,
"text": "One element that separates some emergency radios from other types of radios, is the ability to broadcast alerts via the Emergency Alert System, even when the radio sound is turned off. This is especially useful in areas where sudden storms, tornadoes, tsunamis or other fast-breaking emergencies can occur. Some emergency radios are designed to also charge other devices, such as cell phones or mp3 players, but this can vary widely.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3011487",
"title": "Lancashire Constabulary",
"section": "Section::::Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 449,
"text": "All officers also carry two-way radios registered to Airwave Solutions, a nationwide radio network in the UK on which police and other emergency rely. Based on the TETRA standard, the radio network is secure and fully protected against eavesdropping on transmissions, as well as allowing interoperability with other police services, fire brigades, as well as ambulance services. For the Lancashire Police, Motorola MTH800s are the radios of choice.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28070",
"title": "Communication during the September 11 attacks",
"section": "Section::::Radio communications.:Voice radio systems.:Interoperability.:Trunked systems, commercial services, and cross-department netting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "Some agencies use commercial two-way radio as an adjunct to their own communications networks. One professional engineering evaluation of public safety radio systems explains that commercial systems such as Nextel's are not built to the same standards of coverage and non-blocking as public safety trunked systems. Like toy walkie talkies marketed to children, they are usable and helpful for non-urgent communications but should not be considered reliable enough for life safety uses. It is also true that most trunked radio system users are likely to hear busy signals, (error tones showing no channels are available,) for the first time during a large disaster. All systems have a finite capacity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "146317",
"title": "Ambulance",
"section": "Section::::Design and construction.:Equipment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "BULLET::::- Two-way radio – One of the most important pieces of equipment in modern emergency medical services as it allows for the issuing of jobs to the ambulance, and can allow the crew to pass information back to control or to the hospital (for example a priority ASHICE message to alert the hospital of the impending arrival of a critical patient.) More recently many services worldwide have moved from traditional analog UHF/VHF sets, which can be monitored externally, to more secure digital systems, such as those working on a GSM system, such as TETRA.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
421m96 | How were large, dangerous animals like bears hunted in the Middle Ages? | [
{
"answer": "Unfortunately there isn't a lot of source material on bear hunting as a lot of our late medieval 'hunting manuals' were produced in England...when the bear had been long extinct. However, the very famous 14th c hunting manual by [Gaston Fébus](_URL_0_), the [*Livre de chasse*](_URL_3_), features a chapter on hunting bear. In fact, Gaston is said to have died of stroke while washing his hands of bear blood; this would be a classic example of how we can't take the words of medieval writers about aristocracy at face value - they are always burnishing the image of the subject. As the count of Foix Gaston would have hunted in the Pyrenees where bears have roamed even until recently (and there is in fact a protest by farmers now against the planned re-introduction of bears). I don't know if his book has been translated to English - I've only seen editions of the various manuscript images with summaries.\n\nGenerally speaking, large animals were harried by horseback riders and hounds and driven into places that could be controlled: pits and traps. Hunters were on horseback and on foot, using weapons at a distance: bows and spears. It seems aristocrats were less interested in demonstrating strength than an ability to outwit their prey, whether bear, stag or wolf.\n\nIf you want to write about medieval hunting, try to find these two books:\n\n* [John Cummins, The Art of Medieval Hunting: The Hound and the Hawk (Castle Books, 2003)](_URL_2_)\n\n* [Richard Almond, Medieval Hunting (The History Press, 2011)](_URL_1_)\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "14823194",
"title": "Bear hunting",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Bear hunting is the act of hunting bears. Bears have been hunted since prehistoric times for their meat and fur. In modern times they have been favoured by big game hunters due to their size and ferocity. Bear hunting has a vast history throughout Europe and North America, and hunting practices have varied based on location and type of bear.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1530",
"title": "Ainu people",
"section": "Section::::Culture.:Hunting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "The Ainu usually hunted bear during the time of the spring thaw. At that time, bears were weak because they had not fed at all during long hibernation. Ainu hunters caught hibernating bears or bears that had just left hibernation dens. When they hunted bear in summer, they used a spring trap loaded with an arrow, called an \"amappo\". The Ainu usually used arrows to hunt deer. Also, they drove deer into a river or sea and shot them with arrows. For a large catch, a whole village would drive a herd of deer off a cliff and club them to death.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3768611",
"title": "Soemmerring's gazelle",
"section": "Section::::Threats.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "In many parts of North Africa and the Middle East, large stone corrals were constructed to drive herds of gazelle into, making for an easy ambush. This method of hunting started in prehistoric time, and continued into the early part of the 20th century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4400",
"title": "Bear",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Bears have been hunted since prehistoric times for their meat and fur; they have been used for bear-baiting and other forms of entertainment, such as being made to dance. With their powerful physical presence, they play a prominent role in the arts, mythology, and other cultural aspects of various human societies. In modern times, bears have come under pressure through encroachment on their habitats and illegal trade in bear parts, including the Asian bile bear market. The IUCN lists six bear species as vulnerable or endangered, and even least concern species, such as the brown bear, are at risk of extirpation in certain countries. The poaching and international trade of these most threatened populations are prohibited, but still ongoing.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14823194",
"title": "Bear hunting",
"section": "Section::::History.:North America.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "In the 19th century, as the settlers began increasingly moving west in pursuit of more land for ranching, bears were becoming increasingly more hunted as threats to livestock. In 1818, a “War of Extermination” against wolves and bears was declared in Ohio. Bear pelts were usually sold for 220 dollars in the 1860s. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9077737",
"title": "United Auburn Indian Community",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 213,
"text": "Bear hunts were ceremonial. Black bears were usually hunted in winter, where lighted poles were used to drive them from their dens. Grizzlies that lived on the valley floor were greatly feared and rarely hunted. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24408",
"title": "Polar bear",
"section": "Section::::Hunting.:History of commercial harvest.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 645,
"text": "In the first half of the 20th century, mechanized and overpoweringly efficient methods of hunting and trapping came into use in North America as well. Polar bears were chased from snowmobiles, icebreakers, and airplanes, the latter practice described in a 1965 \"New York Times\" editorial as being \"about as sporting as machine gunning a cow.\" Norwegians used \"self-killing guns\", comprising a loaded rifle in a baited box that was placed at the level of a bear's head, and which fired when the string attached to the bait was pulled. The numbers taken grew rapidly in the 1960s, peaking around 1968 with a global total of 1,250 bears that year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2zsslx | why doesn't facial hair get greasy? | [
{
"answer": "not as much oil secreted by the face as the top of the head",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Also in any good beard grooming kit a beard oil is recommended, so not only does it not get greasy, but to take care of it you oil it up.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I remember reading an article about how head hair and facial hair evolved differently. Hence why you can have a red beard and brown hair. Dunno if thats a factor but it might be.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why does mine get so greasy?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "37507782",
"title": "Greasy hair",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 994,
"text": "Greasy hair is a hair condition which is common in humans, one of four main types of hair conditioning— normal, greasy, dry and greasy dry. It is primarily caused by build-up of the natural secretion from the sebaceous glands in the scalp and is characterised by the continuous development of natural grease on the scalp. A chronic condition of greasy hair may often accompany chronic greasy skin conditions on the face and body and oily skin and acne. Excessive carbohydrate, fat and starch consumption can increase the likelihood of developing greasy hair and also poor personal hygiene and not washing the hair for a long duration will lead to a buildup of sebum in the hair follicles. Hair conditioners can decrease the likelihood of developing greasy hair after shampooing. Some cosmetics companies produce shampoos and conditioners specifically to deal with greasy hair and for oily or dry hair problems. Massaging the scalp and exposure to the sun can reduce the problem of greasy hair.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1608085",
"title": "Pseudofolliculitis barbae",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 345,
"text": "After a hair has been shaved, it begins to grow back. Curly hair tends to curl into the skin instead of straight out the follicle, leading to an inflammation reaction. PFB can make the skin look itchy and red, and in some cases, it can even look like pimples. These inflamed papules or pustules can form especially if the area becomes infected.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16831007",
"title": "Stain removal",
"section": "Section::::Hair dye stains.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "Hair coloring products are commonly used to cover gray, look more attractive or keep up with fashion, yet they pose a challenge for many women. Because of the length of time the hair dye must be on the hair to achieve deep, even results, it often seeps or drips down onto the hairline, ears or neck, causing unsightly and irritating stains on the skin. Dye users are not universally affected—some persons have a tendency to get stains while others do not—most likely due to the variations in lipid or natural oil composition on the skin surface from one person to the next.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "270445",
"title": "Human hair color",
"section": "Section::::Conditions affecting hair color.:Medical conditions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 221,
"text": "Malnutrition is also known to cause hair to become lighter, thinner, and more brittle. Dark hair may turn reddish or blondish due to the decreased production of melanin. The condition is reversible with proper nutrition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19217733",
"title": "Poliosis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 294,
"text": "This condition can cause single or, less commonly, multiple white patches on the hair. Some mistake these white patches for simple birth marks. In poliosis there is decreased or absent melanin in the hair bulbs of affected hair follicles; the melanocytes of the skin are usually not affected. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11796534",
"title": "White piedra",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 226,
"text": "White piedra (or tinea blanca) is a mycosis of the hair caused by several species of fungi in the genus \"Trichosporon\". It is characterized by soft nodules composed of yeast cells and arthroconidia that encompass hair shafts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "270445",
"title": "Human hair color",
"section": "Section::::Natural hair colors.:Gray and white hair.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 376,
"text": "In some cases, gray hair may be caused by thyroid deficiencies, Waardenburg syndrome or a vitamin B deficiency. At some point in the human life cycle, cells that are located in the base of the hair's follicles slow, and eventually stop producing pigment. Piebaldism is a rare autosomal dominant disorder of melanocyte development, which may cause a congenital white forelock.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
5l8omp | why did ronda rousey look like a complete amateur tonight who had never stepped foot into an octagon? | [
{
"answer": "She was not THAT great of a fighter, just a dominant one in a growing sport (Women's MMA). As it got bigger, the fighters got better. And she took a long break and had just not improved in the time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "After she knocked out Beth, she thought she was a world class striker as well as a world class judo specialist. \n\nAlso, Edmund Tarverdyan is a horrible coach. I'm really surprised Rousey didn't try and clinch ASAP considering that everyone knew Amanda's bread and butter is her striking. I'd have thought that they'd have learned after her fight with Holly. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "47434468",
"title": "UFC 193",
"section": "Section::::Rousey vs. Holm fight.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "Ronda Rousey began the Women's Bantamweight bout aggressively. Holly Holm, with her boxing ability, and from her southpaw stance, tagged Rousey repeatedly with her left hand while controlling the distance. Rousey attempted several clinches through the round, including an attempted armbar, but none had a decisive outcome. By the end of the first round, Rousey was bloodied and breathing heavily, with commentators describing the round as the first she had ever lost in her MMA career.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2749020",
"title": "Heroes of Wrestling",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Jake Roberts incident.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "After the interview, Roberts staggered to the ring with his trademark snake. However, upon reaching the ring, Roberts put the snake down and attempted to return backstage; he then reversed course, returned to ringside, and began greeting fans. Before entering the ring, Roberts grabbed a female fan and had her rub her hands on his bare chest. Later, Roberts removed the snake from its bag and simulated masturbation with it. The event's producers cut to wide-shots of the crowd during the incident, so that at-home viewers were unaware what was happening in the ring. Roberts eventually collapsed in the middle of the ring with the snake draped over his body; the prone Roberts then began to attempt to kiss the snake.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2749020",
"title": "Heroes of Wrestling",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Jake Roberts incident.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 1036,
"text": "The show is nominally remembered for its conclusion, originally slated to be a double-main event pitting Jake Roberts against Jim Neidhart, and King Kong Bundy against Yokozuna. Roberts' problems with drug and alcohol addiction had been well publicized in the preceding years, and his booking in the main event was meant to capitalize on the resurgence in popularity he had enjoyed as a result of his attempts at sobriety. Roberts' return to the ring was meant to be the high point of the evening, and the match responsible for generating the most publicity. However, Roberts suffered a relapse prior to the show and consumed a significant amount of alcohol before arriving. Prior to his match with Neidhart, Roberts had been scheduled to cut a promo in which he would taunt Neidhart. Due to his level of intoxication, Roberts' promo instead consisted of a slurred, incoherent rant consisting largely of wordplay based on the event's casino setting. One particular segment of the rant would go viral after it was posted on WrestleCrap:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18783042",
"title": "Ronda Rousey",
"section": "Section::::Professional wrestling career.:WWE.:Raw Women's Champion (2018–2019).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 929,
"text": "On the March 5 episode of \"Raw\", it was announced that Rousey will make her in–ring debut WrestleMania 34, WWE's flagship event, in a mixed tag team match pitting Rousey and Kurt Angle as her partner against Stephanie McMahon and Triple H. At the event, Rousey submitted McMahon with her trademark armbar submission hold to secure the win for her team. Her debut performance was widely praised by both fans and wrestling critics, with Dave Meltzer of the \"Wrestling Observer\" noting that she \"at no point looked out of her element, she was crisp in just about everything\", calling her performance \"one of the better pro wrestling debuts I've ever seen\". \"The Washington Post\" noted the positive fan reaction, stating \"The match exceeded expectations, with fans firmly behind Rousey\" and \"[fans were] surprised [at her] high–level coordination and quality of wrestling. Even those who were not agreed the match was entertaining.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1690869",
"title": "Paul Jones (wrestler)",
"section": "Section::::Professional wrestling career.:Mid-Atlantic Championship Wrestling / World Championship Wrestling.:Paul Jones' Army (1982–1989).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 898,
"text": "By 1983, Jones had largely retired from in-ring competition due to accumulated back injuries. That year, Jones developed a gimmick of wearing tuxedos, and created an angle in which he held a contest in which a large poster of himself dressed in a white tuxedo would be awarded as a prize to the winner. This led to a memorable episode of \"Mid-Atlantic Championship Wrestling\", in which the winner of the poster was revealed to be a young, attractive woman. As she walked onto the ringside set to claim her prize, she attempted to embrace Jones with a kiss as her way of thanking him; but Jones backed away quickly and proceeded to berate her violently. Rufus R. Jones then came to the lady's rescue, and was attacked by Paul. Paul then shoved the terrified young lady between himself and Rufus to block Rufus' defensive attack. This angle led to a brief feud between Paul Jones and Rufus R. Jones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31959453",
"title": "Alba Arnova",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "In 1956 Arnova created a controversy when she appeared on the RAI television variety show \"La piazzetta\" wearing a tight leotard that made her appear semi-nude because of the lighting effects and the black-and-white system. The show was suspended and she was subsequently fired and banned from Italian television. She subsequently chose to leave showbusiness. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22359670",
"title": "Miesha Tate",
"section": "Section::::Mixed martial arts career.:Strikeforce.:Final Strikeforce fights.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 958,
"text": "As Rousey predicted, her bout with Tate was highly publicized in the months preceding it. Rousey had made her MMA debut in early 2011 and defeated all four of her opponents by first-round armbar submission. However, Tate did not believe that Rousey had earned a title shot, and felt that Rousey was largely gaining the opportunity due to being \"pretty.\" The two engaged in a variety of trash-talk, with Rousey stating that she was \"bored\" while watching Tate's win over Coenen. Ultimately, Tate and Rousey headlined a on March 3, 2012. This marked a then-rare occurrence of women being placed in the main event of an MMA card. The bout was televised on Showtime and introduced by Jimmy Lennon, Jr. Shortly after the fight began, Tate escaped Rousey's first armbar attempt and retaliated with strikes. After a back-and-forth session of grappling, Tate lost the title when Rousey secured a second armbar near the end of the first round, forcing her to submit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
7kiazh | hot weather the cause of higher violence rates? | [
{
"answer": "Climate changes how people live, which affects decisions made and indirectly affects violence. I seriously doubt you will find any evidence that heat directly affects the mind. The research has long shown that it is a indirect relationship. I have never heard of a direct correlation with weather affecting the mind in my studies. Source: Masters in Human Relations (not claiming expert, just these type studies were read and written about during my studies)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not so much the cause of violence, as it is that cold weather keeps people from wandering the streets looking for trouble.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "293270",
"title": "Heat wave",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Mortality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 28,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 28,
"end_character": 1175,
"text": "Heat waves are the most lethal type of weather phenomenon in the United States. Between 1992 and 2001, deaths from excessive heat in the United States numbered 2,190, compared with 880 deaths from floods and 150 from hurricanes. The average annual number of fatalities directly attributed to heat in the United States is about 400. The 1995 Chicago heat wave, one of the worst in US history, led to approximately 739 heat-related deaths over a period of five days. Eric Klinenberg has noted that in the United States, the loss of human life in hot spells in summer exceeds that caused by all other weather events combined, including lightning, rain, floods, hurricanes, and tornadoes. Despite the dangers, Scott Sheridan, professor of geography at Kent State University, found that less than half of people 65 and older abide by heat-emergency recommendations like drinking lots of water. In his study of heat-wave behavior, focusing particularly on seniors in Philadelphia, Phoenix, Toronto, and Dayton, Ohio, he found that people over 65 \"don't consider themselves seniors.\" One of his older respondents said: \"Heat doesn't bother me much, but I worry about my neighbors.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6015854",
"title": "2006 North American heat wave",
"section": "Section::::Impact of heat waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 749,
"text": "Although comparatively little reporting is made about the health effects of extraordinarily hot conditions, heat waves are responsible for more deaths annually than more energetic natural disasters such as lightning, rain, floods, hurricanes, and tornadoes. Supporting this conclusion, Karl Swanberg, a forecaster with the National Weather Service, reported that between 1936 and 1975, about 20,000 U.S. residents died of heat. \"Heat and solar radiation on average kill more U.S. residents each year than lightning, tornadoes, hurricanes, floods or earthquakes,\" said Karl Swanberg. This finding is also referenced in a publication of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, giving guidance on how to avoid health problems due to heat.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "293270",
"title": "Heat wave",
"section": "Section::::Health effects.:Psychological and sociological effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 534,
"text": "In addition to physical stress, excessive heat causes psychological stress, to a degree which affects performance, and is also associated with an increase in violent crime. High temperatures are associated with increased conflict both at the interpersonal level and at the societal level. In every society, crime rates go up when temperatures go up, particularly violent crimes such as assault, murder, and rape. Furthermore, in politically unstable countries, high temperatures are an aggravating factor that lead toward civil wars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2119174",
"title": "Effects of global warming",
"section": "Section::::Physical impacts.:Effects on weather.:Extreme weather.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 668,
"text": "In the last 30–40 years, heat waves with high humidity have became more frequent and severe. Extremely hot nights have doubled in frequency. The area in which extremely hot summers are observed, has increased 50-100 fold. These changes are not explained by natural variability, and attributed by climate scientists to the influence of anthropogenic climate change. Heat waves with high humidity pose a big risk to human health while heat waves with low humidity lead to dry conditions that increase wildfires. The mortality from extreme heat is larger than the mortality from hurricanes, lightning, tornadoes, floods, and earthquakes together See also 2018 heat wave.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23762888",
"title": "Climate gap",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 463,
"text": "Extreme weather events, such as heat waves, droughts and floods, are expected to increase in their frequency and intensity in the next hundred years due to climate change. Low socioeconomic status groups and racial and ethnic minorities are affected by heat-related illness at greater rates due to factors such as lack of access to air conditioning, lack of transportation, occupations that require outdoor work and the heat-island effect in urban neighborhoods.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11593538",
"title": "Severe weather",
"section": "Section::::Heat and drought.:Heat waves.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 72,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 72,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Although official definitions vary, a heat wave is generally defined as a prolonged period with excessive heat. Although heat waves do not cause as much economic damage as other types of severe weather, they are extremely dangerous to humans and animals: according to the United States National Weather Service, the average total number of heat-related fatalities each year is higher than the combined total fatalities for floods, tornadoes, lightning strikes, and hurricanes. In Australia, heat waves cause more fatalities than any other type of severe weather. As in droughts, plants can also be severely affected by heat waves (which are often accompanied by dry conditions) can cause plants to lose their moisture and die. Heat waves are often more severe when combined with high humidity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58687",
"title": "Aggression",
"section": "Section::::Society and culture.:Situational factors.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 781,
"text": "Pain and discomfort also increase aggression. Even the simple act of placing one's hands in hot water can cause an aggressive response. Hot temperatures have been implicated as a factor in a number of studies. One study completed in the midst of the civil rights movement found that riots were more likely on hotter days than cooler ones (Carlsmith & Anderson 1979). Students were found to be more aggressive and irritable after taking a test in a hot classroom (Anderson et al. 1996, Rule, et al. 1987). Drivers in cars without air conditioning were also found to be more likely to honk their horns (Kenrick & MacFarlane 1986), which is used as a measure of aggression and has shown links to other factors such as generic symbols of aggression or the visibility of other drivers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2dczey | Why is there an absolute reference for rotation? | [
{
"answer": "The discussion about no preferred reference frames is in the context of special relativity, which only considers unaccelerated motion. A rotation is always an accelerated motion, i.e. you need a centripetal force to \"bend\" the path of an object. This force makes different reference frames different.\n\nNote that you could still make the change of reference frame if you wanted to. People made quite accurate models with the sun revolving around the earth, they only became hugely complicated when all the other planets had to be taken into account as well.\n\nAlso note that our solar system is revolving at incredible speeds around the center of the Milky Way. We don't notice this in everyday life, because you can also picture this as that we are in a free fall in the gravitational potential of the Milky Way: Einstein's equivalence principle.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "This is known as [Mach's Principle](_URL_0_), and it was a primary motivation for the theory of General Relativity. Roughly speaking, acceleration happens in relation to all the other mass in the universe. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Interesting note: while the circumstances make it much harder both to experimentally distinguish such motion and to define what \"rotation\" should mean, orbiting motion due to gravitation is different from no motion in the absence of gravitation for a rigid body, which will experience different amounts of gravitational attraction at its near and far ends relative to the attractor (resulting in very small tidal forces).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1082841",
"title": "Fictitious force",
"section": "Section::::Mathematical derivation of fictitious forces.:Rotating coordinate systems.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 398,
"text": "A common situation in which noninertial reference frames are useful is when the reference frame is rotating. Because such rotational motion is non-inertial, due to the acceleration present in any rotational motion, a fictitious force can always be invoked by using a rotational frame of reference. Despite this complication, the use of fictitious forces often simplifies the calculations involved.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20213962",
"title": "Quantum reference frame",
"section": "Section::::Reference frame in classical mechanics and inertial frame.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 854,
"text": "An inertial reference frame (or inertial frame in short) is a frame in which all the physical laws hold. For instance, in a rotating reference frame, Newton's laws have to be modified because there is an extra Coriolis force (such frame is an example of non-inertial frame). Here, \"rotating\" means \"rotating with respect to some inertial frame\". Therefore, although it is true that a reference frame can always be chosen to be any physical system for convenience, any system has to be eventually described by an inertial frame, directly or indirectly. Finally, one may ask how an inertial frame can be found, and the answer lies in the Newton's laws, at least in Newtonian mechanics: the first law guarantees the existence of an inertial frame while the second and third law are used to examine whether a given reference frame is an inertial one or not.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2434557",
"title": "Non-inertial reference frame",
"section": "Section::::Detection of a non-inertial frame: need for fictitious forces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "That a given frame is non-inertial can be detected by its need for fictitious forces to explain observed motions. For example, the rotation of the Earth can be observed using a Foucault pendulum. The rotation of the Earth seemingly causes the pendulum to change its plane of oscillation because the surroundings of the pendulum move with the Earth. As seen from an Earth-bound (non-inertial) frame of reference, the explanation of this apparent change in orientation requires the introduction of the fictitious Coriolis force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1209823",
"title": "Rotating reference frame",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 331,
"text": "A rotating frame of reference is a special case of a non-inertial reference frame that is rotating relative to an inertial reference frame. An everyday example of a rotating reference frame is the surface of the Earth. (This article considers only frames rotating about a fixed axis. For more general rotations, see Euler angles.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23690843",
"title": "Absolute rotation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "For the concept of absolute rotation to be scientifically meaningful, it must be measurable. In other words, can an observer distinguish between the rotation of an observed object and their own rotation? Newton suggested two experiments to resolve this problem. One is the effects of centrifugal force upon the shape of the surface of water rotating in a bucket, equivalent to the phenomenon of rotational gravity used in proposals for manned spaceflight.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7290730",
"title": "Rotation formalisms in three dimensions",
"section": "Section::::Rotations and motions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 590,
"text": "Rotation formalisms are focused on proper (orientation-preserving) motions of the Euclidean space with one fixed point, that a \"rotation\" refers to. Although physical motions with a fixed point are an important case (such as ones described in the center-of-mass frame, or motions of a joint), this approach creates a knowledge about all motions. Any proper motion of the Euclidean space decomposes to a rotation around the origin and a translation. Whichever the order of their composition will be, the \"pure\" rotation component wouldn't change, uniquely determined by the complete motion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19265670",
"title": "Centrifugal force",
"section": "Section::::Derivation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 212,
"text": "For the following formalism, the rotating frame of reference is regarded as a special case of a non-inertial reference frame that is rotating relative to an inertial reference frame denoted the stationary frame.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1hua8k | how was the stuxnet virus created, and why was it so successful? | [
{
"answer": "There's a youtube video on this by an a channel called \"The Hungry Beast\" or something similar, try looking it up.\n\nI'm in China atm and it's blocked for me, =/\n\n_URL_0_ - Someone linked it in another thread",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "40528380",
"title": "Vulnerability of nuclear plants to attack",
"section": "Section::::Cyber attacks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 565,
"text": "\"Stuxnet\" is a computer worm discovered in June 2010 that is believed to have been created by the United States and Israel to attack Iran's nuclear facilities. It switched off safety devices, causing centrifuges to spin out of control. Stuxnet initially spreads via Microsoft Windows, and targets Siemens industrial control systems. While it is not the first time that hackers have targeted industrial systems, it is the first discovered malware that spies on and subverts industrial systems, and the first to include a programmable logic controller (PLC) rootkit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28846687",
"title": "Stuxnet",
"section": "Section::::Discovery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 439,
"text": "Stuxnet, discovered by Sergey Ulasen, initially spread via Microsoft Windows, and targeted Siemens industrial control systems. While it is not the first time that hackers have targeted industrial systems, nor the first publicly known intentional act of cyberwarfare to be implemented, it is the first discovered malware that spies on and subverts industrial systems, and the first to include a programmable logic controller (PLC) rootkit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35596153",
"title": "Information Operations (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Computer network operations.:Stuxnet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "Stuxnet is a computer worm discovered in June 2010. It initially spreads via Microsoft Windows, and targets Siemens industrial software and equipment. While it is not the first time that hackers have targeted industrial systems, it is the first discovered malware that spies on and subverts industrial systems, and the first to include a programmable logic controller (PLC) rootkit.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19755176",
"title": "Supply chain attack",
"section": "Section::::Recent examples.:Stuxnet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 29,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 29,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Stuxnet is typically introduced into the supply network via an infected USB flash drive with persons with physical access to the system. The worm then travels across the cyber network, scanning software on computers controlling a programmable logic controller (PLC). Stuxnet introduces the infected rootkit onto the PLC modifying the codes and giving unexpected commands to the PLC while returning a loop of normal operation value feedback to the users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28846687",
"title": "Stuxnet",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 794,
"text": "Kaspersky Lab experts at first estimated that Stuxnet started spreading around March or April 2010, but the first variant of the worm appeared in June 2009. On 15 July 2010, the day the worm's existence became widely known, a distributed denial-of-service attack was made on the servers for two leading mailing lists on industrial-systems security. This attack, from an unknown source but likely related to Stuxnet, disabled one of the lists and thereby interrupted an important source of information for power plants and factories. On the other hand, researchers at Symantec have uncovered a version of the Stuxnet computer virus that was used to attack Iran's nuclear program in November 2007, being developed as early as 2005, when Iran was still setting up its uranium enrichment facility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17161651",
"title": "CIA activities in Iran",
"section": "Section::::Sabotage Iran’s nuclear program.:Stuxnet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 539,
"text": "Stuxnet is typically introduced to the target environment via an infected USB flash drive. The worm then propagates across the network, scanning for Siemens Step7 software on computers controlling a PLC. In the absence of either criterion, Stuxnet becomes dormant inside the computer. If both the conditions are fulfilled, Stuxnet introduces the infected rootkit onto the PLC and Step7 software, modifying the codes and giving unexpected commands to the PLC while returning a loop of normal operations system values feedback to the users.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17161651",
"title": "CIA activities in Iran",
"section": "Section::::Sabotage Iran’s nuclear program.:Stuxnet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 370,
"text": "Stuxnet is a malicious computer worm believed to be a jointly built American-Israeli cyber weapon. Although neither state has confirmed this openly, anonymous US officials speaking to \"The Washington Post\" claimed the worm was developed during the Obama administration to sabotage Iran’s nuclear program with what would seem like a long series of unfortunate accidents.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
53n2dx | why are ssds sold in 240 gb, 480 gb, etc. whereas hdds are sold in 250 gb, 500 gb, etc.? | [
{
"answer": "SSDs are composed of multiple flash chips, which are produced in sizes power of two. Why? These chips come with a number of pins called an address bus, naturally allowing for 2^N different addresses. When combining chips to form a bigger chip, you'd prefer it if these address busses combined to form one contiguous adress space (without holes, addresses you aren't allowed to use)\n\nFor harddisks, this simply doesn't matter.\n\nEDIT: Oh, right, you mentioned 240 and 480. That would be due to extra backup space needed for when parts of chips fail, as extra buffer to move things around, or for wear levelling.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's called \"Over-Provisioning\". SSD technology limits the number of times each storage \"unit\" can be written to. So if some \"unit\" has already too much writes the drive can use this over-provisioned space to compensate. It's actually more on-the-fly but that is the general idea.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "tl;dr: Marketing, false advertising, GB as used by computer geek vs GB as used by rest of the world, and hidden reserve to make the drive run faster and have a safety buffer in case of failure. Also, lost track of what sub I was in and made this not very ELI5. Sorry.\n\nInternal computer memory (RAM or Random Access Memory) is built and accessed in multiples and powers of two (binary). You still buy computer memory sticks in capacities like 512 MB or 2 GB. These aren't really \"real\" mega- and giga-bytes because in the old days computer people borrowed some metric terms like kilo that meant exactly 1000 and used them as a shorthand to refer to 1024. Even today, some operating systems and programs (and programmers) still use the \"wrong\" 1024 value when calculating both computer memory and storage.\n\nWhen computer hard disk drives were invented, they weren't electronic structures built on powers of two, so the marketing people used the \"correct\" multiples of 1000 when talking about storage capacity (decimal). If nothing else, it makes the capacity look slightly bigger, and marketing always likes bigger. Marketing also really likes round numbers. So hard disk drives are advertised in terms like 250 GB or 2 TB.\n\nSolid state drives are internally more structured like computer memory (built in binary) than mechanical hard disks (measured in decimal for convenience). A 240 GB SSD probably has a \"raw\" storage capacity more like 256x1024x1024x1024 bytes (and 8x that many bits). So why not call it 256 GB (using the old binary method) or even 275 GB (using the newer decimal method) SSD? Again, marketing people like round numbers. Also, the buying public (as opposed to just computer geeks) has figured out that hard drives never seem to have the full storage capacity that is advertised. With old mechanical disks, this was mostly due to the binary/decimal measuring difference. With SSDs, it's mostly due to something called over-provisioning. So, the marketing people pick a smaller round number that more or less reasonably reflects the actual usable space.\n\nOver-provisioning is when some of the SSD storage capacity is marked as off limits right from the get go. Your 256 GB SSD has 16 GB set aside for future use, leaving 240. If the SSD internal control electronics notices that sector 18 (for example) is developing a fault, it will copy the information to a new sector in the 16 GB. Old sector 18 will be permanently disabled. The new sector 18 will be marked as in use. The SSD's total amount of storage, as reported to the end user, remains the same at 240. A 480 GB SSD is probably a 512 GB SSD with 32 GB of over-provisioning. \n\nI just did a quick search on Amazon and I see 240 GB, 250 GB, 256 GB, and 275 GB SSDs from different manufacturers which I'm pretty sure all have the same amount of actual storage, so it's not like the marketing people are consistent.\n\nedit: some numbers formatting",
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"answer": "Okay, so so far, none of these are really ELI5. Here's the easiest I can do.\n\nThink of a piece of paper with 256 lines or 512 lines (imagine it's double the paper), etc. Pieces of paper here always have 256 lines, 512 lines, etc (power of 2s). Always. \n\nSo you can buy sheets of paper with 256 lines, 512 lines, etc. Except your question is, why is it being sold as 250 lines, 500 lines, or 240 lines, 480 lines?\n\nComputer memory is exactly the same, replacing \"lines\" with \"GB\". Hard drives have 256 GB, 512 GB, etc. So, you would THINK hard drives would be sold as 256, 512, 1024. But they aren't. Why?\n\nSo why 240, 250, etc instead of 256? The answer is a cross between functionality and marketing. Let's say I have 256GB. \n\n1) **HDDs and 250**: This is still a piece of paper with 256 lines / a drive with 256 GB. But, the marketing is done either by or for people who aren't particularly tech-savvy: 250 is a nice round number and 256 is not. \"250 lines on this piece of paper!\" vs \"256 lines on this piece of paper!\". 250 sounds nicer. So 256 has become 250, 512 has become 500, etc (see [this](_URL_0_)).\n\n2) **SSDs and 240**: There's still 256 lines of paper here - 256GB of room. But here, the SSD itself saves some of the room for itself. So maybe out of those 256 lines, there are actually only 240 lines on the paper that you're allowed to use here; the other 16 are extra lines (in case you're writing something and it goes over the last line - it has to go somewhere, so we write the overflow on line 241), or backup lines (oops, let's say you just tore the paper or spilled ink on line 194, let's copy everything on line 194 over to line 242), or just lines to make an index - so maybe lines 243-247 are taken up to say, \"She has the grocery list on line 210\". And then the remaining 247-256 are more overflow/backup/index lines. So while there technically ARE 256 GB, you as a user can only use 240 of them. So, it's sold as 240. (And again, it's probably more like 243.24 but 240 is a \"prettier\" number).\n\nAlso, I think u/troycheek has the best ELImaybe20 so far. So, for a more technical version of everything I just said, read theirs next :).\n\n*edit* u/TupperwareMagic has an excellent elaboration on the difference between SSD and HDD as a reply to mine below.\n\n*edit in* - it's power of 2s, and that's where the 256, 512, 1024, etc, come from.\n\n**edit:** If you don't like my answer, that's your right, but please stop telling me so. I'm getting all these messages that basically say \"your answer sucks\" with no corrections (any corrections I get, I edit in). What does that accomplish? Should I apologise that everyone's brain works differently? I explained it in a way that I would understand if I didn't know it, and if it doesn't jive with you, just go upvote a different reply. Like, you know, the voting system is supposed to work. There are a lot of great answers here (I even recommended one in my OP...). Please just upvote someone else if you don't like mine.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": "Am I the only person who's bought both a 250 and 500GB SSD marketed as that exact value?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think most answers (including this one?) are incorrect.\n\n**You can make HDDs and SSDs almost any number you want. SSDs more closely follow binary numbers though.**\n\nHDDs are segmented portions of a physical disc that vary in size. So you can make it almost any number you want.\n\nSSDs are segmented groups of *binary* memory. It can also, consequently, be segmented groups of binary numbers -- which is often the 256, 512 that you are used to. The sum of these segmented groups could be 500 or any number you want.\n\n*My answer intentionally ignores SSD error correcting, binary to 16 bit addressing, etc. I'm keeping it ELI5*\n\n*Fun fact: A circular hard disc stores just as much information on the inner rings as it does on the outer rings -- or at least that's how it used to work. The little segments just get much tinier.*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "ELI5 why people repost other people's questions from a month ago word for word to harvest karma. \n\nI'd really like to know. What do you people plan to do with that karma? Is it worth something on some hidden black market? Can you buy guns and drugs with reddit karma like bitcoin? ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I don't want to make my own thread, but could anyone give me a basic explanation of flash-storage? I bought a new macbook and originally wanted their older model because it came with SSD and the new ones only offered flash storage, which I had never heard of. The sales rep told me it was comparable to ssd technology in that it had no spinning/mechanical parts, and the increased speed benefit of having a ssd would apply to it. Is that the basic gist?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "SSD (solid state drives) and HDD (hard disk drives) hold information. We measure quantity of data in Gigabytes (GB) when we have lots of data.\n\nNow, the reason why some numbers like 240, 480, or 250 and 500 are really popular is because lots of people think those numbers are easier to remember than complicated numbers like 256 or 512 (these are numbers that engineers like because they are special numbers that are called powers of 2).\n\nThere are grown ups (we call them marketers) who like to use these easier numbers to convince other grown ups (we like to call them general consumers) to buy these drives.\n\nIt's a bit like buying a \"2 cup\" measuring cup to measure the water when we cook. If you look at a measuring cup, you can see that it holds more than the 2 cups. But we don't expect it to hold more than 2 cups. This is different from a measuring spoon, when a \"1 cup\" spoon will hold exactly 1 cup.\n\nNow, the difference between the \"rated capacity\" (that's what we call the pretend limit of how much we can store) and \"actual capacity\" (the actual amount that the drive can really hold if you use every bit of its space) is used as an emergency super secret storage compartment (reallocation blocks).\n\nHow does that work? Hmm, think of it this way:\n\nWhen you write words on a piece of paper, and then erase it, and write on it some more, and erase it, and write again, and erase it again, you eventually make a hole in the paper. Sometimes, you might make a hole in the middle of a sentence that's already on the paper. What do you do? Well, you write the word that was going to be where the hole is on a different spot on the paper -- usually at the edge of the paper that you normally don't use. And then you draw arrows to connect the word into the spot where the hole is, so that you know where the missing word is when you get to that hole.\n\nSometimes, the paper already comes with holes in the paper when you bring it home from the store. That's because it's cheaper to make things not perfect, even though we like perfect things. As long as there's not a lot of holes, drives use this arrow trick (it's called block remapping) so that you still get to use the drive (err, paper?) as long as you don't have too many holes. \n\nSometimes, the holes are in really important places -- when that happens, they throw it away.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "TIL ELI5 can't handle computer stuffs. \n\nSSDs are built with blocks of two. It's cheaper to leave it this way. \n\nHDDs are more flexible in their construction since it's not separate blocks inside.\n\nBoth are generally made up numbers that don't always mean the same thing. Each manufacture names them slightly different. \n\n______\n\nWas that so hard? I mean they're *five years old for christs sake*. \"Mommy? What's over provizizizinging?\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The SSD may be 256 or 512 internally, but they reserve space for the wear leveling pool. Flash can only be rewritten a limited number of times, around 10-100 thousand. The size difference is especially dramatic if you notice that 240 GB is only 224 GiB, so you only get 7/8ths of the total space.\n\nWhen you rewrite a block on the SSD, it actually writes to a new block from the pool (there's likely many small pools, but we'll pretend there's one), and erases/returns the old block to the pool. So you can keep rewriting the same address and get a different block every time, so it can survive millions of rewrites instead of just tens of thousands. If you could fill the whole SSD, the pool would get too small and blocks would burn out quickly from over-reuse, so that last 1/8th or so is reserved.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "not true. It's almost arbitrary now.\n\nFor example, samsung 850 evo ssds come in 250 and 500 while samsung 850 pro ssds come in 256 and 512.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Why? Because HDD vendors decided to redefine the size of a GB in the 90's to make more money.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "HDD : \"Let's call it 250 because it sounds cooler.\"\n\nSSD: \"We need some space because we need to do some math and need a place to store those numbers, so let's take a part of SSD and use it to store those numbers. As the SSDs get bigger, we'll need to store more numbers, so we'll have to take more space away.\"",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The extra space is used for Over Provisioning. \nThis means a 240GB or 200GB is actually a 256GB drive but because of the nature of FLASH storage and wear the cells degrade. To keep the drive useful a percentage of its available storage is reserved so when it starts going bad the bad cells are disabled for use and a spare get activated. This is managed by the controller on the SSD and the FIRMWARE. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they can. \n \nWhy should they sell them all in the same size? It's harder for many to calculate the price per GB. Actually this is very unknown in the USA. \nIn many cases people buy the more expensive item in a store because it looks cheaper. And it doesn't matter if it's some flour or if it's a hard drive. \n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "\"Powers of two\" is kind of missing the point, which is that SSD sizes *are not powers of two.* But some sectors (individual storage cells) naturally develop faults in SSDs as they're used, unlike HDDs. The solution to this is that, when the drive notices that a sector has gone bad, it will update an internal list of where all its storage is to indicate a different area. What different area? Well, an area that wasn't in use to begin with, and that's the \"missing\" storage compared to a power of two.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "the TL;DR version:\nmarketing. \n\na HDD that is 250gb, VS a SSD that is 240gb:\nboth have the SAME actual disk space inside, but the SSD hides some away to use whenever a area goes bad it can replace it with some of the hidden section.\n\nBOTH are probably 256gb, but for marketing having rounded numbers sells better.\n\nthen there is the bad math between bits and bytes and stuff, where one measures as 1000, the other as 1024... but they try to market them as the same.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "240GB is a very close measure of the NET hard drive capacity you can use in SSDs. 250GB for HDD is basically a fictitious same NET hard drive capacity, only erroneously or falsely up-marked in capacity on the label by the manufacturer for marketing purposes. \n\nBoth hard drives have 256 GB in total theoretical space. \n\nAs what top-comment \"troycheek\" remarked: the missing 10-16 GB in space is reserved for buffer space or disk faults. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "50595",
"title": "Flash memory",
"section": "Section::::Capacity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 125,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 125,
"end_character": 522,
"text": "Consumer flash storage devices typically are advertised with usable sizes expressed as a small integer power of two (2, 4, 8, etc.) and a designation of megabytes (MB) or gigabytes (GB); e.g., 512 MB, 8 GB. This includes SSDs marketed as hard drive replacements, in accordance with traditional hard drives, which use decimal prefixes. Thus, an SSD marked as \"64 GB\" is at least bytes (64 GB). Most users will have slightly less capacity than this available for their files, due to the space taken by file system metadata.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13777",
"title": "Hard disk drive",
"section": "Section::::Competition from solid-state drives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 118,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 118,
"end_character": 1106,
"text": "HDDs are being superseded by SSDs in markets where their higher speed (up to 3500 megabytes per second for m.2 SSDs or 2500 megabytes per second for PCIe drives), ruggedness and lower power are more important than price since SSDs are still twice as expensive than an HDD of the same capacity. They also have a relatively short lifespan (Enterprise HDDs can be rated for up to 550TB of read and/or write endurance per year of warranty where as SSDs are usually not) and their performance drops over time, because NAND flash memory, on which most SSDs are based, degrades with every write operation. The lifespan or write endurance of SSDs is measured by either Terabytes Written (TBW) or Drive Writes Per Day (DWPD). In the case of the latter, if a 1 TB drive is rated for 1 DWPD, and the drive has a 1-year warranty, the Terabytes Written will be equal to 365. Some SSDs offer larger capacities (up to 100 TB) than the largest HDD and/or higher storage densities (100 TB and 30 TB SSDs are housed in 2.5 inch HDD cases but with the same height as a 3.5-inch HDD), although their cost remains prohibitive.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7366298",
"title": "Solid-state drive",
"section": "Section::::Development and history.:Flash-based SSDs.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "In 2016, Seagate demonstrated 10GB/S transfer speeds from a 16-lane PCIe SSD and also demonstrated a 60TB SSD in a 3.5-inch form factor. Samsung also launched to market a 15.36TB SSD with a price tag of US$10,000 using a SAS interface, using a 2.5-inch form factor but with the thickness of 3.5-inch drives. This was the first time a commercially available SSD had more capacity than the largest currently available HDD. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4329179",
"title": "Samsung Q1",
"section": "Section::::Variations.:Q1 series.:Samsung Q1 SSD.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "The SSD version is identical to the Q1 except that the 40 GB hard disk drive has been replaced by Samsung's 32 GB solid-state drive. At release, the SSD version was about twice as expensive as the normal Q1.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7366298",
"title": "Solid-state drive",
"section": "Section::::Comparison with other technologies.:Hard disk drives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 101,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 101,
"end_character": 574,
"text": "As with HDDs, there is a tradeoff between cost and performance of different SSDs. Single-level cell (SLC) SSDs, while significantly more expensive than multi-level (MLC) SSDs, offer a significant speed advantage. At the same time, DRAM-based solid-state storage is currently considered the fastest and most costly, with average response times of 10 microseconds instead of the average 100 microseconds of other SSDs. Enterprise flash devices (EFDs) are designed to handle the demands of tier-1 application with performance and response times similar to less-expensive SSDs.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17786592",
"title": "Acer Aspire One",
"section": "Section::::Storage.:Solid state drives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 56,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 56,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "The A110 model ships with an 8 GB or 16 GB solid-state drive (SSD), although some models do not come with one. Early 8 GB models come with the Intel Z-P230, model SSDPAMM0008G1. This SSD has been criticized for its slow read and write speed. Intel lists the drive's maximum speeds as 38 MB/s read and 10 MB/s write. Later models come with the slightly faster Samsung P-SSD 1800.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14069922",
"title": "Nanoionic device",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 445,
"text": "In 1976 the first Solid State Device or SSD was made by Dataram and could store up to 2 MB. The SSD did not become popular until 2001 when SSD the SSD industry its revenues reached $25 million a year and was listed on INC 500 fastest growing private companies. The reason for this slow growth was that SSD were expensive. In 1978 1 GB would have cost $1 million. Even in 2001, Adtron’s S35PC 3.5” SSD drive which had 14 GB storage cost $42,000.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
14g7ym | why do girls do the "duck face?" | [
{
"answer": "The ‘duck face’ started back when MySpace was still thriving, around the year of 2005. The face is also attributed to the ‘MySpace pics’ tren, which I think are now called ‘selfies’. Usually teenagers would set their profile picture to something they took in the bathroom mirror, or with their arm extended in front of them. The ‘duck face’ is similar to the ‘fish pout’ lip design that a lot of celebrities have, one of the more noted ones being [Angelina Jolie](_URL_0_). Girls thought this was cute, or cool, and tried to replicate it. Instead it usually comes off looking a little silly, as opposed to the cute/sexy effect they’re going for.\n\nIt’s basically the result of people trying to ‘fit in’ to trends. Not a lot of people realize that people like Angelina Jolie and Lindsay Lohan are made up to look the way they do. It became a thing because young women were trying to emulate something they thought was stylish, unaware of how the people they got it from actually made themselves look that way.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They're trying to attract ducks so they can kill them and cook them for dinner.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I like to think it started from Zoolander:\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Makes your face look slightly thinner, and thus more sexy so long as you aren't immediately put off by it. Also, it's more risk-free (esp. when drunk) than just acting happy if you want a uniform/reliable \"good look\" in your photos.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because they think they are making [\"kissyfaces\"](_URL_0_).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In addition to everything everyone else has said, it also accentuates girls' cheekbones, which is supposed to be sexy.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12292236",
"title": "Duck face",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "Duck face is a photographic pose, which is well known on profile pictures in social networks. Lips are pressed together as in a pout and often with simultaneously sucked in cheeks. The pose is most often seen as an attempt to appear alluring, but also as a self-deprecating, ironic gesture making fun of the pose. It may be associated with sympathy, attractiveness, friendliness or stupidity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "64276",
"title": "Maggie Simpson",
"section": "Section::::Character.:Creation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 623,
"text": "Groening thought that it would be funny to have a baby character that did not talk and never grew up, but was scripted to show any emotions that the scene required. Maggie's comedic hallmarks include her tendency to stumble and land on her face while attempting to walk, and a penchant for sucking on her pacifier, the sound of which has become the equivalent of her catchphrase and was originally created by Groening during the Tracey Ullman period. In the early seasons of the show, Maggie would suck her pacifier over other characters' dialogue, but this was discontinued because the producers found it too distracting.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4113553",
"title": "Little Bear (TV series)",
"section": "Section::::Characters.:Main.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 655,
"text": "BULLET::::- Duck (voiced by Tracy Ryan) is a female duck with yellow feathers, an orange beak and a long neck. Slow and smart at the same time, Duck is one who gets herself into comical situations. She lives in a nest, although in one episode, she expressed longing for a house and tried to live in a house boat. It floated downriver filled with frogs and Duck lived happily in her nest. She loves playing \"princess\" and pretend. She was hatched in a nest of chicks, because \"some eggs got mixed up\", and Little Bear taught her to fly when she was a duckling. She never has any ducklings of her own, but she is sometimes seen babysitting a group of them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20286795",
"title": "List of Tiny Toon Adventures characters",
"section": "Section::::Main characters.:Plucky Duck.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 772,
"text": "Plucky Duck (voiced by Joe Alaskey at his \"normal\" age and Nathan Ruegger as a baby) is a young, green male duck in a white tank top. Much like his \"Looney Tunes\" mentor Daffy Duck, he is portrayed as greedy, selfish, and egotistical, often engaging in various schemes with the goal of personal glory. However, Plucky does have moments of heroism and goodwill and is more often than not shown to care about his friends and value their feelings. Plucky is friends with Hamton J. Pig and Buster Bunny (although he frequently annoys Buster, again much like Daffy does with Bugs). Plucky constantly pines for the love of Shirley McLoon though she has extremely little patience for him. Also like Daffy Duck, Plucky is capable of flying with his wings but very rarely does so.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "14356",
"title": "Huey, Dewey, and Louie",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Character background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 945,
"text": "The three ducklings are noted for their identical appearances and personalities. A running joke involves the three sometimes even finishing each other's sentences. In the theatrical shorts, Huey, Dewey, and Louie often behave in a rambunctious and mischievous manner, and they sometimes commit retaliation or revenge on their uncle Donald Duck. In the comics, however, as developed by Al Taliaferro and Carl Barks, the young ducks are more usually portrayed as well-behaved, preferring to assist their uncle Donald Duck and great-uncle Scrooge McDuck in the adventure at hand. In the early Barks comics, the ducklings were still wild and unruly, but their character improved considerably due to their membership in the Junior Woodchucks and the good influence of their wise old great-grandmother Elvira Coot \"Grandma\" Duck. According to Don Rosa, Huey, Dewey and Louie became members of the Junior Woodchucks when they were around 11 years old.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1725213",
"title": "Queer Duck",
"section": "Section::::Characters.:Queer Duck.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "Queer Duck has cyan-colored feathers, a little spiky fringe, and may wear purple eye shadow. He wears a sleeveless rainbow top and, like almost everyone else in the series, does not wear trousers. This follows the tradition of semi-nudity of cartoon animals exemplified by Porky Pig, Donald Duck, Top Cat, etc. He is often shown to have two fingers and one thumb on each hand, though on occasion he has the three fingers and one thumb per hand that is typical of many contemporary cartoons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1496284",
"title": "Make Way for Ducklings",
"section": "Section::::Illustrations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 381,
"text": "The drawings of Boston represent a duck's eye view of the city. Each of the individual ducklings is \"bored, inquisitive, sleepy, or they are scratching, talking over their backs one to another, running to catch up with the line\". Children identify with the ducklings because they behave as children do. The comforting message shows parents as caretakers, protectors, and teachers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
10yocf | Do cardiac muscle cells die? | [
{
"answer": "[We used to think of cardiomyocytes as nondividing and persistent cells](_URL_0_):\n\n > For nearly a century, the general belief has been that the heart is a terminally differentiated post-mitotic organ in which the number of cardiomyocytes is established at birth with these cells persisting throughout the lifespan of the organ and organism. [...] Cardiomyocytes were deemed to live and function for nearly 100 years, or longer. Although unstated, the inevitable implication was that cardiomyocytes were judged to be immortal and to be killed only by pathologic processes occurring during the course of individuals’ lifespan.\n\nBut now that view is changing in light of new research:\n\n > A recent study, based on retrospective [14C] birth dating of cardiac cells, has suggested that ~1% and ~0.45% replacement of myocytes occurs annually in the adult human heart at 25 and 75 years of age, respectively. [...] In contrast to the [14C] study in which only 12 pathologic hearts were examined, we have analyzed 74 normal human hearts from 19 to 104 years of age and documented that myocyte turnover in the female heart occurs at a rate of 10%, 14%, and 40% per year at 20, 60 and 100 years of age, respectively.85 Corresponding values in the male heart are 7%, 12%, and 32% per year, demonstrating that cardiomyogenesis involves a large and progressively increasing number of cells with aging. From 20 to 100 years of age, the myocyte compartment is replaced 15 times in women and 11 times in men.\n\nTL;DR: Yes, cardiac muscle cells die, and get replaced by progenitor cells and cardiac stem cells. However, that replacement potential is limited, which is why cardiac disease such as myocardial infarctions have such severe consequences.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2252549",
"title": "Ventricular remodeling",
"section": "Section::::Pathophysiology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1081,
"text": "After a myocardial infarction (MI), cardiac myocyte death can be triggered by necrosis, apoptosis, or autophagy, leading to thinning of the cardiac wall. The surviving cardiac myocytes either arrange in parallel or in series to each other, contributing to ventricular dilatation or ventricular hypertrophy, depending on the loading stress on the ventricular wall. Besides, reduced expression of V1 mysoin and L-type calcium channels on cardiac myocytes are also thought to cause cardiac remodelling. Under normal body conditions, fatty acid accounts for 60 to 90% of the energy supply of the heart. Post MI, as fatty acid oxidation decreases, it leads to reduced energy supply for the cardiac myocytes, accumulation of fatty acids to toxic levels, and dysfunction of mitochondria. These consequences also led to the increase in oxidative stress on the heart, causing the proliferation of fibroblasts, activation of metalloproteinases, and induction of apoptosis, which would be explained below. Besides, inflammatory immune response after MI also contributes to the above changes.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "424348",
"title": "Cardiac muscle",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Histology.:Cardiac muscle cells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Cardiac muscle cells or cardiomyocytes are the contracting cells which allow the heart to pump. Each cardiomyocyte needs to contract in coordination with its neighbouring cells - known as a functional syncytium - working to efficiently pump blood from the heart, and if this coordination breaks down then – despite individual cells contracting – the heart may not pump at all, such as may occur during abnormal heart rhythms such as ventricular fibrillation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "424348",
"title": "Cardiac muscle",
"section": "Section::::Physiology.:Regeneration.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 664,
"text": "Until recently, it was commonly believed that cardiac muscle cells could not be regenerated. However, a study reported in the April 3, 2009 issue of \"Science\" contradicts that belief. Olaf Bergmann and his colleagues at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm tested samples of heart muscle from people born before 1955 who had very little cardiac muscle around their heart, many showing with disabilities from this abnormality. By using DNA samples from many hearts, the researchers estimated that a 4-year-old renews about 20% of heart muscle cells per year, and about 69 percent of the heart muscle cells of a 50-year-old were generated after he or she was born.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18560708",
"title": "Voodoo death",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:Modern explanations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Martin A. Samuels, MD, elaborates further on still another process of death, stating that with the release of adrenaline and an increased heart rate, sometimes catecholamines, stress hormones, will build up, leading to calcium channels opening and remaining open, resulting in an overflow of calcium into the system, killing off cells.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2040318",
"title": "Myosatellite cell",
"section": "Section::::Function.:Muscle repair.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 208,
"text": "Aged muscle cells in mammalian hearts constantly regenerate, albeit at a very low rate. Within 18 months around five percent of the heart muscle cells regenerated themselves originating from Sca-1 stem cells\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44464978",
"title": "Regeneration in humans",
"section": "Section::::Induced regeneration in humans.:Heart.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "Cardiac fibroblasts make up more than half of all heart cells and are usually not able to conduct contractions (are not cardiogenic), but those reprogrammed were able to contract spontaneously. The significance is that fibroblasts from the damaged heart or from elsewhere, may be a source of functional cardiomyocytes for regeneration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "605851",
"title": "Striated muscle tissue",
"section": "Section::::Damage repair.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 878,
"text": "Skeletal muscle is able to regenerate far better than cardiac muscle due to satellite cells, which are dormant in all healthy skeletal muscle tissue. There are three phases to the regeneration process. These phases include the inflammatory response, the activation, differentiation, and fusion of satellite cells, and the maturation and remodeling of newly formed myofibrils. This process begins with the necrosis of damaged muscle fibers, which in turn induces the inflammatory response. Macrophages induce phagocytosis of the cell debris. They will eventually secrete anti-inflammatory cytokines, which results in the termination of inflammation. These macrophages can also facilitate the proliferation and differentiation of satellite cells. The satellite cells re-enter the cell cycle to multiply. They then leave the cell cycle to self-renew or differentiate as myoblasts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
10hjf9 | Movies always make out ancient warriors to be these huge guys with huge muscles that you'd have to get in gyms. Basically what I'm asking is, on average how buff or big were spartan warriors or a knight in the crusades? | [
{
"answer": "I don't think they were heavily toned, ripped dudes. But like in the case of the Spartans, those guys trained from a young age to be warriors. I'm sure you build some serious muscle mass with that.\n\nIn the middle ages there were different kinds of soldiers. If you're talking fully suited knight on a warhorse. Consider the fact that the suit of armor quite heavy and holding yourself on a galloping hose probably isn't too easy. Then there's a nicely forged broadsword you gotta wield, yank it out of guys' chests, then lift it up and strike again. That takes a lot of strength. So I'm sure they had some serious muscle. But again, not ripped, but pretty huge...",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "You can get pretty ripped with a good diet and bodyweight exercises. I'm no historian so I can't say whether they did push ups or lifted weights or things like that. But it's possible to get pretty big. Although I'd be surprised if they got anywhere near body-builder status. That's just.....unnatural. *shudder*",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I would tend to think that they aren't going to look exactly like your typical gym rat since bodybuilders do a lot of ultra-specific stuff to get the ripped look they have. Having said that, what these guys did was pretty brutal and taxing so they where likely in good shape, but good *functional* shape which does not look the same as what a bodybuilder looks like in most cases. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They were indeed strong, but not with the sort of big bulky muscles Ahnold and his ilk have. Big muscles are developed through short movements such as lifting weights, which would have been seen as quite strange for a soldier of the past. Warriors had to be able to march for long distances bearing their combat load and then some, and still be able to fight at the end of the day. That sort of activity makes a body strong, but not with huge bulging muscles. Think of the difference between football and futbol players. The former can perform powerful actions, but typically over a shorter time span, while the latter can run around a field for 90 minutes straight. Both are powerful in their own right, but the wiry guy with the endurance is a closer somatotype to historical warriors.\n\nThe Greeks, since you mention the Spartans, have helpfully provided us with many examples of their warriors' body shape in the form of [statues](_URL_0_) and [muscle cuirasses](_URL_2_). As you can see in those examples, Grecian warriors were muscular, yet quite lean. \n\nThe Crusaders would have likely been primarily of the same body type, though I'm sure certain nobles and wealthy folk that were able to afford horses and didn't spend all of their free time fighting and training would be exceptions. Forensic analysis of medieval remains like [this poor chap here](_URL_3_) tells us that medieval knights were indeed quite strong. However, effigies like [these](_URL_1_), and there's hundreds more just like them, show us that the average knight was equally as lean as his ancient counterparts. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "_URL_0_ and _URL_1_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "For the most part, many of China's ancient warriors were peasants. Of course, standing armies did exist, and there were professional soldiers, but that grew over time, and in ancient times farmers and the like would have made up much of the army.\n\nNow then, many of these peasants would have been malnourished, and would have lived very difficult lives. But if you work all day, every day, cultivating the land, you end up being pretty strong, even if their muscles don't bulge out like they would after a serious workout.\n\nThe professional soldiers would spend much of their lives training, and would likely have a good physique as a result.\n\n(I know you didn't ask about China, but... hey! More knowledge.)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Not a historian, but calisthenics enthusiast here.\n\nThey wouldn't be *bodybuilder* big, but that's because bodybuilders use an assortment of isolation exercises to condition very specific muscle groups to hypertrophy (the science word for making muscles visibly bigger). This is why Arnold looks like Arnold; he makes (made) a living by working out muscles in a very specific, regimented manner to make as many muscles as possible *appear* as large as possible. So many isolation exercises are required that the ancient Spartans (or any other ancient warriors) would not have thought/not have the equipment/the will to work for appearance. This brings forth the second point that's important to make regarding ancient fitness vs. modern fitness:\n\n**SIZE =/= STRENGTH**\n\nConsider that, in ancient times, man did not have wide access to barbells, dumbells, etc., let alone modern fitness machines. They would have had to use the only real practical form of exercise known back then; calisthenics (i.e.: bodyweight training). Calisthenics, which relies on leveraging the body's weight to produce resistance, requires no equipment whatsoever. Unless an actual historian can prove me otherwise (in which case, please ignore the proceeding, as I am absolutely *not* a historical authority), it stands to reason that ancient warriors must have practiced this kind of training to improve their strength. Thus, even though they might *look* puny compared to Arnold, functionally speaking, they'd be much *stronger*.\n\nConsider the physical appearance of a *powerlifter* versus a *bodybuilder* (Mark Ripptoe vs. Arnold, sorry for lack of image links, I'm really tired, but a quick Google search should prove my point). You would think that Arnold could best Ripptoe in terms of pure strength, but you'd be wrong. Arnold has geared his body to *look* nice, rather than for pure strength. Ripptoe has developed his physique *as an indirect consequence of*, and not as a *direct result of*, working for real-world strength. This is the attitude the ancient warriors had, ''why would I work to *look* nice, while I could work towards getting better at functionally defending [era's nation here]?''\n\nWhich brings me back to the conclusion of this little tirade: assuming a lack of specialty equipment, the common warrior, regardless of era, should look like a gymnast, as they work nearly solely with their bodyweight for resistance, thus producing said look, appearance-wise. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "[Weight training is old](_URL_1_). Touring old castles and museums you see weight training gear.\n\nStanding armies tended to be smaller than they are now, but the soldiers would train (as they do now). \n\nWhile modern training techniques are almost certainly more efficient than medieval/ancient regimes, there was considerable incentive to have stronger soldiers. \n\nStronger soldiers can walk with heavier loads, wear heavier armour, wield heavier weapons, throw and shoot dangerous weapons further and more accurately. Where soldiering has some prestige or privilege, there would be a tendency for tall, muscular men to be chosen. \n\nBasic training often consisted of drill wielding heavy weapons and armour, and marching wearing armour, carrying weapons, and carrying the equivalent of up to ten days of food (not modern dried food; heavy old food). Soldiers have always been required to do labour (building impromptu fortifications, shifting heavy weapons, etc.). The work of soldiering, in a serious army, would resemble heavy labour. \n\nMost men will get quite muscular if they work hard for a few hours every day. Some will get ripped. \n\nAll up, you could expect pre-modern soldiers in a standing army to be taller than average, and quite muscular. Some will be really quite ripped. This will be much more the case for elite units. \n\nSource: Lots of reading, but [this](_URL_0_) more recently than anything else.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "There was a similar discussion here: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As a lot of of folks here have already pointed out, training for war tends to favor stamina and overall fitness over pure bulk, which bodybuilders shoot for. Even if a knight of the crusades traveled on horseback, and bore heavy arms and armor, his physique would tend towards toned rather than bulky musculature. \n\nConsider: riding on horseback for many miles a day is easier than marching on foot for that distance (if that distance is even possible on foot), but still requires an enormous amount of cardiovascular stamina. In addition, as many bodybuilders can tell you, lifting a lighter weight for many repetitions builds tone; heavier weight at fewer repetitions builds bulk. Medieval armor and weaponry is not quite as heavy as many people imagine: the combat armor and guns that infantry carry today is often heavier than ancient weaponry. Battles could last for hours, and would require many lifts, swings, etc. of shield and sword (or axe, or mace, or whichever you prefer.) Ditto for fighting in phalanxes, as the Spartans did.\n\n**However.** I am not a professional historian, merely a hobbyist, but I believe that if you are looking for stereotypically bulky/buff warriors, you can find examples. More specifically, Welsh/English longbowmen needed incredible upper body strength; some estimates put the draw strength of a warbow at upwards of 120 pounds (estimates of draw strength are still [controversial](_URL_0_)). The practice of \"bending\" rather than \"drawing\" such bows also means that the entire upper body would have to be quite strong, including the muscles of the chest and back, which are often especially favored by modern amateur bodybuilders (professionals don't skip leg day!). Even so, there would be no reason to isolate specific muscles, as bodybuilders do, so it is debatable how \"ripped\" such soldiers would be, even if they were quite broad, so to speak. Hope this helps!",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People who are very muscular spend all their time working to get those particular muscles, in particular areas of their body for show, not for practical usage.\n\nWarriors spent all their time practicing how to fight and kill people. They most likely had toned muscles, good physiques, stamina and perhaps a totally righteous set of abs, yo, but that was a side-effect of training, rather than the end result.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "When I was excavating a Roman-age Danish sacrificed army, all bones were very solid, with very pronounced muscle attachment, some even with extra bone growth around the biceps tendon attachment on the humerus. This would suggest that these guys, at least, would have been quite Arnoldesque. This is confirmed with warrior burials in Denmark, which also show much more muscular physiques than the average person from the same period.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "If you take a look art ancient statues they seemed in pretty good shape. Idealised, perhaps, but an ideal that wasn't just invented from whole cloth. And if you take a look at a statue like the [**Boxer of Quirinal**](_URL_0_), which has cauliflower ears, scars and blood that demonstrate a serious effort at realism, then it suggests that professionals could be quite well-muscled.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I remember seeing an article somewhere related to Spartacus:Blood And Sand that talked about how actual gladiators would've likely had a decent layer of fat due to the type of food they would've had access to (mostly grain/bread/etc) and that the layer of fat would actually serve good purpose in keeping them alive as a slice through fat isn't nearly as bad as a slide right into your organs.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "253655",
"title": "Sword-and-sandal",
"section": "Section::::Genre characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "As Robert Rushing defines it, peplum, \"in its most stereotypical form, [...] depicts muscle-bound heroes (professional bodybuilders, athletes, wrestlers, or brawny actors) in mythological antiquity, fighting fantastic monsters and saving scantily clad beauties. Rather than lavish epics set in the classical world, they are low-budget films that focus on the hero's extraordinary body.\" Thus, most sword-and-sandal films featured a superhumanly strong man as the protagonist, such as Hercules, Samson, Goliath, Ursus or Italy's own popular folk hero Maciste. In addition, the plots typically involved two women vying for the affection of the bodybuilder hero: the good love interest (a damsel in distress needing rescue), and an evil femme fatale queen who sought to dominate the hero.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2784104",
"title": "Doga (comics)",
"section": "Section::::Origin.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "BULLET::::7. His physical powers are the result of extremely rigorous workouts in gym, unlike other super-heroes who have special superpowers ( for example- Parmanu, who relies on advanced science for his atomic superpower or Shakti who has goddess-like superpowers). He has even fought Kobi, a wolf-like superhero, who is much taller and stronger than him. He is the strongest superhero, if special powers aren't considered.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5415102",
"title": "Grippli",
"section": "Section::::Ecology.:Typical physical characteristics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "The average grippli stands two and a half feet high and weighs 25–30 pounds, although particularly ancient warriors may have twice that height, with an equivalent increase in mass. Their bodies are essentially identical to frogs, but they have humanoid hands and prehensile feet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21077721",
"title": "The Legend of Brown Sugar Chivalries",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 283,
"text": "In the world of martial arts, there have been legends of many powerful warriors. The strongest to ever walk the Earth are West Side Principal, Chou Da Tong, Tian Shan Tong Lao, and the villain Dongfang Bu Bai, who engaged in a sex change in order to enhance his martial arts skills.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "946574",
"title": "Strength athletics",
"section": "Section::::History.:Origins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 650,
"text": "The origin of strength athletics lies within prehistory. Testing each other in feats of physical prowess has been something humans have done throughout their existence. This is encapsulated in the modern Olympic motto of \"Swifter, higher, stronger\". There are records in many civilizations of feats of strength performed by great heroes, mythological or otherwise. In ancient western culture Greek heroes such as Heracles are blessed with great strength. In the Bible, figures with exceptional physical strength are described such as Samson and Goliath. Man's obsession with those who possess extraordinary strength is an ancient and persistent one.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25156493",
"title": "List of Daredevil enemies",
"section": "Section::::E.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 278,
"text": "BULLET::::- Enforcers - A group of non super powered thugs who originally are enemies of Spider-Man. Although they technically have no super powers, they are formidable fighters, so athletic and skilled that their fighting prowess is almost as good as if they had super powers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3615741",
"title": "Fighter (Dungeons & Dragons)",
"section": "Section::::Publication history.:\"Advanced Dungeons & Dragons\" 2nd edition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "The fighter, as part of the \"warrior\" group, was one of the standard character classes available in the second edition \"Player's Handbook\". The second edition \"Player's Handbook\" gives several examples of famous fighters from legend: Hercules, Perseus, Hiawatha, Beowulf, Siegfried, Cuchulain, Little John, Tristan, and Sinbad. The book also cites a number of great generals and warriors: El Cid, Hannibal, Alexander the Great, Charlemagne, Spartacus, Richard the Lionheart, and Belisarius.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2wfdcs | what income groups does a sales tax impact more? | [
{
"answer": "Sales tax influences the poor people more.\n\nAn item worth $100 is 10% month's salary of a person earning $1,000/month; it is 1% of someone earning $10,000.\n\nRaising the price by $1 (however that is done, in this case a 1% sales tax), and the added cost is 1% of the former, but only 0.1% of the latter person.\n\nAn income tax of 1% otoh would cost both that 1% of their income; that is $1 for the former, and $10 for the latter. That is what is usually considered \"taxed the same rate\".",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "He's a jackass, sales tax impacts lower income brackets more. Think of it. Like this. Say you make 12 dollars an hour, after tax you take home 10 dollars (simple numbers to make this easy). So if there is something you want that costs 100$,it would take 10 hours of work to pay for it, but if they add another 10$ in sales tax, you have to work an extra hour to get it. But someone who makes 100$ an hour after tax, that additional 10$ sales tax isn't going to bother him, because that is just another 6min of work. Sorry for formatting, I'm on mobile. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lower groups because a sales tax is a tax on money you spend.\n\nLower income groups have to spend a higher percentage of their income than higher income people so sales taxes would impact them more.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "32022",
"title": "Economy of the United States",
"section": "Section::::Income and wealth.:Income inequality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "The top 1 percent of income-earners accounted for 52 percent of the income gains from 2009 to 2015, where income is defined as market income excluding government transfers, while their share of total income has more than doubled from 9 percent in 1976 to 20 percent in 2011. According to a 2014 OECD report, 80% of total pre-tax market income income growth went to the top 10% from 1975 to 2007.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33544825",
"title": "Tax policy and economic inequality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 571,
"text": "Tax expenditures (i.e., deductions, exemptions, and preferential tax rates) represent a major driver of inequality, as the top 20% get roughly 50% of the benefit from them, with the top 1% getting 17% of the benefit. For example, a 2011 Congressional Research Service report stated, \"Changes in capital gains and dividends were the largest contributor to the increase in the overall income inequality.\" CBO estimated tax expenditures would be $1.5 trillion in fiscal year 2017, approximately 8% GDP; for scale, the budget deficit historically has averaged around 3% GDP.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11932504",
"title": "Income inequality in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 863,
"text": "CBO reported in November 2018 that all income groups significantly increased both their pre-tax and after-tax income from 1979 to 2015 in real terms (i.e., adjusted for inflation). For example, income after transfers and taxes was up 103% for the highest income quintile, 79% for the lowest income quintile, and 46% for the middle three quintiles measured together (21st to 80th percentiles). CBO also reported that the middle quintile (40th to 60th percentile) households, a proxy for the middle-class, earned an average of $58,500 in market income during 2015, representing a 12% share of the total market income. At the 1979 share of 16%, this figure would be $78,000 or $19,500 higher. After taxes and transfers, these middle-class households earned an average of $64,700, a 15% share. At the 1979 share of 16%, this figure would be $69,000 or $4,300 higher.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30547604",
"title": "Tax expenditure",
"section": "Section::::The effect of tax expenditures.:Distribution of benefits in U.S..\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "CBO reported in January 2016 that: \"Tax expenditures are distributed unevenly across the income scale. When measured in dollars, much more of the tax expenditures go to higher-income households than to lower-income households. As a percentage of people’s income, tax expenditures are greater for the highest-income and lowest-income households than for\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "534060",
"title": "FairTax",
"section": "Section::::Tax rate.:Presentation of tax rate.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 786,
"text": "Sales and income taxes behave differently due to differing definitions of tax base, which can make comparisons between the two confusing. Under the existing individual income plus employment (Social Security; Medicare; Medicaid) tax formula, taxes to be paid are included in the base on which the tax rate is imposed (known as \"tax-inclusive\"). If an individual's gross income is $100 and the sum of their income plus employment tax rate is 23%, taxes owed equals $23. Traditional state sales taxes are imposed on a tax base equal to the pre-tax portion of a good's price (known as \"tax-exclusive\"). A good priced at $77 with a 30% sales tax rate yields $23 in taxes owed. To adjust an inclusive rate to an exclusive rate, divide the given rate by one minus that rate (i.e. formula_1).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10712",
"title": "Economy of Finland",
"section": "Section::::Taxation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1161,
"text": "The middle income worker's tax wedge is 46% and effective marginal tax rates are very high. Value-added tax is 24% for most items. Capital gains tax is 30-34% and corporate tax is 20%, about the EU median. Property taxes are low, but there is a transfer tax (1.6% for apartments or 4% for individual houses) for home buyers. There are high excise taxes on alcoholic beverages, tobacco, automobiles and motorcycles, motor fuels, lotteries, sweets and insurances. For instance, McKinsey estimates that a worker has to pay around 1600 euro for another's 400 euro service - restricting service supply and demand - though some taxation is avoided in the black market and self-service culture. Another study by Karlson, Johansson & Johnsson estimates that the percentage of the buyer’s income entering the service vendor’s wallet (inverted tax wedge) is slightly over 15%, compared to 10% in Belgium, 25% in France, 40% in Switzerland and 50% in the United States. Tax cuts have been in every post-depression government's agenda and the overall tax burden is now around 43% of GDP compared to 51.1% in Sweden, 34.7% in Germany, 33.5% in Canada, and 30.5% in Ireland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57418743",
"title": "Taxation in Turkey",
"section": "Section::::Taxes.:Income taxes.:Individual income tax.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 204,
"text": "The subject of individual income tax is the real people. The meaning of income is the net amount of revenues derived by a person within a year. According to Income Tax Law, incomes may be listed such as:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2wtklv | Why were the Germans in WWII so much more scared to surrender to the Soviets? | [
{
"answer": "They were taught, brainwashed, in to believing that the soviets were sub-human savages. Barbarians. They put out a lot of propaganda about Russian soldiers raping and pillaging and ignoring laws in order to improve the moral while fighting them.\nBut it worked so well that many of them genuinely believed it. Maybe they were right in some cases, too. They thought they'd be tortured and executed by the Soviets immediately. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Well in addition to any brainwashing there is the simple fact that Germany slashed and burned their way into Russia. Tens of millions had died and many homes and cities were destroyed. Germans feared reprisal for their own conquests and actions. The allies on the other hand, led primarily by America and Britain hadn't faced the same level of destruction ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "28552142",
"title": "Mass suicides in 1945 Nazi Germany",
"section": "Section::::Overview.:Reasons.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "There were several reasons some Germans decided to end their lives in the last months of the war. First, by 1945, Nazi propaganda had created fear among some sections of the population about the impending military invasion of their country by the Soviets or Western Allies. Information films from the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda repeatedly chided audiences about why Germany must not surrender, telling the people they faced the threat of torture, rape, and death in defeat. These fears were not groundless, as many Germans were raped, mostly by Soviet soldiers, although many by Western Allied soldiers also. The number of rapes is disputed, but was certainly considerable – hundreds of thousands of incidents, according to most Western historians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "415242",
"title": "Unconditional surrender",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:World War II.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 396,
"text": "One reason for the policy was that the Allies wished to avoid a repetition of the stab-in-the-back myth that arose in Germany after World War I, which attributed Germany's loss to betrayal by Jews, Bolsheviks, and Socialists. The myth was used by the Nazis in their propaganda. It was felt that an unconditional surrender would ensure that the Germans knew that they had lost the war themselves.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4891298",
"title": "Soviet–Japanese War",
"section": "Section::::Background and buildup.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 1781,
"text": "On 9 May 1945 (Moscow time), Germany surrendered, meaning that if the Soviets were to honour the Yalta agreement, they would need to enter war with Japan by 9 August 1945. The situation continued to deteriorate for the Japanese, and they were now the only Axis power left in the war. They were keen to remain at peace with the Soviets and extend the Neutrality Pact, and they were also keen to achieve an end to the war. Since Yalta they had repeatedly approached, or tried to approach, the Soviets in order to extend the Neutrality Pact, and to enlist the Soviets in negotiating peace with the Allies. The Soviets did nothing to discourage these Japanese hopes, and drew the process out as long as possible (whilst continuing to prepare their invasion forces.) One of the roles of the Cabinet of Admiral Baron Suzuki, which took office in April 1945, was to try to secure any peace terms short of unconditional surrender. In late June, they approached the Soviets (the Neutrality Pact was still in place), inviting them to negotiate peace with the Allies in support of Japan, providing them with specific proposals and in return they offered the Soviets very attractive territorial concessions. Stalin expressed interest, and the Japanese awaited the Soviet response. The Soviets continued to avoid providing a response. The Potsdam Conference was held from 16 July to 2 August 1945. On 24 July the Soviet Union recalled all embassy staff and families from Japan. On 26 July the conference produced the Potsdam Declaration whereby Churchill, Harry S. Truman and Chiang Kai-shek (the Soviet Union was not officially at war with Japan) demanded the unconditional surrender of Japan. The Japanese continued to wait for the Soviet response, and avoided responding to the declaration.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49995865",
"title": "Proud Prophet",
"section": "Section::::Lead-up to Proud Prophet.:KAL-007.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 1962,
"text": "The Soviet Union lived in significant fear of a possible World War Three, and because of this, tended to have a hair trigger when it came to reacting to an event. Hence, the threat of a nuclear war was a very real possibility, even if the reasons behind it are misunderstood. The Soviet Union was ready to go at any time, especially after being scared many times for smaller reasons. On the night of September 1, 1983, a civilian Boeing 747 en route to South Korea passed into Soviet airspace near the Siberian coast. A Sukhoi Su-15 interceptor aircraft piloted by Gennadi Osipovich targeted the civilian aircraft and shot it down with two missiles. The Soviets claimed that they knew it was a civilian aircraft, however, they said it would be very easy to convert a civilian aircraft into an intelligence gathering platform. The Soviets claimed they believed they had a justification to shoot down this aircraft because they perceived it to be a hostile intruder. There was one American on board, Larry McDonald who was a United States House of Representative member. Oleg Gordievsky believes that the Soviet Union mistook the civilian airliner to be a United States Boeing RC-135, which is a reconnaissance gathering aircraft which looks very similar to a Boeing 747 due to the fact that it has four engines and a wide body similar to the airliner. This is refuted by the pilots of the attacking Soviet aircraft claiming that he knew it was a civilian jet, but he shot it down anyway because it could have been easily converted for reconnaissance. The attitude of the Soviets towards anything that might be perceived as a threat was devolving more and more towards a 'shoot first, ask questions later' mentality. While it may have been uncalled for, Soviets were on edge about everything at this point. This would prove to be incredibly dangerous in the impending strategic nuclear war exercises about to be conducted by the United States and its NATO allies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "342641",
"title": "Pacific War",
"section": "Section::::Final stages.:Soviet re-entry.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 178,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 178,
"end_character": 357,
"text": "In February 1945 during the Yalta Conference the Soviet Union had agreed to enter the war against Japan 90 days after the surrender of Germany. At the time Soviet participation was seen as crucial to tie down the large number Japanese forces in Manchuria and Korea, keeping them from being transferred to the Home Islands to mount a defense to an invasion.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4284",
"title": "Battle of Stalingrad",
"section": "Section::::End of the battle.:Soviet victory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 98,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 98,
"end_character": 1011,
"text": "The Germans were now not only starving, but running out of ammunition. Nevertheless, they continued to resist, in part because they believed the Soviets would execute any who surrendered. In particular, the so-called \"HiWis\", Soviet citizens fighting for the Germans, had no illusions about their fate if captured. The Soviets were initially surprised by the number of Germans they had trapped, and had to reinforce their encircling troops. Bloody urban warfare began again in Stalingrad, but this time it was the Germans who were pushed back to the banks of the Volga. The Germans adopted a simple defense of fixing wire nets over all windows to protect themselves from grenades. The Soviets responded by fixing fish hooks to the grenades so they stuck to the nets when thrown. The Germans had no usable tanks in the city, and those that still functioned could, at best, be used as makeshift pillboxes. The Soviets did not bother employing tanks in areas where the urban destruction restricted their mobility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1905375",
"title": "Operation Unthinkable",
"section": "Section::::Operations.:Offensive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 447,
"text": "The chiefs of staff were concerned that given the enormous size of Soviet forces deployed in Europe at the end of the war, and the perception that the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin was unreliable, there existed a Soviet threat to Western Europe. The Soviet Union had yet to launch its attack on Japanese forces, and so one assumption in the report was that the Soviet Union would instead ally with Japan if the Western Allies commenced hostilities.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2f54np | why can't people remember correct spellings of common words? | [
{
"answer": "I type reasonably fast, frequently my misspellings are when I am thinking of the right word but I type a homonym or I start to type one word like pay and then swap what I want to say to use paid mid-word and just add the typical past tens suffix. \n\nEdit: I've been a fast reader for several decades and read mostly from context so I'm terrible at proof reading. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "As for how some people get through school and presumably live full and happy lives without ever learning how to properly spell... or form a coherent sentence.. or use proper punctuation... I have no freaking idea.\n\nHowever, specifically regarding the prevalence of misspellings on the Internet, it seems to me that as keyboards have made it easier and quicker to type, they have likewise made it easier and quicker for us to typo (for instance, imagine accidentally misspelling a word that you *know how to spell*. You can't do it on paper!) ^^Well ^^I ^^guess ^^you ^^could ^^but ^^it ^^would ^^be ^^silly ^^and ^^embarrassing , and the speed with which they work means we don't have time to watch over our words as we write them, leading to more and grosser misspellings going unnoticed or disregarded.",
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"answer": "I'm not actually thinking in letters as I type this. I, and to my knowledge most people, think verbally. that is, to my own experience, I am dictating this in my head. some other process then translates the result into written words. \n\nas with all human thought, the process operates heuristically. it wants rule to follow and execute. \"paid\" is really weird. i mean \"I *paid* to go to the park where I *stayed* all day and *played*\" clearly it's the odd man out. so our little stenographer goofs up.\n\nmost of the stuff you see on the web has also been through spell check. \"payed\" happens to also be a word. this is the same reason why \"your/you're\" and \"there/their/they're\" get messed up. it's also why most gaming chat is borderline incomprehensible to the uninitiated.",
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"answer": "I'm one of the worst people for doing this, I've been medically diagnosed with dyslexia in grade 3, even had to look up the word (diagnosed) even for this comment, I find it very hard and frustrating to try and remember the correct spelling of commonly used words. Not that this really answers your question but that's my two cents on it. or should I say my too cents ;) ",
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"answer": "Some people do have genuine issues, such as dyslexia, that make consistent, correct spelling much more difficult. \n\nFor those who do not have such issues, it could just as easily be carelessness or laziness as a lack of education. It could also simply be a matter of people wanting to get their idea typed out as quickly as possible. \n\n > Even if it were the fault of the Internet, wouldn't spell-check reinforce correct spelling? \n\nI would argue that spellcheckers and/or predictive text make correct spelling LESS likely in some cases, as people come to rely on them. In particular, someone who accustomed to relying on a checker as a crutch will likely have problems when using an interface that does not have a spellchecker available. \n\nAlso, as the saying goes, \"a spellchecker is never enough.\" The checker doesn't do you much good when it comes to the matter of words that people commonly confuse -- some of the more common/egregious issues that I have seen people screw up, both online and offline, are with words such as there/their/they're, its/it's, breath/breathe, loose/lose, and lightning/lightening (the former is a bolt of electricity; the latter is not). All of those examples would be considered \"correct\" by a spellchecker that does not take grammar into account.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "670",
"title": "Alphabet",
"section": "Section::::Orthography and pronunciation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 638,
"text": "At the other extreme are languages such as English, where the pronunciations of many words simply have to be memorized as they do not correspond to the spelling in a consistent way. For English, this is partly because the Great Vowel Shift occurred after the orthography was established, and because English has acquired a large number of loanwords at different times, retaining their original spelling at varying levels. Even English has general, albeit complex, rules that predict pronunciation from spelling, and these rules are successful most of the time; rules to predict spelling from the pronunciation have a higher failure rate.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10415501",
"title": "Spelling test",
"section": "Section::::Preparing for a Spelling Test.:Making mnemonics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 615,
"text": "One of the most effective ways to memorize spellings is to make up mnemonics to help remember them. A mnemonic is a memory trick which associates the thing that is to be remembered with something else to make it easier. For spelling, it can be the exaggerated pronunciation of a word, like \"indepenDENT\". Or it might be a silly sentence or visual image to help remember the word, like \"the independents all dented their cars with sledgehammers\". Or it might describe a key aspect of a word to help remember it, like \"all the vowels in \"cemetery\" are the same: three little \"e's\", each on its own little tombstone.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "156920",
"title": "Spelling reform",
"section": "Section::::Arguments for reform.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 1288,
"text": "People who use non-standard spelling often suffer from adverse opinions, as a person's mastery of standard spelling is often equated to his or her level of formal education or intelligence. Spelling is easier in languages with more or less consistent spelling systems such as Finnish, Serbian, Italian and Spanish, owing to the fact that, either, pronunciation in these languages has changed relatively little since the initial establishment of their spellings systems, or else that \"non-phonemic etymological\" spellings have been replaced with \"phonemic unetymological\" spellings as pronunciation changes. Predicting spelling is more difficult in languages in which pronunciation has changed significantly since the spelling was fixed, thus yielding a \"non-phonetic etymological\" spelling system such as Irish or French. These spelling systems are still 'phonemic' (rather than 'phonetic') since the pronunciation of a word can be systematically derived from the spelling, although the converse (i.e. spelling from pronunciation) may not be possible. English is an extreme example of a defective orthography in which the spelling cannot be systematically derived from pronunciation but also has the more unusual problem that pronunciation cannot be systematically derived from spelling.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1850719",
"title": "Controlled vocabulary",
"section": "Section::::Indexing languages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 231,
"text": "In some cases controlled vocabulary can enhance recall as well, because unlike natural language schemes, once the correct authorized term is searched, there is no need to search for other terms that might be synonyms of that term.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "525193",
"title": "Spelling pronunciation",
"section": "Section::::Prevalence and causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 704,
"text": "A large number of easily noticeable spelling pronunciations occurs only in languages such as French and English in which spelling tends to not indicate the current pronunciation. Because all languages have at least some words which are not spelled as pronounced, even those such as Finnish with most words being written phonetically, spelling pronunciations can arise in any language in which most people obtain only enough education to learn how to read and write but not enough to understand when the spelling fails to indicate the modern pronunciation. In other words, when many people do not clearly understand the relationship between spelling and pronunciation, spelling pronunciations are common.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49783",
"title": "Reading education in the United States",
"section": "Section::::Alphabetic principle and English orthography.:Augmenting spelling with pronunciation information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 428,
"text": "Unlike spelling reforms, we can actually keep a word's original spelling intact but add pronunciation information to it, e.g. using diacritics. Phonetically Intuitive English is a Chrome browser extension that automatically adds such a pronunciation guide to English words on Web pages, for English-speaking children to recognize a written word's pronunciation and therefore map the written word to the mental word in his mind.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4127727",
"title": "Pronunciation respelling for English",
"section": "Section::::Development and use.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 629,
"text": "Pronunciation respelling systems for English have been developed primarily for use in dictionaries. They are used there because it is not possible to predict with certainty the sound of a written English word from its spelling or the spelling of a spoken English word from its sound. So readers looking up an unfamiliar word in a dictionary may find, on seeing the pronunciation respelling, that the word is in fact already known to them orally. By the same token, those who hear an unfamiliar spoken word may see several possible matches in a dictionary and must rely on the pronunciation respellings to find the correct match.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
vy5pn | How do we know that physical constants such as G, C, etc. have not slowly change over time? | [
{
"answer": "Because if they did it would have measureable effects that we can observe. We know, for example, that the gravitational constant varies by less than a few parts per trillion yearly. [link](_URL_0_)",
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"answer": "BLO got downvoted pretty hard for this, but in a certain sense he's right. We can put limits on our understanding, as iorgfeflkd pointed out. If they differed by more than a certain amount, our instruments would be able to detect this. As our instruments get better and better, we continue to find that the fundamental constants are constant. (And theoretically, we have good reason to suspect that constants are, in fact, constant.)\n\n",
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"answer": "Just as an example, α, the [fine-structure constant](_URL_0_), which has been puzzling theoretical physicists for quite some time for completely separate reasons, may not really be constant at all. As you can see in the section on that linked Wikipedia article, [*Is the fine-structure constant really constant?*](_URL_0_#Is_the_fine-structure_constant_actually_constant.3F), the answer to your question is we don't really know. Reading through the section, you can see that numerous experiments have been done through the years, but none are particularly conclusive.\n\nSo for now, we assume constants are constant, unless proved otherwise.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1267762",
"title": "Variable speed of light",
"section": "Section::::Relation to other constants and their variation.:Gravitational constant \"G\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 361,
"text": "In 1937, Paul Dirac and others began investigating the consequences of natural constants changing with time. For example, Dirac proposed a change of only 5 parts in 10 per year of Newton's constant \"G\" to explain the relative weakness of the gravitational force compared to other fundamental forces. This has become known as the Dirac large numbers hypothesis.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "49295",
"title": "Fine-structure constant",
"section": "Section::::Is the fine-structure constant actually constant?\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 51,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 51,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Physicists have pondered whether the fine-structure constant is in fact constant, or whether its value differs by location and over time. A varying has been proposed as a way of solving problems in cosmology and astrophysics. String theory and other proposals for going beyond the Standard Model of particle physics have led to theoretical interest in whether the accepted physical constants (not just ) actually vary.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "23205",
"title": "Physical constant",
"section": "Section::::Tests on time-independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Paul Dirac in 1937 speculated that physical constants such as the gravitational constant or the fine-structure constant might be subject to change over time in proportion of the age of the universe. Experiments can in principle only put an upper bound on the relative change per year. For the fine-structure constant, this upper bound is comparatively low, at\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "23205",
"title": "Physical constant",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 389,
"text": "Physical constant in the sense under discussion in this article should not be confused with other quantities called \"constants\" that are assumed to be constant in a given context without the implication that they are fundamental, such as the \"time constant\" characteristic of a given system, or material constants, such as the Madelung constant, electrical resistivity, and heat capacity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33710707",
"title": "Planck units",
"section": "Section::::Planck units and the invariant scaling of nature.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 76,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 76,
"end_character": 1089,
"text": "Some theorists (such as Dirac and Milne) have proposed cosmologies that conjecture that physical \"constants\" might actually change over time (e.g. a variable speed of light or Dirac varying-\"G\" theory). Such cosmologies have not gained mainstream acceptance and yet there is still considerable scientific interest in the possibility that physical \"constants\" might change, although such propositions introduce difficult questions. Perhaps the first question to address is: How would such a change make a noticeable operational difference in physical measurement or, more fundamentally, our perception of reality? If some particular physical constant had changed, how would we notice it, or how would physical reality be different? Which changed constants result in a meaningful and measurable difference in physical reality? If a physical constant that is not dimensionless, such as the speed of light, \"did\" in fact change, would we be able to notice it or measure it unambiguously? – a question examined by Michael Duff in his paper \"Comment on time-variation of fundamental constants\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23205",
"title": "Physical constant",
"section": "Section::::Tests on time-independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "By definition, fundamental physical constants are subject to measurement, so that their being constant (independent on both the time and position of the performance of the measurement) is necessarily an experimental result and subject to verification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "244611",
"title": "Newton's law of universal gravitation",
"section": "Section::::Modern form.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 580,
"text": "The value of the constant \"G\" was first accurately determined from the results of the Cavendish experiment conducted by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798, although Cavendish did not himself calculate a numerical value for \"G\". This experiment was also the first test of Newton's theory of gravitation between masses in the laboratory. It took place 111 years after the publication of Newton's \"Principia\" and 71 years after Newton's death, so none of Newton's calculations could use the value of \"G\"; instead he could only calculate a force relative to another force.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
2fjsw2 | why is a bullet so deadly? | [
{
"answer": "large force and velocity",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The bullet moves very fast, and though it only leaves a small hole, the shockwave disrupts and destroys a lot of tissue.\n\nLook at the various films where people shoot melons. These melons explode in all directions. Imagine flesh being subjected to those forces.",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Kinetic energy. The impact can stop your heart. some bullets produce shrapnel or mushroom out to a larger size. You die from internal bleeding because you cannot stop it like a cut on your skin. ",
"provenance": null
},
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"answer": "Because of a few things, depending on where they were shot.\n\nIf they were shot in the head, they die instantly because there are no more signals to send to the heart to beat, to the lungs to breathe, or any other part to do anything else. This is instantaneous (most of the time)\n\nIf they are shot in the heart, they don't die instantly, instead they go into shock from the pain and damage and can't move because of such. And lie there until they bleed out and the brain is slowly deprived of oxygen. This can take from a second to a minute, but the person generally isn't conscious for the entire time.\n\nIf they are shot in the gut, they don't die instantly, or even quickly, it's slow. It tears open blood vessels, the stomach, intestines, maybe the liver. And all the bacteria cause an infection, that can leave them in agony for hours, days, sometimes weeks.\n\nIf they are shot almost anywhere else, it's generally not as bad. Shoulders, thighs, etc are pretty bad because of the major blood vessels that run through them, meaning the person can bleed out, but other than that, people can often survive.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Human bodies aren't designed to have small pieces of metal rocketing through their internal organs, unfortunately. If an essential organ is damaged by a bullet, it will cease to function, either due to blood loss or because it's fucked up beyond repair. Without that essential organ, the others fail one after the next and just like that, you're dead.\n\nTo really explain it like you're five, imagine your body is a train set, which makes your blood the train and your organs the stations. Getting shot is like having a piece of the track taken out.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "People don't die instantly when shot. That's Hollywood, not real life.\n\nHandguns are actually pretty poor at killing people. If you get shot by a handgun and don't receive treatment you'll die, sure, but unless major blood bearing organs are significantly ruptured, cause of death will be from blood loss or sepsis well after the initial gun shot wound.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "It's all about energy, which is a calculation of mass and speed. A grain of rice will kill the hell out of you if it's traveling fast enough when it hits you. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It doesn't take much to bleed out if hit in an artery and no immediate aid is rendered. I've seen someone killed from a .22 caliber round which struck their femoral artery (I am a paramedic).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "First of all, think about the difference between a car crashing into a brick wall and a car being stopped by a large pile of hay. The car stops in both situations, so why is one more harmful to the car?\n\nThe brick wall stops the car much more quickly, so it is experiencing the same amount of stopping force but in a much smaller time frame. Therefore, more force per second.\n\nAlso, think about about a balloon. Why is it easier to to pop it with a small pin than, say, a large block, applying the same amount of force? The balloon is experiencing the same amount of force in a much more concentrated area.\n\nA bullet hits you really fast, and all its force is applied in such a small area, instead of it being spread out over a larger area and a longer time.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "TL;DR Physics is a bitch.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Kinetic energy.\n\nPut a bullet on a stick, then push it slowly through a body. Unless you happen to pierce a major artery or the heart, the chances of killing the person are slim (BTW, arrows are not NEARLY as lethal as pictured in the movies, and for precisely this reason).\n\nBut bullets have kinetic energy, which is given by KE = 1/2 MV^2, or mass times the velocity squared. So double the velocity, you get four times the energy.\n\nWhen something with that much energy enters the body, it transfers somewhere between a little and all of that energy to the surrounding tissue, and that energy transfer is like a little explosion, and can easily turn your guts into chunky salsa. Blood vessels that are not in the direct path of the bullet can be blown open. Organs get ruptured. It's generally a mess.\n\nAt MUCH higher kinetic energies, things get insane even for teensy objects. On one Space Shuttle mission, one of their windows was hit by a *paint chip* traveling at about 20,000 miles an hour. It left a hole in the window that looked like somebody had shot a glass window with a BB. If that had been a fair-sized steel bolt instead, it would have surely destroyed the shuttle.\n\nCrank your starship up to maximum impulse drive, where you're going a goodly percentage of the speed of light, and a single *dust grain* will hit with the force of a large artillery shell.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "Well your body is made up of mostly essential things there's not a lot of waste going on there. If you have it chances are most likely you need it so causing damage to these parts can be fatal simple as that. \n\nFor example, your heart pumps blood throughout your body which you need other wise you die. If you get shot in the heart and it stops pumping well your dead. Another example is clearly the brain. You get shot tehre and it stops function then your dead. There are many parts of your body the perform crucial functions and is damaged or destroyed can easily be fatal.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "13268564",
"title": "HAZMAT Class 6 Toxic and infectious substances",
"section": "Section::::Divisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 244,
"text": "BULLET::::- Is presumed to be toxic to humans because it falls within any one of the following categories when tested on laboratory animals (whenever possible, animal test data that has been reported in the chemical literature should be used):\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "1213294",
"title": "Glaser Safety Slug",
"section": "Section::::Performance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "The bullet design can produce deep wounds while failing to pass through structural barriers thicker than drywall or sheet metal. These qualities make it less likely to strike unintended targets, such as people in another room during an indoor shooting. Also, when it strikes a hard surface from which a solid bullet would glance off, it fragments into tiny, light pieces and creates much less ricochet danger.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "3768697",
"title": "Murder in English law",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "BULLET::::- Several people share an intent to do serious harm, and the victim dies because of the action of \"any\" of those involved (for example, if another person goes \"further than expected\" or performs an unexpectedly lethal action).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7168931",
"title": "Use of force continuum",
"section": "Section::::Example model.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 480,
"text": "BULLET::::6. Lethal force/Deadly force – a force with a high probability of causing death or serious bodily injury. Serious bodily injury includes unconsciousness, protracted or obvious physical disfigurement, or protracted loss of or impairment to the function of a bodily member, organ, or the mental faculty. A firearm is the most widely recognized lethal or deadly force weapon, however, an automobile or weapon of opportunity could also be defined as a deadly force utility.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13268484",
"title": "HAZMAT Class 2 Gases",
"section": "Section::::Divisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 340,
"text": "BULLET::::2. In the absence of adequate data on human toxicity, is presumed to be toxic to humans because when tested on laboratory animals it has an LC value of not more than 5000 ml/m³. See 49CFR 173.116(a) for assignment of Hazard Zones A, B, C or D. LC values for mixtures may be determined using the formula in 49 CFR 173.133(b)(1)(i)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10725984",
"title": "Gunshot wound",
"section": "Section::::Signs and symptoms.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "Trauma from a gunshot wound varies widely based on the bullet, velocity, entry point, trajectory, and affected anatomy. Gunshot wounds can be particularly devastating compared to other penetrating injuries because the trajectory and fragmentation of bullets can be unpredictable after entry. Additionally, gunshot wounds typically involve a large degree of nearby tissue disruption and destruction due to the physical effects of the projectile correlated with the bullet velocity classification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "71758",
"title": "Hollow-point bullet",
"section": "Section::::Legality.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 279,
"text": "Despite the ban on military use, hollow-point bullets are one of the most common types of bullets used by civilians and police, which is due largely to the reduced risk of bystanders being hit by over-penetrating or ricocheted bullets, and the increased speed of incapacitation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
5fqm9a | Did Arian Christians accuse "Orthodox" Christians of heresy? | [
{
"answer": "In short, yes.\n\nRemember, \"Arian\" is two sorts of label used to describe a number of groups in the fourth century. Firstly, it's a label used by Athanasius from the 360s onwards to describe a number of groups that he opposes, and to attempt to *taint* them through guilt by association with Arius, who had already been condemned. \"Arians\" by this measure did not consider themselves \"Arian\".\n\nSecondly, it's a label used by later historians to name a number of these same groupings, but it's largely falling out of disfavour in recent years since it is problematic.\n\nThat said, groups that we call \"Arian\", considered themselves to be \"orthodox\" (though they did not necessarily use that word in the way that we do), and when they held sway they would bring ecclesiastical power to bear on 'orthodox' believers.\n\nI'll give some links to translated creedal documents to illustrate. At the Council of Antioch in 341, mostly composed of non-Nicenes, they swore til they were blue in the face that they were not disciples of Arius. ([First Creed](_URL_2_)). They also describe their faith as in conformity to the \"evangelical and apostolic tradition\", which is the kind of language marker we mean by \"orthodox\" ([Second Creed](_URL_1_)).\n\n[Sirmium 357](_URL_0_) very explicitly speaks *against* using the language of 'essence' to talk about the Father and Son, and is aimed squarely at rendering the Nicene creed and its adherents as unorthodox.\n\nCoupled with these credal statements, councils dominated by non-Nicenes would regularly depose bishops of other theological persuasions, exiling them or otherwise punishing them. This explains, for instance, why Athanasius is continually deposed from Alexandria and goes into exile so often. His case is not isolated.\n\nRemember, 'heresy' is, from a historical perspective, a post-factum description of the losing side. 'Heretics' didn't think they were heretical, but that they were right and the other guys were wrong.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12574031",
"title": "Paula White",
"section": "Section::::Criticism and allegations of heresy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 337,
"text": "Other allegations of heresy have emerged among conservative Christians, such as that White has denied the Trinity, partly as a result of a video shared by Christian author Erick Erickson that shows White assenting to the viewpoint that Jesus Christ was not the only son of God, in contravention of the Nicene Creed. Erickson has stated:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "12108",
"title": "Greece",
"section": "Section::::History.:Venetian possessions and Ottoman rule (15th century – 1821).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 690,
"text": "The Greek Orthodox Church and the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople were considered by the Ottoman governments as the ruling authorities of the entire Orthodox Christian population of the Ottoman Empire, whether ethnically Greek or not. Although the Ottoman state did not force non-Muslims to convert to Islam, Christians faced several types of discrimination intended to highlight their inferior status in the Ottoman Empire. Discrimination against Christians, particularly when combined with harsh treatment by local Ottoman authorities, led to conversions to Islam, if only superficially. In the 19th century, many \"crypto-Christians\" returned to their old religious allegiance.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20611083",
"title": "Heresy",
"section": "Section::::Christianity.:Eastern Orthodox Church.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 544,
"text": "In Eastern Orthodox Christianity heresy most commonly refers to those beliefs declared heretical by the first seven Ecumenical Councils. Since the Great Schism and the Protestant Reformation, various Christian churches have also used the concept in proceedings against individuals and groups those churches deemed heretical. The Orthodox Church also rejects the early Christian heresies such as Arianism, Gnosticism, Origenism, Montanism, Judaizers, Marcionism, Docetism, Adoptionism, Nestorianism, Monophysitism, Monothelitism and Iconoclasm.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "320768",
"title": "Christian Church",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 454,
"text": "Already in the 2nd century, Christians denounced teachings that they saw as heresies, especially Gnosticism but also Montanism. Ignatius of Antioch at the beginning of that century and Irenaeus at the end saw union with the bishops as the test of correct Christian faith. After legalization of the Church in the 4th century, the debate between Arianism and Trinitarianism, with the emperors favouring now one side now the other, was a major controversy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22065",
"title": "Nestorianism",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 378,
"text": "Nestorians held that the Council of Chalcedon proved the orthodoxy of their faith and had started persecuting non-Chalcedonian or monophysite Syrian Christians during the reign of Peroz I. In response to pleas for assistance from the Syrian Church, Armenian prelates issued a letter addressed to Persian Christians reaffirming their condemnation of the Nestorianism as heresy. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4746031",
"title": "History of Christian thought on persecution and tolerance",
"section": "Section::::Christian Roman doctrine in 4th and 5th century A.D..:The treatment of heretics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "With the adoption of Christianity by Constantine I (after Battle of Milvian Bridge, 312), heresy had become a political issue in the late Roman empire. Adherents of unconventional Christian beliefs not covered by the Nicene Creed like Novatianism and Gnosticism were banned from holding meetings, but the Roman emperor intervened especially in the conflict between orthodox and Arian Christianity, which resulted in the burning of Arian books.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51375688",
"title": "Arian creeds",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 872,
"text": "Most Arian creeds were written in the fourth century during the Arian controversy. Arian creeds generally represent the beliefs of those Christians opposed to the Nicene Creed. The Arian controversy began when Alexander of Alexandria accused a local presbyter, Arius, of heresy, in the late 310s and early 320s. It lasted until the proclamation of the Creed of Constantinople in 381. The opponents of Arius expressed their beliefs in the Nicene Creed. Arians expressed their beliefs in their own, Arian creeds. Advocates of Nicene Christianity and Arian Christianity debated and competed throughout the fourth century, each claiming to be the orthodox variant. Nicene Christians called their opponents, as a group, Arians although many of them differed significantly from the original doctrines of Arius, and many opponents of the Nicene Creed did not identify as Arians.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
42ei0g | USSR Causing Ukrainian Genocide, Mao Responsible for Famine, and Stalin Creating Consideration Camps: Did Any of These Happen? | [
{
"answer": "They aren't fabrications. \n\nThe Soviet Famine of 32-33 (what you refer to as the Ukrainian Genocide) was an actual famine caused by a massive drought throughout the major wheat production centers in the Ukraine and North Caucuses. The debate lies in whether or not the drought was deliberate or not and the extent to which the Soviet government knew about it/was slow to react. More modern evidence points to poor relations between the Party and the peasants, and a total hatch job by Soviet scientists on actually studying the soil conditions, as central to understanding why the drought occured. Calling it solely a Ukrainian genocide would mean ignoring the affected regions of the North Caucuses, and the general impact on the country as a whole as a result of having much less wheat output. \n\nI know there is a book that some like to cite which claims the famine was made up by Nazi's and Harvard as anti-soviet propaganda, but that argument hold little to no water. As an aside, especially with soviet history, stay far away from one Grover Furr. He isn't an historian, he's a nut who cares more about trying to protect the image of Stalin than actual research.\n\nFurther reading: [jstor link to paper on party-peasant relations](_URL_1_)\n\n[paper on soil conditions and harvest statistics during the famine years](_URL_2_)\n\nThe Chinese Famine that resulted from Mao's Great Leap Forward had similar issues. Local party members lied about how much grain the villages could produce and vastly over estimated the yields. This lead to grain requisition quotas that had devastating effects, as the higher members were unaware of how little was left after taking the amount of grain that was proportional to the amount that had been reported. This was coupled by a large drought. In short, people had less food due to faulty reporting, and not enough water to grow food even to just feed themselves.\n\nFurther reading: [Jstor paper on grain quotas and procurements](_URL_0_)\n\nStalin and the camps. I think you meant to say concentration camps, not consideration camps. I admittedly am not an authority on the GULAG system, but it has been covered here before.",
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},
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"answer": "The Holodomor, the term for the famine in Ukraine, is seen by many as a deliberate attempt by the Soviet regime to kill off the Ukrainians. They were quite adamant about not joining the Soviet Union, and thus it is argued that Stalin (or those close to him) ordered grain to be withheld from the peasants even when famine hit, as a means to punish the Ukrainians for their actions against the Soviet state. There is considerable evidence towards that being true, and like I noted most scholarship seems to support the view, but others do note that droughts were also a factor, and it wasn't just limited to Ukraine. But I tend to lean towards arguing that the Holodomor was, at least in part, a deliberate action (though I'm admittedly biased, as I have Ukrainian ancestry). \n\nAs for the Gulag system, Stalin didn't exactly found it, as a similar system had existed during Tsarist Russia (and Stalin himself had been exiled to Siberia on multiple occasions). Prisoners being internally exiled to Siberia, or elsewhere in the USSR, began almost as soon as the Bolsheviks took control of Russia. But Stalin definitely saw over the greatest numbers of people imprisoned in the camps, numbering in the tens of millions over his time in charge. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Mao being responsible for the Famine was somehow affirmed in the \"Resolution on certain questions in the history\nof our party since the founding of the People’s Republic of China\" adopted by the sixth plenary session of th eleventh central committee of the CCP. \n\n\"*More important, it was due to the fact that Comrade Mao Zedong and many leading comrades, both at the centre and in the localities, had become smug about their successes, were impatient for quick results and overestimated the role of man’s subjective will and efforts. After the general line was formulated, the Great Leap Forward and the movement for rural people’s communes were initiated without careful investigation and study and without prior experimentation. .....It was mainly due to the errors of the Great Leap Forward and of the struggle against “Right opportunism” together with a succession of natural calamities and the perfidious scrapping of contracts by the Soviet Government that our economy encountered serious difficulties between 1959 and 1961, which caused serious losses to our country and people.*\"\n\nAnd \"*Likewise, responsibility for the errors committed in the work of this period rested with the same collective leadership. Although Comrade Mao Zedong must be held chiefly responsible, we cannot lay the blame for all those errors on him alone.*\"\n\nSource: _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "51329",
"title": "Famine",
"section": "Section::::Causes.:State-sponsored famines.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 143,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 143,
"end_character": 676,
"text": "In 1932, under the rule of the USSR, Ukraine experienced one of its largest famines when between 2.4 and 7.5 million peasants died as a result of a state sponsored famine. It was termed the Holodomor, suggesting that it was a deliberate campaign of repression designed to eliminate resistance to collectivization. Forced grain quotas imposed upon the rural peasants and a brutal reign of terror contributed to the widespread famine. The Soviet government continued to deny the problem and it did not provide aid to the victims nor did it accept foreign aid. Several contemporary scholars dispute the notion that the famine was deliberately inflicted by the Soviet government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42209082",
"title": "Modern history of Ukraine",
"section": "Section::::Interbellum.:Soviet Ukraine.:Soviet collectivisation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 687,
"text": "The Soviet famine of 1932–33, called Holodomor in Ukrainian, claimed up to 10 million Ukrainian lives as peasants' food stocks were forcibly removed by Stalin's regime by the NKVD secret police. As elsewhere, the precise number of deaths by starvation in Ukraine may never be precisely known. That said, the most recent demographic studies suggest that over 4 million Ukrainians perished in the first six months of 1933 alone, a figure that increases if population losses from 1931, 1932 and 1934 are also included, along with those from adjacent territories inhabited primarily by Ukrainians (but politically part of the Russian Federated Soviet Socialist Republic), such as the Kuban.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23849734",
"title": "Mass killings under communist regimes",
"section": "Section::::States where mass killings have occurred.:Soviet Union.:Stalin.:Soviet famine of 1932–1933.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 774,
"text": "Within the Soviet Union, forced changes in agricultural policies (collectivization), confiscations of grain and droughts caused the Soviet famine of 1932–1933 in Ukraine, Northern Caucasus, Volga Region and Kazakhstan. The famine was most severe in the Ukrainian SSR, where it is often referenced as the Holodomor. A significant portion of the famine victims (3.3 to 7.5 million) were Ukrainians. Another part of the famine was known as Kazakh catastrophe, when more than 1.3 million ethnic Kazakhs (38% of all indigenous population) died. Many scholars say that the Stalinist policies that caused the famine may have been designed as an attack on the rise of Ukrainian nationalism and thus may fall under the legal definition of genocide (see Holodomor genocide question).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "49528130",
"title": "Racism in the Soviet Union",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 795,
"text": "The Holodomor famine has been frequently described as a deliberate \"Terror-Famine\" campaign organized by the Soviet authorities against the Ukrainian population. It resulted in deaths of millions of ethnic Ukrainians of starvation in peacetime. Entire nations and ethnic groups were collectively punished by the Soviet government under the guise of “alleged collaboration” with the enemy during World War II. At least nine distinct ethnic-linguistic groups, including Poles, Germans, Romanians, Hungarians, Greeks, Chechens, Koreans, and Kalmyks, were deported to remote unpopulated areas of Siberia and Kazakhstan. Population transfer in the Soviet Union led to millions of deaths from the inflicted hardships. Mass operations of the NKVD were needed to deport hundreds of thousands of people.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1007688",
"title": "Holodomor",
"section": "Section::::In modern politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "In the former Soviet Union millions of men, women and children fell victims to the cruel actions and policies of the totalitarian regime. The Great Famine of 1932–1933 in Ukraine (Holodomor), took from 7 million to 10 million innocent lives and became a national tragedy for the Ukrainian people. In this regard, we note activities in observance of the seventieth anniversary of this Famine, in particular organized by the Government of Ukraine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1007688",
"title": "Holodomor",
"section": "Section::::Genocide question.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 501,
"text": "Timothy D. Snyder, professor of history at Yale University, asserts that in 1933 \"Joseph Stalin was deliberately starving Ukraine\" through a \"heartless campaign of requisitions that began Europe's era of mass killing\". He argues the Soviets themselves \"made sure that the term \"genocide\", contrary to Lemkin's intentions, excluded political and economic groups\". Thus the Ukrainian famine can be presented as \"somehow less genocidal because it targeted a class, kulaks, as well as a nation, Ukraine\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28621",
"title": "Stalinism",
"section": "Section::::Stalinist policies.:Economic policy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "According to several Western historians, Stalinist agricultural policies were a key factor in causing the Soviet famine of 1932–1933, which the Ukrainian government now calls the Holodomor, recognizing it as an act of genocide. Some scholars dispute the intentionality of the famine.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1q938o | eau de toilette, eau de perfume, eau de cologne | [
{
"answer": "The major distinction between the three is the concentration of the actual fragrance that is dissolved in alcohol. \n\nEau de toilette, toilet water, has anywhere from 5-15% concentration of the fragrance.\nEau de perfume has anywhere from 10 to 20%.\n\nIt's worth noting, that Parfum du Toilette and Eau du Parfum are usually used synonymously while Parfum du toilette and eau du toilette are distinct from each other.\n\nEau du cologne is kind of a special case. When someone says eau du cologne, they usually just mean a perfume with a concentration between 3 and 8%. \nPerfume mist also has a concentration of 3-8%. \nThe the current distinction between eau du cologne and perfume mist is that cologne is, in English speaking countries, typically for men and perfume is typically for women. \n\nPreviously, in the.. Like.. 18th to 19th century, I think.. Eau du cologne specifically referred to perfume (with 3-8% concentration) that was a blend of citrus fruit notes that also happened to come from Cologne, Germany. Now, Classical Cologne is used to refer to this stuff. \n\nAll of these concentrations are lower than perfume extract, which is usually 15-40%. \nPerfume extract is the stuff that comes in a tiny little bottle that costs like.. 150 dollars. Generally, it's worth the price because you don't use nearly as much to get a scent that's usually stronger while on your skin.\n\nThe previous concentrations, as far as my experience goes, all come in some sort of spray bottle. The only social rules that I'm aware of, specifically in English speaking countries - there could be different ones in other places, are:\n1) perfume extract is not really acceptable as a gift to men.\n2) don't put too much on. Less is more. You can get away with putting on more eau du cologne than you can eau du perfume, since the concentrations are different. \n\n\nDisclaimer: as a previously avid cologne junkie, this is all information that I have been familiar with in the past, is probably still pretty close, and I think I've plagiarized most of it from the Wikipedia article on perfume. So.. Look there if you want to be sure. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "83543",
"title": "Eau de Cologne",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "Eau de Cologne (; German: Kölnisch Wasser ; meaning \"Water from Cologne\"), or simply cologne, is a perfume originating from Cologne, Germany. Originally mixed by Johann Maria Farina (Giovanni Maria Farina) in 1709, it has since come to be a generic term for scented formulations in typical concentration of 2–5% and also more depending upon its type essential oils or a blend of extracts, alcohol, and water. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83543",
"title": "Eau de Cologne",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 444,
"text": "The original \"Eau de Cologne\" is a spirit-citrus perfume launched in Cologne in 1709 by Giovanni Maria Farina (1685–1766), an Italian perfume maker from Santa Maria Maggiore Valle Vigezzo. In 1708, Farina wrote to his brother Jean Baptiste: \"I have found a fragrance that reminds me of an Italian spring morning, of mountain daffodils and orange blossoms after the rain\". He named his fragrance \"Eau de Cologne\", in honour of his new hometown.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9476828",
"title": "Demeter Fragrance Library",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 472,
"text": "\"Demeter\" was founded by ex-Kiehl's perfumer Christopher Brosius, in 1993, as a project 'bottle' everyday odors into wearable personal colognes. The first three colognes that were created – Dirt, Grass and Tomato – were launched at New York department stores, Bergdorf Goodman and Henri Bendel, in 1996. The three scents sold well, which led to further introductions to the range and unusual fragrances such as Gin & Tonic, Baby Powder and Play-Doh joined the portfolio. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "98581",
"title": "Perfume",
"section": "Section::::Dilution classes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Classical colognes first appeared in Europe in the 17th century. The first fragrance labeled a \"parfum\" extract with a high concentration of aromatic compounds was Guerlain's \"Jicky\" in 1889. Eau de Toilette appeared alongside parfum around the turn of the century. The EdP concentration and terminology is the most recent. Parfum de toilette and EdP began to appear in the 1970s and gained popularity in the 1980s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2169072",
"title": "4711",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 258,
"text": "In the early 18th century, Johann Maria Farina (1685–1766), an Italian living in Cologne, Germany, created a fragrance. He named it \"Eau de Cologne\" (\"water from Cologne\") after his new home. Over the next century, the fragrance became increasingly popular.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6187",
"title": "Cologne",
"section": "Section::::Culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
"end_character": 1063,
"text": "Cologne is also famous for Eau de Cologne (German: \"Kölnisch Wasser\"; lit: \"Water of Cologne\"), a perfume created by Italian expatriate Johann Maria Farina at the beginning of the 18th century. During the 18th century, this perfume became increasingly popular, was exported all over Europe by the Farina family and \"Farina\" became a household name for \"Eau de Cologne\". In 1803 Wilhelm Mülhens entered into a contract with an unrelated person from Italy named Carlo Francesco Farina who granted him the right to use his family name and Mühlens opened a small factory at Cologne's Glockengasse. In later years, and after various court battles, his grandson Ferdinand Mülhens was forced to abandon the name \"Farina\" for the company and their product. He decided to use the house number given to the factory at Glockengasse during the French occupation in the early 19th century, 4711. Today, original Eau de Cologne is still produced in Cologne by both the Farina family, currently in the eighth generation, and by Mäurer & Wirtz who bought the 4711 brand in 2006.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "83543",
"title": "Eau de Cologne",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "The \"Eau de Cologne\" composed by Farina was used only as a perfume and delivered to \"nearly all royal houses in Europe\". His ability to produce a constantly homogeneous fragrance consisting of dozens of monoessences was seen as a sensation at the time. A single vial of this \"aqua mirabilis\" (Latin for miracle water) cost half the annual salary of a civil servant. When free trade was established in Cologne by the French in 1797, the success of \"Eau de Cologne\" prompted countless other businessmen to sell their own fragrances under the name of \"Eau de Cologne\". Giovanni Maria Farina's formula has been produced in Cologne since 1709 by Farina opposite the Jülichplatz and to this day remains a secret. His shop at Obenmarspforten opened in 1709 and is today the world's oldest fragrance factory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
4xn3de | How did marsupials spread from the Americas to Australia if they evolved way after South America separated from Gondwana? | [
{
"answer": "This seems to be a difficult question to answer, in part because Antarctica is difficult to study: fossil records are scarce, as are geological samples. There were apparently many active volcanoes along the Antarctic peninsula during the late cretaceous and early tertiary times, which, combined with the discovery of a [marsupial fossil on Seymour Island](_URL_2_), makes it plausible that there was a connection from South America to Antarctica.\n\nKeep in mind that the date for marsupial divergence is still fairly up in the air (I'm seeing numbers from [125 MYA](_URL_0_) to [65 MYA](_URL_1_)), and that their fossil records are fairly spotty.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "20205",
"title": "Marsupial",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 90,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 90,
"end_character": 1054,
"text": "Marsupials reached Australia via Antarctica about 50 mya, shortly after Australia had split off. This suggests a single dispersion event of just one species, most likely a relative to South America's monito del monte (a microbiothere, the only New World australidelphian). This progenitor may have rafted across the widening, but still narrow, gap between Australia and Antarctica. In Australia, they radiated into the wide variety seen today. Modern marsupials appear to have reached the islands of New Guinea and Sulawesi relatively recently via Australia. A 2010 analysis of retroposon insertion sites in the nuclear DNA of a variety of marsupials has confirmed all living marsupials have South American ancestors. The branching sequence of marsupial orders indicated by the study puts Didelphimorphia in the most basal position, followed by Paucituberculata, then Microbiotheria, and ending with the radiation of Australian marsupials. This indicates that Australidelphia arose in South America, and reached Australia after Microbiotheria split off.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "223430",
"title": "Monito del monte",
"section": "Section::::Phylogeny and biogeography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 764,
"text": "South American marsupials have long been suspected to be ancestral to those of Australia, consistent with the fact that the two continents were connected via Antarctica in the early Cenozoic. Australia’s earliest known marsupial is \"Djarthia\", a primitive mouse-like animal that lived in the early Eocene about 55 million years ago (mya). \"Djarthia\" had been identified as the earliest known australidelphian, and this research suggested that the monito del monte was the last of a clade that included \"Djarthia\". This relationship suggests that the ancestors of the monito del monte might have reached South America by back-migration from Australia. The time of divergence between the monito del monte and Australian marsupials was estimated to have been 46 mya.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15089769",
"title": "Natural history of New Zealand",
"section": "Section::::Before the split (Gondwana, 85 million years ago).:Gondwanan funa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 777,
"text": "Fossils found at Lightning Ridge, New South Wales, suggest that 110 million years ago (Ma), Australia supported a number of different monotremes, but did not support any marsupials. Marsupials appear to have evolved during the Cretaceous in the contemporary northern hemisphere, to judge from a 100-million-year-old marsupial fossil, \"Kokopellia\", found in the badlands of Utah. Marsupials would then have spread to South America and Gondwana. The first evidence of mammals (both marsupials and placental) in Australia comes from the Tertiary, and was found at a 55-million-year-old fossil site at Murgon, in southern Queensland. As Zealanded had rifted away at this time it explains the lack of ground dwelling marsupials and placental mammals in New Zealand's fossil record.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1891938",
"title": "Great American Interchange",
"section": "Section::::South America's endemic fauna.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 936,
"text": "Marsupials appear to have traveled via Gondwanan land connections from South America through Antarctica to Australia in the late Cretaceous or early Tertiary. One living South American marsupial, the monito del monte, has been shown to be more closely related to Australian marsupials than to other South American marsupials; however, it is the most basal australidelphian, meaning that this superorder arose in South America and then colonized Australia after the monito del monte split off. A 61-Ma-old platypus-like monotreme fossil from Patagonia may represent an Australian immigrant. Paleognath birds (ratites and South American tinamous) may have migrated by this route around the same time, more likely in the direction from South America to Australia/New Zealand. Other taxa that may have dispersed by the same route (if not by flying or floating across the ocean) are parrots, chelid turtles and (extinct) meiolaniid turtles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20205",
"title": "Marsupial",
"section": "Section::::Evolution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 91,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 91,
"end_character": 427,
"text": "In Australia, terrestrial placental mammals disappeared early in the Cenozoic (their most recent known fossils being 55 million-year-old teeth resembling those of condylarths) for reasons that are not clear, allowing marsupials to dominate the Australian ecosystem. Extant native Australian terrestrial placental mammals (such as hopping mice) are relatively recent immigrants, arriving via island hopping from Southeast Asia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10923250",
"title": "Southern marsupial mole",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomy and phylogeny.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 706,
"text": "Furthermore, molecular data suggests that Notoryctemorphia separated from other marsupials around 64 million years ago. Although at this time South America, Antarctica and Australia were still joined the order evolved in Australia for at least 40-50 million years. The Riversleigh fossil material suggests that \"Notoryctes\" was already well adapted for burrowing and probably lived in the rainforest that covered much of Australia at that time. The increase in aridity at the end of Tertiary was likely one of the key contributing factors to the development of the current highly specialized form of marsupial mole. The marsupial mole had been burrowing long before the Australian deserts came into being.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "31392",
"title": "Tasmanian devil",
"section": "Section::::Taxonomy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
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"end_character": 3544,
"text": "The roots of Australian marsupials are thought to trace back tens of millions of years to when much of the current Southern Hemisphere was part of the supercontinent of Gondwana; marsupials are believed to have originated in what is now South America and migrated across Antarctica, which had a temperate climate at the time. As soil degradation took hold, it is believed that the marsupials adapted to the more basic flora of Australia. According to Pemberton, the possible ancestors of the devil may have needed to climb trees to acquire food, leading to a growth in size and the hopping gait of many marsupials. He speculated that these adaptations may have caused the contemporary devil's peculiar gait. The specific lineage of the Tasmanian devil is theorised to have emerged during the Miocene, molecular evidence suggesting a split from the ancestors of quolls between 10 and 15 million years ago, when severe climate change came to bear in Australia, transforming the climate from warm and moist to an arid, dry ice age, resulting in mass extinctions. As most of their prey died of the cold, only a few carnivores survived, including the ancestors of the quoll and thylacine. It is speculated that the devil lineage may have arisen at this time to fill a niche in the ecosystem, as a scavenger that disposed of carrion left behind by the selective-eating thylacine. The extinct \"Glaucodon ballaratensis\" of the Pliocene age has been dubbed an intermediate species between the quoll and devil. Fossil deposits in limestone caves at Naracoorte, South Australia, dating to the Miocene include specimens of \"S. laniarius\", which were around 15% larger and 50% heavier than modern devils. Older specimens believed to be 50–70,000 years old were found in Darling Downs in Queensland and in Western Australia. It is not clear whether the modern devil evolved from \"S. laniarius\", or whether they coexisted at the time. Richard Owen argued for the latter hypothesis in the 19th century, based on fossils found in 1877 in New South Wales. Large bones attributed to \"S. moornaensis\" have been found in New South Wales, and it has been conjectured that these two extinct larger species may have hunted and scavenged. It is known that there were several genera of thylacine millions of years ago, and that they ranged in size, the smaller being more reliant on foraging. As the devil and thylacine are similar, the extinction of the co-existing thylacine genera has been cited as evidence for an analogous history for the devils. It has been speculated that the smaller size of \"S. laniarius\" and \"S. moornaensis\" allowed them to adapt to the changing conditions more effectively and survive longer than the corresponding thylacines. As the extinction of these two species came at a similar time to human habitation of Australia, hunting by humans and land clearance have been mooted as possible causes. Critics of this theory point out that as indigenous Australians only developed boomerangs and spears for hunting around 10,000 years ago, a critical fall in numbers due to systematic hunting is unlikely. They also point out that caves inhabited by Aborigines have a low proportion of bones and rock paintings of devils, and suggest that this is an indication that it was not a large part of indigenous lifestyle. A scientific report in 1910 claimed that Aborigines preferred the meat of herbivores rather than carnivores. The other main theory for the extinction was that it was due to the climate change brought on by the most recent ice age.\n",
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| null |
1o3fig | can somebody please explain two of the federalist papers to me, specifically #10 and #51? | [
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"answer": "Here's my breakdown of 10 Federalist, which I posted back in the spring, the last time this question was asked on ELI5. I'll get to 51 Federalist in a little while.\n\n**The Situation:** The new constitution has just been written (mostly based on Madison's ideas), and now the states have to ratify it. Each of the Federalist essays is an attempt to work out, from the very basics of human nature up to high political theory, how the new Constitution will make everything better. When you read it, it sounds circuitous and vague, but the point is that the Constitution is great and should be adopted.\n\n**Problem:** The new-born USA is the first really large Republic. The largest past model is Rome, which was tossed by the whims of plebian mob AND had entrenched hereditary aristocracy. All the city-state direct democracies depended on common, local identity of the citizens. Even in 1787, the USA was diverse. So how is this going to work?\n\n**So what's a \"Faction\"?** Faction: a number of citizens who are united by some common impulse of passion or interest *adverse* to the rights of other citizens or to the overall interests of the community. Note Madison included in the definition a harmful aspect – not just an interest group, but one setting out to harm others, either out of malice or self-interest. *Examples:* Theocratic fundamentalists who want to oppress minority religions (anti-Catholic, anti-Quaker, anti-Jewish were all issues in 1787); state-patriots who want to hurt other states for their own gain; economic radicals -- there were no Socialists or Communists in 1787, but there were land reformers who wanted to redistribute property from the rich few who owned most of it (like Madison!).\n\n**Madison's Blind Spot showing, #1:** Madison doesn't mention slavery, but it meets his definition of a majority faction -- the confluence of racism and self-interest against a minority.\n\n**Madison's Approach:**\n1- We could brainwash people to be uniform in their desires and political thinking. Oops, not really possible in 1787.\n2- We could suppress liberties like free speech and voting rights. Bad idea.\n\nSo we're stuck with the *impulse* to form factions. But maybe we can keep factions from getting *power*. Republics make minority factions irrelevant -- they can't win. Note Madison didn't think about log-rolling or vote-trading in legislatures, because those ideas were invented after 1787. \n\nSo *Majority* factions are the real problem – tyranny of the majority. Madison is thinking of the trial of Socrates by the Athenians, the French Revolution under the Committee of Public Safety, etc.\n\n**Federal government to the rescue:** It's harder for a faction to form in a big population spread across an entire continent. Differences should average out, so that in the Federal government, the state-level factions are powerless. The House will be elected frequently -- every two years -- so the representatives will have to actually go out and meet their voters. And the districts are (were in 1787, not anymore) small enough that it's a personal relationship, but not so small that local faction will win elections. And the Congressmen will all be together, away from their constituents for the sessions, so they won't have the mob breathing down their neck and forcing them to vote maliciously.\n\n**Madison's Blind Spot showing, #2:** Madison is talking about elections like \"the people\" will get a voice. Elections in 1787 are by white male property owners only -- guys like Madison. The first Congress had one Representative for every 30,000 people, including slaves, women, and children, and non-voting white men. Maybe 5% could vote -- it's pretty easy for ~1000 rich white guys to find a common ground. Seriously: [South Carolina's first congressional election](_URL_0_) had 3 out of 5 districts with one candidate running unopposed, and only one district had more than 1000 votes cast. In democratic [Pennsylvania](_URL_3_), the top candidate got 8,707 votes. In all of [New York](_URL_2_) about 11,000 votes were cast to pick 5 congressmen. We're talking the size of [Athenian juries](_URL_1_) here -- not a lot of faction-diffusing diversity.",
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"wikipedia_id": "2653985",
"title": "Federalist No. 73",
"section": "",
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"text": "Federalist No. 73 is an essay by the 18th-century American statesman Alexander Hamilton. It is the seventy-third of \"The Federalist Papers\", a collection of articles written to promote the ratification of the United States Constitution. It was published on March 21, 1788 under the pseudonym Publius, the name under which all \"The Federalist\" papers were published. Its title is \"The Provision For The Support of the Executive, and the Veto Power\", and it is the seventh in a series of 11 essays discussing the powers and limitations of the Executive branch of the United States government.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "46833",
"title": "The Federalist Papers",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "The Federalist Papers is a collection of 85 articles and essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay under the pseudonym \"Publius\" to promote the ratification of the United States Constitution. The collection was commonly known as The Federalist until the name \"The Federalist Papers\" emerged in the 20th century.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "2653556",
"title": "Federalist No. 40",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Federalist No. 40 is an essay by James Madison, the fortieth of \"The Federalist Papers\". It was published on January 18, 1788 under the pseudonym Publius, the name under which all \"The Federalist\" papers were published. This is the last of four papers by Madison examining the authority of the constitutional convention that had produced the proposed United States Constitution. It is titled \"The Powers of the Convention to Form a Mixed Government Examined and Sustained\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2654089",
"title": "Federalist No. 82",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Federalist No. 82 is an essay by Alexander Hamilton, the eighty-second of \"The Federalist Papers\". It was published on July 2, 1788 under the pseudonym Publius, the name under which all \"The Federalist\" papers were published. Its title is \"The Judiciary Continued\", and it is the fifth in a series of six essays discussing the powers and limitations of the judicial branch of government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "13581295",
"title": "List of works published under a pseudonym",
"section": "Section::::Works published under a pseudonym.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 322,
"text": "BULLET::::- \"The Federalist Papers\", published anonymously at the time, now known to be written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay. Considered the third most important document in the development of the United States government, after the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution / Bill of Rights.\n",
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"wikipedia_id": "2653610",
"title": "Federalist No. 49",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Federalist No. 49 is an essay by James Madison, the forty-ninth of \"The Federalist Papers\". It was published on February 2, 1788 under the pseudonym \"Publius\", the name under which all \"The Federalist\" papers were published. It is titled \"Method of Guarding Against the Encroachments of Any One Department of Government by Appealing to the People Through a Convention\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2651739",
"title": "Federalist No. 21",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 429,
"text": "The Federalist Papers are 85 individual articles written by John Jay, Alexander Hamilton, and James Madison and were intended for the people of New York. The purpose of these papers was to convince the states to ratify the United States Constitution by pointing out the flaws in the Articles of Confederation. Jay, Hamilton, and Madison all addressed various issues in the articles, mainly Hamilton writing the majority of them.\n",
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"meta": null
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| null |
2d6ujy | why fort knox has so much gold stored within it. | [
{
"answer": "The US dollar, like most currencies, used to be based on gold. So the government had to have a lot of gold stuck in its vaults to back up its currency.\n\nThis isn't true anymore, but there's no good way to get rid of all that gold. If it were all dumped on the open market, the price would crash.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1687318",
"title": "United States Bullion Depository",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"end_character": 538,
"text": "The United States Bullion Depository, often known as Fort Knox, is a fortified vault building located next to the United States Army post of Fort Knox, Kentucky. It is operated by the United States Department of the Treasury. The vault is used to store a large portion of the United States' gold reserves as well as other precious items belonging to or in custody of the federal government. It currently holds roughly of gold bullion, over half of the Treasury’s stored gold. The depository is protected by the United States Mint Police.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "76436",
"title": "Fort Knox",
"section": "Section::::Bullion Depository.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "The United States Bullion Depository, often known as Fort Knox, is a fortified vault building located adjacent to the Fort Knox Army Post. It is operated by the Department of the Treasury. The vault currently stores over half of the United States' gold reserves. It is protected by the United States Mint Police, and is well known for it's physical security. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1687318",
"title": "United States Bullion Depository",
"section": "Section::::Current holdings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 375,
"text": ", Fort Knox holds of gold reserves with a market value of US $1413.200*147341858.382/1000000000 round 1 billion. This represents of the gold reserves of the United States. As of 2017, the U.S. gold reserves of 8,133.5 metric tons was nearly as much as the next three countries combined. The next highest holdings were Germany's, whose gold reserves were 3,371.0 metric tons.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32934025",
"title": "Fort Knox Gold Mine",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 825,
"text": "The Fort Knox Gold Mine operates a single large pit. From 2001 - 2004 the True North Mine, a small satellite deposit was operated and the ore was processed through the Fort Knox mill. Production from Fort Knox is up to per day of low grade ore (1 gram per tonne), with two mineral processing streams (carbon in pulp for higher grade ore and heap leaching for lower grade ore). The mine is located from the city of Fairbanks via a combination of paved and unpaved roads. Surpassing 6 million ounces in 2011, Fort Knox is the single largest producer of gold in the history of the state of Alaska. Expected to run out of ore in 2021, the mine's life has been extended to 2027 following Kinross' $100 million expansion investment announced in 2018, increasing life-of-mine production by about 1.5 million gold equivalent ounces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "76436",
"title": "Fort Knox",
"section": "Section::::Bullion Depository.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "The depository was built by the Treasury in 1936 on land transferred to it from Fort Knox. Early shipments of gold totaling almost 13,000 metric tons were escorted by combat cars of the 1st U.S. Cavalry Regiment to the depository. It has in the past safeguarded other precious items such as the Constitution of the United States and Declaration of Independence, as well as enough opium and morphine to meet the needs of the entire nation for one year.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10400399",
"title": "Peter Beter",
"section": "Section::::Biography.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "In 1974, Beter publicly stated that most of the gold in Fort Knox had been sold to European interests, at prices vastly below market rates. According to him, international speculators had dishonestly obtained the gold.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1687318",
"title": "United States Bullion Depository",
"section": "Section::::History.:Planning and completion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 601,
"text": "In June 1935, the U.S. Treasury announced its intention to quickly build a gold depository on the grounds of Fort Knox, Kentucky. It's purpose was to store gold then kept being kept in the New York City Assay office and Philadelphia Mint. This was in keeping with a policy previously announced to move gold reserves away from coastal cities to areas less vulnerable to foreign military invasion. This policy had already led to the shipment of nearly of of gold from San Francisco to Denver. The initial plans were to be completed by August, and called for a building costing no more than $450,000 ().\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
92aetb | why can't we identify someone if we can't see their eyes? | [
{
"answer": "We can identify people without seeing their eyes just fine if we know them well. Haven't you ever recognized someone with their back turned or semi-profile if their hair has partially fallen over their face so you can't see their eyes? Or how about someone asleep? You can't see their eyes then.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "602401",
"title": "Facial recognition system",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:Privacy violations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 973,
"text": "Face recognition can be used not just to identify an individual, but also to unearth other personal data associated with an individual – such as other photos featuring the individual, blog posts, social networking profiles, Internet behavior, travel patterns, etc. – all through facial features alone. Concerns have been raised over who would have access to the knowledge of one's whereabouts and people with them at any given time. Moreover, individuals have limited ability to avoid or thwart face recognition tracking unless they hide their faces. This fundamentally changes the dynamic of day-to-day privacy by enabling any marketer, government agency, or random stranger to secretly collect the identities and associated personal information of any individual captured by the face recognition system. Consumers may not understand or be aware of what their data is being used for, which denies them the ability to consent to how their personal information gets shared.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4105326",
"title": "GPS tracking unit",
"section": "Section::::United Kingdom law.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 384,
"text": "An individual is 'identified' if distinguished from other members of a group. In most cases an individual's name, together with some other information, will be sufficient to identify them, but a person can be identified even if their name is not known. Start by looking at the means available to identify an individual and the extent to which such means are readily available to you.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53234",
"title": "Face",
"section": "Section::::Structure.:Shape.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "The face is the feature which best distinguishes a person. Specialized regions of the human brain, such as the fusiform face area (FFA), enable facial recognition; when these are damaged, it may be impossible to recognize faces even of intimate family members. The pattern of specific organs, such as the eyes, or of parts of them, is used in biometric identification to uniquely identify individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18287714",
"title": "Big Picture (magazine)",
"section": "Section::::Recent issues and topics.:8: How we look (June 2008).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "When we see people, we recognise individuals, we make judgements about them, we draw conclusions about their age, their sex, their personality, their mood and their intentions. And, deliberately or not, we send signals to others - through our expressions, the way we dress and the way we modify our bodies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31110955",
"title": "Memory and social interactions",
"section": "Section::::Memory for faces.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "The ability to visually identify previous social partners is essential for successful interactions because it aids in recognizing which partners can and cannot be trusted. In humans, this is accomplished by facial recognition. Research suggests that humans are born with an innate ability to process other human faces. In one study, Pascalis, et al. (1995) found that four-day-old neonates (infants) prefer to look at their mothers' faces rather than at a stranger's. This finding suggests that neonates are able to remember, recognize, and differentiate between faces. Further research suggests that humans prefer to attend to faces rather than non-face alternatives. Such specialized processing for faces aids in the encoding of memory for people. This preference is one explanation for why humans are more proficient at memorizing faces than non-faces.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28920172",
"title": "Niqāb in Egypt",
"section": "Section::::Controversial incidents around the niqāb.:Al-Azhar controversy.:Public reaction.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 307,
"text": "There is an exception, however, in certain circumstances when it is needed to identify the girl or woman, such as taking a photo of her for an ID card or passport, or when there is an exam and it is feared that a girl may secretly replace another. In such cases, she has to show her face for identification\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7330954",
"title": "Pattern recognition (psychology)",
"section": "Section::::Facial pattern recognition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 402,
"text": "Recognizing faces is one of the most common forms of pattern recognition. Humans are incredibly effective at remembering faces, but this ease and automaticity belies a very challenging problem. All faces are physically similar. Faces have two eyes, one mouth, and one nose all in predictable locations, yet humans can recognize a face from several different angles and in various lighting conditions. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
c2z27b | when a company offers a direct listing for a new stock, how is the initial price point determined? | [
{
"answer": "In the case of a direct listing, the original share holders put up their shares and determine the value themselves (no underwriters involved). It is much cheaper for the company but it is also considered extremely unsafe. There are no protections against the price swinging violently.\n\nThis can lead to your shares not being purchased; low demand = no value and your stock tanks. \n\nDoing an IPO comes with the backing of security. In certain cases, where your product/offerings have an extremely solid future, or an already established market presence, you can do a direct listing and basically pop bottles because your product is the tits.",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "1300769",
"title": "Tender offer",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "To induce the shareholders of the target company to sell, the acquirer's offer price is usually at a premium over the current market price of the target company's shares. For example, if a target corporation's stock were trading at $10 per share, an acquirer might offer $11.50 per share to shareholders on the condition that 51% of shareholders agree. Cash or securities may be offered to the target company's shareholders, although a tender offer in which securities are offered as consideration is generally referred to as an \"exchange offer.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "197321",
"title": "Stock swap",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 489,
"text": "The acquiring company essentially uses its own stock as cash to purchase the business. Each shareholder of the acquired company will receive a pre-determined number of shares from the acquiring company. Before the swap occurs each party must accurately value their company so that a fair swap ratio can be calculated. Valuation of a company is quite complicated. Not only does fair market value have to be determined, but the investment and intrinsic value needs to be determined as well.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32956655",
"title": "Bought out deal",
"section": "Section::::Features.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 280,
"text": "BULLET::::- Sale Price – The sale price is finalized through negotiations between the issuing company & the purchaser which is influenced by reputation of the promoters, project evaluation, prevailing market sentiment, prospects of off-loading these shares at a future date, etc.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1001919",
"title": "Management buyout",
"section": "Section::::Financing.:Seller financing.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 355,
"text": "In certain circumstances, it may be possible for the management and the original owner of the company to agree a deal whereby the seller finances the buyout. The price paid at the time of sale will be nominal, with the real price being paid over the following years out of the profits of the company. The timescale for the payment is typically 3–7 years.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2466758",
"title": "Mini-tender offer",
"section": "Section::::Rationale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 422,
"text": "If the market price of the stock falls below the mini-tender price before the offer closes, the bidder can cancel the offer or reduce the offer price. While a price change allows investors to withdraw their shares, this process is not automatic. The \"onus is on the investor\", as they (and not the bidder or broker) are responsible for acquiring the revised offer information and withdrawing their shares by the deadline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1441194",
"title": "Risk arbitrage",
"section": "Section::::Basics.:Mergers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 812,
"text": "In a stock merger, the acquirer offers to purchase the target by exchanging its own stock for the target's stock at a specified ratio. To initiate a position, the arbitrageur will buy the target's stock and short sell the acquirer's stock. This process is called \"setting a spread\". The size of the spread positively correlates to the perceived risk that the deal will not be consummated at its original terms. The arbitrageur makes a profit when the spread narrows, which occurs when deal consummation appears more likely. Upon deal completion, the target's stock will be converted into stock of the acquirer based on the exchange ratio determined by the merger agreement. At this point in time, the spread will close. The arbitrageur delivers the converted stock into his short position to close his position.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "12503189",
"title": "Reverse convertible securities",
"section": "Section::::Maturity options.:Physical delivery.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
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"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "The initial share price is determined on the trade date. The final valuation of the shares is based on the closing price of the reference shares determined four days prior to maturity. If the investor is delivered physical shares, their value will be less than the initial investment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
19rda9 | Are there any people alive today that can trace their ancestry back to ancient history? | [
{
"answer": "There are plenty of people/dynasties that claim they \"descend from antiquity\" but there are no 'Western' claims that are accepted by historians and genealogists.\n\nThere are a number of 'Eastern' claims that might one-day be accepted, the oldest of which is Kung Tsui-chang who claims to be the 79th-generation male descendant of Confucius (though, probably with some adoption involved).\n\nThe Japanese imperial family also has a reasonably strong claim, though their surviving records don't go back as far as their claim does.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Plenty of people can trace their lineage back to the Prophet Muhammad. Of course, there're *plenty* of false claimants to that, but definitely many that can be verified. Genealogy has always been a strong part of Islamic tradition and so we can accurately trace back certain lineages to Muhammad. Tarim, Yemen is said to have the highest concentration of his descendants today. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In India, the Pandas (Brahmin Pandit) of Haridwar keep detailed genealogy records going back centuries. These are, of course, for Hindus only.\n\nEach Panda caters to only one caste from one district of the country. The records are written on thick paper, in ink and kept in piles of loosely bound ledgers. \n\nWhen a sheet of paper is damaged, they meticulously copy the information over to a new sheet and reinsert in the same place in the ledger. \n\nUnfortunately, since these records are scattered across different Pandas, and aren't computerized, it's very hard to trace back different genealogies, but this is one of the best places where you might be able to trace a lineage back to antiquity.\n\nThere other locations which keep similar records. Unfortunately none of them appear to have been studied systematically. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "2402376",
"title": "Indigenous peoples of the Americas",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 159,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 159,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "A 2013 study in \"Nature\" reported that DNA found in the 24,000-year-old remains of a young boy from the archaeological Mal'ta-Buret' culture suggest that up to one-third of the indigenous Americans may have ancestry that can be traced back to western Eurasians, who may have \"had a more north-easterly distribution 24,000 years ago than commonly thought\". \"We estimate that 14 to 38 percent of Native American ancestry may originate through gene flow from this ancient population\", the authors wrote. Professor Kelly Graf said,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25869325",
"title": "Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas",
"section": "Section::::Maternal lineages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 43,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 43,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "A 2013 study in \"Nature\" reported that DNA found in the 24,000-year-old remains of a young boy from the archaeological Mal'ta-Buret' culture suggest that up to one-third of indigenous Americans' ancestry can be traced back to western Eurasians, who may have \"had a more north-easterly distribution 24,000 years ago than commonly thought\" \"We estimate that 14 to 38 percent of Amerindian ancestry may originate through gene flow from this ancient population,\" the authors wrote. Professor Kelly Graf said,\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "213507",
"title": "Converso",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "With advances in science able to trace individuals' ancestry via their DNA, according to a widely publicised study (December 2008) in the \"American Journal of Human Genetics\", modern Spaniards (and Portuguese) have an average admixture of 19.8 percent from ancestors originating in the Near East during historic times (i.e. Phoenicians, Carthaginians, Jews and Levantine Arabs) – compared to 10.6 percent of North African – Berber admixture. This proportion could be as high as 23% in the case of Latin Americans, however, according to a study published in Nature Communications. The possibly higher proportion of significant Jewish ancestry in the Latin American population could stem from increased emigration of Conversos to the New World to avoid persecution by the Spanish Inquisition.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55510",
"title": "Indigenous peoples in Brazil",
"section": "Section::::Origins.:Genetic studies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 555,
"text": "Another study, focused on the mtDNA (that which is inherited only through the maternal line), revealed that the indigenous people of the Americas have their maternal ancestry traced back to a few founding lineages from East Asia, which would have arrived via the Bering strait. According to this study, it is probable that the ancestors of the Native Americans would have remained for a time in the region of the Bering Strait, after which there would have been a rapid movement of settling of the Americas, taking the founding lineages to South America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "696591",
"title": "Clovis culture",
"section": "Section::::Clovis Paleo-Indians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 617,
"text": "Available genetic data show that the Clovis people are the direct ancestors of roughly 80% of all living Native American populations in North and South America, with the remainder descended from ancestors who entered in later waves of migration. As reported in February 2014, DNA from the 12,600-year-old remains of Anzick boy, found in Montana, has affirmed this connection to the peoples of the Americas. In addition, this DNA analysis affirmed genetic connections back to ancestral peoples of northeast Asia. This adds weight to the theory that peoples migrated across a land bridge from Siberia to North America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25869325",
"title": "Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas",
"section": "Section::::Maternal lineages.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Another study, also focused on the mtDNA (that which is inherited through only the maternal line), revealed that the indigenous people of the Americas have their maternal ancestry traced back to a few founding lineages from East Asia, which would have arrived via the Bering strait. According to this study, it is probable that the ancestors of the Native Americans would have remained for a time in the region of the Bering Strait, after which there would have been a rapid movement of settling of the Americas, taking the founding lineages to South America.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "134119",
"title": "Starrucca, Pennsylvania",
"section": "Section::::Demographics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 272,
"text": "According to self-reported ancestry figures recorded by the ACS, the five largest ancestral groups in Starrucca in 2013 were Germans (28.8%), English (19.9%), Poles (10.5%), Irish (9.9%), and Dutch (6.8%). Those reporting American ancestry made up 2.6% of the population.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
6zzki0 | Why were the Mormons driven out west and why did they settle in Utah of all places? | [
{
"answer": "The Mormons, especially their leader Joseph Smith, tended to run into legal problems wherever they landed. That makes a consistent narrative hard to compile.\n\nLet's start in upstate New York. As a teen Smith engaged in the profession of using a peep stone to look for buried treasure. He and his band of treasure hunters would hire themselves out to various people to dig for treasure on their land. Smith's role was that of the seer who would tell them where to dig, placate the spirits protecting the treasure, and to offer the excuses when no treasure was found. He was (likely) convicted at least once basically for being a disreputable character during this period. Well, the word \"conviction\" is disputed. But he was taken to court, and paid a fine to the court. The records are spotty. Before leaving New York he escaped from jail at least once, and was brought up on charges related to fraud and sexual misconduct... both of these will reoccur.\n\nIt's around this time he claimed to have found the gold plates. He then published the Book of Mormon as a translation of those plates, and founded what would become the LDS Church. It didn't take long before he was forced to flee to Ohio. Ultimately his \"persecution\" in this period came from three quarters\n\n1. His band of treasure seekers. They took him at his word that he had found gold, and they wanted their cut as had been previously agreed. He came to understandings with a couple of them. But the rest were left in the cold. They resented that and made multiple attempts to steal the gold plates. \n3. His creditors. Smith in the period was a great borrower of money (and other things). He tended to be less good at returning what was lent. He was living and farming on borrowed land, planted with borrowed seed, using a borrowed magical peep stone, to translate his book, which was published with borrowed money. None of these (except the land) was ever returned. And the lenders were getting in some cases murderously impatient. \n2. His family and neighbors. He had a rep as a disreputable character. He was known as a shiftless layabout always working on some get rich quick scheme. He was also known as a no-good rake who was \"ruining\" the local girls. Founding a church was a bridge to far for a lot of them. His father-in-law, the relatives of the Stowe girls, and others first tried to get him in court, and when he skated the charges they were gearing up for a good old fashioned lynching of one type or another. So he skipped town.\n\nAnd... went to Kirtland Ohio. There he met up with a Campbelite preacher, Sydney Rigdon. They became best friends and Kirtland became the church headquarters. Shortly after Missouri became another center of the church, but we'll get to Missouri in a bit. In Ohio Smith started a lot of different projects including an anti-bank (a quasi-legal non-chartered pseudo-bank) after his attempt to charter a real bank was denied by the Ohio authorities. He didn't have enough assets. This was known as the Kirtland Safety Society. Using funds from the anti-bank, Smith and Rigdon engaged in land speculation using other church member's funds to buy and sell land... just in time for the Panic of 1837. This left many church members, and a lot of local non-members, destitute. \n\nA bit before this time his wife found Smith having sex with their maid, Fanny Alger, in their barn. And other rumors of sexual misconduct also swirled. He was beginning to at least think about the doctrine of polygamy, even if he hadn't fully developed it yet. This apparently included some sort of inappropriate conduct with the teen girl Marinda Nancy Johnson and proposed to 12 year old Mary Rollins Lightner. He would later marry both girls. Between the financial problems and the accusations of sexual misconduct tensions rose between the core faithful members, those who split from the church, and their non-Mormon neighbors. Smith was even tarred and feathered, and almost castrated, by a mob led by Marinda Johnson's uncle and at least one brother. So Smith decided it was high time to move to Missouri. The state of Ohio would pursue him legally for the rest of his life, with him regularly dodging process servers and bounty hunters. He was eventually convicted in absentia for fraud. But he never repaid his fine, debts, or served his sentence.\n\nSo we move on to Missouri. This will overlap with the Ohio period for a while. The first Mormon settlers moved into the area in and around Jackson County. Smith had revealed that it was the site of the Garden of Eden, and more importantly would be the location of Jesus Christ's second coming. So the Mormons move in. This caused tension among the existing settlers who were largely slave owners from the South. The Mormons were largely vaguely abolitionist New Englanders. They also were largely buying land with questionable titles, usually on credit, or backed by the Kirtland Safety Society. They also formed a tight-knit community that tended to vote as a block. The Missourians formed their own counter community and voting blocks to counter. Pretty soon tensions boiled over. At one point Smith even raised an army in Ohio of several hundred men and marched to Missouri. A ceasefire agreement of a sort was declared delineating a separation between the Mormons and non-Mormons.\n\nThroughout this period the church in Missouri was being run by members of the Whitmer Family. They considered themselves co-founders of the church. Son-in-Law Oliver Cowdrey was Second Elder of the church and had been the Scribe for the Book of Mormon. They were increasingly unhappy with Smith's increasingly hierarchical organization. They also disapproved of Smith's financial dealings, and his sexual misconduct (as they saw it) and had set themselves up as something of a counter movement within the church. When Smith fled to Missouri he quickly took control of the church there. The Whitmers, Cowdrey, and their supporters were excommunicated and driven from their homes. Rigdon even gave his infamous Salt Sermon declaring a \"war of extermination\" between the faithful and any who would oppose them.\n\nOf course the only place the newly minted excommunicates could go would be to their non-Mormon neighbors. They appealed to the government and the general populous for aid. This ratcheted up tensions a great deal. That fall it spilled over into open violence in what was basically a riot over access to polling booths. The so called Battle of Gallatin was the starting point that saw both sides attacking the outlying settlements of Mormons and Missourians alike. And the Missouri-Mormon war was on. It even had a set piece battle, the Battle of Crooked River, between the militias. The end result was that the Mormon leadership was arrested as the instigators, and agreed that the Mormons would leave the state. Governor Boggs even signed an infamous order known as the Extermination Order to make sure to drive the Mormons from the state.\n\nThe rank and file members spent the winter of 1839-1840 moving to Quincy Illinois (later renamed Nauvoo). The leadership spent the winter in pretty horrid conditions in the ironically named Liberty Jail in Missouri. After a few changes of venue they escaped and followed their fellows to Illinois. From this point on Smith was also on the run from Missouri for treason and murder.\n\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": "The Mormons, especially their leader Joseph Smith, tended to run into legal problems wherever they landed. That makes a consistent narrative hard to compile.\n\nLet's start in upstate New York. As a teen Smith engaged in the profession of using a peep stone to look for buried treasure. He and his band of treasure hunters would hire themselves out to various people to dig for treasure on their land. Smith's role was that of the seer who would tell them where to dig, placate the spirits protecting the treasure, and to offer the excuses when no treasure was found. He was (likely) convicted at least once basically for being a disreputable character during this period. Well, the word \"conviction\" is disputed. But he was taken to court, and paid a fine to the court. The records are spotty. Before leaving New York he escaped from jail at least once, and was brought up on charges related to fraud and sexual misconduct... both of these will reoccur.\n\nIt's around this time he claimed to have found the gold plates. He then published the Book of Mormon as a translation of those plates, and founded what would become the LDS Church. It didn't take long before he was forced to flee to Ohio. Ultimately his \"persecution\" in this period came from three quarters\n\n1. His band of treasure seekers. They took him at his word that he had found gold, and they wanted their cut as had been previously agreed. He came to understandings with a couple of them. But the rest were left in the cold. They resented that and made multiple attempts to steal the gold plates. \n3. His creditors. Smith in the period was a great borrower of money (and other things). He tended to be less good at returning what was lent. He was living and farming on borrowed land, planted with borrowed seed, using a borrowed magical peep stone, to translate his book, which was published with borrowed money. None of these (except the land) was ever returned. And the lenders were getting in some cases murderously impatient. \n2. His family and neighbors. He had a rep as a disreputable character. He was known as a shiftless layabout always working on some get rich quick scheme. He was also known as a no-good rake who was \"ruining\" the local girls. Founding a church was a bridge to far for a lot of them. His father-in-law, the relatives of the Stowe girls, and others first tried to get him in court, and when he skated the charges they were gearing up for a good old fashioned lynching of one type or another. So he skipped town.\n\nAnd... went to Kirtland Ohio. There he met up with a Campbelite preacher, Sydney Rigdon. They became best friends and Kirtland became the church headquarters. Shortly after Missouri became another center of the church, but we'll get to Missouri in a bit. In Ohio Smith started a lot of different projects including an anti-bank (a quasi-legal non-chartered pseudo-bank) after his attempt to charter a real bank was denied by the Ohio authorities. He didn't have enough assets. This was known as the Kirtland Safety Society. Using funds from the anti-bank, Smith and Rigdon engaged in land speculation using other church member's funds to buy and sell land... just in time for the Panic of 1837. This left many church members, and a lot of local non-members, destitute. \n\nA bit before this time his wife found Smith having sex with their maid, Fanny Alger, in their barn. And other rumors of sexual misconduct also swirled. He was beginning to at least think about the doctrine of polygamy, even if he hadn't fully developed it yet. This apparently included some sort of inappropriate conduct with the teen girl Marinda Nancy Johnson and proposed to 12 year old Mary Rollins Lightner. He would later marry both girls. Between the financial problems and the accusations of sexual misconduct tensions rose between the core faithful members, those who split from the church, and their non-Mormon neighbors. Smith was even tarred and feathered, and almost castrated, by a mob led by Marinda Johnson's uncle and at least one brother. So Smith decided it was high time to move to Missouri. The state of Ohio would pursue him legally for the rest of his life, with him regularly dodging process servers and bounty hunters. He was eventually convicted in absentia for fraud. But he never repaid his fine, debts, or served his sentence.\n\nSo we move on to Missouri. This will overlap with the Ohio period for a while. The first Mormon settlers moved into the area in and around Jackson County. Smith had revealed that it was the site of the Garden of Eden, and more importantly would be the location of Jesus Christ's second coming. So the Mormons move in. This caused tension among the existing settlers who were largely slave owners from the South. The Mormons were largely vaguely abolitionist New Englanders. They also were largely buying land with questionable titles, usually on credit, or backed by the Kirtland Safety Society. They also formed a tight-knit community that tended to vote as a block. The Missourians formed their own counter community and voting blocks to counter. Pretty soon tensions boiled over. At one point Smith even raised an army in Ohio of several hundred men and marched to Missouri. A ceasefire agreement of a sort was declared delineating a separation between the Mormons and non-Mormons.\n\nThroughout this period the church in Missouri was being run by members of the Whitmer Family. They considered themselves co-founders of the church. Son-in-Law Oliver Cowdrey was Second Elder of the church and had been the Scribe for the Book of Mormon. They were increasingly unhappy with Smith's increasingly hierarchical organization. They also disapproved of Smith's financial dealings, and his sexual misconduct (as they saw it) and had set themselves up as something of a counter movement within the church. When Smith fled to Missouri he quickly took control of the church there. The Whitmers, Cowdrey, and their supporters were excommunicated and driven from their homes. Rigdon even gave his infamous Salt Sermon declaring a \"war of extermination\" between the faithful and any who would oppose them.\n\nOf course the only place the newly minted excommunicates could go would be to their non-Mormon neighbors. They appealed to the government and the general populous for aid. This ratcheted up tensions a great deal. That fall it spilled over into open violence in what was basically a riot over access to polling booths. The so called Battle of Gallatin was the starting point that saw both sides attacking the outlying settlements of Mormons and Missourians alike. And the Missouri-Mormon war was on. It even had a set piece battle, the Battle of Crooked River, between the militias. The end result was that the Mormon leadership was arrested as the instigators, and agreed that the Mormons would leave the state. Governor Boggs even signed an infamous order known as the Extermination Order to make sure to drive the Mormons from the state.\n\nThe rank and file members spent the winter of 1839-1840 moving to Quincy Illinois (later renamed Nauvoo). The leadership spent the winter in pretty horrid conditions in the ironically named Liberty Jail in Missouri. After a few changes of venue they escaped and followed their fellows to Illinois. From this point on Smith was also on the run from Missouri for treason and murder.\n\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10715792",
"title": "Black Hawk War (1865–1872)",
"section": "Section::::Outcomes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 100,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 100,
"end_character": 909,
"text": "Utah's Black Hawk War had far-reaching and unforeseen outcomes for Mormons and Utes alike. After 1872 Mormons in Utah were able to expand settlements as immigrants swelled valley populations without the threat of Ute resistance. The chasing of Ute raiders through unexplored regions of Utah actually helped explore areas for new settlements as outliers of the larger towns. Ranchers were free to take up land far from population centers without fear of being attacked. Mormons came to accept the army as a force that could do its job without threatening local autonomy. Communities became more independent as they realized that local decisions were often better tailored to suit local conditions than requesting advice from Salt Lake. Mormons were less able to control the functions of government as federal officials began their long crusade to end polygamy and Mormon control of government and the economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2502830",
"title": "Ute people",
"section": "Section::::History.:Contact with other European settlers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "There was continued pressure by the Mormons to push the Utah Utes off their land. This resulted in the Walker War (1853–54). By the mid-1870s, the Utes had been moved onto land onto a reservation, less than 9% of its former land. The Utes found to be very inhospitable and they tried to continue hunting and gathering off the reservation. In the meantime, the Black Hawk War (1865–72) occurred in Utah.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1055983",
"title": "Under the Banner of Heaven",
"section": "Section::::Synopsis.:Mormon history.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 518,
"text": "From Nauvoo, the Mormons trekked westward to modern-day Utah, led by Smith's successor Brigham Young (after some controversy). Arriving in what they called Deseret, many Mormons believed they would be left alone by the United States government, as the territory was then part of Mexico. Soon after their arrival, the Mexican–American War occurred, with Mexico's eventual defeat. Under the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo signed on February 2, 1848, this land, California and the Southwest were ceded to the United States.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29790972",
"title": "Clayton's Guide",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 1220,
"text": "Spurred by violent and repressive religious persecution, the Mormon migration west to Utah added two new river boat ports to the palette of jumping off point towns supporting outfitting of settler parties heading westward Nauvoo, Illinois whose state legislature spurred the Mormon Fathers to call for a migration, then the heart of Mormonisim in the world, and Kanesville in the recently organized Iowa Territory. For teamsters and emigrant parties interested in traveling from the settled and comparatively civilized eastern United States east of the Missouri River through the Midwest (most territory technically still belonged by treaty to Amerindian tribes) to one of the far west U.S. possessions following the various northern plains Emigrant Trails joining or spinning off from the 1830s fur trader opened Oregon Trail The Emigrant Trails became increasing less relevant from the 1869 completion of the transcontinental railway, especially after the 1880s-1890s, but the well explored, relatively safe roads and their guide were still in popular use into the 1910s, and again, at least along local stretches, saw significant traffic during the dust bowl disaster spawned migration from the midwest in the 1930s.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "31829597",
"title": "Religion and human migration",
"section": "Section::::Examples.:Mormon migration to Utah.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints were motivated to migrate from Nauvoo, Illinois to Utah due to both violent persecutions directed against the sect by Protestant citizens and government officials as well as a desire by Brigham Young to establish a Mormon majority territory that would be governed according to Mormon sensibilities and divine law. Tens of thousands of Mormons migrated to Utah and established settlements in the latter 19th century, eventually drawing the ire of the United States government for a time unyielding til the territory (also described colloquially by residents as \"Deseret\") was integrated as the Territory of Utah.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19571",
"title": "Missouri",
"section": "Section::::History.:Nineteenth century.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 468,
"text": "In the early 1830s, Mormon migrants from northern states and Canada began settling near Independence and areas just north of there. Conflicts over religion and slavery arose between the 'old settlers' (mainly from the South) and the Mormons (mainly from the North). The Mormon War erupted in 1838. By 1839, with the help of an \"Extermination Order\" by Governor Lilburn Boggs, the old settlers forcefully expelled the Mormons from Missouri and confiscated their lands.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "867660",
"title": "Missouri Executive Order 44",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 508,
"text": "Although the Mormon leaders surrendered at Far West on November 1, Mormons (especially in outlying areas) continued to be subject to harassment and even forced ejection by citizens and Militia units. The Mormons in Caldwell County, as part of their surrender agreement, signed over all of their property to pay the expenses of the campaign against them; although this act was later held unlawful, it became clear to them that departure from the state was the only option state officials were going to allow.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
277jfj | Why were Quakers banned from the Massachussetts Bay Colony in the mid-1600s? | [
{
"answer": "Quakers were a persecuted group even back in the UK- they emphasized a more personal, direct relationship with God, unmediated by clergy, which was viewed as blasphemous and a threat to the established power of the Church of England. Because the monarch was the head of the church, denying one's allegiance to the church was akin to disloyalty to the state, and so 'nonconformists' like the Quakers were heavily proscribed.\n\nNow, whereas 17th-century England was a state in which political and religious authority were heavily entwined, the Massachusetts Bay Colony was essentially a theocracy- although it was organized on republican lines, the franchise was limited to freemen, and one of the requirements for being a freeman was being a member of a Puritan church. This, too, was in the days when becoming a church member was a very serious business that involved an interrogation by the pastor to hunt down any hints of heterodoxy. \n\nBecause of the religious dominance of the government, the code of laws was heavily based off of Puritan beliefs. People could be prosecuted for crimes as various as playing dice or breaking the Sabbath (to say nothing of people executed for 'witchcraft'). Christmas and May Day were banned. \n\nBack in England, the Quakers had been persecuted for their beliefs because blasphemy was seen as a threat to the social order. However, in the environment of Puritan New England, blasphemy was not just a religious injunction, but a civil offense. Simply by being within the colony and holding beliefs that were at odds with the established doctrine there, one was actively committing a crime, and it was on this basis that Quakers were banned.\n\nThey took no half measures, either. Any Quakers found on a ship coming into the colony were immediately imprisoned before being banished. There were a number of individuals who persisted in coming into the colony over a period of years in the middle of the 1600s, and four of them were eventually publicly hanged for their beliefs. This was seen as the last straw by the authorities in England, who revoked the ban on Quakers and, not long afterwards, ended the colony's de facto independence by sending over a royal governor to enforce the Crown's laws.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "689385",
"title": "Mary Dyer",
"section": "Section::::Quaker conversion.:Quakers in Massachusetts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 720,
"text": "Of all the New England colonies, Massachusetts was the most active in persecuting the Quakers, but the Plymouth, Connecticut and New Haven colonies also shared in their persecution. When the first Quakers arrived in Boston in 1656 there were no laws yet enacted against them, but this quickly changed, and punishments were meted out with or without the law. It was primarily the ministers and the magistrates who opposed the Quakers and their evangelistic efforts. A particularly vehement persecutor, the Reverend John Norton of the Boston church, clamored for the law of banishment upon pain of death. He is the one who later wrote the vindication to England, justifying the execution of the first two Quakers in 1659.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32190390",
"title": "Robert Pike (settler)",
"section": "Section::::In defence of Quakers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 941,
"text": "Small numbers of Quakers started arriving in New England by 1656. The Puritan-dominated General Court immediately enacted laws to discourage their activities. The new laws provided for harsh punishment to anyone who professed the \"heretical opinions\" of Quakers. They even punished ship captains who knowingly carried Quakers as passengers. However, these new measures brought heated debate within the General Court, as their passage was far from unanimous. The Deputies of the General Court, including Robert Pike, who represented the outlying areas, were much more likely to be sensitive to the issue of religious freedom and probably voted against the new laws. Nonetheless, numerous Quaker missionaries were punished by public whippings, banishment, and the threat of death if they returned to Massachusetts Bay Colony. Between 1659 and 1661, five Quakers, all of whom had returned to Boston to continue preaching publicly, were hanged.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2902899",
"title": "Ann Austin",
"section": "Section::::Mission to the New World.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "On 11 July 1656 they became the first Quakers to visit the English North American colonies, arriving at Boston in the Massachusetts Bay Colony on the \"Swallow\". There they met with fierce hostility from the Puritan population and the Deputy Governor of the colony, Richard Bellingham, as news of the heretical views of the Quakers had preceded them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5403663",
"title": "Mary Fisher (missionary)",
"section": "Section::::Mission to the New World.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "On 11 July 1656 they became the first Quakers to visit the English North American colonies, arriving at Boston in the Massachusetts Bay Colony on the \"Swallow\". There they met with fierce hostility from the Puritan population and the Deputy Governor of the colony, Richard Bellingham, as news of the heretical views of the Quakers had preceded them.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42657576",
"title": "Christianity and science",
"section": "Section::::Branches of Christianity.:Protestant influence.:Quakers in science.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Despite those arguments a major factor is agreed to be that the Quakers were initially discouraged or forbidden to go to the major law or humanities schools in Britain due to the Test Act. They also at times faced similar discriminations in the United States, as many of the colonial universities had a Puritan or Anglican orientation. This led them to attend \"Godless\" institutions or forced them to rely on hands-on scientific experimentation rather than academia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3188727",
"title": "Quakers in science",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 467,
"text": "Despite those arguments a major factor is agreed to be that the Quakers were initially discouraged or forbidden to go to the major law or humanities schools in Britain due to the Test Act. They also at times faced similar discriminations in the United States, as many of the colonial universities had a Puritan or Anglican orientation. This led them to attend \"Godless\" institutions or forced them to rely on hands-on scientific experimentation rather than academia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5723927",
"title": "Thomas Prence",
"section": "Section::::Plymouth Governor.:Quaker relations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 430,
"text": "In 1656, not long before Prence became governor, Quakers began to arrive in New England in substantial numbers. The conservative leaders of the Puritan colonies were alarmed by what they saw as their heretical religious views. Massachusetts issued a call to the United Colonies for concerted action against them, and would ultimately take the hardest line against them, hanging four of them for repeated violations of banishment.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3dtyya | how do torrent websites keep track of the seeds/peers of each torrent? | [
{
"answer": "So a torrent has seeders (people who have the whole file and are actively sharing it) and leechers (typically people who download more than they upload). The collection of the seeders and leechers is called a swarm. Different torrent sites use a tracker to organise the swarm. The tracker is what detects the number of people seeding and leeching. So when you open a torrent your computer talks to the tracker and tells it which torrent you're after (downloading), or you tell it that you're ready to upload for someone (seeding).",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "They run a piece of software called a tracker. When you want to download a file through bit torrent you get a .torrent file or a magnet link that tells your client what tracker(s) to connect to. When you connect to the tracker it provides a list of all the peers it is aware of. Peers periodically report back to the tracker how much of the file they have and what parts of the file they have. When a peer reports they have 100% of the file they are moved from the leecher category to the seeder category. Periodically the tracker removes peers from the list that it hasn't heard from in a certain amount of time.\n\nThe tracker software has an interface through which the statistical information can be queried for use in websites and such.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1838905",
"title": "Super-seeding",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 386,
"text": "The algorithm applies to a scenario in which there is only one seed in the swarm. By permitting each downloader to download only specific parts of the files listed in a torrent, it equips peers to begin seeding sooner. Peers attached to a seed with super-seeding enabled therefore distribute pieces of the torrent file much more readily before they have completed download themselves. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239098",
"title": "BitTorrent",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Downloading torrents and sharing files.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 586,
"text": "Users find a torrent of interest on a torrent index site or by using a search engine built into the client, download it, and open it with a BitTorrent client. The client connects to the tracker(s) or seeds specified in the torrent file, from which it receives a list of seeds and peers currently transferring pieces of the file(s). The client connects to those peers to obtain the various pieces. If the swarm contains only the initial seeder, the client connects directly to it, and begins to request pieces. Clients incorporate mechanisms to optimize their download and upload rates.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239098",
"title": "BitTorrent",
"section": "Section::::Technologies built on BitTorrent.:Web seeding.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 827,
"text": "Web \"seeding\" was implemented in 2006 as the ability of BitTorrent clients to download torrent pieces from an HTTP source in addition to the \"swarm\". The advantage of this feature is that a website may distribute a torrent for a particular file or batch of files and make those files available for download from that same web server; this can simplify long-term seeding and load balancing through the use of existing, cheap, web hosting setups. In theory, this would make using BitTorrent almost as easy for a web publisher as creating a direct HTTP download. In addition, it would allow the \"web seed\" to be disabled if the swarm becomes too popular while still allowing the file to be readily available. This feature has two distinct specifications, both of which are supported by Libtorrent and the 26+ clients that use it.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1237986",
"title": "EXeem",
"section": "Section::::Network.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "The eXeem network used super-peers that were used to track torrents (as ordinary bittorrent trackers). These super-peers were also responsible for maintaining file lists, comments and ratings for part of the files in the network. When a peer that was tracking a torrent was closed or went down, a new peer was assigned to be the tracker for that particular torrent.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17932591",
"title": "Torrentz",
"section": "Section::::Usage.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "Selecting a torrent from the search results list would take the user to another page listing the websites currently hosting the specified torrent (with which users would download files). As Torrentz used meta-search engines, users would be redirected to other torrent sites to download content (commonly KickassTorrents, which was considered safe to use).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "239098",
"title": "BitTorrent",
"section": "Section::::Operation.:Search queries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 791,
"text": "Web search engines allow the discovery of torrent files that are hosted and tracked on other sites; examples include The Pirate Bay, Torrentz, isoHunt and BTDigg. These sites allow the user to ask for content meeting specific criteria (such as containing a given word or phrase) and retrieve a list of links to torrent files matching those criteria. This list can often be sorted with respect to several criteria, relevance (seeders-leechers ratio) being one of the most popular and useful (due to the way the protocol behaves, the download bandwidth achievable is very sensitive to this value). Metasearch engines allow one to search several BitTorrent indices and search engines at once. DHT search engines monitors the DHT network, and indexes torrents via metadata exchange from peers. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3930800",
"title": "Peer exchange",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1051,
"text": "Users wishing to obtain a copy of a file typically first download a torrent file that describes the file(s) to be shared, as well as the URLs of one or more central computers called trackers that maintain a list of peers currently sharing the file(s) described in the .torrent file. In the original BitTorrent design, peers then depended on this central tracker to find each other and maintain the swarm. Later development of distributed hash tables (DHTs) meant that partial lists of peers could be held by other computers in the swarm and the load on the central tracker computer could be reduced. PEX allows peers in a swarm to exchange information about the swarm directly without asking (polling) a tracker computer or a DHT. By doing so, PEX leverages the knowledge of peers that a user is connected to by asking them for the addresses of peers that they are connected to. This is faster and more efficient than relying solely on one tracker and reduces the processing load on the tracker. It also keep swarms together when the tracker is down.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
44wwi0 | Did the concept of zero exist in the Roman era? | [
{
"answer": "The Romans didn't have a _number_ for zero. They definitely had the _concept_ though.\n\nThey just used the word \"nulla\" to mean nothing. Either you had something, or it wasn't worth counting. \n\nRoman numerals are almost useless when doing math. Even simple addition and subtraction is clumsy and slow. I've heard it speculated (but don't have a source) that they did most calculations with abacus-like frames, where the numbers remained abstract, and then wrote down the result of their math in the traditional Roman numerals. That is, the numerals were for records, not arithmetic, making a numeral for \"zero\" even more useless. Why record the transaction if nothing happened? \n\nIn modern systems, zero can be an important placeholder (think \"100\") but practical, day-to-day situations involving a true zero are pretty rare and most of those cases can be covered with nulla or maybe \"free.\" \n\nAs in all things, the Romans were also heavily influenced by Greek thinking and the Greeks liked to debate the \nphilosophical nature of zero (\"how can anything truly be nothing?\"), which again shows that everyone was aware of the concept, just not sure of its utility. \n\nI've never heard anything about the Romans fearing pagan mathematical concepts. Until Constantine and Christianity, Romans wouldn't have even thought of other people as \"pagans.\" Barbarians, certainly, but when you live in a polytheistic culture, pagan doesn't mean much. \n\nP.S. If someone has an example of a Roman source working out a sum, I'd really like to see it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4145437",
"title": "Year zero",
"section": "Section::::Historical, astronomical and ISO year numbering systems.:Historians.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 728,
"text": "Neither the concept nor a symbol for zero existed in the system of Roman numerals. The Babylonian system of the BC era had used the idea of \"nothingness\" without considering it a number, and the Romans enumerated in much the same way. Wherever a modern zero would have been used, Bede and Dionysius Exiguus did use Latin number words, or the word \"nulla\" (meaning \"nothing\") alongside Roman numerals. Zero was invented in India in the sixth century, and was either transferred or reinvented by the Arabs by about the eighth century. The Arabic numeral for zero (0) did not enter Europe until the thirteenth century. Even then, it was known only to very few, and only entered widespread use in Europe by the seventeenth century.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21690",
"title": "Number",
"section": "Section::::History.:Zero.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 456,
"text": "Another true zero was used in tables alongside Roman numerals by 525 (first known use by Dionysius Exiguus), but as a word, meaning \"nothing\", not as a symbol. When division produced 0 as a remainder, , also meaning \"nothing\", was used. These medieval zeros were used by all future medieval computists (calculators of Easter). An isolated use of their initial, N, was used in a table of Roman numerals by Bede or a colleague about 725, a true zero symbol.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34513",
"title": "0",
"section": "Section::::History.:Classical antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 21,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 21,
"end_character": 436,
"text": "Another zero was used in tables alongside Roman numerals by 525 (first known use by Dionysius Exiguus), but as a word, \"nulla\" meaning \"nothing\", not as a symbol. When division produced zero as a remainder, \"nihil\", also meaning \"nothing\", was used. These medieval zeros were used by all future medieval calculators of Easter. The initial \"N\" was used as a zero symbol in a table of Roman numerals by Bede or his colleagues around 725.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21690",
"title": "Number",
"section": "Section::::History.:Zero.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 509,
"text": "By 130 AD, Ptolemy, influenced by Hipparchus and the Babylonians, was using a symbol for 0 (a small circle with a long overbar) within a sexagesimal numeral system otherwise using alphabetic Greek numerals. Because it was used alone, not as just a placeholder, this Hellenistic zero was the first \"documented\" use of a true zero in the Old World. In later Byzantine manuscripts of his \"Syntaxis Mathematica\" (\"Almagest\"), the Hellenistic zero had morphed into the Greek letter Omicron (otherwise meaning 70).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34513",
"title": "0",
"section": "Section::::History.:Classical antiquity.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 431,
"text": "The ancient Greeks had no symbol for zero (μηδέν), and did not use a digit placeholder for it. They seemed unsure about the status of zero as a number. They asked themselves, \"How can nothing \"be\" something?\", leading to philosophical and, by the medieval period, religious arguments about the nature and existence of zero and the vacuum. The paradoxes of Zeno of Elea depend in large part on the uncertain interpretation of zero.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5244",
"title": "Cipher",
"section": "Section::::Etymology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 424,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Roman number system was very cumbersome because there was no concept of zero (or empty space). The concept of zero (which was also called \"cipher\"), which is now common knowledge, was alien to medieval Europe, so confusing and ambiguous to common Europeans that in arguments people would say \"talk clearly and not so far fetched as a cipher\". Cipher came to mean concealment of clear messages or encryption.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277184",
"title": "Mathematical notation",
"section": "Section::::History.:Counting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "The development of zero as a number is one of the most important developments in early mathematics. It was used as a placeholder by the Babylonians and Greek Egyptians, and then as an integer by the Mayans, Indians and Arabs. (See The history of zero for more information.)\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2ic213 | Was there any actual proof of genocide in Srebrenica and Zepa? | [
{
"answer": "Discovery and excavation of mass graves in the region has been [going on for years.]( _URL_0_)",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The Srebrenica is a relatively well documented event. I really wish someone with extant expertise in the disintegration of Yugoslavia would pick up your question.\n\nIn the meantime, although not my favorite source, the [Wikipedia entry](_URL_0_) is surprisingly detailed and informative, and might offer a good starting point on the topic.\n\nAnther document you might find useful is:\n\nthe report by [THE COMMISSION FOR INVESTIGATION OF THE EVENTS IN AND AROUND SREBRENICA BETWEEN 10 th AND 19 th JULY 1995 THE EVENTS IN AND AROUND SREBRENICA BETWEEN 10 th AND 19 th JULY 1995 ](_URL_2_);\n\nAnd the [Addendum](_URL_1_)\n\nHowever, the actual admission of genocide is a highly sensitive political issue and there are a horde of denialists.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "4218129",
"title": "Milorad Dodik",
"section": "Section::::Controversy.:Srebrenica genocide opinion.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 478,
"text": "On 12 July 2010, at the 15th anniversary of the Srebrenica Massacre, Dodik declared that he acknowledges the killings that happened on the site, but does not regard what happened at Srebrenica as genocide, differing from the conclusions of the ICTY and of the International Court of Justice. \"If a genocide happened then it was committed against Serb people of this region where women, children and the elderly were killed en masse,\" Dodik said, in reference to eastern Bosnia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12441",
"title": "Genocide",
"section": "Section::::International prosecution of genocide.:By \"ad hoc\" tribunals.:International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (1993–2017).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "In 2001, the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) judged that the 1995 Srebrenica massacre was an act of genocide. On 26 February 2007, the International Court of Justice (ICJ), in the \"Bosnian Genocide Case\" upheld the ICTY's earlier finding that the massacre in Srebrenica and Zepa constituted genocide, but found that the Serbian government had not participated in a wider genocide on the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina during the war, as the Bosnian government had claimed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1471933",
"title": "Bosnian genocide",
"section": "Section::::International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia.:Finding of genocide at Žepa.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 299,
"text": "In the case of Tolimir, in the first degree verdict, the International Criminal Tribunal has concluded that genocide was committed in the enclave of Žepa, outside of Srebrenica. However, that conviction was overturned by the appeals chamber, which narrowed the crime of genocide only to Srebrenica.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "30307139",
"title": "Doboj ethnic cleansing (1992)",
"section": "Section::::Legal cases.:Other.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 712,
"text": "On 26 September 1997, Nikola Jorgić was found guilty by the Düsseldorf Oberlandesgericht (Higher Regional Court) on 11 counts of genocide involving the murder of 30 persons in the Doboj region, making it the first Bosnian Genocide prosecution. However, ICTY ruled out that genocide did not occur . Jorgić's appeal was rejected by the German Bundesgerichtshof (Federal Supreme Court) on 30 April 1999. The Oberlandesgericht found that Jorgić, a Bosnian Serb, had been the leader of a paramilitary group in the Doboj region that had taken part in acts of terror against the local Bosniak population carried out with the backing of the Serb leaders and intended to contribute to their policy of \"ethnic cleansing\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "814723",
"title": "Srebrenica massacre",
"section": "Section::::Legal proceedings.:International Court of Justice.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 297,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 297,
"end_character": 1325,
"text": "In addition, the Srebrenica massacre was the core issue of the landmark court case Bosnian Genocide case at the International Court of Justice through which Bosnia and Herzegovina accused Serbia and Montenegro of genocide. The ICJ presented its judgement on 26 February 2007, which concurred with ICTY's recognition of the Srebrenica massacre as genocide. It cleared Serbia of direct involvement in genocide during the Bosnian war, but ruled that Belgrade did breach international law by failing to prevent the 1995 Srebrenica genocide, and for failing to try or transfer the persons accused of genocide to the ICTY, in order to comply with its obligations under Articles I and VI of the Genocide Convention, in particular in respect of General Ratko Mladić. Citing national security, Serbia obtained permission from the ICTY to keep parts of its military archives out of the public eye during its trial of Slobodan Milošević, which may have decisively affected the ICJ's judgement in the lawsuit brought against Serbia by Bosnia-Herzegovina, as the archives were hence not on the ICTY's public record – although the ICJ could have, but did not, subpoena the documents themselves. Chief prosecutor's office, OTP, rejects allegations that there was a deal with Belgrade to conceal documents from the ICJ Bosnia genocide case.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "143988",
"title": "Genocide Convention",
"section": "Section::::Breaches.:The Former Yugoslavia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 1158,
"text": "International Tribunal findings, have addressed two allegations of genocidal events, including the 1992 Ethnic Cleansing Campaign in municipalities throughout Bosnia, as well as the convictions found in regards to the Srebrenica Massacre of 1995 in which the tribunal found, \"Bosnian Serb forces committed genocide, they targeted for extinction, the 40,000 Bosnian Muslims of Srebrenica ... the trial chamber refers to the crimes by their appropriate name, genocide ...\". Individual convictions applicable to the 1992 Ethnic Cleansings have not been secured however. A number domestic courts and legislatures have found these events to have met the criteria of genocide, and the ICTY found the acts of, and intent to destroy to have been satisfied, the \"Dolus Specialis\" still in question and before the MICT, UN war crimes court. but ruled that Belgrade did breach international law by failing to prevent the 1995 Srebrenica genocide, and for failing to try or transfer the persons accused of genocide to the ICTY, in order to comply with its obligations under Articles I and VI of the Genocide Convention, in particular in respect of General Ratko Mladić.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "28456749",
"title": "Pamela Geller",
"section": "Section::::Views.:Genocide conspiracy theories.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 47,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 47,
"end_character": 521,
"text": "According to a 2013 study of the Srebrenica genocide, Geller \"is among the most vociferous revisionists\" of the genocide. She denies the genocide of Bosnians in Srebrenica, describing it as the \"Srebrenica Genocide Myth.\" She has defended Slobodan Milošević, who died while standing trial for war crimes in the Bosnian War, and denied the existence of Serbian concentration camps. She claimed that the 1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo was \"in order to pave the way for an Islamic state in the heart of Europe – Kosovo.\" \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
147nir | What does the wobble of the earth's axis have on the weather? | [
{
"answer": "You are on the correct trail in researching Milankovitch cycles. The question of does it effect weather is really one of time-scales. The characteristic time scale of Axial precession (wobble) is 26,000 years so any effect on our 'weather' would be on similar time-scales. It is basically impossible for something which varies once every 26,000 years to effect weather which changes on a daily basis. Milankovitch cycles are relevant for climate-changes of 10,000s of years, but not weather.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Late on the action here, but keep in mind that Milankovitch cycles occur over long time periods. So yes, you likely would not see the effects of a changing cycle in your lifetime. \nAs sverdupian said: recognizing the difference between weather and climate is important here.\n\n\"climate change\" refers to changing weather trends worldwide, over time. \nSure, it is 60 F in Ohio today, and possibly all week. That is certainly strange, but one weather pattern cannot directly be traced to global climate change or a Milankovich cycle. \nex: Superstorm Sandy.\n Global climate change has and will continue to lead to more frequent and intense weather events (like more and larger hurricanes), but that does not necessarily mean that Sandy was caused by climate change. It is likely a result of changing weather patterns, but it is difficult to relate one particular weather event to a large scale process such as climate change, or a huge scale process (that's a technical term ;) ) like Milankovich cycles. \n\nTl;dr \nMore questions than answers is common, but it means you are thinking critically. Also, science is fun, but sometimes it is frustrating.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "23994165",
"title": "Retrograde and prograde motion",
"section": "Section::::Earth's atmosphere.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 255,
"text": "Retrograde motion, or retrogression, within the Earth's atmosphere is seen in weather systems whose motion is opposite the general direction of airflow, i.e. from east to west against the westerlies or from west to east through the trade wind easterlies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "35971482",
"title": "Day length fluctuations",
"section": "Section::::Exchange of angular momentum.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 674,
"text": "Surface friction allows the atmosphere to 'pick up' angular momentum from Earth in the case of retrograde rotation or release it to Earth in the case of superrotation. Averaging over longer time scales, no exchange of AAM with the solid Earth takes place. Earth and atmosphere are decoupled. This implies that the ground level zonal wind-component responsible for rigid rotation must be zero on the average. Indeed, the observed meridional structure of the climatic mean zonal wind on the ground shows westerly winds (from the west) in middle latitudes beyond about ± 30 latitude and easterly winds (from the east) in low latitudes—the trade winds—as well as near the poles\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41960512",
"title": "List of unsolved problems in geoscience",
"section": "Section::::Structure of crust, mantle, and core.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 237,
"text": "BULLET::::- Does the internal mantle structure provide the resonance for the Chandler wobble of the earth's axis or is it some other external mechanism? No available motions seem to be coherent drivers for the wobble period of 433 days.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "584911",
"title": "External ballistics",
"section": "Section::::Long range factors.:Coriolis drift.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 146,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 146,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "The Coriolis effect causes Coriolis drift in a direction perpendicular to the Earth's axis; for most locations on Earth and firing directions, this deflection includes horizontal and vertical components. The deflection is to the right of the trajectory in the northern hemisphere, to the left in the southern hemisphere, upward for eastward shots, and downward for westward shots. The vertical Coriolis deflection is also known as the Eötvös effect. Coriolis drift is not an aerodynamic effect; it is a consequence of the rotation of the Earth.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3275488",
"title": "The Holy Science",
"section": "Section::::Yuga theory.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 215,
"text": "The common explanation for this celestial phenomenon is precession, the ‘wobbling’ rotating movement of the earth axis. Research into Sri Yukteswar’s explanation is being conducted by the Binary Research Institute.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "227314",
"title": "Chandler wobble",
"section": "Section::::Hypotheses.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 292,
"text": "While it has to be maintained by changes in the mass distribution or angular momentum of the Earth's outer core, atmosphere, oceans, or crust (from earthquakes), for a long time the actual source was unclear, since no available motions seemed to be coherent with what was driving the wobble.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21836",
"title": "North Pole",
"section": "Section::::Precise definition.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 1078,
"text": "The Earth's axis of rotation – and hence the position of the North Pole – was commonly believed to be fixed (relative to the surface of the Earth) until, in the 18th century, the mathematician Leonhard Euler predicted that the axis might \"wobble\" slightly. Around the beginning of the 20th century astronomers noticed a small apparent \"variation of latitude,\" as determined for a fixed point on Earth from the observation of stars. Part of this variation could be attributed to a wandering of the Pole across the Earth's surface, by a range of a few metres. The wandering has several periodic components and an irregular component. The component with a period of about 435 days is identified with the eight-month wandering predicted by Euler and is now called the Chandler wobble after its discoverer. The exact point of intersection of the Earth's axis and the Earth's surface, at any given moment, is called the \"instantaneous pole\", but because of the \"wobble\" this cannot be used as a definition of a fixed North Pole (or South Pole) when metre-scale precision is required.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
agdkn1 | why does mitch mcconnell have so much power? | [
{
"answer": "Mitch McConnell, is the Senate Majority leader. In the United States, our legislature (the body that writes our laws) is split into two pieces, the House of Representatives and the Senate. For a law to get passed it needs approval (by majority, though arguably by a super majority in the Senate on certain types of laws) of both houses. So at the moment, the Democrats (the US' center left party, although moving more leftward) controls the House of Reps while the Republicans (the US' (very) right wing party) controls the Presidency and the Senate. Since Mitch McConnell in some ways speaks for the bloc of republicans in the senate he wields a lot of power in that institution, effectively being able to block anything the democrats might wants to do in the house (if it requires both halves of congress). Plus, there are certain things that ONLY the senate can do, like approve the appointment judges (see e.g. the intense fights recently over nominations of supreme court judges). So long as senate republicans are disciplined, McConnell can be said to effectively control the Senate. So technically he's not deciding the issues on his own, he's just the face. There are also some people who argue that he is a brilliant political tactician and has done a lot of impressive things by using rules to maneuver in the Senate. I'm personally more skeptical of this, but that's another reason he gets a lot of focus. \nEdit: See below ",
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},
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"answer": "He is the Senate Majority Leader.\n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe political party that he belongs to, the Republicans, have the majority of the seats in the Senate. According to the Senate's rules (which they get to make up themselves), the majority party gets to vote to elect a leader. That leader is given the power to schedule bills for votes. \n\n & #x200B;\n\nThe senate could vote to change those rules if they wanted, but they typically don't because whoever has the majority of the seats will also have the most votes against changing the rules. ",
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "350567",
"title": "Mitch McConnell",
"section": "Section::::U.S. Senate (1985–present).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
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"text": "McConnell has gained a reputation as a skilled political strategist and tactician. However, this reputation dimmed after Republicans failed to repeal the Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) in 2017 during consolidated Republican control of government.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "350567",
"title": "Mitch McConnell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
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"text": "McConnell was elected to the Senate in 1984 and has been re-elected five times since. During the 1998 and 2000 election cycles, he was chairman of the National Republican Senatorial Committee. McConnell was elected as Majority Whip in the 108th Congress and was re-elected to the post in 2004. In November 2006, he was elected Senate Minority Leader; he held that post until 2015, when Republicans took control of the Senate and he became Senate Majority Leader.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "350567",
"title": "Mitch McConnell",
"section": "Section::::U.S. Senate (1985–present).:Economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 254,
"text": "In 2018, McConnell called for entitlement cuts and raised concern about government deficits. He blamed the deficit on government spending, and dismissed criticisms of the tax cuts bill he passed the year prior, which added more than $1 trillion in debt.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1789065",
"title": "John P. McConnell",
"section": "Section::::Postscript.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 697,
"text": "McConnell's role as Chief of Staff of the Air Force, as well as that of the other members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff during the Vietnam War, specifically under the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara, has recently been the subject of significant historical research in the area of the relationships between senior military leaders (e.g., the JCS) and the civilian political leadership (e.g., the National Command Authority) and has increasingly become a topical discussion issue and object lesson for officers attending the nation's senior service colleges (i.e., Air War College, Army War College, Naval War College and National War College).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "475502",
"title": "John Michael McConnell",
"section": "Section::::Military and intelligence career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 450,
"text": "McConnell was the second person to hold the position of Director of National Intelligence. He was nominated by President George W. Bush on January 5, 2007, and was sworn in at Bolling Air Force Base in Washington, D.C. on February 20, 2007. McConnell's appointment to the post was initially greeted with broad bipartisan support, although he has since attracted criticism for advocating some of the Bush administration's more controversial policies.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "350567",
"title": "Mitch McConnell",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "McConnell was known as a pragmatist and a moderate Republican early in his political career but veered to the right over time. He led opposition to stricter campaign finance laws, culminating in the Supreme Court ruling that partially overturned the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act (McCain-Feingold) in 2009. During the Obama presidency, McConnell worked to withhold Republican support for major presidential initiatives, made frequent use of the filibuster, and blocked many of Obama's judicial nominees, including Supreme Court nominee Merrick Garland. McConnell later described his decision to block the Garland nomination as \"the most consequential decision I've made in my entire public career\". Under McConnell's leadership of the Senate, Obama saw the fewest judicial nominees confirmed in the final two years of a presidency since 1951-1952. McConnell was included in the \"Time\" 100 list of the most influential people in the world in 2015.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "32070",
"title": "Republican Party (United States)",
"section": "Section::::Positions.:Social policies.:Democracy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 95,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 95,
"end_character": 1188,
"text": "Scholars have also characterized Mitch McConnell's tenure as Senate Minority Leader and Senate Majority Leader during the Obama presidency as one where obstructionism reached all-time highs. Political scientists have referred to McConnell's use of the filibuster as \"constitutional hardball\", referring to the misuse of procedural tools in a way that undermines democracy. McConnell delayed and obstructed health care reform and banking reform, which were two landmark pieces of legislation that Democrats sought to pass (and in fact did pass) early in Obama's tenure. By delaying Democratic priority legislation, McConnell stymied the output of Congress. Political scientists Eric Schickler and Gregory J. Wawro write, \"by slowing action even on measures supported by many Republicans, McConnell capitalized on the scarcity of floor time, forcing Democratic leaders into difficult trade-offs concerning which measures were worth pursuing. That is, given that Democrats had just two years with sizeable majorities to enact as much of their agenda as possible, slowing the Senate’s ability to process even routine measures limited the sheer volume of liberal bills that could be adopted.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
2fyr09 | Was Ludwig van Beethoven black? | [
{
"answer": "My vote is for \"this is bullshit.\"\n\nBeethoven was well known in his life. After his death, he was pretty much considered the model of what the composer should be and his music became gospel. He was pretty much canonized in the 19th century, and his image is still VERY strong in the world of classical music. His music was used by the nazis for several reasons, it was still a symbol and they tried to use it for their agenda.\n\nHe was an extremely well respected musician, during and after his life people tried to be associated with him. As far as I can tell, this theory is just another example of somebody with an agenda.\n\nBeethoven was apparently nicknamed The Spaniard as a boy. There is a case of description of him as an adult telling us he was \"short in stature, broad in the shoulders, short neck, large head, round nose, dark brown complexion; he always bent forward slightly when he walked.\" He lived at this house people have called Das Schwarzspanierhaus (literally \"house of the Black Spaniards,\" which I think arises comes from some association of this place with some Spanish friars who wore black robes).\n\nThat is what I know that is related to dark-coloured and Spanish. I don't know of solid evidence that could indicate he was black, a moor, or from Spain. The Beethoven Center at San José State University [agrees there is no evidence supporting this](_URL_1_).\n\nDo you want to know about a black musician who lived in Europe during Beethoven's life? [Joseph Antonio Emidy (1775 – 1835)](_URL_0_). \n\nThere's no conspiracy here, this is something we would know for sure. The academic world would have no reason to force the idea of a \"white\" Beethoven, we would just not care now... Classical music made it to a hell of a lot of countries, we (non-Europeans) have assimilated it, it is no longer an exclusively European thing. We wouldn't care to find out he was a black transexual Mexican woman who was formerly a shaman and ended in Europe because of alien experiments. But you can be sure we would be VERY interested in evidence for such a discovery.\n\nA lot has been discussed about Beethoven, probably more than about any other famous musician. I remember reading this theory that \"he wasn't actually that good,\" that his fame was just the product of a bunch of situations... \n\nWhat's next, \"was Beethoven an alien with 2 brains\"? (Like Bach)\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "36530804",
"title": "Ludwig van (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Ludwig van (full title: \"Ludwig van: A report\"; German: \"Ludwig van: ein Bericht\") is a black-and-white German film by Mauricio Kagel. Filmed in 1969, it was first screened the following year. The work was commissioned by Westdeutscher Rundfunk for the bicentennial celebrations of the birth of Ludwig van Beethoven in 1970. The film examines the reception of the composer and his works and how he has become a consumer product of the culture industry. The soundtrack is an arrangement of fragments of Beethoven's works, modified as if heard by the deaf composer himself; it is distinct from Kagel's 1970 composition \"Ludwig van\". Prominent contemporary artists including Dieter Roth, Stefan Wewerka (), Robert Filliou, and Joseph Beuys were involved in the design. According to \"Gramophone\", \"at first it’s a laugh a minute ... then Kagel's film turns dark\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "12461073",
"title": "Beethoven Was One-Sixteenth Black",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"text": "Beethoven was One-Sixteenth Black is a book of short stories by Nadine Gordimer, published by Bloomsbury. Reviewing the collection in \"The New York Times\", Siddhartha Deb said: \"As she always has, Gordimer offers her readers a rare combination of intimacy and transcendence\". Jonathan Gibbs wrote in \"The Independent\": \"In her 84th year, Nadine Gordimer has produced a remarkable 10th collection. They show none of the \"audacity\" Richard Ford called for in his recent anthology of American short stories. Instead, what they show is tact: a quality that seems bound up in Gordimer's decades of experience. There are stories here that a 30-year-old could not have thought to write, let alone written.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "20868830",
"title": "Death of Ludwig van Beethoven",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Ludwig van Beethoven, a German composer, died in his apartment in the , Vienna, on 26 March 1827 at the age of 56, following a prolonged illness. It was witnessed by his sister-in-law and by his close friend Anselm Hüttenbrenner, who provided a vivid description of the event. Beethoven's funeral was held three days later, and the procession was witnessed by a large crowd. He was buried in the cemetery at Währing, although his remains were moved in 1888 to the Vienna Central Cemetery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "1478419",
"title": "Johann van Beethoven",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 498,
"text": "Johann van Beethoven (c. 1739 or 1740 – 18 December 1792) was a Flemish-German musician, teacher, and singer who sang in the chapel of the Archbishop of Cologne, whose court was at Bonn. He is best known as the father of the celebrated composer Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827). Johann was an alcoholic and an abusive father who often beat Ludwig. At 18, Ludwig had to obtain an order to force Johann to support his family. Johann died soon after Ludwig moved to Vienna to study with Joseph Haydn.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17914",
"title": "Ludwig van Beethoven",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 343,
"text": "Ludwig van Beethoven (; ; baptised 17 December 177026 March 1827) was a German composer and pianist. A crucial figure in the transition between the classical and romantic eras in classical music, he remains one of the most recognized and influential musicians of this period, and is considered to be one of the greatest composers of all time.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "17914",
"title": "Ludwig van Beethoven",
"section": "Section::::Life and career.:Custody struggle and illness.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 527,
"text": "Between 1815 and 1817 Beethoven's output dropped again. He attributed part of this to a lengthy illness (he called it an \"inflammatory fever\") that he had for more than a year, starting in October 1816. Biographers have speculated on a variety of other reasons that also contributed to the decline, including the difficulties in the personal lives of his would-be paramours and the harsh censorship policies of the Austrian government. The illness and death of his brother Kaspar from tuberculosis may also have played a role.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48888223",
"title": "Ludwig van Beethoven (1712–1773)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
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"text": "Ludwig van Beethoven the Elder, also Ludovicus van Beethoven, born Lodewijk van Beethoven (; January 5, 1712 – December 24, 1773) was a professional singer and music director, best known as the grandfather of the composer Ludwig van Beethoven.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
cviqkm | what is a good and simple analogy for the big freeze theory? | [
{
"answer": "Set everything on fire and watch everything burn to ash. You can't start a new fire using those ashes.\n\nEssentially everything in the universe operates on a similar principle. Everything happening happens because energy is being used up. At some point the sun which powers pretty much all life on earth is going to burn out. Once that happens its not like you can refuel the sun at a galactic space station.",
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"answer": "Imagine you put 1000 ants randomly onto a little patch of soil 1 foot square. They're close together, they can work together to achieve things, maybe they'll even establish a new colony. It's thriving with activity.\n\nBut now imagine you can magically grow that square foot of soil at an ever-expanding rate.\n\nAfter an hour it's now 10ft square. The ants can still cross the distance and cooperate, it just takes them longer and uses more energy.\n\nAfter two hours it's a mile square. Maybe some ants are still working together here and there but most just got separated by distance and are wandering around alone.\n\nAfter three hours it's a thousand miles square. Now each ant is so far apart from it's neighbors that they'll likely never meet except in rare circumstances.\n\nAfter four hours it's a million miles square. The possibility that any two ants will ever meet and be able to do work together is vanishingly small.\n\nAfter five hours it's a hundred billion miles square. Each ant couldn't even cross the distance to the next ant if it walked for an entire lifetime.\n\nAfter six hours, all the ants are dead. Each one ran out of energy and just lay down on their separate, lonely, vast islands of isolation and expired.\n\nThe whole scene is still. What was once thriving activity is now completely static and lifeless.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "23570340",
"title": "The Big Freeze (film)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 399,
"text": "The Big Freeze is a 1993 featurette-length film written and directed by Eric Sykes. The action centres on mishaps involving a father and son plumbing team attending to business in sub-zero temperatures at a retirement home in Finland. Like other Sykes directorial vehicles, the piece is a silent comedy with a star cast - here including Bob Hoskins, John Mills, Donald Pleasence and Spike Milligan.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "25349142",
"title": "Public budgeting",
"section": "Section::::Approaches to budgeting.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 26,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 26,
"end_character": 235,
"text": "BULLET::::- Flexible Freeze is a budgeting approach pioneered by President George H. W. Bush as a means to cut government spending. Under this approach, certain programs would be affected by changes in population growth and inflation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "424227",
"title": "Peace Action",
"section": "Section::::History.:Nuclear Weapons Freeze Campaign.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 416,
"text": "Specifically, the Freeze's goal was to get the U.S. and the Soviet Union to simultaneously adopt a mutual freeze on the testing, production, and deployment of nuclear weapons and of missiles, as well as new aircraft designed primarily to deliver nuclear weapons. Much emphasis was put on the MX and Pershing II missiles. Randall Forsberg was the organizer who initiated this idea of the \"mutual, verifiable\" Freeze.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1844451",
"title": "Freeze (software engineering)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "In software engineering, a freeze is a point in time in the development process after which the rules for making changes to the source code or related resources become more strict, or the period during which those rules are applied. A freeze helps move the project forward towards a release or the end of an iteration by reducing the scale or frequency of changes, and may be used to help meet a roadmap.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "192904",
"title": "Ultimate fate of the universe",
"section": "Section::::Theories about the end of the universe.:Big Freeze or heat death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 984,
"text": "The Big Freeze is a scenario under which continued expansion results in a universe that asymptotically approaches absolute zero temperature. This scenario, in combination with the Big Rip scenario, is currently gaining ground as the most important hypothesis. It could, in the absence of dark energy, occur only under a flat or hyperbolic geometry. With a positive cosmological constant, it could also occur in a closed universe. In this scenario, stars are expected to form normally for 10 to 10 (1–100 trillion) years, but eventually the supply of gas needed for star formation will be exhausted. As existing stars run out of fuel and cease to shine, the universe will slowly and inexorably grow darker. Eventually black holes will dominate the universe, which themselves will disappear over time as they emit Hawking radiation. Over infinite time, there would be a spontaneous entropy decrease by the Poincaré recurrence theorem, thermal fluctuations, and the fluctuation theorem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "840055",
"title": "Apocalypticism",
"section": "Section::::Contemporary non-religious.:Fate of the universe.:Big Freeze or heat death.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 126,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 126,
"end_character": 984,
"text": "The Big Freeze is a scenario under which continued expansion results in a universe that asymptotically approaches absolute zero temperature. This scenario, in combination with the Big Rip scenario, is currently gaining ground as the most important hypothesis. It could, in the absence of dark energy, occur only under a flat or hyperbolic geometry. With a positive cosmological constant, it could also occur in a closed universe. In this scenario, stars are expected to form normally for 10 to 10 (1–100 trillion) years, but eventually the supply of gas needed for star formation will be exhausted. As existing stars run out of fuel and cease to shine, the universe will slowly and inexorably grow darker. Eventually black holes will dominate the universe, which themselves will disappear over time as they emit Hawking radiation. Over infinite time, there would be a spontaneous entropy decrease by the Poincaré recurrence theorem, thermal fluctuations, and the fluctuation theorem.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12312036",
"title": "The Freeze (Scottish band)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "The Freeze was an Edinburgh punk band that lasted from 1976–1981. Wanting to do something darker and noisier, Gordon Sharp and David Clancy took ideas from The Freeze to a greater extreme; the result was the formation of Cindytalk in 1982.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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| null |
fukk1 | Hypothetical Exoplanet Analysis | [
{
"answer": "Off the top of my head, the simplest example in that image of a mistake that I think would stand up is that it shows a star in the sky that is either very large or pretty close - and the brightness from it would certainly drown out the other stars in the black sky there.\n\nEven the moon photos with their lack of atmosphere have the stars basically invisible as the brightness of the foreground totally overwhelms them.\n\nSome of it seems plausible - the star is quite large or close, so it would be potentially possible to have some liquid water perhaps, the rocks and terrain, meh, why not.\n\nIt does look like the \"camera\" is sitting on a moon orbiting the gas giant. I could be wrong, but I think that if a gas giant was that close to a star, it would be quite warm indeed, which I think would then lead to a much faster moving atmosphere - meaning that the nice cloud bands wouldn't appear, but rather it would be more of a single color or smear at best, but I am happy to stand corrected if that is wrong.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "884094",
"title": "Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer",
"section": "Section::::Scientific results.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 356,
"text": "NICMOS observed the exoplanet XO-2b at star XO-2, and a spectroscopy result was obtained for this exoplanet in 2012. This uses the spectroscopic abilities of the instrument, and in astronomy spectroscopy during a planetary transit (an exoplanet passes in front of star from the perspective of Earth) is a way to study that exoplanet's possible atmosphere.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "39150591",
"title": "Kepler-62f",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
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"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 490,
"text": "The discovery of the exoplanet (along with Kepler-62e) was announced in April 2013 by NASA as part of the \"Kepler\" spacecraft data release. The exoplanet was found by using the transit method, in which the dimming effect that a planet causes as it crosses in front of its star is measured. According to scientists, it is a potential candidate to search for extraterrestrial life, and was chosen as one of the targets to study by the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55543734",
"title": "Habitable Exoplanet Imaging Mission",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "The Habitable Exoplanet Imaging Mission (HabEx) is a space telescope concept that would be optimized to search for and image Earth-size habitable exoplanets in the habitable zones of their stars, where liquid water can exist. HabEx would aim to understand how common terrestrial worlds beyond the Solar System may be and the range of their characteristics. It would be an optical, UV and infrared telescope that would also use spectrographs to study planetary atmospheres and eclipse starlight with either an internal coronagraph or an external starshade.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26437656",
"title": "Gemini Planet Imager",
"section": "Section::::Scientific goals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 701,
"text": "Present day searches for exoplanets are insensitive to exoplanets located at the distances from their host star comparable to the semi-major axes of the gas giants in the Solar System, greater than about 5 AU. Surveys using the radial velocity method require observing a star over at least one period of revolution, which is roughly 30 years for a planet at the distance of Saturn. Existing adaptive optics instruments become ineffective at small angular separations, limiting them to semi-major axes larger than about 30 astronomical units. The high contrast of the Gemini Planet Imager at small angular separations will allow it to detect gas giants with semi-major axes of 5–30 astronomical units.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15032003",
"title": "Exoplanetology",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 324,
"text": "Exoplanetology, or exoplanetary science, is an integrated field of astronomical science dedicated to the search for and study of exoplanets (extrasolar planets). It employs an interdisciplinary approach which includes astrobiology, astrophysics, astronomy, astrochemistry, astrogeology, geochemistry, and planetary science.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "34302215",
"title": "NASA Exoplanet Archive",
"section": "Section::::Transit Survey Data in the Exoplanet Archive.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 16,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 16,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "The Exoplanet Archive serves photometric time-series data from surveys that aim to discover transiting exoplanets, such as the Kepler Mission and CoRoT. The database provides access to over 22 million light curves from space and ground-based exoplanet transit survey programs, including:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2743476",
"title": "Atmospheric escape",
"section": "Section::::Observations of exoplanet atmospheric escape.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 34,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 34,
"end_character": 560,
"text": "Studies of exoplanets have measured atmospheric escape as a means of determining atmospheric composition and habitability. The most common method is Lyman-alpha line absorption. Much as exoplanets are discovered using the dimming of a distant star's brightness (transit), looking specifically at wavelengths corresponding to hydrogen absorption describes the amount of hydrogen present in a sphere around the exoplanet. This method indicates that the hot Jupiters HD209458b and HD189733b and Hot Neptune GJ436b are experiencing significant atmospheric escape.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1xz5n7 | how do companies get away with badmouthing each other? | [
{
"answer": "There is nothing illegal about using your competitor's name in an advertisement. But...you open yourself up to false advertisement claims (not to mention mounds of legal costs) when piss off a competitor. The use of the \"compared to the leading brand\" is often chosen to avoid hassle, but also because you don't want to give increased recognition to a competitor's brand. Typically only underdog brands engage in this strategy since it is perceived as risky for your brand (being a whiny bitch isn't always a good strategy).\n\nTypically suits come up under false advertisement. The affected brand says that the advertisement is misleading or factually inaccurate (e.g. the add suggests that coke will make you get laid more than pepsi but no evidence exists to back that up). Companies make these false claims all the time and they _could be_ regarded as false advertising, but...if you're using a competitor's name you're just that much more likely to get called out on it.\n\nIt _was_ once illegal. it is no longer. still is in some countries.\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12793067",
"title": "Article 102 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union",
"section": "Section::::Abuse.:2. Exploitative abuse.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 730,
"text": "This type occurs whereby a dominant firm using dominant position to exploit consumers without losing them through conduct like price increase and production limitation. There is no legal definition of ‘exploitative abuse’ under Article 102 but it can be taken as ‘any conduct that directly causes harm to the customers of the dominant undertaking’. Without barriers to entry, the market is likely to be self-corrected by competition because monopoly profits will attract new competitors to enter the market. However, the Guidance does suggest that the Commission will intervene where the conduct is directly exploitative of consumers (for example, charging excessively high prices). Some examples of exploitative conduct include:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33184007",
"title": "Cannibalization (marketing)",
"section": "Section::::Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 925,
"text": "A company engaging in corporate cannibalism is effectively competing against itself. There are two main reasons companies do this. Firstly, the company wants to increase its market share and is taking a gamble that introducing the new product will harm other competitors more than the company itself. Secondly, the company may believe that the new product will sell better than the first, or will sell to a different sort of buyer. For example, a company may manufacture cars, and later begin manufacturing trucks. While both products appeal to the same general market (drivers) one may fit an individual's needs better than the other. However, corporate cannibalism often has negative effects: the car manufacturer's customer base may begin buying trucks instead of cars, resulting in good truck sales, but not increasing the company's market share. There may even be a decrease. This is also called market cannibalization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "53621919",
"title": "Philippine Competition Commission",
"section": "Section::::Provisions of the Philippine Competition Act.:Abuse of Dominant Position.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 55,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 55,
"end_character": 366,
"text": "Under \"Sec. 15 of RA 10667\", the entities (whether companies or individuals) are prohibited from abusing their dominant position by engaging in conduct that would substantially prevent, restrict or lessen competition. Such conduct includes predatory pricing, imposing barriers to entry in an anti-competitive manner, unfair exercise of monopsony power, among others\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "350992",
"title": "Anti-competitive practices",
"section": "Section::::Effects.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 682,
"text": "Monopolies and oligopolies are often accused of, and sometimes found guilty of, anti-competitive practices. For this reason, company mergers are often examined closely by government regulators to avoid reducing competition in an industry. Although anti-competitive practices often enrich those who practice them, they are generally believed to have a negative effect on the economy as a whole, and to disadvantage competing firms and consumers who are not able to avoid their effects, generating a significant social cost. For these reasons, most countries have competition laws to prevent anti-competitive practices, and government regulators to aid the enforcement of these laws.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "730742",
"title": "Principal–agent problem",
"section": "Section::::Other applications.:Personnel management.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 423,
"text": "The problem manifests itself in the ways middle managers discriminate against employees who they deem to be \"overqualified\" in hiring, assignment, and promotion, and repress or terminate \"whistleblowers\" who want to make senior management aware of fraud or illegal activity. This may be done for the benefit of the middle manager and against the best interest of the shareholders (or members of a non-profit organization).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50947725",
"title": "Protecting Cyber Networks Act",
"section": "Section::::Major provisions.:Defensive protection.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 367,
"text": "The legislation gives private companies the authority to go on the counter-offensive against hackers, meaning a company that was hacked could perform more assertive defensive measures than are currently allowed under the law. However, companies would not be allowed to hack back into other systems or manipulate systems for which they do not have consent to control.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8578048",
"title": "Product line extension",
"section": "Section::::Down-Market Stretch.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 240,
"text": "BULLET::::2. The company may wish to tie up lower-end competitors who might otherwise try to move up-market. If the company has been attacked by a low-end competitor, it often decides to counterattack by entering the low end of the market.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
8pocws | How did the Russians manage the logistics of redeploying their Baltic fleet to the Far East in 1905? | [
{
"answer": "Expanded [from an earlier answer of mine](_URL_0_)\n\nThe process of coaling was an arduous and backbreaking task in the early twentieth century. This was doubly true for the fleets commanded by Zinovy Rozhestvensky and Dmitry von Fölkersam which had to make a long journey to Asian waters. The journey was a logistical nightmare for a Russian navy that was largely designed to fight in European waters. The inexperience of the fleet, coupled with panic over Japanese sneak attack led to various scares during the travel that the fleet was under attack. But the Russians were able to take advantage of the emerging international maritime law that allowed belligerent warships to coal and take on water in neutral ports. \n\nThe Russian fleet mostly sought shelter in friendly French ports like Dakar, Madagascar, and Camn Ranh Bay. International maritime law allowed for belligerent warships to stay 24 hours in neutral ports for coaling, but the Franco-Russian alliance meant that the French officials often turned a blind eye to the Russians overstaying their limit, much to the chagrin of Japanese diplomats. The Russians also contracted out to private French and German civilian companies for colliers. In the latter case, the Hamburg-Amerika line's colliers further strained Anglo-German relations, and Chancellor von Bülow wanted the company to cancel the contract, but Kaiser Wilhelm II sided with Hamburg-Amerika as it fit into his conception of using German support for Russia as a wedge against the Franco-Russian alliance. In this instance, the French desire to keep the alliance alive and the German desire to undermine it actually both worked in the Russians' favor, making the fleet's voyage possible after the Dogger Bank incident alienated an already cold Britain. \n\nRear Admiral Fölkersam's newly-christened Third Pacific Squadron though had a slightly-shorter trip than the main force as it made the transit via the Canal. One rationale was that Fölkersam's ships were both lighter and unable to carry as much coal as the main battle line under Rozhestvenskii's flag. There was a fear that these smaller ships would hamper the already complicated logistics of the voyage. Moreover, there was also a fear that the heavily-laden battleline might also find itself aground in the narrow waters off Suez because the amount of coal taken aboard had increased their draft. \n\nBut it was more than just practical matters of logistics that underlay the division of the fleet. The same fears that inspired the Dogger Bank incident were still at play and there was a fear that the Japanese could have naval forces in the restricted waters of the Mediterranean. Fölkersam's ships were not only a tad more maneuverable, they were also expendable for the whole fleet. His ships were either older ones or auxiliaries. \n\nThe expendable nature of Third Pacific Squadron also reflected the fear that Britain could prevent the whole enterprise. Rozhestvensky was afraid that the British control over the Canal meant they could use whatever pretext to detain or even seize the battlefleet. The 1888 Convention of Constantinople sanctified the Canal as an international waterway and guaranteed rights of access. But the Convention also had provisions governing the transit of warships and ships of belligerent powers that limited their loiter times in the Canal or coaling at Canal ports. The British, as the *de facto* controlling power of the Canal, had the power to interpret the Convention's provisions. They had already done so during the Spanish-American War when they narrowly interpreted the Convention to minimize the time Spain's warships spent coaling and refitting while making a transit to the Philippines. The Dogger Bank incident certainly did not endear the Russian fleet to the British and there was a fear that the British could interpret the Convention against Russia's interests. Moreover, the Convention was still a relatively untested treaty and it was unclear from Rozhestvensky's perspective whether or not the British would abide by it or if the Egyptian government would alter the rules for coaling. \n\nSo even if Dogger Bank did not alter the Convention, the bad blood the incident created between Britain and Russia had the *potential* for British to use the Convention against Russia. This, coupled with the already severe logistical problems of the fleet, meant that sending Fölkersam's more expendable and lighter ships to transit the Canal was a calculated risk on the part of Rozhestvensky and one that paid off. The Third Pacific Squadron was able to rendezvous with its colliers and then link up with the main force after the Canal transit. The British did not unduly delay or pester Fölkersam's detachment and the transit showed Britain's commitment to the Convention. Unfortunately, the subsequent Japanese triumph at Tsushima negated the herculean effort that had gone into supplying the fleet for its transoceanic voyage. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1634766",
"title": "Baltic Fleet",
"section": "Section::::Imperial Russia.:Age of iron.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1614,
"text": "The Baltic Fleet took a prominent part in the Russo-Japanese War. After the defeat of earlier Siberian Military Flotilla vessels, in September 1904, a squadron under the command of Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky was sent on a famous high-speed dash around South Africa – stopping in French, German and Portuguese colonial ports: Tangier in Morocco, Dakar in Senegal, Gabon, Baía dos Tigres, Lüderitz Bay, and Nossi Be (Madagascar), then across the Indian Ocean to Cam Ranh Bay in French Indochina and then northward to its doomed encounter with the Japanese fleet at the Battle of Tsushima off the east coast of Korea in 1905, ending the Russo-Japanese War. The Imperial German civilian passenger Hamburg-Amerika Line provided 60 colliers to supply the Baltic Fleet on its epic journey. During its passage through the North Sea the Fleet mistook a fleet of British fishing boats for Japanese torpedo boats and opened fire, killing three sailors in what is known as the \"Dogger Bank incident\". The decision to send the Fleet to the Pacific was made after Russia had suffered a string of naval defeats in the East China Sea and the Sea of Japan off the coast of China and Korea near its Far East naval base and colony, at the hands of the newly emergent Imperial Japanese Navy and Army in Manchuria. The Tsushima naval battle broke Russian strength in East Asia. It set the stage for the unsuccessful uprising in the abortive Russian Revolution of 1905. That propelled the decline that would see the Romanov dynasty monarchy eventually brought down with the strains of World War I, in the Russian Revolutions of 1917.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55004",
"title": "Battle of Tsushima",
"section": "Section::::Background.:Departure of the Baltic Fleet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 964,
"text": "With the inactivity of the First Pacific Squadron after the death of Admiral Makarov and the tightening of the Japanese noose around Port Arthur, the Russians considered sending part of their Baltic Fleet to the Far East. The plan was to relieve Port Arthur by sea, link up with the First Pacific Squadron, overwhelm the Imperial Japanese Navy, and then delay the Japanese advance into Manchuria until Russian reinforcements could arrive via the Trans-Siberian railroad and overwhelm the Japanese land forces in Manchuria. As the situation in the Far East deteriorated, the Tsar (encouraged by his cousin Kaiser Wilhelm II), agreed to the formation of the \"Second Pacific Squadron\". This would consist of five divisions of the Baltic Fleet, including 11 of its 13 battleships. The squadron departed the Baltic ports of Reval (Tallinn) and Libau (Liepāja) on 15–16 October 1904, numbering 42 ships and auxiliaries under the command of Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "44575",
"title": "Russo-Japanese War",
"section": "Section::::Campaign of 1904.:Baltic Fleet redeploys.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 87,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 87,
"end_character": 856,
"text": "Meanwhile, the Russians were preparing to reinforce their Far East Fleet by sending the Baltic Fleet, under the command of Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky. After a false start caused by engine problems and other mishaps, the squadron finally departed on 15 October 1904, and sailed halfway around the world from the Baltic Sea to the Pacific via the Cape Route around the Cape of Good Hope in the course of a seven-month odyssey that was to attract worldwide attention. The Dogger Bank incident on 21 October 1904, where the Russian fleet fired on British fishing boats that they mistook for enemy torpedo boats, nearly sparked a war with the United Kingdom (an ally of Japan, but neutral, unless provoked). During the voyage, the fleet separated into a portion that went through the Suez Canal while the larger battleships went around the Cape of Good Hope.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2727428",
"title": "Baltic Sea campaigns (1939–45)",
"section": "Section::::Participants.:Soviet Baltic Fleet.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 603,
"text": "The Soviet Baltic Fleet was the largest of the four fleets which made up the Soviet Navy during World War II, and was commanded by Vladimir Tributs throughout the war. Though initially having bases only in the eastern corner of the Gulf of Finland, the Red Banner Baltic Fleet was the largest naval power in the Baltic Sea. As World War II progressed, it was able to make use of naval bases in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, first under the terms of agreements forced by the Soviet Union in autumn 1939, then by direct access to the bases following the occupation of the Baltic states in spring, 1940. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1634766",
"title": "Baltic Fleet",
"section": "Section::::Imperial Russia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 1100,
"text": "The Imperial Russian Baltic Fleet was created during the Great Northern War at the initiative of Czar Peter the Great, who ordered the first ships for the Baltic Fleet to be constructed at Lodeynoye Pole in 1702 and 1703. The first commander was a recruited Dutch admiral, Cornelius Cruys, who in 1723 was succeeded by Count Fyodor Apraksin. In 1703, the main base of the fleet was established in Kronshtadt. One of the fleet's first actions was the taking of Shlisselburg. In 1701 Peter the Great established a special school, the School of Mathematics and Navigation (Russian: Школа математических и навигацких наук), situated in the Sukharev Tower in Moscow. As the territory to the west around the Gulf of Finland was acquired by Russia for a \"warm-water\" port giving access for its merchantmen and the buildup of a naval force, the city of St. Petersburg was built and developed an extensive port. The School of Mathematics and Navigation was moved to St. Petersburg and in 1752 it was renamed the Naval Cadet Corps. Today it is the St. Petersburg Naval Institute – Peter the Great Naval Corps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "834280",
"title": "Augustus Agar",
"section": "Section::::Russian Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 33,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 33,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "Also operating in the eastern Baltic Sea was a Royal Navy detachment of light cruisers and destroyers under Admiral Sir Walter Cowan. Though technically not connected, Agar regularly reported to Cowan and received assistance from him. Cowan's mission was to keep the sea lanes open to the new republics of Finland, Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania, which were under threat of being overrun by Soviet Russia.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1546647",
"title": "Battle of the Yellow Sea",
"section": "Section::::Battle damage and casualties.:Result.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 952,
"text": "The Russians wanted to break out and sail to Vladivostok (relocating the fleet to there would have left the Japanese needing to mount a new campaign if it wanted to besiege the Russian fleet again and such a campaign would have overtaxed the resources of Field Marshal Ōyama). The Japanese had an underlying objective to destroy the Russian fleet while minimising their own losses. Once the Russian fleet left Port Arthur the Japanese initially sought to prevent it returning there. When the Japanese realised the Russians were not returning to Port Arthur they also sought to prevent the Russians reaching an alternative port. The Japanese prevented the Russians from reaching Vladivostok but failed to stop most of the fleet returning to Port Arthur. Neither side achieved its tactical goals. The Japanese, however, were successful to prevent the breakout, and returning Russian ships were later eliminated in the course of the Siege of Port Arthur.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
b3vu4s | why do cops use numbers like 10-4 to talk to each other instead of saying what’s actually happening? | [
{
"answer": "Because it is just supposed to alert other officers of the crime so they will arrive. If someone’s life is at stake it is much more important to get the situation under control prior to figuring out the entire situation,",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Because there are multiple officers all trying to talk on the same frequency so it's good to be brief. Also in case someone is listening it isn't immediately obvious what's going on",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Once upon a time, radio was an analog medium. There was static, and the longer the sentence you said, the more likely part of it would be cut up. So, they made the \"ten code\", with the most common messages. It's really called, Association of Public-Safety Communications Officials Project 14 Aural Brevity Code, an awesome example of sarcasm, a code about being brief with a long name.\n\nIt wasn't ever completely uniform, and then radio became digital and you could actually hear what people were saying. There is still communication discipline pressure to keep messages brief, the spectrum assigned is a limited resource, but pirate codes aren't seen as the solution.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "208349",
"title": "Ten-code",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "Ten-codes, officially known as ten signals, are brevity codes used to represent common phrases in voice communication, particularly by law enforcement and in Citizens Band (CB) radio transmissions. The police version of ten-codes is officially known as the APCO Project 14 Aural Brevity Code.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1071415",
"title": "Ten-digit dialing",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 306,
"text": "In the United States and Canada, ten-digit dialing is the practice of including the area code of a telephone number when dialing to initiate a telephone call. When necessary, a ten-digit number may be prefixed with the trunk code \"1\", which is often referred to as \"11-digit dialing\" or \"national format\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "27714849",
"title": "Amateur radio call signs",
"section": "Section::::General formats.:Call signs with more than one digit.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 58,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 58,
"end_character": 242,
"text": "Call signs with two (or more) digits in them can arise a number of ways. When the digits abut one another, it is important to distinguish which digit belongs to the prefix, which is the separating numeral, and which may belong to the suffix.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3701211",
"title": "Law enforcement jargon",
"section": "Section::::United States.:Numerical and alphanumerical codes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "The ten-codes are used only for voice communications, usually radio transmissions and denote commonly used phrases; for example 10-16 means \"domestic disturbance\" for some agencies. Use of ten-codes is intended for the clear, quick, and concise communication between law enforcement officers.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208349",
"title": "Ten-code",
"section": "Section::::History.:In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 310,
"text": "Ten-codes, especially \"10-4\" (meaning \"understood\") first reached public recognition in the mid- to late-1950s through the popular television series \"Highway Patrol\", with Broderick Crawford. Crawford would reach into his patrol car to use the microphone to answer a call and precede his response with \"10-4\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6961379",
"title": "Collar number",
"section": "Section::::United Kingdom.:Metropolitan Police.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 903,
"text": "A one or two digit number denotes a Sergeant (except in larger boroughs like Southwark where some sergeants are allocated three digit numbers), a three digit number denotes a Constable, a four digit number beginning with 5 denotes an officer of the Metropolitan Special Constabulary, unless they're attached to a 'Roads & Transport Policing Command' (RTPC) team, in which case the number will begin with an 8 and a four digit number beginning with 7 denotes a PCSO again unless they are attached to RTPC and they will start with a 6. Confusingly, MPS epaulettes display the letters \"over\" the digits, i.e. 81FH (a Sergeant based at Hammersmith) would show FH over 81 on their shoulder, which reads more like FH81 (the call sign of a panda car based there). Ranks above Sergeant do not have collar numbers - officers are identified by name (e.g. Inspector Smith, who may once have been PC 123 kg Smith).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "21119166",
"title": "Call whisper",
"section": "Section::::Advantages of using call whisper.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 600,
"text": "Because call whisper settings are specific to a particular non-geographic telephone number, the feature can allow the called party to identify which telephone number the caller has dialed. For instance, ten separate numbers can all be routing their inbound calls to a single destination number. However, each of the ten numbers could have their own customized call whisper message on them relating to the nature of the call i.e. the function of the number that has been dialed. Therefore, the agent answering will know the number that has been dialed and thus the appropriate way to answer the call.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3u5v56 | why the new star wars movie still isn't rated this close to it's release date? | [
{
"answer": "In this case I believe it is because they have not released the movie to critics so as to avoid leaking plot details. Current rumor is there is some big reveal regarding Luke they don't want to give away in advance.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "I think my other post got removed by the bots, so I'll post it again. The Force Awakens is [PG-13.](_URL_0_) It was announced yesterday.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Another possibility is that a rating had already been given prior to the release of commercial's yet the commercials were already made. I know often times movies will be made and then shelved for a \"appropriate\" release time.(while this is far from the case of starwars) I cannot recall the name of the movie but i know there was an Eddie Murphy movie created and it what shelved for a length of time in the range of 5 years, before it was released.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "52549",
"title": "Star Wars (film)",
"section": "Section::::Release.:Home media.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 103,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 103,
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"text": "All six \"Star Wars\" films were released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment on Blu-ray Disc on September 16, 2011 in three different editions, with \"A New Hope\" available in both a box set of the original trilogy and with all six films on \"Star Wars: The Complete Saga\", which includes nine discs and over 40 hours of special features. The original theatrical versions of the films were not included in the box set; however, the new 2011 revisions of the trilogy were leaked a month prior to release, inciting controversy the new changes made to these movies and causing an online uproar against Lucas.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52549",
"title": "Star Wars (film)",
"section": "Section::::Release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 80,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 80,
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"text": "While initially only being released in a limited theatrical run, \"Star Wars\" was an unprecedented success for 20th Century Fox, soon becoming a blockbuster hit and expanding to a much wider release. It would eventually see many theatrical and home video re-releases.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52549",
"title": "Star Wars (film)",
"section": "Section::::Release.:Premiere and initial release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 82,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 82,
"end_character": 419,
"text": "Worried that \"Star Wars\" would be beaten out by other summer films, such as \"Smokey and the Bandit\", 20th Century Fox moved the release date to May 25, the Wednesday before Memorial Day. However, fewer than 40 theaters ordered the film to be shown. In response, the studio demanded that theaters order \"Star Wars\" if they wanted the eagerly anticipated \"The Other Side of Midnight\" based on the novel by the same name.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "338849",
"title": "The Last Starfighter",
"section": "Section::::Reception.:Critical reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Roger Ebert gave the film two-and-a-half out of four stars, stating that while the actors were good, \"The Last Starfighter\" was \"not a terrifically original movie,\" but was nonetheless \"well-made\". \"Halliwell's Film Guide\" described the film as \"a surprisingly pleasant variation on the \"Star Wars\" boom, with sharp and witty performances from two reliable character actors and some elegant gadgetry to offset the teenage mooning.\" Gene Siskel included the film on his list of \"Guilty Pleasures\", describing it as \"a \"Star Wars\" rip-off, but the best one\". Over time it has developed a cult following.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "50793",
"title": "Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace",
"section": "Section::::Release.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 826,
"text": "The release on May 19, 1999 of the first new \"Star Wars\" film in 16 years was accompanied by a considerable amount of attention. Few film studios released films during the same week: DreamWorks and Universal Studios released \"The Love Letter\" on May 21 and \"Notting Hill\" on May 28, respectively. \"The Love Letter\" was a commercial failure but \"Notting Hill\" fared better and followed \"The Phantom Menace\" closely in second place. Employment consultant firm Challenger, Gray & Christmas estimated that 2.2 million full-time employees missed work to attend the film, resulting in a loss of productivity. According to \"The Wall Street Journal\", so many workers announced plans to view the premiere that many companies closed on the opening day. Queue areas formed outside cinema theaters over a month before ticket sales began.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "447139",
"title": "Sorcerer (film)",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 1007,
"text": "In the opinion of several critics, the release of \"Star Wars\" marked a distinctive demographic shift among the audiences as well as altered trends in movie industry drastically which at the same time attributed to \"Sorcerer\"s financial and critical fiasco. Sean Macaulay notes that \"Star Wars\" changed the movie-going demography, considerably \"reset[ting] American cinema back to comforting fantasy\" According to reviewer Pauline Kael, \"Star Wars\" contributed to \"infantilizing the audience\" as well as \"obliterating irony, self-consciousness, and critical reflection\" and to Tom Shone, who drew from Kael, was impossible to compete with by Friedkin and \"Sorcerer\". Biskind also thought American movie-going demographic changed considerably since \"The French Connection\" and \"Sorcerer\" was \"too episodic, dark, and star challenged\" to achieve mainstream appreciation. RH Greene argues that \"Star Wars\", which in his opinion was \"pure escapism\", made intellectually demanding films like \"Sorcerer\" obsolete.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "48881306",
"title": "List of box office records set by Star Wars: The Force Awakens",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 657,
"text": "\"\" is the seventh film in the \"Star Wars\" franchise, released ten years after . Co-written and directed by J. J. Abrams, the film stars Adam Driver, Daisy Ridley, John Boyega and Oscar Isaac in new roles, with Harrison Ford, Mark Hamill, and Carrie Fisher reprising their roles from the original trilogy which concluded in 1983. Prior to its release, the film was predicted by box office analysts to break records, citing the relative lack of competition owing to its date of release, being released in large formats such as IMAX in a high number of venues, and multi-generational appeal to both fans of the previous movies and children as success factors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
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]
| null |
a2364a | What is "foaming at the mouth" and what exactly causes it? | [
{
"answer": "Rabies causes, amongst other things \"hydrophobia\" which counter to what its name suggests isn't a literal fear of water but more an inability to swallow effectively. Many patients when afflicted by rabies experience laryngospasm, pharyngeal or diaphramatic spasms. The end result is the inability to effectively swallow even your own saliva leading to drooling, spitting, and as it progresses and you become increasingly dehydrated and decreasingly lucid, foam starts to form in your now thick saliva as you attempt to spit.\n\nSource: work in healthcare, also _URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Neuro nurse here.\n\nSome people can foam at the mouth during a generalized tonic clonic (aka grand mal or convulsive) seizure because their mouth closes during the seizure which stimulates the salivary glands to produce additional saliva. When the mouth opens again, that extra saliva mixes with air coming in and produces foam. The convulsive component of this seizure can contribute to the production. \n\nIt should be noted that many people do not foam at the mouth during GTC seizures, and there are many seizure types that are not tonic clonic (such as absence), and do not have the potential to cause foaming at the mouth. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "1. People with rabies can't swallow because the nerves responsible for swallowing are paralized.\n\n2. Rabies causes hypersalivation. This evolved so the virus is more easily spread to a new host by biting or salivating onto a wound etc.\n\nMore saliva in the mouth / pharynx and breathing generates foam. Also the patients will spit the saliva out as they cannot swallow it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Foaming at the mouth is a result of thickened saliva secretion. This happens with stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system or in other words, it happens due to the fight or flight adrenaline response. There are other factors at play but that is the gist.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Former horsewoman here, probably not the answer you seek but another meaning in different circles. For a horse to be foaming at the bit generally means the horse is paying strict attention to the bit and listening to the queues from the reins. Or they have a flavoured bit and are chomping away on that",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Lots of things can cause \"foaming\" at the mouth.\n\nRabies and seizures were already explained pretty well in separate comments, but overdoses can also cause foaming at the mouth, especially when talking about opiates. Stimulants can also cause foaming too. Those are the three most common causes of foaming at the mouth.\n\nIn the case of overdoses, the \"foam\" tends to be pulmonary edema leaking out through the mouth and nose through a currently unknown mechanism. I can't seem to access the full paper, but here's an abstract on the subject ([x](_URL_0_)). ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Seizures would be excess saliva that the person can't control. I'm interested in the comments in this thread regarding rabies, and wondering why we do not routinely vaccinate humans for an infection with such a high mortality rate...tens and hundreds of dollars for a human vaccine seems ridiculous when we vaccinate pets economically and routinely. ",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "5305823",
"title": "Foam (culinary)",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "In cuisine, foam is a gelling or stabilizing agent in which air is suspended. Foams have been present in many forms over the history of cooking, such as whipped cream, meringue and mousse. In these cases, the incorporation of air or another gas creates a lighter texture and a different mouth feel. Foams add flavor without significant substance, and thus allow cooks to integrate new flavors without changing the physical composition of a dish.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "26386344",
"title": "Sea foam",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 850,
"text": "\"Sea foam\", ocean foam, beach foam, or spume is a type of foam created by the agitation of seawater, particularly when it contains higher concentrations of dissolved organic matter (including proteins, lignins, and lipids) derived from sources such as the offshore breakdown of algal blooms. These compounds can act as surfactants or foaming agents. As the seawater is churned by breaking waves in the surf zone adjacent to the shore, the surfactants under these turbulent conditions trap air, forming persistent bubbles that stick to each other through surface tension. Sea foam is a global phenomenon and it varies depending on location and the potential influence of the surrounding marine, freshwater, and/or terrestrial environments. Due to its low density and persistence, foam can be blown by strong on-shore winds from the beach face inland.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3548304",
"title": "Meige's syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Diagnosis.:Upper and lower dystonia types.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Oromandibular dystonia (OMD) is a form of focal dystonia that affects varying areas of the head and neck including the lower face, jaw, tongue and larynx. The spasms may cause the mouth to pull open, shut tight, or move repetitively. Speech and swallowing may be distorted. It is often associated with dystonia of the cervical muscles (Spasmodic Torticollis), eyelids (Blepharospasm), or larynx (Spasmodic Dysphonia).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5305823",
"title": "Foam (culinary)",
"section": "Section::::Creating culinary foam.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 747,
"text": "Foams consist of two phases, an aqueous phase and a gaseous (air) phase. Foams have been used in many forms in the history of cooking, for example: whipped cream, ice cream, cakes, meringue, soufflés, mousse and marshmallow. It has a unique light texture because of the tiny air bubbles and/or a different mouthfeel. In most of these products, proteins are the main surface active agents that help in the formation and stabilization of the dispersed gas phase. To create a protein-stabilized foam, it usually involves bubbling, whipping or shaking a protein solution and its foaming properties refers to its capacity to form a thin tenacious film at the gas-liquid interface for large amounts of gas bubbles to become incorporated and stabilized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2431881",
"title": "Foaming agent",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "A foaming agent is a material that facilitates formation of foam such as a surfactant or a blowing agent. A surfactant, when present in small amounts, reduces surface tension of a liquid (reduces the work needed to create the foam) or increases its colloidal stability by inhibiting coalescence of bubbles. A blowing agent is a gas that forms the gaseous part of the foam.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "268420",
"title": "Foam",
"section": "Section::::Stability.:Destabilization.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 671,
"text": "Foam destabilization occurs for several reasons. First, gravitation causes drainage of liquid to the foam base, which Rybczynski and Hadamar include in their theory; however, foam also destabilizes due to osmotic pressure causes drainage from the lamellas to the Plateau borders due to internal concentration differences in the foam, and Laplace pressure causes diffusion of gas from small to large bubbles due to pressure difference. In addition, films can break under disjoining pressure, These effects can lead to rearrangement of the foam structure at scales larger than the bubbles, which may be individual (T1 process) or collective (even of the \"avalanche\" type).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "55705271",
"title": "Equine foamy virus",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 205,
"text": "The name foamy virus can be attributed to the foamy appearance of the cells upon rapid lysation and syncytium formation, vacuolization and cellular death, which is also known as a cytopathic effect (CPE).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
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| null |
4lbn9o | Are trees from different families examples of convergent evolution? Or do many families of plants come from a tree-like ancestor? | [
{
"answer": "So I've heard of arboresence (or tree-ness) considered a convergent phenotype in George McGhee's book \"Convergent Evolution: Limited forms most beautifu\"l. In fact, he argues that arboresence has evolved independently in 9 plant lineages. One example is Ferns which evolved tree-ness in 3 groups throughout history (only one is group is still extant), each with different types of trunks!\n\nThe main reason touted for the convergence of this trait is functional constraint. It just turns out that 'growing upward' is rather important so many lineages will leverage their genetic or morphological resources to achieve that goal. This variety of mechanical mechanisms to realize the trait suggest that the tree form was likely independently selected upon numerous times.\n\nTo answer your question more specifically, it depends on the taxanomic level we're talking about. I think that trees in the Fabacea and Rosaceae might not really be convergence because they share a common tree form. However the tree form of Cycad palms compared to angiosperm trees would be an instance of convergence since they are truly independent and distinct.\n\nEdit: Upon re-reading, I realize some of my language is very teleological. I don't want to ascribe any teleology to these evolutionary processes, I'm just speaking in rhetorical short hand. Please don't crucify me",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "7189344",
"title": "Populus trichocarpa",
"section": "Section::::Genome.:Somatic mosaicism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Genome-wide analysis of 11 clumps of \"P. trichocarpa\" trees reveals significant genetic differences between the roots and the leaves and branches of the same tree. The variation within a specimen is as much as found between unrelated trees. These results may be important in resolving debate in evolutionary biology regarding somatic mutation (that evolution can occur within individuals, not solely among populations), with a variety of implications.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2339577",
"title": "Evidence of common descent",
"section": "Section::::Evidence from comparative anatomy.:Nested hierarchies and classification.:Evolutionary trees.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 73,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 73,
"end_character": 1743,
"text": "An evolutionary tree (of Amniota, for example, the last common ancestor of mammals and reptiles, and all its descendants) illustrates the initial conditions causing evolutionary patterns of similarity (e.g., all Amniotes produce an egg that possesses the amnios) and the patterns of divergence amongst lineages (e.g., mammals and reptiles branching from the common ancestry in Amniota). Evolutionary trees provide conceptual models of evolving systems once thought limited in the domain of making predictions out of the theory. However, the method of phylogenetic bracketing is used to infer predictions with far greater probability than raw speculation. For example, paleontologists use this technique to make predictions about nonpreservable traits in fossil organisms, such as feathered dinosaurs, and molecular biologists use the technique to posit predictions about RNA metabolism and protein functions. Thus evolutionary trees are evolutionary hypotheses that refer to specific facts, such as the characteristics of organisms (e.g., scales, feathers, fur), providing evidence for the patterns of descent, and a causal explanation for modification (i.e., natural selection or neutral drift) in any given lineage (e.g., Amniota). Evolutionary biologists test evolutionary theory using phylogenetic systematic methods that measure how much the hypothesis (a particular branching pattern in an evolutionary tree) increases the likelihood of the evidence (the distribution of characters among lineages). The severity of tests for a theory increases if the predictions \"are the least probable of being observed if the causal event did not occur.\" \"Testability is a measure of how much the hypothesis increases the likelihood of the evidence.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12438552",
"title": "EDGE species",
"section": "Section::::Calculating EDGE Scores.:ED.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 776,
"text": "The phylogenetic tree has the most recent common ancestor at the root, all the current species as the leaves, and intermediate nodes at each point of branching divergence. The branches are divided into segments (between one node and another node, a leaf, or the root). Each segment is assigned an ED score defined as the timespan it covers (in millions of years) divided by the number of species at the end of the subtree it forms. The ED of a species is the sum of the ED of the segments connecting it to the root. Thus, a long branch which produces few species will have a high ED, as the corresponding species are relatively distinctive, with few close relatives. ED metrics are not exact, because of uncertainties in both the ordering of nodes and the length of segments.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3986130",
"title": "Computational phylogenetics",
"section": "Section::::Types of phylogenetic trees and networks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 673,
"text": "Phylogenetic trees generated by computational phylogenetics can be either \"rooted\" or \"unrooted\" depending on the input data and the algorithm used. A rooted tree is a directed graph that explicitly identifies a most recent common ancestor (MRCA), usually an imputed sequence that is not represented in the input. Genetic distance measures can be used to plot a tree with the input sequences as leaf nodes and their distances from the root proportional to their genetic distance from the hypothesized MRCA. Identification of a root usually requires the inclusion in the input data of at least one \"outgroup\" known to be only distantly related to the sequences of interest.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60852153",
"title": "De novo gene birth",
"section": "Section::::Identification.:Identification of \"de novo\" emerging sequences.:Genomic phylostratigraphy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1553,
"text": "Phylogenetic trees are limited by the set of closely related genomes that are available, and results are dependent on BLAST search criteria. Because it is based on sequence similarity, it is often difficult for phylostratigraphy to determine whether a novel gene has emerged \"de novo\" or has diverged from an ancestral gene beyond recognition, for instance following a duplication event. This was pointed out by a study that simulated the evolution of genes of equal age and found that distant orthologs can be undetectable for the most rapidly evolving genes. When accounting for changes in the rate of evolution to portions of young genes that acquire selected functions, a phylostratigraphic approach was much more accurate at assigning gene ages in simulated data. A subsequent pair of studies using simulated evolution found that phylostratigraphy failed to detect an ortholog in the most distantly related species for 13.9% of \"D. melanogaster\" genes and 11.4% of \"S. cerevisiae\" genes. Similarly, a spurious relationship between a gene’s age and its likelihood to be involved in a disease process was claimed to be detected in the simulated data. However, a reanalysis of studies that used phylostratigraphy in yeast, fruit flies and humans found that even when accounting for such error rates and excluding difficult-to-stratify genes from the analyses, the qualitative conclusions were unaffected for all three studies. The impact of phylostratigraphic bias on studies examining various features of \"de novo\" genes (see below) remains debated.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "57502346",
"title": "Colobops",
"section": "Section::::Classification.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 884,
"text": "However, this classification was only slightly better supported than certain alternative interpretations. A phylogenetic analysis constructs thousands of family trees, each of which include hundreds of \"steps\" in evolution where analyzed traits are evolved, lost, or reacquired. The family tree with the fewest \"steps\", known as the most parsimonius tree (MPT), is generally considered to be the most accurate under the principle of Occam's razor. In the case of this analysis, the MPT considered \"Colobops\" to be a basal rhynchosaur. However, some family trees look completely different from the MPT despite only a being few evolutionary steps more complex. If new data is incorporated into the analysis, one of these alternative trees may become a new MPT, rewriting our knowledge of reptile classification in the process. The MPT given by Pritchard \"et al\". (2018) is given below:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4421042",
"title": "Histone H2A",
"section": "Section::::Genetics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 459,
"text": "Phylogenetic trees were created to show the divergence of variants from their ancestors. The divergence of variant, H2A.X, from H2A occurred at multiple origins in a phylogenetic tree. Acquisition of the phosphorylation motif was consistent with the many origins of H2A that arose from an ancestral H2A.X. Finally, the presence of H2A.X and absence of H2A in fungi leads researchers to believe that H2A.X was the original ancestor of the histone protein H2A \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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}
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| null |
dkl842 | What did Classic, Country Music stars like Johnny Cash, Kris Kristofferson and the like, think of the Woodstock Music Festival? | [
{
"answer": "In 1969, both Kris Kristofferson and Johnny Cash were both fairly unusually aligned with the American youth counterculture than the average country musician. Kris Kristofferson's 1970 debut album *Kristofferson* features the track 'Blame It On The Stones', which satirised bourgeois hypocrisy about the counterculture and its drug use: \n\n > Mister Marvin middle class is really in a stew\n\n > Wondering' what the younger generation's coming to\n\n > And the taste of his martini doesn't please his bitter tongue\n\n > Blame it on the Rolling Stones.\n\nKristofferson's tune 'Me And Bobby McGee' was also covered by San Francisco counterculture star Janis Joplin soon before her death in 1970, suggesting at least that his songwriting was attractive to the counterculture (especially after it had moved into a more folk/country mode after the success of The Band around 1968). \n\nJohnny Cash, circa Woodstock, was probably most prominent as the host of *The Johnny Cash Show*, on the ABC network in the US, a variety show; he had relatively recently had some of his biggest success with the live albums recorded at Folsom Prison and then at San Quentin, and as such was perceived as somewhat sympathetic to the counterculture, if not a part of it. On this show, Johnny Cash featured a variety of music along the lines of folk and country, broadly defined, and this included Woodstock performers like Creedence Clearwater Revival, and folkies like Arlo Guthrie and Pete Seeger who had explicitly made anti-Vietnam statements (alongside more classic country artists like Merle Haggard and Marty Robbins, and more showbiz types like Pat Boone and Peggy Lee). The first show featured (counterculture icon) Bob Dylan dueting with Johnny Cash, and Johnny Cash at one point in the run of the show famously performed Kristofferson's 'Sunday Morning Coming Down', prominently not bowdlerising the word 'stoned' for the mainstream audience.\n\nSo both Cash and Kristofferson were very likely comfortable with Woodstock. They also both represent the more progressive side of country music, as both were definitely influences on the 'outlaw country' movement of the 1970s (Waylon Jennings, Willie Nelson, Billy Joe Shaver, etc), which contrasted itself with the Nashville mainstream.\n\nThe Nashville mainstream was less enamoured of the hippies. In the month after Woodstock, Merle Haggard released the single 'Okie From Muskogee', which started with the lyrics:\n\n > We don't smoke marijuana in Muskogee\n\n > We don't take our trips on LSD\n\n > We don't burn our draft cards down on Main Street\n\n > We like livin' right, and bein' free\n\n > We don't make a party out of lovin'\n\n > We like holdin' hands and pitchin' woo\n\n > We don't let our hair grow long and shaggy\n\n > Like the hippies out in San Francisco do\n\n > I'm proud to be an Okie from Muskogee,\n\n > A place where even squares can have a ball\n\n > We still wave Old Glory down at the courthouse,\n\n > And white lightnin's still the biggest thrill of all\n\nThis quickly became a number one on the Billboard country charts, which at that time was strongly based on radio airplay of the singles on country radio stations, suggesting the message of the song was one strongly approved of by country music gatekeepers and the Southern country audience (Haggard himself and his relation to the Nashville mainstream was more complex, as the song was originally meant as satire - or so he claimed later). Johnny Cash also had Haggard on his show playing the song.\n\nBroadly speaking, in the 1968 election, several country music icons endorsed conservative politicians at some level. George Wallace, the Governor of Alabama who ran on a segregationist third-party platform in the 1968 election, won the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, and Mississippi in the hope of being able to negotiate with the eventual winner on implementing very racist policy. Wallace Tammy Wynette sang 'Stand By Your Man' at a George Wallace appearance (and which became an unofficial Wallace anthem) and Hank Snow ('I've Been Everywhere') went on tour with Wallace during his Presidential campaign. Roy Acuff, one of the biggest figures in Nashville, was a prominent supporter of Richard Nixon during the 1968 election. Nixon ran ads on Porter Waggoner's television show during the campaign, warning that a vote for Wallace was a vote for Hubert Humphrey, the (Northern, Establishment) Democratic candidate.\n\nWallace, in 1968, was fond of joking about long-haired hippies as they were protesting him, saying things like: \n\n > That’s alright, that’s alright honey – that’s right sweetie-pie – oh, that’s a he. I thought you were a she\n\nand \n\n > You come up when I get through and I'll autograph your sandals for you. That is, if you got any on . . . You need a good haircut. That's all that's wrong with you. . . There are two four-letter words I bet you folks don't know: 'w-o-r-k' and 's-o-a-p.'\n\nThis is probably a fairly good representation of the attitudes towards the hippie counterculture that was epitomised by Woodstock, amongst the more conservative Nashville country music stars who might have been comfortable with endorsing a George Wallace (unlike Haggard or Cash). After all, in 1972, after Wallace had been seriously injured after being shot, a crowd of 7,000 gathered at 'Wallace's Woodstock' at the Old Plantation Music Park near Highland City in Florida (basically part of George Jones and Tammy Wynette's property) to hold a benefit for Wallace, which featured performances from Jones and Wynette, Ferlin Husky, Del Reeves, and George Wallace Jr.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "21497366",
"title": "Professor Louie & The Crowmatix",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 1154,
"text": "In 2005, Professor Louie & the Crowmatix were the first artists to have a live concert recording released by the New York State Museum. The CD is entitled “The Spirit of Woodstock”. It comprises fourteen songs including the music of Bob Dylan, The Band, Bruce Springsteen, The Crowmatix and more. The performance was in conjunction with the Museum's exhibit - photos by Elliott Landy and a concert series “Spirit of the Woodstock Generation.” In 2004, their CD \"Century Of The Blues\" received much acclaim and averaged #20 for six months on the Americana Radio Roots charts. Their music has consistently stayed on these charts for the past eight years. Original songs, \"Jackie & Bullfrog\" from their CD “Flyin’ High” have been the backing tracks for many episodes of \"Made\" and \"Trailer Fabulous\" on MTV. In spring 2008, the band released “As The Crow Flies”, a compilation CD with new originals as well as songs from their previous recordings most requested by fans and radio promoters. In 2010, their CD \"Whispering Pines\" was nominated for Five Grammys'. PL&C \"Wings On Fire\" CD has had rave reviews and in 2013 \"Wings On Fire\" was released on Vinyl.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90785",
"title": "Eagles (band)",
"section": "Section::::History.:1973–1975: \"On the Border\" and \"One of These Nights\".\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 575,
"text": "The band played at the California Jam festival in Ontario, California on April 6, 1974. Attracting more than 300,000 fans and billed as \"the Woodstock of the West Coast,\" the festival featured Black Sabbath, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Deep Purple, Earth, Wind & Fire, Seals & Crofts, Black Oak Arkansas, and Rare Earth. Portions of the show were telecast on ABC television in the United States, exposing the Eagles to a wider audience. Felder missed the show when he was called away to attend the birth of his son; Jackson Browne filled in for him on piano and acoustic guitar.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "60278451",
"title": "Woodstock 50",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 446,
"text": "Artists initially announced for the Woodstock 50 lineup included The Killers, Imagine Dragons, Halsey, Miley Cyrus, Robert Plant, The Raconteurs, Cage the Elephant and Janelle Monáe, as well as several musical acts that had performed at the original 1969 festival, such as Dead & Company (featuring three members of the Grateful Dead), John Fogerty, Santana, David Crosby, Melanie, John Sebastian, Hot Tuna, Canned Heat and Country Joe McDonald.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "147353",
"title": "Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young",
"section": "Section::::History.:Neil Young joins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Their one-hour second show in the early morning of August 18, 1969, was a baptism by fire at the Woodstock Festival. The crowd of industry friends looking on from offstage was intimidating and prompted Stills to say, \"This is only the second time we've performed in front of people. We're scared shitless.\" Their appearance at the festival and in the subsequent movie, along with recording the Joni Mitchell song memorializing Woodstock, boosted the visibility of the quartet.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "24307740",
"title": "At the Woodstock Festival",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 388,
"text": "At the Woodstock Festival is a live album by Indian classical musician Ravi Shankar that was released in 1970 on World Pacific Records. It was recorded on 15 August 1969, during the first day of the Woodstock Festival in upstate New York. Shankar's set took place during a downpour and he later expressed his dissatisfaction with the event due to the prevalence of drugs among the crowd.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "58982914",
"title": "August 1969",
"section": "Section::::August 16, 1969 (Saturday).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 293,
"text": "BULLET::::- The Woodstock Festival moved into its second full day as Arlo Guthrie wrapped up his set of songs after midnight. Artists who performed and would later be inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame were Joan Baez (until 2:00 a.m.), Santana, John Sebastian and the Grateful Dead.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "468224",
"title": "Catskill Mountains",
"section": "Section::::In popular culture.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 62,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 62,
"end_character": 358,
"text": "The town of Bethel, New York, located in the Catskills, was home to the famous Woodstock Music festival that took place August 15–18, 1969. The event, wherein 32 music acts performed in front of over 500,000 concert-goers, was captured in the documentary movie \"Woodstock\" (1970). The site is now home to the world-renowned Bethel Woods Center for the Arts.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
36yg40 | if i were able to attain enough money to hire a team capable of sending me into space, and buy the spacecraft itself, would anyone be legally allowed to stop me? | [
{
"answer": "Goodness no! In fact, you'd probably get a prize, if you were able to do something novel up there. We're actively encouraging civilian spaceflight through a number of initiatives, including SpaceX Prizes and general tax breaks for corporations even attempting it.\n\nMind you you'd have to schedule your launch past air traffic control.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "As /u/alexander1701 mentioned, you have to deal with air traffic control. In the United States, that's the Federal Aviation Administration, which will require you to fill out a lot of paperwork about your planned takeoff time and location, trajectory, and re-entry; you may also have to deal with NASA. One of those departments will have to notify other countries' aviation and space departments of your flight so that, for example, you aren't treated as a rogue missile launch and shot down, or initiate an international diplomatic incident. Those would count as ways that other countries would be legally allowed to stop you, if you hadn't enlisted the US government to follow protocol with them on your behalf.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Follow up question... In the event that someone did launch without consulting the government air traffic control, would said person be shot down after launch or detained upon re-entry?",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "In the US, you're required to obtain a launch license from the FAA.\n\n_URL_0_",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "43204697",
"title": "E.S.S. Mega",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
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"text": "It's possible to equip your space shuttle with cargo, crew, and energy. Then you will launch, pilot, and land it on a carrier. While orbiting the Earth you will deploy and maintain satellites, or build and visit a space station.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "4269889",
"title": "Commercial Orbital Transportation Services",
"section": "Section::::Program rationale.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 885,
"text": "Furthermore, if such services were unavailable by the end of 2010, NASA would've been forced to purchase orbital transportation services on foreign spacecraft such as the Russian Federal Space Agency's Soyuz and Progress spacecraft, the European Space Agency's Automated Transfer Vehicle, or the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's H-II Transfer Vehicle since NASA's own Crew Exploration Vehicle, since refocused, would not have been ready until 2014. NASA asserted that once COTS was operational, it would no longer procure Russian cargo delivery services. On May 22, 2012, Bill Gerstenmaier confirmed that NASA was no longer purchasing any cargo resupply services from Russia and would rely solely on the American CRS vehicles, the SpaceX Dragon and Orbital Sciences' Cygnus; with the exception of a few vehicle-specific payloads delivered on the European ATV and the Japanese HTV.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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"wikipedia_id": "2288382",
"title": "Rescue at Rigel",
"section": "Section::::Reception.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 243,
"text": "Bruce F. Webster reviewed \"Rescue at Rigel\" in \"The Space Gamer\" No. 34. Webster commented that \"if you've got the money and the interest, buy it. In fact, if you've only got either the money or the interest, buy it - you'll be glad you did.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "544494",
"title": "STS-114",
"section": "Section::::Contingency planning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 94,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 94,
"end_character": 314,
"text": "A further option for rescue would be to use Russian Soyuz spacecraft. Nikolay Sevastyanov, director of the Russian Space Corporation Energia, was reported by \"Pravda\" as saying: \"If necessary, we will be able to bring home nine astronauts on board three Soyuz spacecraft in January and February of the next year\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9233200",
"title": "Excalibur Almaz",
"section": "Section::::Operations.:Spacecraft.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "By using modernised, tried-and-tested equipment rather than developing technology from scratch, the project is reportedly saving around $2 billion in development costs. The Russian Proton rocket, launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, is intended to be used to launch one of the spacecraft into space, where it will remain. Astronauts will use the Excalibur Almaz RRVs to get to and from the spacecraft.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "177541",
"title": "Space Shuttle Columbia disaster",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.:Possible emergency procedures.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 111,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 111,
"end_character": 401,
"text": "One question of special importance was whether NASA could have saved the astronauts had they known of the danger. This would have to involve either rescue or repair – docking at the International Space Station for use as a haven while awaiting rescue (or to use the Soyuz to systematically ferry the crew to safety) would have been impossible due to the different orbital inclination of the vehicles.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36258830",
"title": "Galaxy Trucker",
"section": "Section::::Game Description.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 5,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 5,
"end_character": 350,
"text": "The players now just sign a contract, and then gain access to Corp Inc. Warehouse. The player can build their own space ship from the available prefabricated materials and fly it to the Periphery (edge of the Galaxy). The player may lose money, but any gains made are theirs to keep, and Corporation Incorporated will pay a bonus for quick delivery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
s626v | Regarding classical conditioning and using it to influence your sexual preferences.. | [
{
"answer": "I'm no psychologist, but preferences for women's body types vary markedly by culture, and even over time within the same culture. That suggests that they aren't all hardwired at least, and that there is a fair amount of conditioning that goes into it, whether it's social reinforcement or whatever. There are probably limits to what conditioning can accomplish, though, as some of it is almost certainly hardwired. There's probably a point where your brain will just give up and say \"I can't fap to this\", so Bea Arthur fetishism might not be as likely to take hold.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's been awhile and I'm not an expert but I remember reading a study about Japanese heritage youth in California just after WWII. The Japanese youth grew up to like the guys/girls with the \"California\" look whereas those in Japan tended to be attracted to Japanese. This is a terrible way of putting it but the point is it was confirmed to some degree that upbringing does influence your preferences.\n\nThe question becomes how early this conditioning needs to take place. Additionally can the conditioning be changed late in life? As an amateur I can say that the \"Pray away the gay\" conditioning appears to fail miserably and for evidence I would direct you to r/Iama containing many threads on the subject.\n\nThe study I think would be best would be to subject a willing participate to opposite gender stimulation. See if that increases their association.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The question the original submission brings to mind is whether the exposure to extreme subject matter truly develops a habit or simply exposes latent desires. Chicken or Egg?",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "156115",
"title": "Sexual fetishism",
"section": "Section::::Cause.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 17,
"end_character": 466,
"text": "Some explanations invoke classical conditioning. In several experiments, men have been conditioned to show arousal to stimuli like boots, geometric shapes or penny jars by pairing these cues with conventional erotica. According to John Bancroft, conditioning alone cannot explain fetishism, because it does not result in fetishism for most people. He suggests that conditioning combines with some other factor, such as an abnormality in the sexual learning process.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11312592",
"title": "Cupboard love",
"section": "Section::::Cupboard love in psychoanalysis and behaviorism.:Behaviorism.:Classical conditioning.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 287,
"text": "Classical conditioning is a theory of learning discovered by physiologist, Ivan Pavlov. It supports assumptions that form the foundation of behaviorism. These basic ideas suggest that all learning occurs through interactions within the environment, and that environment shapes behavior.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188540",
"title": "Classical conditioning",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 438,
"text": "Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian or respondent conditioning) refers to a learning procedure in which a biologically potent stimulus (e.g. food) is paired with a previously neutral stimulus (e.g. a bell). It also refers to the learning process that results from this pairing, through which the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response (e.g. salivation) that is usually similar to the one elicited by the potent stimulus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188540",
"title": "Classical conditioning",
"section": "Section::::Overview.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 654,
"text": "Together with operant conditioning, classical conditioning became the foundation of behaviorism, a school of psychology which was dominant in the mid-20th century and is still an important influence on the practice of psychological therapy and the study of animal behavior. Classical conditioning is a basic learning process, and its neural substrates are now beginning to be understood. Though it is sometimes hard to distinguish classical conditioning from other forms of associative learning (e.g. instrumental learning and human associative memory), a number of observations differentiate them, especially the contingencies whereby learning occurs. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "52487",
"title": "Ivan Pavlov",
"section": "Section::::Pavlov on education.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 1352,
"text": "Classical conditioning focuses on using preceding conditions to alter behavioral reactions. The principles underlying classical conditioning have influenced preventative antecedent control strategies used in the classroom. Classical conditioning set the groundwork for the present day behavior modification practices, such as antecedent control. Antecedent events and conditions are defined as those conditions occurring before the behavior. Pavlov's early experiments used manipulation of events or stimuli preceding behavior (i.e., a tone) to produce salivation in dogs much like teachers manipulate instruction and learning environments to produce positive behaviors or decrease maladaptive behaviors. Although he did not refer to the tone as an antecedent, Pavlov was one of the first scientists to demonstrate the relationship between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses. Pavlov systematically presented and withdrew stimuli to determine the antecedents that were eliciting responses, which is similar to the ways in which educational professionals conduct functional behavior assessments. Antecedent strategies are supported by empirical evidence to operate implicitly within classroom environments. Antecedent-based interventions are supported by research to be preventative, and to produce immediate reductions in problem behaviors.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "128027",
"title": "Operant conditioning",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 409,
"text": "In contrast, classical conditioning involves involuntary behavior based on the pairing of stimuli with biologically significant events. For example, sight of sweets may cause a child to salivate, or the sound of a door slam may signal an angry parent, causing a child to tremble. Salivation and trembling are not operants; they are not reinforced by their consequences, and they are not voluntarily \"chosen\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "188540",
"title": "Classical conditioning",
"section": "Section::::Applications.:Conditioned emotional response.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 133,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 133,
"end_character": 505,
"text": "The influence of classical conditioning can be seen in emotional responses such as phobia, disgust, nausea, anger, and sexual arousal. A familiar example is conditioned nausea, in which the CS is the sight or smell of a particular food that in the past has resulted in an unconditioned stomach upset. Similarly, when the CS is the sight of a dog and the US is the pain of being bitten, the result may be a conditioned fear of dogs. An example of conditioned emotional response is conditioned suppression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
ew0sha | kobe was accused of rape — the victim was battered, he was charged with a felony, they settled after a civil case, he issued an apology — but no one seems to care. why? | [
{
"answer": "I think people have generally accepted that Kobe was *likely* guilty of adultery and but that it was consensual sex and not rape. Rationale:\n\n1.) Authorities chose not to pursue criminal charges of rape against him\n\n2.) He publicly admitted to adultery but not rape\n\n3.) Civil case against him for rape was settled out of court with neither side admitting guilt or innocence. \n\n4.)(this is probably the biggest thing...) There was not a string of similar allegations from other women or similar shady behavior\n\nI think most people are about 95% sure but there's just no way to know for certain at this point so people will always have doubts.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "People dont talk about sexual assualt or rape because it is an uncomfortable topic that most people simply want to ignore. Regardless of the gender of the victim or the accused. The New Orleans Saints were recently discovered to have helped the Catholic church cover up the multitude of credible child molestation accusations against their priests and are fighting to keep emails that expose that private, but it has not been covered by any major sports media outlet on camera at all. This was not just glossed over, it was buried. They would rather talk about Kareem Hunt getting drunk, Eli Manning's retirement, Kobe Bryant's death and the upcoming Super Bowl than address the fact that an NFL owner supported the molestation of little boys.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "He maintained that it was consensual and apologized publicly for cheating on his wife. The accuser decided not to go through with wanting to testify and it was handled outside of court. \nThe thing is because he admitted to having sex with her but that it was consensual and she dropped it no one is ever going to really know what happened. Also it is not uncommon for people to accuse famous people, especially athletes, of rape for fame or money. This is why a lot of famous people will now have women sign a consent form before anything happens. Kobe's case was one of the catalysts for players to make sure they had these forms signed as well as NDA before anything happened. \nIt is important to listen to people who say they are victims. It is also important to keep in mind that sometimes people lie about being victims.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "6021572",
"title": "Kobe Bryant sexual assault case",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 562,
"text": "The Kobe Bryant sexual assault case began in July 2003 when the news media reported that the sheriff's office in Eagle, Colorado, had arrested professional basketball player Kobe Bryant in connection with an investigation of a sexual assault complaint filed by a 19-year-old hotel employee. Bryant had checked into The Lodge and Spa at Cordillera, a hotel in Edwards, Colorado, on June 30 in advance of having surgery near there on July 2 under Richard Steadman. The woman accused Bryant of raping her in his hotel room on July 1, the night before the surgery. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1815333",
"title": "Massie Trial",
"section": "Section::::2006 mock trial.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 486,
"text": "After testimony from two experts, and new arguments about the case, the lawyers voted with a unanimous \"Not guilty\" verdict for all defendants. Among other deciding factors was the defense's evidence that the five men accused of the rape had been involved in violence on the other side of Honolulu (the near collision with the Peeples's car) near the time of the alleged attack on Massie and would not have been able to reach Waikiki in time to have also raped Massie as she described.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12474958",
"title": "L. Lin Wood",
"section": "Section::::Coverage in newspapers and books.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 23,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 23,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "The \"Los Angeles Times\" described Wood's role in the Kobe Bryant case: \"The woman allegedly raped by Kobe Bryant has hired renowned attorney L. Lin Wood, a libel specialist who has represented such clients as the family of JonBenet Ramsey, former Rep. Gary Condit and Richard Jewell in lawsuits against the media.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16285168",
"title": "Geoff Simpson",
"section": "Section::::Personal life.:Domestic violence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 511,
"text": "On July 9, 2010 the Seattle City Attorney's office charged Rep. Simpson with one count of assault stemming from an alleged incident of domestic violence at Seattle Children's Hospital on May 22, 2010. According to news sources, \"A social worker told police she saw Simpson \"barrel\" into the room, push the former wife and shut the door. He 'closed the blinds and barricaded himself inside using his body' and was yelling inside, according to the report. Once he came out, he left the property, witnesses said.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38854198",
"title": "Steubenville High School rape case",
"section": "Section::::Charges against adults.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 717,
"text": "The nature of the case led to accusations that coaches and school officials knew about the rape and failed to report it. For example, several texts entered into evidence during the trial implied that Steubenville head coach Reno Saccoccia was trying to cover for the players, which led to nationwide outrage after he received a new contract as the district's administrative services director. In response, shortly after the sentences were handed down Ohio Attorney General Mike DeWine announced he would empanel a special grand jury to determine whether other crimes were committed—specifically, whether coaches and other school officials failed to report the rape even though Ohio law makes them mandated reporters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1310531",
"title": "Sigma Alpha Epsilon",
"section": "Section::::Suspensions and chapter closings.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 241,
"text": "In January 2015, a victim was hospitalized following allegations of sexual assault at a party at a SAE Iowa State University party. The incident is under investigation by police and the chapter suspended the member suspected of the assault.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "610270",
"title": "Matthew McDaniel",
"section": "Section::::Grand jury indictment on charges of physical assault and sexual abuse of a minor.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 45,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 45,
"end_character": 219,
"text": "Court records also detailed acts of physical abuse in which the girl reported Uaiyue “punished her by binding her to roof hooks in the garage with hay bailing twine and left her tied up for several days as punishment.”\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
bovpoz | is the us going to war with iran? | [
{
"answer": "You think the people in charge of our government have a cogent plan they're going to stick to? The Joint Chiefs of Staff probably know the answer to this as well as I do. But we do have some world-class warmongers making some high-level decisions right now",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "519547",
"title": "Joshua Muravchik",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 360,
"text": "Muravchik argued in the Washington Post that the United States should attack Iran, stating: \"Does this mean that our only option is war? Yes, although an air campaign targeting Iran's nuclear infrastructure would entail less need for boots on the ground than the war Obama is waging against the Islamic State, which poses far smaller a threat than Iran does.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7582561",
"title": "Opposition to military action against Iran",
"section": "Section::::Public opinion.:Opposition to an attack.:Polls with leading information.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 496,
"text": "as well as U.S. involvement in a potential war between Israel and Iran over Iran’s nuclear program. The experience of wars in Iraq and Afghanistan is likely related to this declining desire to use force.\" Still as the report notes later 64% say Iran's nuclear problem is a critical threat to the United States and that \"Americans are...willing to take measures to counter the nuclear threat in both Iran and North Korea, but are much more guarded, stopping short of supporting military strikes.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8484783",
"title": "Abu Musab al-Zarqawi",
"section": "Section::::Attacks.:Attempts to provoke U.S. attack on Iran.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 59,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 59,
"end_character": 735,
"text": "A document found in Zarqawi's safe house indicates that the group was trying to provoke the U.S. to attack Iran in order to reinvigorate the insurgency in Iraq and to weaken American forces in Iraq. \"The question remains, how to draw the Americans into fighting a war against Iran? It is not known whether America is serious in its animosity towards Iran, because of the big support Iran is offering to America in its war in Afghanistan and in Iraq. Hence, it is necessary first to exaggerate the Iranian danger and to convince America, and the West in general, of the real danger coming from Iran...\" The document then outlines six ways to incite war between the two nations. Some experts questioned the authenticity of the document.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
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"wikipedia_id": "61341822",
"title": "2019 Persian Gulf crisis",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 563,
"text": "Military tensions between Iran and the United States escalated in 2019 as President Donald Trump deployed substantial military assets to the Persian Gulf based on alleged intelligence suggesting a planned \"campaign\" by Iran and allies against US forces and interests in the Persian Gulf and Iraq. This followed a between the two countries during Donald Trump's presidency, which included the withdrawal of the United States from the nuclear deal, the imposition of new sanctions against Iran, and the American designation of the IRGC as a terrorist organization.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7582561",
"title": "Opposition to military action against Iran",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 1723,
"text": "According to 2012 polls, a majority of Americans supported United States or Israeli military action against Iran. More recent polls report that Americans \"back a newly brokered nuclear deal with Iran by a 2-to-1 margin and are very wary of the United States resorting to military action against Tehran even if the historic diplomatic effort falls\". Organised opposition to a possible future military attack against Iran by the United States (US) and/or Israel is known to have started during 2005–2006. Beginning in early 2005, journalists, activists and academics such as Seymour Hersh, Scott Ritter, Joseph Cirincione and Jorge E. Hirsch began publishing claims that United States' concerns over the allege threat posed by the possibility that Iran may have a nuclear weapons program might lead the US government to take military action against that country. These reports, and the concurrent escalation of tensions between Iran and some Western governments, prompted the formation of grassroots organisations, including Campaign Against Sanctions and Military Intervention in Iran in the US and the United Kingdom, to advocate against potential military strikes on Iran. Additionally, several individuals, grassroots organisations and international governmental organisations, including the Director-General of the International Atomic Energy Agency, Mohamed ElBaradei, a former United Nations weapons inspector in Iraq, Scott Ritter, Nobel Prize winners including Shirin Ebadi, Mairead Corrigan-Maguire and Betty Williams, Harold Pinter and Jody Williams, Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Code Pink, the Non-Aligned Movement of 118 states, and the Arab League, have publicly stated their opposition to such an attack.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "7582561",
"title": "Opposition to military action against Iran",
"section": "Section::::Public opinion.:Support for an attack.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 53,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 53,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "In March 2012, a Reuters/Ipsos poll revealed that a majority of Americans, 56%, would support military action against Iran, even if it led to increased gas prices, if there was evidence demonstrating that Tehran was building nuclear weapons. 39% said that they opposed a military strike, while 62% of Americans said that they'd support Israel striking Iran over its nuclear program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11565829",
"title": "Support for military action against Iran",
"section": "Section::::Polls.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "In March 2012, a Reuters/Ipsos poll revealed that a majority of Americans, 56%, would support military action against Iran, even if it led to increased gas prices, if there was evidence demonstrating that Tehran was building nuclear weapons. 39% said that they opposed a military strike, while 62% of Americans said that they'd support Israel striking Iran over its nuclear program.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
1m9x8c | The FDA says that "residual quantities of formaldehyde may be found in some current vaccines" How is that even remotely possible when formaldehyde is a gas? | [
{
"answer": "Gases can be dissolved in liquids.\n\nFormaldehyde exists in equilibrium with methylene glycol when dissolved in water. [The equilibrium constant at standard conditions is on the order of 10^3](_URL_0_), so most of it will become methylene glycol, but not all of it.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "It's a reversible reaction with an equilibrium constant of 10^3. More people are familiar with the term formaldehyde than methylene glycol. So, to avoid confusion among non-chemists, it is often just called \"formaldehyde\". Formalin, for example, is 40% formaldehyde by weight but under equilibrium at RT, the vast majority of it is methylene glycol. \n\n_URL_0_\n",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "63847",
"title": "Formaldehyde",
"section": "Section::::Safety.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 66,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 66,
"end_character": 551,
"text": "In June 2011, the twelfth edition of the National Toxicology Program (NTP) Report on Carcinogens (RoC) changed the listing status of formaldehyde from \"reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen\" to \"known to be a human carcinogen.\" Concurrently, a National Academy of Sciences (NAS) committee was convened and issued an independent review of the draft United States Environmental Protection Agency IRIS assessment of formaldehyde, providing a comprehensive health effects assessment and quantitative estimates of human risks of adverse effects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15421622",
"title": "Brazilian hair straightening",
"section": "Section::::Other studies.:U.S. Food and Drug Administration report.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) announced on October 8, 2010 that it \"was working with state and local organizations, as well as OSHA, to determine whether the products or ingredients would be likely to cause health problems under the intended conditions of use. The composition of the products and the labeling, including use instructions and any warning statements, will be factors in this determination. One safety issue we’ll be evaluating is whether formaldehyde may be released into the air after the product is applied to the hair and heated.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "10933090",
"title": "Timeline of the 2007 pet food recalls",
"section": "Section::::Acetaminophen investigated.:June 12, 2007.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 167,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 167,
"end_character": 558,
"text": "FDA spokesman Mike Herndon says that, \"At this point, FDA sees no compelling need to analyze any more samples for acetaminophen.\" A third, independent lab also did not detect acetaminophen. It is not clear whether the FDA checked samples of the same brands of food in which acetaminophen was allegedly found because the initial laboratory could not initiate contact with the FDA or publicly identify the manufacturer because of client confidentiality. Only if the FDA contacted the lab could information be shared, and the FDA did not do this until June 12.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15421622",
"title": "Brazilian hair straightening",
"section": "Section::::Health concerns.:Inclusion of methylene glycol as formaldehyde in reported measurements.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 265,
"text": "Some manufacturers of products containing formaldehyde and methylene glycol have complained that the method of testing for formaldehyde—which does not distinguish between formaldehyde and methylene glycol—is not a reliable indicator of the toxicity of the product.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47489534",
"title": "Targeted covalent inhibitors",
"section": "Section::::Toxicity risks associated with covalent modification of proteins.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 974,
"text": "There has been a reluctance for modern drug discovery programs to consider covalent inhibitors due to toxicity concerns. An important contributor has been the drug toxicities of several high-profile drugs believed to be caused by metabolic activation of reversible drugs For example, high dose acetaminophen can lead to the formation of the reactive metabolite N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine. Also, covalent inhibitors such as beta lactam antibiotics which contain weak electrophiles can lead to idiosyncratic toxicities (IDT) in some patients. It has been noted that many approved covalent inhibitors have been used safely for decades with no observed idiosyncratic toxicity. Also, that IDTs are not limited to proteins with a covalent mechanism of action. A recent analysis has noted that the risk of idiosyncratic toxicities may be mitigated through lower doses of administered drug. Doses of less than 10 mg per day rarely lead to IDT irrespective of the drug mechanism.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "63847",
"title": "Formaldehyde",
"section": "Section::::Uses.:Niche uses.:Disinfectant and biocide.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 41,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 41,
"end_character": 405,
"text": "An aqueous solution of formaldehyde can be useful as a disinfectant as it kills most bacteria and fungi (including their spores). It is used to produce killed vaccines. Formaldehyde releasers are used as biocides in personal care products such as cosmetics. Although present at levels not normally considered harmful, they are known to cause allergic contact dermatitis in certain sensitised individuals.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "47770617",
"title": "Pipe marking",
"section": "Section::::ANSI/ASME Standards.:2015 revisions.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 387,
"text": "2015 revisions added oxidizing materials to the existing 'Flammables' classification. The other major change allowed and encouraged labels to incorporate the GHS signal word, hazard pictograms, and hazard statements. This addition helped identify additional dangers when dealing with materials that fit into multiple categories, like Hydrogen sulfide, which is both flammable and toxic.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2cp0jb | How does the majority of historians view Julius Caesar? A great leader or an evil one? | [
{
"answer": "The issue with this question is that it is completely variant on a subjective viewpoint. Judging whether or not a person as famous as Caesar was \"good\" or \"evil\" is a truly impossible task, not only because of the differences in morality between the ancient era and the modern one, but also because of the different nuances of character that an individual has. Julius Caesar was undoubtedly a great man who left his mark on history. Whether or not \"great\" means \"good\" or \"evil\" is, again, up to individual interpretation. \n\nStarting off that examination, I'll suggest you go ahead and read [this excellent introduction](_URL_1_) to *Life of a Colossus*. Honestly, I recommend you read the whole book, but for our purposes here, the introduction answers your question perfectly, and far better than I can, myself. To know more about Caesar as a person, read the entire book - it's the best biography I've found of the man, and gives an excellent accounting with a neutral viewpoint on the person himself.\n\nThe long story short is that Caesar was as amoral as anyone else has ever been. He wasn't good or evil; he was simultaneously neither and both. He did great things for Rome, for the poor, and when it benefited him. He also was in charge of the hugely destructive Gallic War, which was incredibly popular with the Roman people, who considered it a good thing. The modern eye would consider it less so, with a (probably exaggerated) total of one million people killed and another million enslaved. Again, whether or not the Gallic Wars made Caesar a \"good person\" or \"bad person\" is entirely subjective. For the Romans, he offered civil peace and a pretty good deal for the common people, even if the aristocrats couldn't stand him. To our modern view, he made himself an autocrat in all but name. While he wasn't emperor, he consolidated power and kept people he didn't like from getting anywhere; but his reforms were good ones, and some of them lasted for centuries, despite Caesar's extremely short rule. \n\nHe was ruthless in his own way, but he also offered clemency when it suited him. He offered friendship when he saw it to be beneficial, but he also offered enmity when that was more in his favour. So the answer to your question, I suppose, would be \"both and neither.\" He was a person, and no person is black or white - we're all shades of grey.\n\n[I actually examined a rather similar question to this one a bit ago](_URL_0_); I'll paste what I wrote then in the comments below :)",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "353899",
"title": "Battle of Munda",
"section": "Section::::Aftermath.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 602,
"text": "Although Sextus Pompeius remained at large, after Munda there were no more conservative armies challenging Caesar's dominion. Upon his return to Rome, according to Plutarch, the \"triumph which he celebrated for this victory displeased the Romans beyond any thing. For he had not defeated foreign generals, or barbarian kings, but had destroyed the children and family of one of the greatest men of Rome.\" Caesar was made dictator for life, though his success was short-lived; Caesar was murdered on March 15 of the following year (44 BC) by the next generation of statesmen, led by Brutus and Cassius.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1183269",
"title": "History of Rome (Mommsen)",
"section": "Section::::Commentary I.:Caesar.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 318,
"text": "A modern historian of ancient Rome echoes the rough, current consensus of academics about this great and controversial figure, as he concludes his well-regarded biography of Julius Caesar: \"When they killed him his assassins did not realise that they had eliminated the best and most far-sighted mind of their class.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15924",
"title": "Julius Caesar",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 334,
"text": "Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), known by his nomen and cognomen Julius Caesar, was a populist Roman dictator, politician, military general, and historian who played a critical role in the events that led to the demise of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire. He also wrote Latin prose.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15924",
"title": "Julius Caesar",
"section": "Section::::Legacy.:Politics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 138,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 138,
"end_character": 670,
"text": "Julius Caesar is seen as the main example of \"Caesarism\", a form of political rule led by a charismatic strongman whose rule is based upon a cult of personality, whose rationale is the need to rule by force, establishing a violent social order, and being a regime involving prominence of the military in the government. Other people in history, such as the French Napoleon Bonaparte and the Italian Benito Mussolini, have defined themselves as Caesarists. Bonaparte did not focus only on Caesar's military career but also on his relation with the masses, a predecessor to populism. The word is also used in a pejorative manner by critics of this type of political rule.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15924",
"title": "Julius Caesar",
"section": "Section::::Literary works.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 124,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 124,
"end_character": 491,
"text": "During his lifetime, Caesar was regarded as one of the best orators and prose authors in Latin—even Cicero spoke highly of Caesar's rhetoric and style. Only Caesar's war commentaries have survived. A few sentences from other works are quoted by other authors. Among his lost works are his funeral oration for his paternal aunt Julia and his \"Anticato\", a document written to defame Cato in response to Cicero's published praise. Poems by Julius Caesar are also mentioned in ancient sources.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3712953",
"title": "The Gates of Rome",
"section": "Section::::Literary significance & criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "One of the more controversial aspects of the series is Iggulden's attribution of other people's achievements to Caesar. For example, Caesar is portrayed as having defeated the Catiline Conspiracy, which was actually the work of Cicero, who was a significant politician throughout Caesar's life, and is only a minor character in later books such as \"The Field of Swords\" and \"The Gods of War\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "18058",
"title": "Latin literature",
"section": "Section::::History.:The Golden Age.:The age of Cicero.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 14,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 14,
"end_character": 326,
"text": "Julius Caesar and Sallust were outstanding historical writers of Cicero's time. Caesar wrote commentaries on the Gallic and civil wars in a straightforward style to justify his actions as a general. Sallust adopted an abrupt, pointed style in his historical works. He wrote brilliant descriptions of people and their motives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
9gldms | How do bacteria get their energy? | [
{
"answer": "[Metabolism](_URL_0_), like every other living creature. \n\nThe two common sources of energy are light and molecular bonds in food matter.\n\nDifferent bacteria have evolved to capitalize on both sources.\n\nThe variations are fascinating.\n\nWood is a sugar molecule with lots of energy, but humans can't unlock it so we call it \"fiber.\"\n\nTermites can't digest it either, but they thrive on it because they harbor bacteria in their guts that CAN digest wood fiber and the bacteria's waste products feed the termite.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "897",
"title": "Arsenic",
"section": "Section::::Biological role.:Bacteria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 65,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 65,
"end_character": 284,
"text": "Some species of bacteria obtain their energy by oxidizing various fuels while reducing arsenate to arsenite. Under oxidative environmental conditions some bacteria oxidize arsenite to arsenate as fuel for their metabolism. The enzymes involved are known as arsenate reductases (Arr).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "178220",
"title": "ATP synthase",
"section": "Section::::Physiological role.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 20,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 20,
"end_character": 316,
"text": "In respiring bacteria under physiological conditions, ATP synthase, in general, runs in the opposite direction, creating ATP while using the proton motive force created by the electron transport chain as a source of energy. The overall process of creating energy in this fashion is termed oxidative phosphorylation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54804319",
"title": "Stilbonematinae",
"section": "Section::::Symbiosis with sulfur-oxidizing bacteria.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 531,
"text": "The bacterial symbionts are chemosynthetic, gaining energy by oxidizing sulfide from the environment, and producing biomass by fixing carbon dioxide through the Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle. The bacteria benefit from the symbiosis because the host animal can migrate between sulfide- and oxygen-rich regions of the sediment habitat, and the bacteria require both these chemical substances to produce energy. The hosts are believed to consume the bacteria as a food source, based on evidence from their stable carbon isotope ratios.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33662844",
"title": "Soil microbiology",
"section": "Section::::Bacteria.:Nitrogen fixation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 710,
"text": "Bacteria are responsible for the process of nitrogen fixation, which is the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogen-containing compounds (such as ammonia) that can be used by plants. Autotrophic bacteria derive their energy by making their own food through oxidation, like the \"Nitrobacters\" species, rather than feeding on plants or other organisms. These bacteria are responsible for nitrogen fixation. The amount of autotrophic bacteria is small compared to heterotrophic bacteria (the opposite of autotrophic bacteria, heterotrophic bacteria acquire energy by consuming plants or other microorganisms), but are very important because almost every plant and organism requires nitrogen in some way.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12604168",
"title": "Continual power system",
"section": "Section::::Microbial fuel cells.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 418,
"text": "Microbial fuel cells can create energy when bacteria breaks down organic material, this process a charge that is transferred to the anode. Taking something like human saliva, which has lots of organic material, can be used to power a micro-sized microbial fuel cell. This can produce a small amount of energy to run on-chip applications. This application can be used in things like biomedical devices and cell phones.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9028799",
"title": "Bacteria",
"section": "Section::::Metabolism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 38,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 38,
"end_character": 911,
"text": "Bacteria either derive energy from light using photosynthesis (called phototrophy), or by breaking down chemical compounds using oxidation (called chemotrophy). Chemotrophs use chemical compounds as a source of energy by transferring electrons from a given electron donor to a terminal electron acceptor in a redox reaction. This reaction releases energy that can be used to drive metabolism. Chemotrophs are further divided by the types of compounds they use to transfer electrons. Bacteria that use inorganic compounds such as hydrogren, carbon monoxide, or ammonia as sources of electrons are called lithotrophs, while those that use organic compounds are called organotrophs. The compounds used to receive electrons are also used to classify bacteria: aerobic organisms use oxygen as the terminal electron acceptor, while anaerobic organisms use other compounds such as nitrate, sulfate, or carbon dioxide.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "6612275",
"title": "Cellodextrin",
"section": "Section::::Function.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "Many cellulolytic bacteria use cellodextrins as their primary source of energy. The energy is obtained through the phosphorolytic cleavage of glycosidic bonds as well as the anaerobic glycolysis of the glucose monomers. Transport of cellodextrins across the cell membrane is usually an active process, requiring ATP.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2lqtgd | Is it possible that scientific constants exist because of the way we define units? | [
{
"answer": "Dimensionful constants, like the speed of light or Planck's constant, are indeed dependent on the units we choose, and we can set them to 1 in some appropriate unit system (this is commonly done, for example, in quantum field theory or in relativity). But dimensionless constants, like the fine-structure constant, have the same value no matter which units we choose, so these can't be eliminated by choosing a certain unit system.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Yes, dimensions and corresponding constants are arbitrary and they typically define the scale at which we operate. But if a a neutron is 1.00137841917 times heavier than a proton, it's gonna be like that no matter what numerical value you give for the neutron mass and laws will also scale accordingly, if they are correct, at least.\n\nShould we find that that isn't true, it's typically a sign that a theory is wrong. Unless we're willing to accept that use of mathematics as a tool for description of our world isn't a valid approach.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "22721223",
"title": "CGh physics",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "While there are several other physical constants, these three are given special consideration, because they can be used to define all Planck units and thus all physical quantities. The three constants are therefore used sometimes as a framework for philosophical study and as one of pedagogical patterns.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23205",
"title": "Physical constant",
"section": "Section::::Choice of units.:Natural units.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 15,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 15,
"end_character": 477,
"text": "Using dimensional analysis, it is possible to combine dimensional universal physical constants to define a system of units of measurement that has no reference to any human construct. Depending on the choice and arrangement of constants used, the resulting natural units may have useful physical meaning. For example, Planck units, shown in the table below, use \"c\", \"G\", \"ħ\", \"ε\", and \"k\" in such a manner to derive units relevant to unified theories such as quantum gravity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23205",
"title": "Physical constant",
"section": "Section::::Number of fundamental constants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 31,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 31,
"end_character": 297,
"text": "The question as to which constants are \"fundamental\" is neither straightforward nor meaningless, but a question of interpretation of the physical theory regarded as fundamental; as pointed out by , not all physical constants are of the same importance, with some having a deeper role than others.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "23205",
"title": "Physical constant",
"section": "Section::::Tests on time-independence.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 252,
"text": "By definition, fundamental physical constants are subject to measurement, so that their being constant (independent on both the time and position of the performance of the measurement) is necessarily an experimental result and subject to verification.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "20646438",
"title": "Real number",
"section": "Section::::Applications and connections to other areas.:In physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 70,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 70,
"end_character": 572,
"text": "In the physical sciences, most physical constants such as the universal gravitational constant, and physical variables, such as position, mass, speed, and electric charge, are modeled using real numbers. In fact, the fundamental physical theories such as classical mechanics, electromagnetism, quantum mechanics, general relativity and the standard model are described using mathematical structures, typically smooth manifolds or Hilbert spaces, that are based on the real numbers, although actual measurements of physical quantities are of finite accuracy and precision.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "51331",
"title": "Dimensionless quantity",
"section": "Section::::Dimensionless physical constants.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 640,
"text": "Certain universal dimensioned physical constants, such as the speed of light in a vacuum, the universal gravitational constant, Planck's constant, Coulomb's constant, and Boltzmann's constant can be normalized to 1 if appropriate units for time, length, mass, charge, and temperature are chosen. The resulting system of units is known as the natural units, specifically regarding these five constants, Planck units. However, not all physical constants can be normalized in this fashion. For example, the values of the following constants are independent of the system of units, cannot be defined, and can only be determined experimentally:\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33710707",
"title": "Planck units",
"section": "Section::::Base units.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 19,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 19,
"end_character": 344,
"text": "Table 2 clearly defines Planck units in terms of the fundamental constants. Yet relative to other units of measurement such as SI, the values of the Planck units, other than the Planck charge, are only known \"approximately.\" This is due to uncertainty in the value of the gravitational constant \"G\" as measured relative to SI unit definitions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
hcudr | 3 good questions about the derivatives of position. 1. can we perceive any besides velocity and acceleration?.... | [
{
"answer": " > you go from velocity to acceleration by squaring the t in d/t\n\nWell, given a function v(t), you differentiate with respect to time to get a(t). Ok, a perfectly valid function is v(t)=d/t with some constant d, which would mean a velocity that gradually approaches zero, but I doubt this is what you mean by d/t. \n\n > Are humans aware of any of the derivatives beyond just velocity and acceleration? What do they feel like?\n\nThe derivative of acceleration is called [jerk](_URL_0_). So this, multiplied by the mass, is the rate of change of applied force. It's used in various engineering applications, as detailed in the article. \n\n > In partial response to my own first question, I imagine that it would get very hard to distinguish between each derivative. So if there are some that we're not aware of, are THESE the \"tiny dimensions\" that I hear physicists talking about?\n\nNot at all. The \"tiny dimensions\" are something else completely. With regards to the first part of your question, it's true for certain classes of functions that if you take loads and loads of derivatives you'll end up with zero in the end, but this is not true for all functions. For example, you can differentiate e^x as many times as you like and still get e^x. \n\n > Are there any other forces that are equivalent to one of the derivatives, such as with gravity & amp; acceleration?\n\nYep, jerk.\n",
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"answer": "There are further derivatives -- in physics, the third derivative is called *jerk*, and the next three are sometimes jokingly called *snap*, *crackle*, and *pop*. We usually just don't talk about them because they are hard to relate physically. Jerk is the *rate of change of the acceleration*.\n\nThey're not tiny dimensions, either. In mathematics, we often measure the smoothness of a function by the number of derivatives it has.",
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"wikipedia_id": "7921",
"title": "Derivative",
"section": "Section::::Differentiation.:Higher derivatives.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 315,
"text": "If represents the position of an object at time , then the higher-order derivatives of have specific interpretations in physics. The first derivative of is the object's velocity. The second derivative of is the acceleration. The third derivative of is the jerk. And finally, the fourth derivative of is the jounce.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "2801898",
"title": "The Grammar of Science",
"section": "Section::::Chapter VII.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 44,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 44,
"end_character": 504,
"text": "BULLET::::2. An analysis of point-motion leads us to the conceptions of velocity and acceleration. Velocity is a proper measure of the manner in which position is instantaeously changing. Acceleration is a proper measure of how velocity itself is an increased change. It is found that a motion is fully determined. Theoretically, a complete description of the path and position at each instant of time may be deduced when the velocity in any one position and the acceleration for all positions is given.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "65913",
"title": "Equations of motion",
"section": "Section::::Kinematic equations for one particle.:Kinematic quantities.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 373,
"text": "Notice that velocity always points in the direction of motion, in other words for a curved path it is the tangent vector. Loosely speaking, first order derivatives are related to tangents of curves. Still for curved paths, the acceleration is directed towards the center of curvature of the path. Again, loosely speaking, second order derivatives are related to curvature.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1345771",
"title": "Position (vector)",
"section": "Section::::Derivatives of position.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 24,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 24,
"end_character": 228,
"text": "For a position vector r that is a function of time \"t\", the time derivatives can be computed with respect to \"t\". These derivatives have common utility in the study of kinematics, control theory, engineering and other sciences.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1783069",
"title": "Time derivative",
"section": "Section::::Use in physics.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 382,
"text": "Time derivatives are a key concept in physics. For example, for a changing position formula_8, its time derivative formula_3 is its velocity, and its second derivative with respect to time, formula_5, is its acceleration. Even higher derivatives are sometimes also used: the third derivative of position with respect to time is known as the jerk. See motion graphs and derivatives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "263323",
"title": "Curve sketching",
"section": "Section::::Basic techniques.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 253,
"text": "BULLET::::- Equate first and second derivatives to 0 to find the stationary points and inflection points respectively. If the equation of the curve cannot be solved explicitly for \"x\" or \"y\", finding these derivatives requires implicit differentiation.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37720636",
"title": "Relativistic Lagrangian mechanics",
"section": "Section::::Lagrangian formulation in special relativity.:Coordinate formulation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "is the coordinate velocity, the derivative of position r with respect to coordinate time \"t\". (Throughout this article, overdots are with respect to coordinate time, not proper time). It is possible to transform the position coordinates to generalized coordinates exactly as in non-relativistic mechanics, r = r(q, \"t\"). Taking the total differential of r obtains the transformation of velocity v to the generalized coordinates, generalized velocities, and coordinate time\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
214wfb | what does cold/flu medicine do if you don't have a cold or flu? | [
{
"answer": "ask the crew at /r/drugnerds. I guarantee you'll get a ton of answers. About half will be unreadable for anyone without an advanced degree in chemistry.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The most commonly used decongestant is **guafenesin**. It increases the blood flow to your nose. Many opera singers use it daily to clear their sinuses. If you take too much you'll throw up, but it's not deadly. \n**Guafenesin** is also an expectorant, but maybe your medicine uses **pseudoephedrine**. That will make your heart beat a little faster, almost like caffeine or something. \nA lot of cough syrup contains **acetaminophen/paracetamol** (different names, same drug). It's Tylenol, a mild pain reliever, and will also destroy your liver if you take too much or drink with it.\n**Dextromethorphan** is the cough suppresant, and there's no slightly about it, that stuff will *fuck* you up. But not nearly as badly as... \n**Dyphenhydramine**. This is what Benadryl is, and it will make you go full retard for a day. You will lose the ability to form coherent sentences, talk to people that aren't there, and just generally be completely delirious (the drug is actually called a deliriant). \n \nSource: I take cough syrup recreationally (unadvisable), and knowing what you're putting in your body is a necessity.\n",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
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"wikipedia_id": "13236894",
"title": "Cold-fX",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 379,
"text": "There is little evidence to support that Cold-fx is effective in the common cold. All trials have been done by the manufacturer and there has been poor data reporting. According to Health Canada's Natural Health Product Directorate records, the company claims that it may \"help reduce the frequency, severity and duration of cold and flu symptoms by boosting the immune system\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "22555940",
"title": "2009 flu pandemic",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 68,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 68,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "A number of methods have been recommended to help ease symptoms, including adequate liquid intake and rest. Over-the-counter pain medications such as acetaminophen and ibuprofen do not kill the virus; however, they may be useful to reduce symptoms. Aspirin and other salicylate products should not be used by people under 16 with any flu-type symptoms because of the risk of developing Reye's Syndrome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32509",
"title": "Vitamin C",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 2,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 2,
"end_character": 309,
"text": "Current evidence does not support its use for the prevention of the common cold. There is, however, some evidence that regular use may shorten the length of colds. It is unclear whether supplementation affects the risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, or dementia. It may be taken by mouth or by injection.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "13236894",
"title": "Cold-fX",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 274,
"text": "Scientists have argued that the product has not been tested for its ability to treat a cold after an individual has been infected. No studies have yet been performed to assess the possible long term side effects of taking the pills every day during the cold and flu season.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92693",
"title": "Common cold",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 566,
"text": "There is no vaccine for the common cold. The primary methods of prevention are hand washing; not touching the eyes, nose or mouth with unwashed hands; and staying away from sick people. Some evidence supports the use of face masks. There is also no cure, but the symptoms can be treated. Zinc may reduce the duration and severity of symptoms if started shortly after the onset of symptoms. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen may help with pain. Antibiotics, however, should not be used and there is no good evidence for cough medicines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19572217",
"title": "Influenza",
"section": "Section::::Treatment.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 113,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 113,
"end_character": 1303,
"text": "People with the flu are advised to get plenty of rest, drink plenty of liquids, avoid using alcohol and tobacco and, if necessary, take medications such as acetaminophen (paracetamol) to relieve the fever and muscle aches associated with the flu. In contrast, there is no enough evidence to support corticosteroids as add on therapy for influenza. It is advised to avoid close contact with others to prevent spread of infection. Children and teenagers with flu symptoms (particularly fever) should avoid taking aspirin during an influenza infection (especially influenza type B), because doing so can lead to Reye's syndrome, a rare but potentially fatal disease of the liver. Since influenza is caused by a virus, antibiotics have no effect on the infection; unless prescribed for secondary infections such as bacterial pneumonia. Antiviral medication may be effective, if given early (within 48 hours to first symptoms), but some strains of influenza can show resistance to the standard antiviral drugs and there is concern about the quality of the research. High-risk individuals such as young children, pregnant women, the elderly, and those with compromised immune systems should visit the doctor for antiviral drugs. Those with the emergency warning signs should visit the emergency room at once.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "92693",
"title": "Common cold",
"section": "Section::::Management.:Antibiotics and antivirals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 37,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 37,
"end_character": 530,
"text": "Antibiotics have no effect against viral infections or against the viruses that cause the common cold. Due to their side effects, antibiotics cause overall harm but are still frequently prescribed. Some of the reasons that antibiotics are so commonly prescribed include people's expectations for them, physicians' desire to help, and the difficulty in excluding complications that may be amenable to antibiotics. There are no effective antiviral drugs for the common cold even though some preliminary research has shown benefits.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
569sz9 | how can something like a cellphone or computer possibly have any effect on a plane during takeoff? | [
{
"answer": "800 megahertz communications can interfere with instrument landing systems as well as other navigation systems.",
"provenance": null
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{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "3553149",
"title": "Ansett New Zealand Flight 703",
"section": "Section::::Accident.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 220,
"text": "\"The aircraft manufacturer's avionics representative advised that there was no likelihood that the operation of a computer, other electronic device or a cell phone would have affected the aircraft's flight instruments.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "15376748",
"title": "British Airways Flight 38",
"section": "Section::::Initial speculations.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 25,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 25,
"end_character": 452,
"text": "Initial analysis from David Learmount, a \"Flight International\" editor, was that \"The aircraft had either a total or severe power loss and this occurred very late in the final approach because the pilot did not have time to tell air traffic control or passengers.\" Learmount went on to say that to land in just , the aircraft must have been near stalling when it touched down. The captain also reported the aircraft's stall warning system had sounded.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "3772370",
"title": "United Airlines Flight 266",
"section": "Section::::Accident.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 799,
"text": "With the loss of all power to the lights and flight altitude instruments, flying at night in instrument conditions, the pilots quickly became spatially disorientated and unable to know which inputs to the flight controls were necessary to keep the plane flying normally. Consequently, the crew lost complete control of the aircraft and crashed into the ocean in a steep nose-down angle, killing everyone on board. The flight-control system would not have been affected by the loss of electrical power, since it relied on hydraulic and mechanical lines, so it was concluded that loss of control was the result of the crew's inability to see around the cockpit. It was theorized that the backup electrical system had not been activated because the crew could not locate the switch for it in darkness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "365362",
"title": "Pilot-induced oscillation",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 7,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 7,
"end_character": 383,
"text": "The most dangerous pilot-induced oscillations can occur during landing. Too much up elevator during the flare can result in the plane getting dangerously slow and threatening to stall. A natural reaction to this is to push the nose down harder than one pulled it up, but then the pilot ends up staring at the ground. An even larger amount of up elevator starts the cycle over again.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1467543",
"title": "Mobile phones on aircraft",
"section": "Section::::The debate on safety.:Electromagnetic interference.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 9,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 9,
"end_character": 569,
"text": "Electromagnetic interference to aircraft systems is a common argument offered for banning mobile phones (and other passenger electronic devices) on planes. Theoretically, active radio transmitters such as mobile phones, walkie–talkies, portable computers or gaming devices may interfere with the aircraft. Non-transmitting electronic devices also emit electromagnetic radiation, although typically at a lower power level, and could also theoretically affect the aircraft electronics. Collectively, any of these may be referred to as portable electronic devices (PEDs).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "237949",
"title": "Aerial refueling",
"section": "Section::::Systems.:Probe-and-drogue.:Systems in service.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 304,
"text": "BULLET::::- Receiving aircraft typically have the probe in the front which present problems such as: sensitive avionics equipment (pitot static and angle of attack probes, etc.), can easily be damaged by the drogue, and FOD, including fuel or probe/drogue parts can be ingested into the plane's engines.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "8130508",
"title": "Crossair Flight 498",
"section": "Section::::Investigation.:Causes.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 30,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 30,
"end_character": 261,
"text": "The investigation did look at the possibility of electromagnetic interference and tested a similar aircraft using mobile phones. It concluded that there were \"no indications that aircraft systems were negatively affected by electromagnetic interference (EMI)\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
40hefi | How did the four Sunni Islamic school of thoughts settle to the current geography? Could this change in the future? | [
{
"answer": "Mod mote to OP and potential respondents: just a reminder that this sub *does not permit speculation*, so discussion here will have to exclude the last question (re possible futures) . ",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "12868203",
"title": "Geography and cartography in medieval Islam",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 317,
"text": "After its beginnings in the 8th century based on Hellenistic geography, Islamic geography was patronized by the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. Various Islamic scholars contributed to its development, and the most notable include Al-Khwārizmī, Abū Zayd al-Balkhī (founder of the \"Balkhi school\"), and Abu Rayhan Biruni. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "35420678",
"title": "Martyrdom in Iran",
"section": "Section::::Shi'a roots.:Martyrdom of Ali and Husayn.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 2873,
"text": "The genesis of Shi’a Islam is rooted in the idea that the charismatic and politico-religious authority possessed by the prophet Muhammad was transferred to his biological descendants after his death in 632 CE. The resulting claim to the rightful leadership of the Muslim community (the ummah) was thus supposed to pass, in the form of the Imamate, to the descendants of Muhammad’s daughter Fatima (606–632) and her husband Ali b. Abi Talib (600–661). Yet the political reality in the decades after the Prophet’s death diverged from that vision. After the death of the prophet Mohammad in the year 632, a disagreement arose between the followers of Mohammad as to who should be appointed as the prophet's successor. The Muslims were split between two groups, those who supported Abu Bakr, a companion of the prophet, and those who supported Ali, the prophet's cousin and son-in law. Ultimately, Abu Bakr became the first caliph, and his followers are today known as Sunni Muslims. The followers of Ali are known as Shia Muslims. Abu Bakr served for two years, and appointed Umar as his successor in 634. Umar served as caliph for ten years, during which he was responsible for the rapid spread of Islam through military and territorial gains. Upon his death in 644, a council of Islamic leaders elected a new Caliph, Uthman ibn Affan, of the Umayyad family. However, in 656 supporters of Ali, who believed that a descendant of the prophet should lead the Muslim community, assassinated Uthman and installed Ali as the fourth caliph. Ali's reign was marred by numerous violent struggles between his supporters and the supporters of Muawiyah I, a relative of Uthman and the governor of Syria. When Ali was murdered in the year 661 by a supporter of Muawiyah, he became the first martyr of the Shia faith. Ali had two sons, Hasan ibn Ali and Husayn, who the Shia believe continued their father's struggle in different ways. Hasan renounced his right to the caliphate in a compromise with Mu'awiya, which the Shi'a view as Hasan's rational recognition of his own constraints at the time, but Husayn sought to restore the caliphate to the family of Ali by military means. When Muawiyah died in the 680 and his son Yazid I assumed the caliphate, Husayn renewed his efforts to regain the caliphate. On the advice of supporters in Kufa, a supposed stronghold of Shia support, Husayn and a small numbers of his family and supporters traveled to Kufa, camping out in nearby Karbala. However, the governor of Kufa was aware of Husayn's presence and sent close to 4000 troops to Karbala. After several days of failed negotiations, as Husayn refused to recognize Yazid as caliph, the governor's soldiers massacred Husayn and 72 of his men. This massacre, which occurred on the 10th day of the month of Muharram, elevated the martyrdom of Husayn to almost mythical levels in Shia belief.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "435268",
"title": "History of the world",
"section": "Section::::Post-classical history.:Middle East, North Africa, and Central Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 50,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 50,
"end_character": 837,
"text": "Much of this learning and development can be linked to geography. Even prior to Islam's presence, the city of Mecca had served as a centre of trade in Arabia, and the Islamic prophet Muhammad himself was a merchant. With the new Islamic tradition of the \"Hajj\", the pilgrimage to Mecca, the city became even more a centre for exchanging goods and ideas. The influence held by Muslim merchants over African-Arabian and Arabian-Asian trade routes was tremendous. As a result, Islamic civilization grew and expanded on the basis of its merchant economy, in contrast to the Europeans, Indians, and Chinese, who based their societies on an agricultural landholding nobility. Merchants brought goods and their Islamic faith to China, India, Southeast Asia, and the kingdoms of western Africa, and returned with new discoveries and inventions.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "219232",
"title": "Hanbali",
"section": "Section::::Revival efforts.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 35,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 35,
"end_character": 473,
"text": "Since the Al Saud succeeded in annexing Mecca in 1926 and the discovery of oil, Hanbali school of theology has benefited from the sponsorship of the Saudi state. Theology students from all over the world are educated in Saudi Arabia following this school of theology and Saudi-funded Dawah succeeded in attracting new followers all over the world. Since the beginning of the 20th-century, the school has therefore gained more acceptance and diffusion in the Islamic world.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "16142605",
"title": "Freedom of religion in the Comoros",
"section": "Section::::Societal abuses and discrimination.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 393,
"text": "There is concern that Islamic fundamentalism is increasing as young citizens return to the country following Islamic theological studies abroad and seek to impose a stricter adherence to Islamic religious law on their family members and associates; in response, the Union Government has established a university to give young citizens the option of pursuing university studies in the country.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "272074",
"title": "Ibn Taymiyyah",
"section": "Section::::Return to Damascus and later years.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 54,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 54,
"end_character": 844,
"text": "Three years after his arrival in the city, Ibn Taymiyyah became involved in efforts to deal with the increasing Shia influence amongst Sunni Muslims. An agreement had been made in 1316 between the amir of Mecca and the Ilkhanate ruler Öljaitü, brother of Ghazan Khan, to allow a favourable policy towards Shi'ism in Mecca, a city that houses the holiest site in Islam, the Kaaba. Around the same time the Shia theologian Al-Hilli, who had played a crucial role in the Mongol rulers decision to make Shi'ism the state religion of Persia, wrote the book, \"Minhaj al-Karamah\"\" (\"The Way of Charisma'), which dealt with the Shia doctrine of the Imamate and also served as a refutation of the Sunni doctrine of the caliphate. To counter this Ibn Taymiyyah wrote his famous book, \"Minhaj as-Sunnah an-Nabawiyyah\", as a refutation of Al-Hilli's work.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
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{
"wikipedia_id": "32456835",
"title": "Legal system of Saudi Arabia",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 6,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 6,
"end_character": 678,
"text": "By the 11th century, the Muslim world had developed four major Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence (or \"fiqh\"), each with its own interpretations of Sharia: Hanbali, Maliki, Shafi and Hanafi. In Arabia, a preference for the Hanbali school was advocated by the Wahhabi movement, founded in the 18th century. Wahhabism, a strict form of Sunni Islam, was supported by the Saudi royal family (the Al Saud) and is now dominant in Saudi Arabia. From the 18th century, the Hanbali school therefore predominated in Nejd and central Arabia, the heartland of Wahhabi Islam. In the more cosmopolitan Hejaz, in the west of the peninsula, both the Hanafi and Shafi schools were followed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
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| null |
18rshl | Were there Prisoner of War camps in the American Civil War? If so, what were they like? How were the prisoners treated? | [
{
"answer": "It was bad in the South as the war dragged on. The North was very effective at limiting the South's ability to supply their troops and civilians. PoWs are pretty low on the list when you're rationing.\n\nAndersonville, by far the most notorious Civil War prison, housed nearly 33,000 men at its peak—one of the largest \"cities\" of the Confederacy. Inmates crowded into 26.5 acres (11 hectares) of muddy land, constructing \"shebangs,\" or primitive shelters, from whatever material they could find. Lacking sewer or sanitation facilities, camp inmates turned \"Stockade Creek\" into a massive, disease-ridden latrine. Summer rainstorms would flood the open sewer, spreading filth. Visitors approaching the camp for the first time often retched from the stench. The prison's oppressive conditions claimed 13,000 lives by the war's end.\n\nThat's not to say that the North was much better:\n\nPrisons often engendered conditions more horrible than those on the battlefield. The Union's Fort Delaware was dubbed \"The Fort Delaware Death Pen,\" while Elmira prison in New York saw nearly a 25 percent mortality rate. The South's infamous Camp Sumter, or Andersonville prison, claimed the lives of 29 percent of its inmates.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nIt's a good article.",
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"answer": "There was a POW camp on Belle Isle here in Richmond, VA. The conditions were horrible and disease, starvation, and privation ran rampant. Many froze to death in the open field that served as their home.\n\n_URL_1_\n_URL_0_",
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"answer": null,
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"wikipedia_id": "2160511",
"title": "Fort Jay",
"section": "Section::::19th century and the Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 17,
"start_character": 0,
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"end_character": 635,
"text": "In the early years of the Civil War, the north barracks were used to hold Confederate officers taken as prisoners of war pending transfer to other Union prisons such as Camp Johnson in Ohio, Fort Delaware or Fort Warren in Boston Harbor. Fort Columbus and Castle Williams also served as a temporary prisoner of war camp and confinement hospital for Confederate prisoners during the war. Major General William H. C. Whiting (CSA) died of dysentery in February 1865 in the post hospital shortly after his surrender at the Battle of Fort Fisher, North Carolina. He was the highest ranking Confederate officer to die as a prisoner of war.\n",
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{
"wikipedia_id": "36784250",
"title": "Joseph H. Tucker",
"section": "Section::::American Civil War service.:Building Camp Douglas, First Tucker command.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 662,
"text": "The first Confederate prisoners of war arrived at Camp Douglas on February 20, 1862 to find a camp but no real prison. They were housed for their first few days at the camp in the White Oak Square section along with newly–trained Union soldiers about to depart for service at the front. The army sent sick prisoners to the camp, where there were no medical facilities at the time, even though army staff were specifically warned not to do so. On February 23, 1862, the Union troops vacated the camp except for an inadequate force of about 40 officers and 469 enlisted men left to guard the prisoners. About 77 escapes were recorded at Camp Douglas by June 1862.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4244399",
"title": "Woodlawn National Cemetery",
"section": "Section::::History.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "In 1861, Camp Rathbun, near the town of Elmira, was established as a training camp at the beginning of the Civil War. As the Union troops who trained there were sent to their respective assignments, the camp emptied and in 1864 it was turned into the Elmira Prison prisoner-of-war camp. The facilities were not adequate to house the thousands of Confederate prisoners, and many succumbed to exposure, malnutrition, and smallpox and were subsequently interred at the cemetery.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1029985",
"title": "Prisoner-of-war camp",
"section": "Section::::American Civil War camps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 285,
"text": "Lacking a means for dealing with large numbers of captured troops early in the American Civil War, the Union and Confederate governments relied on the traditional European system of parole and exchange of prisoners. While awaiting exchange, prisoners were confined to permanent camps.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "5230286",
"title": "List of concentration and internment camps",
"section": "Section::::United States of America.:Black people during and after the American Civil War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 383,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 383,
"end_character": 493,
"text": "During and after the American Civil War, concentration camps located in Natchez, Mississippi were used to corral freed slaves. \"As slaves were being emancipated from the plantations, their route to freedom usually took them in the vicinity of the Union army forces. Unhappy with the slaves being freed, the army began recapturing the slaves and forced the men back into hard labor camps. The most notorious of the several concentration camps that were established was located in Natchez, MS.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4588814",
"title": "Fort McClellan",
"section": "Section::::World War II.:Prisoner of war camp.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 455,
"text": "During the war, Fort McClellan became the temporary home for many captured enemy soldiers; a 3,000-capacity Prison Internment Camp for prisoners of war (POWs) was built in 1943. The camp also served to receive prisoners who would go on to three other POW camps in Alabama. At the end of the war in Europe, the camp at Fort McClellan held 2,546 men. A cemetery on the reservation marks 26 German and 3 Italian prisoners of war who died while in captivity.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "1216823",
"title": "Andersonville National Historic Site",
"section": "Section::::Conditions.:Survival and social networks.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 18,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 18,
"end_character": 1178,
"text": "At the time of the Civil War, the concept of a prisoner of war camp was still new. It was as late as 1863 when President Lincoln demanded a code of conduct be instituted to guarantee prisoners of war the entitlement to food and medical treatment and to protect them from enslavement, torture, and murder. Andersonville did not provide its occupants with these guarantees; therefore, the prisoners at Andersonville, without any sort of law enforcement or protections, functioned more closely to a primitive society than a civil one. As such, survival often depended on the strength of a prisoner's social network within the prison. A prisoner with friends inside Andersonville was more likely to survive than a lonesome prisoner. Social networks provided prisoners with food, clothes, shelter, moral support, trading opportunities, and protection against other prisoners. One study found that a prisoner having a strong social network within Andersonville \"had a statistically significant positive effect on survival probabilities, and that the closer the ties between friends as measured by such identifiers as ethnicity, kinship, and the same hometown, the bigger the effect.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
22aw6e | Are there any theories which try to explain where the very first matter, mass, or "stuff" came from? | [
{
"answer": "Current cosmological/physics theories can trace the universe back rather accurately to about 10^(-12) seconds or so after the big bang. All of our theories before that are speculative to some degree or another, so we can't say anything definitive about the universe at those points (let alone make sense of \"before the big bang\").",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "1694427",
"title": "History of science in classical antiquity",
"section": "Section::::Classical Greece.:Pre-Socratic philosophers.:Materialist philosophers.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 597,
"text": "All these theories imply that matter is a continuous substance. Two Greek philosophers, Leucippus (first half of the 5th century BC) and Democritus of Abdera (lived about 410 BC) came up with the notion that there were two real entities: atoms, which were small indivisible particles of matter, and the void, which was the empty space in which matter was located. Although all the explanations from Thales to Democritus involve matter, what is more important is the fact that these rival explanations suggest an ongoing process of debate in which alternate theories were put forth and criticized.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19673093",
"title": "Matter",
"section": "Section::::Historical development.:Nineteenth and twentieth centuries.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 88,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 88,
"end_character": 612,
"text": "However, the Newtonian picture was not the whole story. In the 19th century, the term \"matter\" was actively discussed by a host of scientists and philosophers, and a brief outline can be found in Levere. A textbook discussion from 1870 suggests matter is what is made up of atoms:Three divisions of matter are recognized in science: masses, molecules and atoms. A Mass of matter is any portion of matter appreciable by the senses. A Molecule is the smallest particle of matter into which a body can be divided without losing its identity. An Atom is a still smaller particle produced by division of a molecule. \n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "41555255",
"title": "History of subatomic physics",
"section": "Section::::Early development.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 1138,
"text": "The idea that all matter is composed of elementary particles dates to at least the 6th century BC. The Jains in ancient India were the earliest to advocate the particular nature of material objects between 9th and 5th century BCE. According to Jain leaders like Parshvanatha and Mahavira, the ajiva (non living part of universe) consists of matter or \"pudgala\", of definite or indefinite shape which is made up tiny uncountable and invisible particles called \"permanu\". \"Permanu\" occupies space-point and each \"permanu\" has definite colour, smell, taste and texture. Infinite varieties of \"permanu\" unite and form \"pudgala\". The philosophical doctrine of atomism and the nature of elementary particles were also studied by ancient Greek philosophers such as Leucippus, Democritus, and Epicurus; ancient Indian philosophers such as Kanada, Dignāga, and Dharmakirti; Muslim scientists such as Ibn al-Haytham, Ibn Sina, and Mohammad al-Ghazali; and in early modern Europe by physicists such as Pierre Gassendi, Robert Boyle, and Isaac Newton. The particle theory of light was also proposed by Ibn al-Haytham, Ibn Sina, Gassendi, and Newton.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19673093",
"title": "Matter",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 353,
"text": "For much of the history of the natural sciences people have contemplated the exact nature of matter. The idea that matter was built of discrete building blocks, the so-called particulate theory of matter, was first put forward in ancient India by Jains (~900–500 BC), followed by the Greek philosophers Leucippus (~490 BC) and Democritus (~470–380 BC).\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "19376",
"title": "Materialism",
"section": "Section::::Defining matter.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 36,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 36,
"end_character": 556,
"text": "One challenge to the traditional concept of matter as tangible \"stuff\" came with the rise of field physics in the 19th century. Relativity shows that matter and energy (including the spatially distributed energy of fields) are interchangeable. This enables the ontological view that energy is prima materia and matter is one of its forms. On the other hand, the Standard Model of particle physics uses quantum field theory to describe all interactions. On this view it could be said that fields are prima materia and the energy is a property of the field.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "181918",
"title": "Bernard of Chartres",
"section": "Section::::Doctrines.:Cosmology.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 305,
"text": "Bernard argued that matter, although caused by God, existed from all eternity. In the beginning, before its union with the Ideas, it was in a chaotic condition. It was by means of the native forms, which penetrate matter, that distinction, order, regularity, and number were introduced into the universe.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "37888696",
"title": "PHENIX detector",
"section": "Section::::The physics of PHENIX.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 348,
"text": "BULLET::::- Search for a new state of matter called the quark–gluon plasma, which is believed to be the state of matter existing in the universe shortly after the Big Bang. PHENIX data suggest that a new form of matter has indeed been discovered, and that it behaves like a perfect fluid. PHENIX scientists are now working to study its properties.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
9yotxa | what is stockholm’s syndrome and can children have it due to abusive parents? | [
{
"answer": "Stockholm Syndrome is when a captive person grows an attachment to their captor. For example, it has been debated that dogs only love their owners because their owners feed and shelter them. \n\nI think children can develop Stockholm Syndrome with/to abusive parents. Depending on their age, they probably do feel like prisoners. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Stockholm's syndrome is when kidnaping victim begins to empathize with their captor, and I'm not sure. My gut says yes but its a soft yes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Uh, everyone, it's not Stockholm's (plural) it is Stockholm (singular) as it's named after the city in Sweden. \n\nIt is because of a botched bank robbery, in Stockholm, in 1973 where hostages were taken. They somehow brainwashed their captives after holding them for six days, and when released the victims tried to defend their kidnappers.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Stockholm syndrome was given its name when a group of people were taken hostage during a bank robbery in Stockholm Sweden in the 1970’s. \nIt is a condition that occurs when someone who has been kidnapped, abused or held against their will,start to have feelings of connection, or alliance with the person or people who have taken them, or abused them. It’s a way for the victims to cope with the situation. It often continues on when a person is rescued or let go. \nYes. Children in abusive households can have a form of Stockholm syndrome. ",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "90910",
"title": "Stockholm syndrome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 8,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 8,
"end_character": 403,
"text": "Stockholm syndrome is a \"contested illness\" due to doubt about the legitimacy of the condition. It has also come to describe the reactions of some abuse victims beyond the context of kidnappings or hostage-taking. Actions and attitudes similar to those suffering from Stockholm syndrome have also been found in victims of sexual abuse, human trafficking, terror, and political and religious oppression.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90910",
"title": "Stockholm syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms and behaviours.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 32,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 32,
"end_character": 288,
"text": "Victims of the formal definition of Stockholm syndrome develop \"positive feelings toward their captors and sympathy for their causes and goals, and negative feelings toward the police or authorities\". These symptoms often follow escaped victims back into their previously ordinary lives.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90910",
"title": "Stockholm syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Criticism.:Namnyak, Tufton, Szekely, Toal, Worboys and Sampson (2008).\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 52,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 52,
"end_character": 426,
"text": "A research group led by Namnyak has found that although there is a lot of media coverage of Stockholm syndrome, there has not been a lot of professional research into the phenomenon. What little research has been done is often contradictory and does not always agree on what Stockholm syndrome is. The term has grown beyond kidnappings to all kinds of abuse. There is no clear definition of symptoms to diagnose the syndrome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "45230258",
"title": "Beauty and the Beast (2017 film)",
"section": "Section::::Controversies.:Belle and the Beast's relationship.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 75,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 75,
"end_character": 1020,
"text": "Psychiatrist Frank Ochberg, who was responsible for defining the term \"Stockholm syndrome\", said he does not think Belle exhibits the trauma symptoms of prisoners suffering from the syndrome because she does not go through a period of feeling that she is going to die. Some therapists, while acknowledging that the pairing's relationship does not meet the clinical definition of Stockholm syndrome, argue that the relationship depicted is dysfunctional and abusive and does not model healthy romantic relationships for young viewers. Following this viewpoint, Constance Grady of Vox wrote that Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont's \"Beauty and the Beast\" was a fairy tale originally written to prepare young girls in 18th-century France for arranged marriages, and that the power disparity is amplified in the Disney version. Additionally, Anna Menta of \"Elite Daily\" argued that the Beast does not apologize to Belle for imprisoning, hurting, or manipulating her, and that his treatment of Belle is not painted as wrong.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90910",
"title": "Stockholm syndrome",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 1,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 1,
"end_character": 476,
"text": "Stockholm syndrome is a condition which causes hostages to develop a psychological alliance with their captors during captivity. These alliances result from a bond formed between captor and captives during intimate time together, but they are generally considered irrational in light of the danger or risk endured by the victims. The FBI's Hostage Barricade Database System and Law Enforcement Bulletin indicate that roughly 8% of victims show evidence of Stockholm syndrome.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "42040555",
"title": "Stockholm Syndrome (Blink-182 song)",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 4,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 4,
"end_character": 394,
"text": "The term \"stockholm syndrome\" refers to a psychological phenomenon in which hostages express empathy and sympathy and have positive feelings toward their captors, sometimes to the point of defending them. These feelings are generally considered irrational in light of the danger or risk endured by the victims, who essentially mistake a lack of abuse from their captors for an act of kindness.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "90910",
"title": "Stockholm syndrome",
"section": "Section::::Symptoms and behaviours.:Coping mechanism.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 817,
"text": "Typically, Stockholm syndrome develops in captives when they engage in \"face-to-face contact\" with their captors, and when captors make captives doubt the likelihood of their survival by terrorizing them into \"helpless, powerless, and submissive\" states. This enables captors to appear merciful when they perform acts of kindness or fail to \"beat, abuse, or rape\" the victims. Ideas like \"dominance hierarchies and submission strategies\" assist in devising explanations for the illogical reasoning behind the symptoms of those suffering from Stockholm syndrome as a result of any oppressive relationship. Partial activation of the capture-bonding psychological trait may lie behind battered woman syndrome, military basic training, fraternity hazing, and sex practices such as sadism/masochism or bondage/discipline.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
3sbzqa | will the united states debt to china ever affect the us government in a negative way? | [
{
"answer": "To China specifically? No. Owing money to China is no different from the US government owing money to me for money I've lent to it. The US government owes about $1.25 trillion to China and about $6.2 trillion to foreign sources overall. It doesn't really offer China any influence over the US.\n\nCan debt overall effect the US government negatively if it takes out so much debt people lose faith in its ability to pay it back/defaults on a loan? Yeah, totally, because then people won't lend it money as cheaply anymore.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "The federal government issues bonds. A bond is basically a request for other people to loan money to you, except you get to set the terms of the loan. (Of course, the market sets things like the interest rate, because you need people to be buying the bond.) Among other investors, mostly American individuals and institutions, the government of China buys some of these bonds.\n\nWhen the bond becomes due, the government simply issues new bonds to pay the old ones. We've not nearly exhausted our capacity to borrow; as a percentage of GDP, our debt is much less than Japan's, for example, and investors are confident in the stability of the U.S. government. The only downside is the interest on the bonds, which increases the budget deficit, and so leads to more debt. \n\nEventually there will have to be budgetary reform, before the debt becomes unmanageable. That's still a ways away, but reform now is much easier than reform later.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "9187042",
"title": "Foreign-exchange reserves of China",
"section": "Section::::Concerns over Chinese holdings of U.S. Debt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 410,
"text": "A significant number of economists and analysts dismiss any and all concerns over foreign holdings of United States government debt denominated in U.S. Dollars, including China's holdings. Critics of the \"excessive\" amount of US debt held by China acknowledge that the \"biggest effect of a broad-scale dump of US Treasuries by China would be that China would actually export fewer goods to the United States.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "9187042",
"title": "Foreign-exchange reserves of China",
"section": "Section::::Concerns over Chinese holdings of U.S. Debt.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 696,
"text": "The 112th United States Congress introduced legislation whose aim was the assessment of the implications of China’s ownership of U.S. debt. The subsequent Congressional Report of 2013 claimed that \"[a] potentially serious short-term problem would emerge if China decided to \"suddenly\" reduce their liquid U.S. financial assets significantly\" [emphasis in the original text], noting also that Federal Reserve System Chairman Ben Bernanke had, in 2007, stated that “because foreign holdings of U.S. Treasury securities represent only a small part of total U.S. credit market debt outstanding, U.S. credit markets should be able to absorb without great difficulty any shift of foreign allocations.\"\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4096888",
"title": "2006 United States elections",
"section": "Section::::Ramifications.:International.:Asia.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 114,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 114,
"end_character": 857,
"text": "BULLET::::- The government of the People's Republic of China is said to be nervous about the effect a Democrat-led Congress might have on its exports to the United States market and the possible controversy that could result because of the country's human rights record. Nancy Pelosi, who became the Speaker of the House, is a noted critic of Chinese policy. Concerns likely to be raised include the undervalued Chinese currency, blamed by some for the recent losses in the American manufacturing industry, and issues such as internet censorship, piracy, limited market access within China itself for companies based in the U.S., and religious freedom. The Chinese Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Jiang Yu stated that she hoped the United States would play a \"constructive role\" in maintaining \"sound, healthy and stable relations between China and the U.S.\".\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11292873",
"title": "Economic diplomacy",
"section": "Section::::Strategies by states.:United States.:President Trump administration's regional economic diplomacy strategies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 49,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 49,
"end_character": 1463,
"text": "Since 2016, the US has executed multiple actions towards China in response to the above issues. First, the government has implemented economic tariffs on a variety of imports, such as photographic films. Also, it has heavily scrutinized Chinese-based companies that have committed economic offenses against its interests. For example, the US Commerce Department was extremely close to handing a large fine to the Chinese telecom company ZTE for violating US-Iranian sanctions. However, President Trump blocked this decision because he thought it would cause too many Chinese jobs to be lost, and severely decrease US-China relations. While this instance displays the American government's ability to tackle any economic issues that may arise with China, it also exemplifies how inconsistent such reactions might be. On a related note, the US has exited from some multilateral approaches related to handling Chinese economic expansion, such as the TPP (Trans-Pacific Partnership). In order for the US to successfully achieve economic diplomacy with China, it must collaborate with Beijing and other nations to ensure certain conditions exist, such as low trade/investment barriers and respect of property rights for all companies interacting with China. The US-China economic diplomacy approach may been seen by some as not fully encouraging this progress so far. However, this is subject to change depending on what future political/economic decisions are made.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "33392798",
"title": "Currency Exchange Rate Oversight Reform Act of 2011",
"section": "Section::::Background.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 336,
"text": "In 2010, the United States had a $270 billion trade deficit with China (Chinese imports totalling $360 billion compared to only $90 billion in American exports) in part to what most U.S. economists warn as an undervaluation of the Chinese currency, Yuan, which in turn gives its exporters a significant advantage in the global economy.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "29351652",
"title": "Renminbi currency value",
"section": "Section::::Historical Undervaluation.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 12,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 12,
"end_character": 545,
"text": "BULLET::::2. The trade dispute with the U.S., caused by the undervalued \"renminbi\", damages China’s most important bilateral relationship. New tariffs aimed at retaliating the undervalued currency are possible in the new United States Congress, as the U.S. House of Representatives passed legislation that would impose economic sanctions on China. “Chinese officials do not understand the intensity of anger in Washington and could face a backlash if they fail to mollify their critics,” according to analyst Jason Kindopp at the Eurasia Group.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "277880",
"title": "China–United States relations",
"section": "Section::::Economic relations.:Chinese perspective on the US economy.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 167,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 167,
"end_character": 595,
"text": "China is a major creditor and the second largest foreign holder of US public debt and has been critical of US deficits and fiscal policy, advising for policies that maintain the purchasing value of the dollar although it had little few options other than to continue to buy United States Treasury bonds. China condemned the US monetary policy of quantitative easing, responding to S&P's downgrade of U.S. credit rating, and advised the United States not to continue with the accumulation of debt, concluding with the statement that America cannot continue to borrow to solve financial problems.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
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]
| null |
4ktj6l | What were the consequences of Athens’ decisions, and how did their downfall effect Greece and ultimately leave it open for Phillip II to conquer. | [
{
"answer": "There is a significant amount of time between the dissolution of the Delian League (404 BC) and the conquest of Greece by Philip II (338 BC). In fact, there was time enough for the Athenians to start a Second Delian League (probably in 378 BC) *and for that League to fall too* (after the Social War of 357-355 BC).\n\nHowever, Athenian decisions certainly did play into Philip II's hand. Firstly, from 368 BC onward, the Athenians waged a costly war to recover the strategic city of Amphipolis in Thrace, which they had lost in 424 BC. They failed to take it, but antagonised the Macedonians in the process, and Philip eventually did conquer the town (and its mines and vast resouces of timber).\n\nSecondly, the Athenian attempt to recover their power in the Aeagen was initially successful, but their continued campaigning against Amphipolis made their new allies feel used for the sake of Athens' interests, leading to the Social War I just mentioned. This war was extremely costly for Athens, and decisively ruined its chances of uniting the Aegean in a new Athenian empire.\n\nThirdly, Athens spent a great deal of resources trying to set up a pro-Athenian government on the island of Euboia, which brought it into conflict with the Thebans through most of the 340s BC. The Thebans themselves were already extremely weakened by the ongoing Third Sacred War (356-346 BC) against Phokis, in which Philip II became more and more involved after he conquered Thessaly.\n\nAll of these wars and alliances are very complex, but the main point is that only major states like Thebes and Athens had the strength to form an alliance capable of stopping Philip, and thanks to their constant warring no one trusted them to have the interests of Greece at heart. Meanwhile, Philip encroached on Central Greek affairs more and more, while also expanding into the Hellespont, which was a direct threat to Athenian interests. In the war that followed, Athens' only major ally was actually Thebes, but their joined army was defeated at Chaironeia in 338 BC, and Philip made the mainland Greek subject to Macedon.",
"provenance": null
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"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "10255756",
"title": "Serpent Column",
"section": "Section::::History.:The significance of the Battle of Plataea.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 498,
"text": "The Greek victories at Plataea and contemporaneous naval battle at Mycale had the result that never again would the Persian Empire launch an attack on mainland Greece. Afterwards, Persia pursued its policies by diplomacy, bribery and cajolement, playing one city state against another. But, by these victories, and through the Delian League, Athens was able to consolidate its power in the flowering of Athenian democracy in 5th century Athens, under the leadership of Pericles, son of Xanthippus.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "36812",
"title": "Pericles",
"section": "Section::::Political career until 431 BC.:Leading Athens.:Athens' rule over its alliance.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 39,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 39,
"end_character": 461,
"text": "The final steps in the shift to empire may have been triggered by Athens' defeat in Egypt, which challenged the city's dominance in the Aegean and led to the revolt of several allies, such as Miletus and Erythrae. Either because of a genuine fear for its safety after the defeat in Egypt and the revolts of the allies, or as a pretext to gain control of the League's finances, Athens transferred the treasury of the alliance from Delos to Athens in 454–453 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "349177",
"title": "Eretria",
"section": "Section::::History.:Archaic to Roman period.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 13,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 13,
"end_character": 407,
"text": "After her eventual defeat by Sparta in 404 BC, Athens soon recovered and re-established her hegemony over Euboea, which was an essential source of grain for the urban population. The Eretrians rebelled again in 349 BC and this time the Athenians could not recover control. In 343 BC supporters of Philip II of Macedon gained control of the city, but the Athenians under Demosthenes recaptured it in 341 BC.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "2830044",
"title": "Ancient Greek warfare",
"section": "Section::::Ancient Greek military campaigns.:The Peloponnesian War.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 46,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 46,
"end_character": 632,
"text": "Athens in fact partially recovered from this setback between 410-406 BC, but a further act of economic war finally forced her defeat. Having developed a navy that was capable of taking on the much-weakened Athenian navy, the Spartan general Lysander seized the Hellespont, the source of Athens' grain. The remaining Athenian fleet was thereby forced to confront the Spartans, and were decisively defeated. Athens had little choice but to surrender; and was stripped of her city walls, overseas possessions and navy. In the aftermath, the Spartans were able to establish themselves as the dominant force in Greece for three decades.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "54204",
"title": "Philip II of Macedon",
"section": "Section::::Biography.:Early military career.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 506,
"text": "The Athenians had been unable to conquer Amphipolis, which commanded the gold mines of Mount Pangaion. So Philip reached an agreement with Athens to lease the city to them after its conquest, in exchange for Pydna (lost by Macedon in 363). However, after conquering Amphipolis, Philip kept both cities (357). As Athens had declared war against him, he allied Macedon with the Chalkidian League of Olynthus. He subsequently conquered Potidaea, this time keeping his word and ceding it to the League in 356.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "208579",
"title": "Fifth-century Athens",
"section": "Section::::Finances.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 27,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 27,
"end_character": 665,
"text": "The economic resources of the Athenian State were not excessive. All the glory of Athens in the Age of Pericles, its constructions, public works, religious buildings, sculptures, etc. would not have been possible without the treasury of the Delian League. The treasury was originally held on the island of Delos but Pericles moved it to Athens under the pretext that Delos wasn't safe enough. This resulted in internal friction within the league and the rebellion of some city-states that were members. Athens retaliated quickly and some scholars believe this to be the period wherein it would be more appropriate to discuss an Athenian Empire instead of a league.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "11936957",
"title": "Classical Greece",
"section": "Section::::4th century BC.:The rise of Athens.:Athenian hegemony halted.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 84,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 84,
"end_character": 635,
"text": "The main reasons for the eventual failure were structural. This alliance was only valued out of fear of Sparta, which evaporated after Sparta's fall in 371 BC, losing the alliance its sole 'raison d'etre'. The Athenians no longer had the means to fulfill their ambitions, and found it difficult merely to finance their own navy, let alone that of an entire alliance, and so could not properly defend their allies. Thus, the tyrant of Pherae was able to destroy a number of cities with impunity. From 360 BC, Athens lost its reputation for invincibility and a number of allies (such as Byzantium and Naxos in 364 BC) decided to secede.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
2emlxn | Why do galaxies appear as consistent objects, given their sheer scale? | [
{
"answer": "Hundreds of thousands of years is actually quite a short period of time in astronomy. Even very short-lived stars last for millions of years.\n\nThe distance to other galaxies is also much larger than their size. Andromeda, the closest large galaxy to us, is millions of light-years away. We can say many other objects that are *billions* of light-years away. On that scale, we definitely notice that closer galaxies are more evolved than more distant galaxies. But on the scale of an individual galaxy, a hundred thousand years is almost too small to notice.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "One point that others here have missed (or I missed seeing it) is the rotational velocity of a galaxy. In our Milky Way, for instance, it takes about 225 to 250 million years for our solar system to complete an orbit of the galactic core.\n\nThis means that looking at our galaxy edge on (with diameter ~100kly), the far edge would appear to lag the near edge in rotation by only about 0.16 degrees. It does not matter from how far away you are observing.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": "Seconding what Astrokiwi said, the difference between the distance to galaxies compared to the size of galaxies is huge. The average distance between galaxies is 1 Megaparsec, and the average radius of a non-dwarf galaxy is around 10 kiloparsecs, so if you're looking at a distant galaxy, the size of the galaxy itself is almost negligible compared to the distance to it.\n\nThat being said, we do see a very slight difference in the light on one side of a rotating galaxy than on another. The light from the side that is rotating toward us has a slight blueshift compared to the overall galaxy, whereas the edge rotating away from us is slightly more redshifted than the average redshift of the galaxy. This is actually one of the ways we can determine the speed of rotation of the galaxy. This gets harder to see, though, as we look at more distant (aka higher redshift) galaxies.\n\nIn short, we don't see much of a difference morphologically between the side of a galaxy closest to us and the other sides of a galaxy, but we do see some slight spectroscopic variations due to the speed of rotation of a galaxy. The time it takes for a galaxy to rotate is very small compared to the amount of time it took for the light that galaxy emitted to get to your eyes.",
"provenance": null
},
{
"answer": null,
"provenance": [
{
"wikipedia_id": "11971",
"title": "Galaxy formation and evolution",
"section": "Section::::Commonly observed properties of galaxies.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 10,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 10,
"end_character": 369,
"text": "Current models also predict that the majority of mass in galaxies is made up of dark matter, a substance which is not directly observable, and might not interact through any means except gravity. This observation arises because galaxies could not have formed as they have, or rotate as they are seen to, unless they contain far more mass than can be directly observed.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "38220608",
"title": "Huge-LQG",
"section": "Section::::Cosmological principle.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 11,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 11,
"end_character": 206,
"text": "However, due to the existence of long-range correlations, it is known that structures can be found in the distribution of galaxies in the universe that extend over scales larger than the homogeneity scale.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "12558",
"title": "Galaxy",
"section": "Section::::Types and morphology.:Ellipticals.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 40,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 40,
"end_character": 325,
"text": "The largest galaxies are giant ellipticals. Many elliptical galaxies are believed to form due to the interaction of galaxies, resulting in a collision and merger. They can grow to enormous sizes (compared to spiral galaxies, for example), and giant elliptical galaxies are often found near the core of large galaxy clusters.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "4116",
"title": "Big Bang",
"section": "Section::::Observational evidence.:Galactic evolution and distribution.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 77,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 77,
"end_character": 656,
"text": "Populations of stars have been aging and evolving, so that distant galaxies (which are observed as they were in the early universe) appear very different from nearby galaxies (observed in a more recent state). Moreover, galaxies that formed relatively recently, appear markedly different from galaxies formed at similar distances but shortly after the Big Bang. These observations are strong arguments against the steady-state model. Observations of star formation, galaxy and quasar distributions and larger structures, agree well with Big Bang simulations of the formation of structure in the universe, and are helping to complete details of the theory.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "3826406",
"title": "Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies",
"section": "Section::::List of galaxies in the catalog.:Amorphous galaxies.:Galaxies with irregular clumps.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 74,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 74,
"end_character": 546,
"text": "These are objects that appear to be a series of irregular clumps with no coherent structure. Many of these objects are simply nearby dwarf galaxies. Some of these objects are interacting galaxies, while others are small groups of galaxies. In both cases, many of the constituent galaxies are irregular galaxies. The superposition of two or more such irregular galaxies can easily look like a single larger irregular galaxy, which is why the Atlas of Peculiar Galaxies (and other catalogs) often classify these pairs and groups as single objects.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "570274",
"title": "Space Interferometry Mission",
"section": "Section::::Mission.:Galactic mapping.\n",
"start_paragraph_id": 22,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 22,
"end_character": 528,
"text": "Currently, astronomers know little about the shape and size of our galaxy relative to what they know about other galaxies; it is difficult to observe the entire Milky Way from the inside. A good analogy is trying to observe a marching band as a member of the band. Observing other galaxies is much easier because humans are outside those galaxies. Steven Majewski and his team planned to use SIM Lite to help determine not only the shape and size of the Galaxy but also the distribution of its mass and the motion of its stars.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
},
{
"wikipedia_id": "32182561",
"title": "SSA22 Protocluster",
"section": "",
"start_paragraph_id": 3,
"start_character": 0,
"end_paragraph_id": 3,
"end_character": 801,
"text": "This structure is not only incredibly large, but also very dense; the galaxies located in each of the filaments are four times closer to each other than the universe's average. Before its discovery, astronomers had predicted the existence of a structure like this one. According to computer models, several of the most massive galaxies originated in structures like this. These galaxies are believed to have formed as a result of blobs like those constituent to this structure collapsing under their own gravity. Since the densest areas in the universe are thought to be the places where galaxies formed first, this structure may be one of the earliest to have formed. This structure may reveal when and how the first galaxies formed and could help us better understand how our own galaxy came to be.\n",
"bleu_score": null,
"meta": null
}
]
}
]
| null |
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